Northern India – The Age of Three

Empires
Causes of Tripartite Struggle Gurjara Pratiharas

Gurjara Pratiharas (730 – 1036) CE

Harishchandra – First Imp. Ruler. Capital at Bhinmal in Rajasthan.

Ruler Significance

▪ Real founder of the dynasty.

▪ Extended his control in the east and south from
Nagabhata I Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as Gwalior and the
(730-756) CE port of Bharuch in Gujarat.
▪ Capital at Ujjaini in Malwa.
▪ Defeated the Muslim forces from the Arab region.

Vatsaraja ▪ Tripartite struggle began

(775-800) CE ▪ Defeated Pala king Dharmapala

▪ Expansion of the empire: Captured Kanauj.

Nagabhatta II
▪ Defeated Dharmapala and fought Rashtrakuta king,
(800-833) CE
Govinda III.

Mihir Bhoja (836 - ▪ Defeated Krishna II and captured the region of

885) CE Malwa and Gujarat. .
836 CE – Recovered ▪ A devotee of Vishnu, adopted the title of Adivaraha.
Kanauj ▪ Other names as 'Mihir' and 'Prabhasa’
End of Dynasty: • The king’s army had four divisions,
• Attack by Rashtrakutas: Emperor Indra each consisting of 7,00,000 to 9,00,000
III of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly men: ‘with the army of the north he
captured Kannauj in 916, and although fights against the ruler of Multan and
the Pratiharas regained the city, their other Muslims who align themselves
position continued to weaken. with him.’ The army of the south fought
• In 963 CE – Attack by Rashtrakuta ruler against the Rashtrakutas, and that of the
Krishna III. east against the Palas.
• Rajyapala was the Gurjara Pratihara • He had only 2000 elephants trained for
ruler of Kannauj during the Ghaznavid war, but the best cavalry of any king in
invasion of 1018. The Ghaznavid the country.
invasion of Kannauj marked the decline • The Pratiharas were patrons of learning
of the Pratihara dynasty's power. and literature. The great Sanskrit poet
Sources of Information : and dramatist, Rajashekhar, lived at the
Arab travellers tell us that the Pratihara rulers court of Mahipala, a grandson of Bhoja.
had the best cavalry in India. Import of • Rajasekhara wrote Kapurmanjari in
horses from Central Asia and Arabia was an Mahipala's court which is written in
important item of India’s trade at that time. Suraseni Prakrit. It is said that he wrote
Kapurmanjari to please his wife.
• Al- Masudi, a native of Baghdad, who
• Kavyamimansa is also an important
visited Gujarat in 915–16, testifies to the
work by him.
great power and prestige of the
• His other works include Balabharata,
Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their
Balaramayana, Viddhasalabhanjika, etc.
empire.
• The Pratihara also embellished Kanauj
• He calls the Gurjara-Pratihara kingdom
with many fine buildings and temples.
al-Juzr (a corrupt form of Gurjara), and
• During the eighth and ninth centuries,
the king Baura, probably a
many Indian scholars went with
mispronunciation of Adivaraha the title
embassies to the court of the caliph at
used by Bhoja, although Bhoja had died
Baghdad. These scholars introduced
by that time.
Indian sciences, especially
• Al - Masudi says that the empire of Juzr
mathematics, algebra and medicine to
had 1,80,000 villages, cities and rural
the Arab world.
areas and was about 2000 km in length
and 2000 km in breadth.
 ▪ Founder
▪ Unified Bengal and brought Bihar under his control.
▪ Gopala founded the famous monastery at Odantapuri
(Bihar).

Gopala
(750 – 770) CE

▪ Expansion of the empire

▪ Bengal and Bihar were directly ruled by him.
▪ Captured Kanauj, Organised Grand Darbar
▪ Titles: Paramesvara, Parambhattaraka and
Maharajadhiraja.
Dharmapala ▪ A great patron of Buddhism.
(770- 810) CE ▪ Founded the Vikaramasila monastery Bhagalpur, Bihar.
The Nalanda university ▪ Built a grand vihara at Somapura in modern Paharapura
was (present-day Bangladesh). It is the largest Buddhist vihara
revived by in Indian subcontinent.
Dharmapala, and 200 ▪ Arab Merchant Sulaiman – Ruhma
villages were set apart
for meeting its
expenses.

▪ Expansion of the empire: Extended Pala control eastwards

upto Kamarupa (Assam).
▪ Defeated Amoghavarsha.
Devpala (810 - 850)
CE ▪ A great patron of Buddhism.
▪ Granted five villages to Balaputradeva, the king of the
Sailendra dynasty of Suvarnadipa (Sumatra), to maintain a
monastery built by him at Nalanda.
 ▪ The invasion of northern India by Rajendra
Mahipala I (988-1038
Chola between 1020 and 1025 CE.
CE)
▪ The advance of the Cholas beyond the Ganges was
checked by Mahipala I.

End of Pala Dynasty: Information about the Palas is also provided

After 15 years of Mahipala’s rule, four to us by Tibetan chronicles, although these
insignificant rulers followed, and it proved were written in the seventeenth century.
fatal to the continuation of the dynasty. According to these, the Pala rulers were great
patrons of Buddhist learning and religion.
• Ramapala was the last ruler who tried
to recover the lost glory of the dynasty. Pala Dynasty – Culture and Trade
He ruled for about 53 years, and after his and Commerce
death, the presence of the Pala dynasty • Architecture - Various mahaviharas,
was confined to only a portion Stupas, chaityas, temples and forts
of Magadha (Bihar) and continued to were constructed. Among the various
exist only for a short period. mahaviharas, Nalanda, Vikramashila,
• Rise of powerful rivals: Vijayasena of Somapura, Traikutaka, Devikota,
the Sena dynasty, who had become Pandita, Jagaddala vihara are notable.
powerful by then in northern Bengal, • Pala School of Painting : The earliest
expelled the last ruler Madanapala examples of miniature painting in
(1130 – 1150) from Bengal and India exist in the form of illustrations to
established his dynastic rule. the religious texts on Buddhism
Sources of Information : executed under the Palas. A large
• An Arab merchant, Sulaiman, who number of manuscripts on palm-leaf
visited India in the middle of the ninth relating to the Buddhist themes were
century, and wrote an account of it. written and illustrated with the images
• He calls the Pala Kingdom Ruhma, (or of Buddhist deities.
Dharma, short for Dharmapala), and • Pala painting shows a naturalistic style
says that the Pala ruler was at war with and is characterised by sinuous
his neighbours, the Pratiharas and the lines and subdued tones of colour.
Rashtrakutas, but his troops were more • One of the finest examples is the
numerous that his adversaries. manuscript of the Astasahasrika
• He tells us that it was customary for the Prajnaparamita, or the perfection of
Pala king to be accompanied by a force Wisdom written in eight thousand lines,
of 50,000 elephants, and that 10,000– housed in Oxford, England.
15,000 men in his army were employed
‘in fulling and washing clothes’.
 • Two artists of this period • As a result, many Tibetan Buddhists
were Dhiman, and his son Vitapala. flocked to the universities of Nalanda
They were great painters, sculptors and and Vikramsila for study.
bronze statue makers. • Although the Palas were supporters of
Buddhism, they also extended their
patronage to Saivsm and Vaishnavism.
• They gave grants to large numbers of
brahmans from north India who
flocked to Bengal. Their settlements
helped in the extension of cultivation in
the area, and the transformation of
many pastoralists and food-gatherers to
settle down to cultivation.
• The growing prosperity of Bengal
Sculptures –
helped in extending trade and cultural
• The sculptures of stones and bronze
contacts with countries of Southeast
were constructed in large numbers
Asia—Burma, Malaya, Java, Sumatra,
mostly in monastic sites of Nalanda,
etc.
Bodh Gaya etc.
• The trade with Southeast Asia was very
• Most of the sculptures drew their
profitable and added greatly to the
inspiration from Buddhism. Apart
prosperity of the Pala empire and led to
from Buddha sculptures of gods and
the incursion of gold and silver from
goddesses of Hindu Dharma like surya,
these countries into Bengal.
Vishnu, Ganesh etc were constructed.
• The powerful Sailendra dynasty, which
Literature - was Buddhist in faith and which ruled
• Buddhist text of ‘Charyapada’ was over Malaya, Java, Sumatra and the
compiled in Bangla language during the neighbouring islands, sent many
Pala rule. embassies to the Pala court and sought
• The Buddhist poet Vajradatta who permission to build a monastery at
wrote the famous text of Nalanda, and also requested the Pala
Lokesvarashataka prospered under ruler, Devapala, to endow five villages
King Devapala. for its upkeep. The request was granted
• The Pala rulers also had close cultural and bears testimony to the close
relations with Tibet. The noted relations between the two empires.
Buddhist scholars, Santarakshita and
Dipankara (called Atisa), were invited
to Tibet, and they introduced a new
form of Buddhism there.
 ▪ Expansion of the
empire: Fought
successfully
Dharmapala and
Nagabhatt – II.
▪ Shattered the
Govinda III confederacy of the
(793-814 Ganga, Chera,
AD)
Pandya and Pallava
rulers in the south.
▪ King of Sri Lanka
was defeated,
captured and brought
as prisoner to
Manyakheta.

Known for his literary

and religious
▪ Founder of the inclinations.
Rashtrakuta dynasty. ▪ He was more drawn
Dantidurga
(735-756) ▪ Performed to Jainism's tenets.
CE Hiranyagarbha
ritual.
Contribution to
▪ Expansion of the Literature:
empire: Defeated
Amoghavars ▪ Wrote Kavirajamarg
both the Pratihara
ha - I a, which is the
king Vatsaraja and the
(814-878) CE earliest Kannada
Pala king
Dhruva work on poetics.
Dharmapala.
(780-793) CE Also
▪ Added the emblem of wrote Prasnottaram
Ganga and alika, a Sanskrit
Yamuna to his work.
imperial insignia.
▪ Jinasena-
Parsvabhudaya
▪ Gunabhadra –
Adipurana
 ▪ Sakatayana – where he built a
Amogavritti, a book pillar and a temple
on grammar. (Krishneswara
▪ Viracharya – Temple)
Mathematician - ▪ Patronised poets
Ganitasaram Pampa (
▪ Contribution to Vikramasena
architecture: He Vijaya) and Ponna
built the capital city, (Shanti Purana)
Manyakheta so as to ▪ Together, Pampa,
excel the city of Ponna, and Ranna
Indra. earned the
title ratnatraya (the
▪ There are five Jain
three gems).
cave temples at
Ellora ascribed to his ▪ TRIVIKRAMA –
period. Nalachampu
▪ HALAYUDHA –
▪ Defeated Pratihara Kavirahasya
king Mahipala I and
Indra III
plundered Kanauj
(914-929)\
(916) CE
Balhara\
Vallabhraja ▪ Arab traveller AI-
Masudi called him
the “greatest king of
India”.

▪ Struggle against the

Paramaras of
Malwa and eastern
Chalukya of Vengi.

Krishna III ▪ Campaign against

the Chola ruler of
(939-967)
Tanjore Prantaka – I
(949 CE), Battle of
Takkolam, 948 – 949
▪ Armies reached
Rameshwaram,
• By the end of the tripartite struggle, the
Pratiharas emerged victorious and
established themselves as the rulers of
central India.
• The tripartite struggle lasted for two
centuries and made all three dynasties
weak in the long run. This resulted into
the political disintegration of the country
and benefited the Islamic invaders from
Middle-east.
 • The Chandelas of Bundelkhand/
Jejakbhukti.
• The Paramaras of Malwa – Capitals at
Ujjain and Dhara.
• The Solankis/Chaulukyas of Gujarat
• Gahadavalas

• The Tomars of Delhi

• The Chauhans of Delhi and Ajmer
• The Rathores of Kannauj
• The Guhilas or Sisodiyas of Mewar
Theories of Origin of Rajputs • Prithviraja Chauhan III next Successor

Theory Description

Claims Rajputs are

descendants of ancient
Kshatriya warriors,
Kshatriya tracing their lineage to
lineage the Sun dynasty
(Suryavansha) or the
Moon dynasty
(Chandravansha).

Suggests Rajputs were

formed through the
amalgamation of
Foreign
various tribes and
invasions and
groups, possibly
migrations
including foreign
invaders like Huns or
Scythians.

They are the Heroes

who sprang from the
Agni Kula
sacrificial fire held at
theory
Guru Sikhar (Mount
Abu) by Rishi Vasistha.

Some tribal aboriginal

groups became Rajputs
like Gonds became
Tribal Origin
Chandelas, Bhar
Theory
became Rathore,
Kharvar became
Gahadwal.

• In course of time, all ruling families • When the Pratihara power declined
belonging to various castes began to be after the Tripartite Struggle, the
termed as Rajaputra or Rajput (royal). Chahamana ruler Simharaja assumed
• Thus, ruling families were given the the title Maharajadhiraja.
status of kshatriyas. • 12th century – Ajayaraja II moved the
• Anangpal I – Founder, 8TH Century kingdom's capital to Ajayameru
• Capital: Anangpur initially, later in (modern Ajmer).
1052, Capital at Lal Kot, Delhi. • The Chahamana rulers were feudatories
• Anangpal II – Founder of Dillikapuri of the Pratiharas.
• Ajayraja of this dynasty founded the city • The first Rathore chieftain was Rao Siha,
of Ajaymeru or Ajmer. grandson of the last Gahadavala king
• Most important king Prithviraja III Jayachandra.
began his reign in 1177 C.E. His greatest • Initially they ruled from Pali and
victory was in the battle of Tarain over Mandore and then Jodhpur as Capital
Muhammad Ghori in 1191 C.E. was established by Rao Jodha (1438 –
• The very next year, in 1192 C.E., Ghori 1489).
returned to Hindustan with a re-
organised army to avenge it.
Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraja
who was taken prisoner and executed.
• His achievements are narrated in two
great poems, viz., Prithviraj Raso written
by his court poet Chand Bardai and
Prithvirajavijaya by Jayanaka.
• The Chahamana dynasty ruled from
Ranthambhor till its capture by
Alauddin Khalji in C.E. 1301.

• 1089 – Chandradeva established a

sovereign kingdom, after the decline of
• Guhila was the founder of the Guhila
Kalachuris.
Dynasty.
• 1114 to 1155 – The Gahadavala kingdom
• This clan originated in Kashmir,
reached its zenith under
migrated to Gujarat in the 6th century,
Govindachandra. He annexed some of
and then migrated to Mewar in the 7th
the Kalachuri territories, warded off
Century.
Ghaznavid raids, and also fought the
• Early Capitals: Nagahrada (Nagda) and
Palas of Bengal
Aghata (Ahar).
• 1194 CE – Govindachandra's grandson
• The Rajput ruler Bappa Rawal laid the
Jayachandra was defeated by the
foundation of the Dynasty in Mewar
Ghurids, Battle of Chandawar.
with Chittor as the capital.
• His son, Harishchandra, was allowed
• During the period of Rawal Ratan
by Muhammad Ghori to rule on his
Singh of Mewar, in 1303 A.D. Ala-ud-
behalf.
din Khiliji invaded his territory and
• 1226 to 1581 – Kanaujiya Rathores of defeated him.
Marwar • The senior branch ( Rawals) ruled from
Chitrakuta (Chittorgarh).
• The junior branch ruled from Sesoda • Chandellas ruled the Bundelkhand
with the title Rana, and gave rise to the region for approximately 500 years
Sisodia Rajput dynasty. between the 9th and the 13th centuries
AD. In those days, the region was
popularly known by the name of
Jejakabhukti.
• The capital city of Chandels was
Khajuraho which was later changed to
Mahoba.
• Kalinjar was their important fort.
• The Chandellas built the most famous
Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050
A.D. and a number of beautiful temples
at Khajuraho.
• The Dynasty is famous in Indian history
for Maharaja Rao Vidyadhara, who
repulsed the attacks of Mahmud of
Ghazni.
• Paramardi the last independent
Chandella ruler was defeated by Qutb-
ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D.

• Nagara Style Temples built during

reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and
Vidyadhara, between 930 to 1030.

• Nannuka, a ruler of small kingdom was

the founder of Chandela Dynasty.
• 972 – Paramara king Siyaka sacked the
Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta, and
established the Paramaras as a
sovereign power.
• Capital at Ujjain and Dhara and later at
Mandapa – Durg ( Mandu)

• Built by Chalukya Queen Udaymati in

1063 CE to commemorate her husband
Bhimdev I. UNESCO Heritage Site
since 2014.
• 940 AD – Founded by Mularaja.
•
• Under Raja Bhoja ( 1010 – 1055 CE),
Chaulukyas ruled in Gujarat, Rajasthan
kingdom extended from Chittor in the
and Malwa in 940 to 1244.
north to Konkan in the South, Sabarmati
• Capital: Anhilwara or Anahilavada
River in West to Vidisha in East.
(modern day Patan).
• It was during the reign of Bhima I of the
Chalukyas, that Mahmud of Ghazni
sacked the Somnath temple.
• In C.E. 1178, Muizuddin Muhammad
Ghori invaded Anhilvara or Patan, the
capital, who was defeated by Mulraja II
near Mount Abu.
• Qutubuddin Aibak led two expeditions
to Gujarat and plundered Anhilvara in
1197 C.E.
• The last ruler of Gujarat was Karnadeva
in whose reign Gujarat was conquered
by Alauddin Khalji in 1297 C.E.
• King Karnadeva established Karnavati
on the banks of the Sabarmati.
 • Ballalasena was a great scholar and
wrote Danasagara, a work on Smriti and
• The Kalachuri power was restricted to
Adbhutasagara, a work on Astronomy.
Dahala near Jabalpur.
o He is credited with introduction of
• Their capital was Tripuri (Tewar,
Kulinism, an important social
Madhya Pradesh)
movement by which the nobility of
• The dynasty was founded by Kokalla
birth and purity was carefully
(875-925 C.E.)
protected.
• He was succeeded by Lakshmansena .
• Its founder was Samantasena. • Lakshmansena defeated Jayachandra of
• His grandson Vijayasena (son of the Ghadavala dynasty.
Hemantasena) brought the family into o Jayadeva, the famous Vaishnava
limelight. poet of Bengal and author of Gita
o The famous poet Sriharsha Govinda, lived at his court.
composed the Vijayaprasasti in his o His reign saw the decline of Sena
memory. power. The invasions of Bakhtiyar
o Vijaysena was suceeded by his son Khalji gave it a crushing blow.
Ballalasena in 1158 C.E. He
conquered Mithila and a portion of
east Bihar.

Name of Area Under Important How the Dynasty

Founder Capital
Dynasty Control Rulers Came to an End
Anangpur,
Tomars of Anangpal II Defeated by Chauhans
Anangpal I Delhi later Lal Kot
Delhi (Dhilikapuri) in 1152 CE
(Delhi)
Delhi, Ajmer,
Chahamanas Ajayameru Defeated by
Later on base Prithviraja
of Simharaja (Ajmer) by Muhammad Ghori in
at Chauhan III
Shakambhari Ajayaraja II 1192 CE.
Ranthambore
Govind Defeated by the Ghurid
Ghadavalas Chandra- Upper Doab
Kannauj Chandra, Forces in 1194 CE
of Kannauj deva Region
Jayachandra (Battle of Chandawar)

Mewar
Guhilas of Rawal Ratan Defeated by Alauddin
Bappa Rawal (Chittor, Chittor
Mewar Singh Khilji in 1303 CE
Nagda, Ahar)

Raja
Chandelas of Bundelkhand Khajuraho, Defeated by Qutb-ud-
Nannuka Vidyadhara,
Bundelkhand (Jejakabhukti) later Mahoba din Aibak in 1203 CE
Paramardi
 Upendra,
Paramaras of Siyaka (First Malwa (Ujjain, Defeated by the Delhi
Ujjain, Dhar Raja Bhoja
Malwa Sovereign Dhar, Mandu) Sultanate
Ruler)
Gujarat, Bhima I,
Solankis of Anhilwara Defeated by Alauddin
Mularaja Rajasthan, Mulraja II,
Gujarat (Patan) Khilji in 1297 CE
Malwa Karnadeva
Bengal, Vijayasena,
Senas of Defeated by Bakhtiyar
Samantasena Mithila, East Gauda Ballalasena,
Bengal Khalji
Bihar Lakshmansena

Dahala Declined due to

Kalachuris of Tripuri
Kokalla (Jabalpur invasions and internal
Chedis (Tewar)
region) strife

West Asia at the beginning of the 7th

• 602 to 628 – Byzantine - Sassanid Wars.
Century
• After a long war of swinging fortunes,
the Byzantines defeated the Persian
Sassanid Empire.
• Power vacuum (both political and
religious) in the middle east, as a result
of the dissolution of the Sassanid
Empire.
Expansion of Early Islamic
Caliphates
 Arab Conquest of Sindh – 712 CE
• Muhammad Bin Qasim, a general of the
Umayyad caliphate, established Arab
rule in Sindh in 712 CE after defeating
King Dahir.
Abbasid Caliphate in 9th Century

• Dark Shade: Expansion under

the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632 CE.
• Medium Shade: Expansion under
the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661 CE.
• Light Shade: Expansion during
the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 CE.
Major Islamic Caliphates Samanid (Iranian in Descent)
Caliphate Duration Capital Emirates

Rashidun
632 - 661 Mecca
Caliphate

Umayyad
661 - 750 Damascus
Caliphate

Abbasid 750 -
Baghdad
Caliphate 1251

Ottoman 1517 -
Istanbul
Caliphate 1924
 • Al-Biruni stayed in Mahmud’s court and
wrote the famous Kitab-al-Hind, an
account on India.
• Al-Biruni described noted the deep
insularity of the Indians: “The Hindus
believe that there is no country but
theirs, no nation but theirs, no kings like
theirs, no science like theirs.”
Impact of Ghaznavid Invasions in
India
• His conquest of Punjab and Multan
completely changed the political
situation in India. He paved the way for
the Turks and Afghans for further
Ghazni(Afghanistan) conquests and make deeper incursions
Shamshi dynasty into the Gangetic valley at any time.
• Alp - tigin - established an independent • The Hindu Shahi kingdom was
kingdom at Ghazni, Afghanistan (962 guarding the gates of India against
CE). foreign invaders. Mahmud destroyed it
• Sabuktigin (977- 998) and thus India’s frontiers became
• Mahmud Ghazni (998-1030) defenceless. The inclusion of Punjab and
o 1001 CE - Battle with Hindushahi Afghanistan in Ghazni’s kingdom made the
ruler Jayapala Shahi (964 – 1001) CE subsequent Muslim conquests of India
o 1008-09 - Battle of Waihind comparatively easy.
(Peshawar) • He drained the resources of India by his
▪ Anandpal Shahi and Mahmud repeated raids and deprived India of her
Ghazni manpower. The exhaustion of India’s
▪ Punjab passed into control of economic resources and man power had
Ghaznavids its adverse effect on the political future
• 17 raids, targeting temples of India.
o 1008 CE – Nagarkot, Punjab
o 1014 CE - Thanesar
o 1018 CE- Kanauj, Mathura,
o 1025 CE - Somnath temple
• Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the
court of Mahmud. He was the author of
Shahnamah (The Persian ‘Book of
Kings’). (World’s longest epic poem
created by a single poet)
Shansabani Dynasty (Ghurids) First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE)
• Sultan Alauddin • The Ghurids decided to attack the
o Title - Alauddin Jahan - Soz (The Chauhan Kingdom
world burner) • The battle was fought between
• Ghiyasuddin Mahmud – Occupied Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghuri, ruler
Ghazni of the Ghazni.
• Muhammad Ghuri / Shahabuddin • Ghurid forces were defeated.
Muhammad / Muizzuddin • Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE)
Muhammad bin Sam (1173 - 1206 )CE • Fought between Prithviraj and
o 1175 AD - Multan and Sindh Muhammad Ghuri.
captured • Turning point in Indian History
o 1178 AD - Attempted to enter India, • Prithviraj was defeated in this battle.
Bolan pass (defeated by Chalukyan
ruler Mularaja -II)
o Peshawar was conquered in AD
1179–80.
o 1186 AD - annexed Lahore.

• After the battle of Tarain, Muhammad

appointed Qutubuddin Aibak, one of
his slaves, as the Viceroy of the Indian
provinces. He consolidated the Indian
conquests of his master, conquered
Meerut, Bulandshahar, Aligarh etc.
• The Battle of Tarain - Muhammad made Delhi as the capital in 1193.
Ghuri and Prithviraj Chauhan III
(Ajmer)
o 1191 AD - I Battle of Tarain
o 1192 AD - II Battle of Tarain
• 1194 AD - Battle of Chandawar
Jaychand Ghadwal and Muhammad
Ghuri
o The Battle of Tarain and Chandwar
laid the foundations of Turkish rule
in Northern India.
From the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) to
1206, Turkish rule extended over Ganga-
Jamuna doab and its neighbouring area.

• Ghori next captured the powerful forts

of Bayana and Gwalior to guard the
southern flank of Delhi.
• After successful campaigns Muhammad
rested the responsibility of
consolidating the conquests in India on
his Governor Qutubuddin Aibak.
• After this, his slave general Qutbuddin
Aibak conquered Mahoba, Kalinjar and
Khajuraho from the Chandelas in 1203
CE.
• Aibak defeated Bhima II of Gujarat.
Raids into Anhilwara and other towns; • Rebellion of Khokhars – warlike tribe in
but unable to annex Gujarat yet. western Punjab – cut off
communications between Lahore and
Ghazni.
• Muhammad-bin-Baktiyar Khilji, a • 1206 – Muhammad Ghori’s last
general of Ghori, led a daring military campaign into India, to put down the
expedition against Bihar and Bengal. Khokhar rebellion.
• In between 1202 – 1205 he attacked • On his way back to Delhi, he was killed
Odantapuri and plundered Buddhist by a Muslim fanatic of a rival sect .
Monastery, destroyed the university of
Nalanda and Vikramasila and defeated
Lakshamansena (1176-1206) of Bengal.
• Mistake – undertook an expedition into
the Brahmaputra valley. Magh rulers of
Kamrup (Assam) followed a scorched
earth policy – allowed him to enter
without opposition.
• When the tired and hungry armies
started retreating, the Assamese
ambushed them from the forests and
harassed them.
• Bakhtiyar Khalji managed to escape
with a few followers . Killed on his sick
bed by one of his own amirs.
 ▪ Assumed the title of
“Madurai-konda” after
capturing Pandya capital
Madurai.
▪ Uttiramerur
inscriptions belong to
his reign, which gives a
detailed account of
the village
administration under
the Cholas.
▪ Military conflicts:
▪ Battle of Vellore:
defeated the Pandya
Parantaka
ruler Rajasimha II and
Ⅰ (907 –
▪ Founder of Chola the Kassapa V of
955 CE)
Empire Ceylon
▪ He captured Tanjore
from Muttaraiyars in ▪ Battle of Vallala:
850 C.E and built a defeated Rashtrakuta
Vijayalay
temple of Durga. ruler Krishna II.
a (850 –
Sources:
871 CE) ▪ Battle of
▪ Kanyakumari
inscription mentions Takkolam: defeated
the renovation of the by Rashtrakuta ruler
city of Tanjore by Krishna III in 948, and
Vijayala.
his eldest
▪ Military conquests: He son Rajaditya was
ended the Pallava killed in the battle.
Aditya - I
kingdom by defeating ▪ Maintained friendly
(871 – 907
Aparajita and relations with Cheras
CE)
annexing Tondaimandal (Perumals).
am.
 • He defeated the Pandya
ruler, Amarabhujanga an
d established the Chola
authority in the Pandya
country.
• He conquered the
Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi
and Nolambapadi in the
Mysore region.
• He defeated Chalukya
ruler Satyasraya ( 1003
CE) and captured the
Raichur Doab, Banavasi
and other places.
▪ He annexed northern Sri
Lanka from Sri Lankan
king Mahinda V.
➢ Northern part of Sri lanka
as Mummidigonda
Cholamandalam.
▪ Naval
conquests: Rajaraja’s last
military achievement was
a naval expedition against
the Maldives Islands.
▪ Constructed the
famous Rajesvaram
The Great Cholas
temple.
• Titles: Kandalur salai
kalamarutta, Jayankonda, ▪ Policy of aggressive
Sivapadasekara, Mummudi- conquests and expansion.
Chola (the Chola king who
wears three crowns - the ▪ Titles:
Rajendr
Chera, Chola and
Rajaraja aI Mudikonda Cholan (the crowned
Pandya), Pandya
I (985 – (1012- Chola),
Kulashani (Thunderbolt to
1014 1044
the Race of the Pandyas). Gangaikondan (conqueror of the
AD) CE)
• Military Conquests:
Ganges),
• He defeated the Chera
ruler Bhaskararavivarma Kadaramkondan (conqueror of
n in the naval Battle of Kadaram) and
Kandalursalai in 994
AD.
 Pandita Cholan (scholarly The End of Chola Rule
Cholan). • The Chola dynasty was paramount in
▪ Military Conquests were: South India from the ninth to the twelth
centuries. By the end of the twelfth
▪ Conquest of Sri Lanka
century, local chiefs began to grow in
▪ Expedition to North prominence, which weakened the
India: Defeated Mahipala centre. With frequent invasions of
I of Bengal (1023 CE) Pandyas, the once mighty empire, was
▪ Naval expedition reduced to the status of a dependent on
to Kadaram or Sri Vijaya the far stronger Hoysalas. In 1264, the
kingdom. Pandyan ruler, Jatavarman Sundara
Pandyan I, sacked the Chola’s capital
Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern
of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram. With
Sumatra) was one of the
Kanchipuram lost earlier to the Telugu
prominent maritime and
Cholas, the remaining Chola territories
commercial states that
passed into the hands of the Pandyan
flourished from c. 700 to c. 1300
king. 1279 marks the end of Chola
in South-east Asia. Similarly,
dynasty when King Maravarman
Kheda (Kadaram), feudatory
Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last
kingdom under Sri Vijaya, was
king Rajendra Chola III and
also conquered by Rajendra.
established the rule by Pandyas.
▪ Contribution to architecture:
▪ Laid foundation of the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram.
▪ Also excavated a large
irrigation tank
called Cholagangam on the
western side of the city.

Imperial Cholas

Central Administration
• Hereditary Monarchy
• Divine Kingship
• Titles for Kings –
o peruman or perumagan (big man),
o ulagudaiyaperumal (the lord of the
world)
 o ulagudaiyanayanar (the lord of the o Nilaipadai: Military outposts in the
world). conquered territory.
o Chakkaravarti (emperor) and o Nayagam: The captain of a
o Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti regiment, and later he assumed the
(emperor of three worlds). title of padaimudali
• Chola kings followed the practice • Special Attention To Navy
of adding the suffix deva to the name of
the crowned kings at the time of the
coronation.
• The King legitimatised his power by
claiming to be Thambiran Thozhar
(comrades of god)
• Cholas appointed Brahmins as spiritual
preceptors or rajagurus.
• Extensive grants to Brahmins –
Brahmadeyams /
Chaturvedimangalam
• Perundanam and sirudanam - Local Administration
Administrative officials • Ur: It was a general assembly of the
Military Administration Vellanvagai (Land for non – brahmana
• Military composition: Infantry, Cavalry, peasant proprietors) villages.
Elephants, Navy • Urar: They were the landholders in the
o Cavalry: kudirai sevagar village entrusted with the upkeep of
o Elephant corps: anaiyatkal temples and maintenance of the tanks.
o Bowmen: villaligal • Also, other administrative functions
o Sword-bearers: valilar were performed by Urar.
o Spearmen: konduvar • Sabha: It was a general assembly in
• Other terms related to military Brahmadeya Settlements.
administration • Sabhaiyar
o Senapati and dandanayagam: The • The town was known as Nagaram, and
commander -in- chief. it was under the administration of a
o Kaikkolaperumpadai: Royal council called Nagarattar
troops.
o Velaikkarar: A personal troop to
defend the king.
o Kadagams and padaividu: Army
and military cantonments in capital
city.
 o Niyaya variyam administered
justice.
o The Dharma variyam was in charge
of charities and temples.
o Erivariyam was in charge of the
water tanks and supply.
o The finance was overseen by the
ponvariyam.
• Variyapperumakkal: They were the
committee members who usually met in
the temple or under a tree and passed
resolutions.
Local Administration – Nattar

• Naattukanakku and Nattuviyavan:

• They were the functionaries for
recording the proceedings of the Nattar.
Landholders of the nadu held the honorific
titles such as asudaiyan (possessor of land),
araiyan (leader) and kilavan (headman).

• Kudavolai system was the system of Revenue Administration

nominating the persons for each ward • It was the period of the expansion of
for a year. agriculture that led to the production of
• Division into variyams food grain surplus.
o Thottavariyam looked after the
flower gardens,
 • Puravuvari-tinaikkalam: Department of
land revenue (chief - puravuvari-
tinaikkalanayagam).
• Naduvagaiseykira: The surveyors of
the land, who were from the
landholding communities.
• Units of the land measurement: kuli,
ma, veli (6.5 acres), patti, padagam, etc.
• kalam: Unit for collecting paddy as a tax
(28 kg).
• Kudimai – Paid by cultivating tenants to
government and landlords.
• Vativaykkal - a criss-cross
channel, is a traditional
▪ They had a system of
way of harnessing
assigning different kinds
rainwater in Kaveri Delta.
of water rights.
Vati runs in the north- ▪ Land transactions in
south direction while the form of donations
vaykkal runs in the east- and endowments
west direction. Technically, were also
vati is a drainage channel accompanied by
water rights.
and a vaykkal is a supply
Irrigation ▪ Practice of free labour:
channel. ▪ Vetti and Amanji: Forms
• Canals named after kings, of free labour related to
queens and gods. public works at the
village level.
Water
• Ur - vaykkal: Canal owned ▪ Related terms:
Manageme
jointly by the landowners. ▪ Kumizh (sluice) and
nt
talaivay (Head
• Nattu - vaykkal: Nadu Channel): Channels
level canals. and gateways for
releasing the water.
• Irrigation tanks
▪ Talaivayar, Talaivay-
chanrar and Eri-
araiyarkal: They were
the groups
responsible for
releasing the water
through the head
channel and sluice
from the rivers or
tanks.
 ▪ Kulattar: They are a Indian traders, primarily active in south
group of people in India.
charge of kulam.
▪ Ernakulam: Common
ly owned village tank
(our tank).
▪ Eriayam: A tax
collected by village
assemblies, which
was utilised for
repairing irrigation
tanks.

Anju-vanamattar, typically refers to a

medieval merchant guild, consisting of non-
Dravidian style or Chola style

The making of bronze sculptures reached a

high stage of development in South India
during the medieval period. Although bronze
images were modelled and cast during the
Pallava period in the eighth and ninth
centuries, some of the most elegant and o Sculptures are anatomically
exquisite statues were produced during the accurate and aesthetically pleasing.
Chola Period: o Expressive in Nature – emotions via
facial expressions and body
• The ninth-century kalyanasundara
language.
murti is highly remarkable for the
o Expression to religious ideas
manner in which Panigrahana
o Various Mudras
(ceremony of marriage) is represented
o Elements of Idealization – Portrait
by two separate statuettes.
statues at Tirupati
• The union of Shiva and Parvati is very
ingeniously represented in the
Ardhanarishvara murti in a single
Q. In the context of the history of India,
image. consider the following pairs:
• The well-known dancing figure of
Term : Description
Shiva as Nataraja was evolved and fully
developed during the Chola Period and 1. Eripatti Land : Revenue from which
since then many variations of this was set apart for the maintenance of
complex bronze image have been the village tank
modelled. 2. Taniyurs : Villages donated to a single
• A wide range of Shiva iconography was Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
evolved in Thanjavur (Tanjore) region of
3. Ghatikas : Colleges generally attached
Tamil Nadu during this period.
to the temples
Which of the pairs given above is/are
correctly matched?
a) 1 and 2
b) 3 only
c) 2 and 3
d) 1 and 3
Q. Consider the following events in the
In traditional Indian culture the function of history of India:
dance was to give symbolic expression to 1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
religious ideas. The figure of Lord Shiva as
2. Establishment of Pallava power under
Nataraja represents the creation and
Mahendravarman I
destruction of the cosmic cycle.
3. Establishment of Chola power by
• Chola Bronze Sculpture:
Parantaka I
o Unique mould preparation
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala
What is the correct chronological order of
the above events, starting from the earliest
time?
a) 2 - 1 - 4 – 3
b) 3 - 1 - 4 - 2

c) 2 - 4 - 1 – 3
d) 3 - 4 - 1 - 2

Q. Consider the following pairs : (2022)

King Dynasty
1. Nannuka Chandela
2. Jayashakti Paramara
3. Nagabhata II Gurjara-Pratihara
4. Bhoja Rashtrakuta
How many pairs given above are correctly
matched?
a) Only one pair
b) Only two pairs
c) Only three pairs
d) All four pairs
 T.me/Sleepy Classes

Delhi Sultanate
From the Second Battle of Tarain (1192) to
1206, Turkish rule extended over Ganga-
Jamuna doab and its neighbouring area.

• 1209 – Mahmud recognised Aibak as

the Sultan of Hindustan.
• Aibak now detached from Ghori
Empire & founded the Mamluk
• 1206 – Muhammad Ghuri’s death. (slave) dynasty as well as Delhi
sultanate.
• Qutbuddin Aibak became de facto
ruler, ruling India from Delhi. • Mamluk is an Arabic word meaning
“owned”.
• Muhammad Ghuri’s nephew
Ghiyasuddin Mahmud succeeded the • It was used to distinguish the imported
throne at Ghor (the overlord). Turkish slaves meant for military
service from the lower slaves used as
• Another slave of Muhammad Ghuri –
domestic labour or artisan.
Yalduz (Taj al-Din Yildiz) – ruled at
Ghazni. Yalduz laid his claims over Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526)
Delhi.
• Yalduz marched to Punjab, intending
to take control of the region.
• Aibak marched against him, forced
him to retreat and set up his capital at
Lahore, to help defend his territories.
• Aibak then sent his envoys to the
Ghurid capital, seeking Ghiyasuddin
Mahmud’s recognition as official ruler
of India.

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Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290)

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1210 – 1236)

• Real Consolidator of Delhi Sultanate
• Shifted Capital to Delhi
Slave Dynasty, Qutb-ud-din- Aibak
• Turkan-i-Chahalgani
(1206 – 1210 CE)
• Mongol Policy of Iltutmish (Refused
Qutb-ud-din- Aibak (1206 – 1210 CE)
to intervene in Khwarizmi vs Mongol
• Founder of Delhi Sultanate, Slave conflict)
Dynasty
• Organised the Iqtadari System
• Sultan Lakh Baksh
• Mansur from Abbasid Caliph in 1229.
• Shifted Capital to Lahore
• Currency Reforms – Silver Tanka,
• Spiritual Preceptor - Qutubuddin Copper Jittal
Bakhtiyar Kaki, Chisti Silsilah
• Patronised Minhaj-us Siraj, author of
• Patronised Hasan Nizami (Book- Taj - Tabaqat-i -Nasiri)
ul- Maasir.
• Construction of Quwaat –ul- Islam
Mosque, Delhi (1197); Adhai Din Ka
Jhonpra, Ajmer (1199); Qutub Minar,
completed by Iltutmish.
• Died in 1210.

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• Title: Sultan and “Lakh Baksh” (due to

his liberal donations).
• Court poet: Hasan Nizami (Book- Taj
- ul- Maasir, dealing with political
events in North India from 1192 CE –
1228 CE)
• Beginning of Indo – Islamic
architecture :
o Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque
▪ It was constructed
in 1193 C.E to 1197 C.E.
Slave Dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266 - ▪ It is also known as the
87 ) Might of Islam.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban / Ulugh Khan ▪ First mosque built in
Delhi after the Islamic
• Centralisation of Authority and
conquest of India.
Strong Position of Sultan (Sijda,
o Adhai-din-ka-Jhonpra , a
Paibos, Zil – I – Ilahi, Persian Festival
mosque at Ajmer that was
of Navroz, Elimination of Chalisa)
constructed in 1199 C.E. after
• Consolidation of territories and demolishing the Sharada
Restoration of Law and Order temple and a learning
situation institution that was situated
there.
• Military Reforms - Diwan-i-Ariz
o Qutub Minar (dedicated to Sufi
(Military Department). Saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar
• 1279 – Tughril Episode Kaki)
• He died suddenly while
• Mogol Policy – Force + Diplomacy
playing Chaugan (horse polo) in 1210
(Embassy to Halaku II Khan)
CE.
• Captured Ajmer, Nagaur, and Eastern • It was constructed in 1193 C.E to 1197
Raj. C.E.
• It is also known as the Might of Islam.
• First mosque built in Delhi after the
Islamic conquest of India.
• Qutbuddin Aibak established his
Government at the citadel called Qila-
i-Rai Pithaura (the fort of Prithviraj
Chauhan).
Slave Dynasty, Qutb-ud-din- Aibak o The mosque was constructed by
(1206 – 1210 CE) demolishing twenty-

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seven Brahmanical and Jain • The mosque was completed in 1199 CE,
temples inside the citadel. with further enhancements by
o The spoils of these Hindu Iltutmish of Delhi in 1213 CE.
temples were the main • This makes it the oldest surviving
construction material for this monument in Ajmer, and the second
mosque. oldest completed mosque in North
• The massive stone screen with five India after the Quwwat ul Islam
graceful arches, the central one being mosque in Delhi.
the highest, is not built on the true arch • Architectural Style:
principle.
o A blend of Hindu and Islamic
• The ornamentation of the screens architectural elements,
shows typical Hindu decorative floral representing early Indo-Islamic
elements, serpentine tendrils and architecture.
undulating leaves.
o Features ornate pillars and
• The only new element that was domes originally from Hindu
introduced by the Muslims is temples, with later Islamic
the Arabic inscription. additions.
Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque o The iconic screen wall that forms
the mosque’s facade, with its
seven corbelled arches, was
commissioned by Iltutmish,
Qutabuddin’s son-in-law and
third Sultan of Delhi, and
completed in 1213.

Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra

• Adhai Din ka Jhonpra is a 12th century
mosque, commissioned by Qutbuddin
Aibak, a slave-turned-general in the
Ghurid army, who established the
Mamluk Dynasty to kickstart the Delhi
Sultanate in 1206.
• It was commissioned by Qutabuddin
after the Muhammad of Ghor defeated
Prithviraj III (popularly known as
Prithviraj Chauhan) in the Second
Battle of Tarain.

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Visaladeva/ Vighraraja IV (1150

-1164 CE).
o Harakeli Natak (based on
Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya) is
inscribed on inscriptions
discovered at the mosque.
• The five Panch Kalyanak
o Chyavan: The conception of the
Tirthankar
• According to legend, the mosque gets
o Janma: The birth of the
its name — literally meaning “the shed
Tirthankar
of two-and-a-half-days” — from the
fact that Qutabuddin had ordered for o Diksha: The Tirthankar
it to be built in only 60 hours. renounces worldly possessions
to become a monk or nun
• But this is likely untrue since this name
finds no mention till as recently as the o Keval Gyan: The Tirthankar
18th century. attains omniscience

• According to Sarda, it was so named o Moksha: The Tirthankar's soul

because certain faqirs used to take is liberated from worldly
shelter at the structure during the two- existence forever
and-a-half day long urs (death • Highest stone tower in India, with its
anniversary) of their religious leader height being 72.5 metres.
Panjaba Shah.
• The construction of this minar started
• Historical Claims: in 1197 C.E. by Qutbuddin Aibak (one
o According to Jain tradition, the storey) and was completed by
site originally housed a Jain Iltutmish in 1232 C.E.
shrine built by Seth Viramdeva • The Qutub Minar has five storeys,
Kala in 660 CE to celebrate separated (3 storeys by Illtutmish and
Panch Kalyanaka, marking the fifth by Firuz Shah Tughlaq) from one
five auspicious events in a Jain another by richly decorated balconies.
Tirthankara’s life.
• Iltutmish dedicated Qutub Minar to
o The British historian James Tod Sufi Saint Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar
(1819) also suggested the Kaki.
mosque was built on a Jain
temple site. • The surface of the minar is embellished
with vertical flutings.
• Archaeological Evidence:
• Material used: Red and buff coloured
o Excavations conducted by the sandstone
Archaeological Survey of India
(ASI) in 1874-75 uncovered • Features: tapering cylindrical
inscriptions referring to a appearance along with its
Sanskrit college, built in 1153 inscriptions, arabesque ornamentation
CE by the Chauhan emperor and motifs.

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• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site • Qubacha declared himself

since 1993. independent ruler of Multan – also
seized Lahore and parts of Punjab.
• Ali Mardan Khan declared himself as
king of Bengal.
• He defeated Yalduz in AD 1215 in
the Battle of Tarain.
• In c.1217 CE, he drove away Qubacha
from Punjab.
• The rising power
of Mongols under Chenghiz
Khan threatened the North West
Frontier of the Sultanate.
o In 1221, Jalaluddin
Mangbarani (son of the Shah of
Khwarizm), while escaping
from the Mongols, sought
shelter at Iltutmish’s court.
o Iltutmish turned him away. He
thus saved the Sultanate from
destruction by the Mongols.
• In AD 1226 – 27, Iltutmish sent a large
Slave Dynasty, Shamsuddin Iltutmish army under his son Nasiruddin
(1210 – 1236) Mahmud which defeated Iwaz
Khan and brought Bengal and
Bihar back into the Delhi Sultanate.
• Similarly, a campaign was also
launched against the Rajput
chiefs. Ranthambore was captured in
AD 1226.
• By AD 1231, Iltutmish had established
his authority over Mandor, Jalore,
• Made Delhi his capital.
Bayana and Gwalior.
• Real consolidator of the Delhi
• He also organised his trusted nobles or
Sultanate.
officers into a group of “Forty”
• After Iltutmish came to the throne – (Turkan-i-Chahalgani).
• Iltutmish’s own officers were unwilling • IQTA system - Iqtadari/Iqtadar.
to accept his authority.
• Division of empire into Iqtas, which
• Rajput chiefs also asserted their were assigned to the nobles and
independence. Kalinjar, Gwalior, officers in lieu of salary.
Eastern Rajasthan declared o Revenue
independence.

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o Law and Order

o Army
• He issued purely Arabic coinage of
silver tanka weighing 175 grams,
which remains the basis of the modern
rupee and copper Jittal.
• Authority as sultan approved by the
Abbasid Caliph (Mansur).
• Finished work on Qutub Minar.

Slave Dynasty, Razia Sultan(1236 -

1240 CE)
• First female Muslim ruler of South
Asia.
• Official name: Sultan Razat al-Dunya
wal Din bint al-Sultan
• Iltutmish Patronised Minhaj-us Siraj • Dispensed justice without
(author of Tabaqat-i -Nasiri) discrimination.
Gandhak ki Baoli (Delhi) • Gave up the purdah (veil), , discarded
the traditional female attire and
adopted the male wardrobe.
• An accomplished poetess, and she
patronised men of letters.
• Madarasa-i Nasiriya of Delhi became
the centre of learning during her reign.

Tomb of Iltutmish (Delhi)

• Revolt of Altunia, the governor of

Tabarhinda, in which she was defeated
and captured.

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• Raziya’s brother, Bahram Shah, took • Balban ruled in an autocratic

the opportunity to ascend the throne. manner and worked hard to elevate
o Raziya married Altunia to the position of the Sultan.
retrieve her throne, Raziya, • Court poets: Amir Khusrau and Mir
along with Altunia, collected an Hasan Dehalwi
army of Khokhars, Jats, Rajputs
• A new theory of kingship, redefined
and a few Turkish nobles and
the relations between the Sultan and
marched towards Delhi in 1240
nobility.
CE.
• Broke up the 'Chahalgani
o In the ensuing battle, Razia’s
army met with defeat, and while • Sultan = Zil – I - Ilahi (Shadow of the
riding back to Kaithal, she and God)
Altunia were killed. • New rituals like Sijda (prostration)
Slave Dynasty (1206 - 1290 ) and paibos (kissing Sultan's feet).
• Introduced the Persian festival of
Navroz in India.
• Organised a strong centralised army to
deal with internal disturbances and to
repel the Mongols
• Separated Diwan-i-Arz (Military
Department).
• Adopted a policy of consolidation
rather than expansion.
• Policy of iron and blood against
internal rebellions
• 1246, Ulugh Khan (later known as • Disturbances in Mewat, Doab, Awadh
Balban) placed Nasiruddin (grandson and Katihar were ruthlessly
of Iltutmish) on the throne and suppressed.
assumed the position of Naib (deputy) • Balban also secured control over Ajmer
Slave Dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Balban and Nagaur in eastern Rajputana, but
(1266 - 87 ) his attempts to capture Ranthambore
and Gwalior failed.
• Policy of force and Diplomacy in
dealing with Mongols –
• The frontier regions were strengthened
with garrisoning of forts at Bhatinda,
Sunam and Samana.
• Sent Diplomatic feelers to Halaku, the
Mongol – II khan of Iran and
neighbouring areas

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• Revolt of Tughril Beg, governor of feature of the Indo-Islamic architecture

Bengal (1279 AD): of Delhi.
o Governor of Bengal, Tughril KHILJI DYNASTY (1290 - 1320)
Beg, revolted and assumed the
title of Sultan.
o Balban sent his forces to Bengal
and had Tughril killed.
Subsequently, he appointed his
own son Bughra Khan as
the Governor of Bengal.
Decline of Slave Dynasty
• During Balban’s reign, Jalal-ud-din
Firoz Khilji had been the warden of
the marches in the north-west and had
fought many successful battles against
the Mongols.
• He was called to Delhi as Ariz-i-
Mumalik (Minister of War).
• In AD 1290, Firoz
murdered Kaimur and seized the
throne.
• A group of Khilji nobles led by him
established the Khilji dynasty and
Firoz ascended the throne under the Jalaluddin Khilji (1290 – 1296): The
title of Jalaluddin Khilji. Founder of the Khilji Dynasty
Balban’s Tomb, Mehrauli Jalaluddin Khilji
• Policy of Tolerance and Leniency
towards Nobles
• State – Based on willing support of the
governed, Religious Tolerance
• 1292 – Successfully Repulsed Mongol
Attack
• Alau-ud-din Khilji’s Two Campaigns,
1292 – Vidisha, 1294 - Devagiri
• Alau-ud–din killed Jalaluddin and
usurped the throne.
• Unlike the corbelled arches of Qutub
Complex, the true arches of Balban’s Alau –ud-din Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
tomb have the keystone placed at the
Alau –ud-din Khilji
centre, which evenly distributes the
weight of the superstructure. From here
on, True arches became a common

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o Ranthambore (1301): Ruler of

Ranthambore, Hamirdeva defe
ated and Killed.
o Mewar(Chittor) (1303) – Raval
Ratan Singh, ‘Jauhar’ of Rani
Padmini .
o Malwa (Mandu), 1305
o 1311- Chahmans of Siwana and
Jalore (Western Rajasthan)
• Framed Regulations to control the • Military Campaigns:
rebellions by nobles. o Devgiri (1306-07) : Rai
• Military Reforms – Ramchandra.
o Large Standing Army at Centre, o Warangal/ Telangana (1308) :
Soldiers Paid in Cash. Pratap Rudra Dev.
o Chehra and Dagh System o Dwar Samudra (1310) : Ballal III.
• Market Reforms, driven by Military o Madurai (1311) : Vir Pandya and
Reforms Sundar Pandya
o 3 Separate Markets at Delhi,
Food grains; Cloth and
Expensive items; Horses, cattle
and slaves
o Market Department (Diwan –i-
Riyasat), Shahna –i-Mandi
o Munhiyans and Barids
o Fixed the price of all
commodities
o Godowns
• Land Revenue Reforms
o Measurement of Land • Mongol Policy:
o Land Revenue in Cash o Dawa Khan – the Chagatai ruler
o Banjaras (karwanian) of Trans Oxiana, made an
advance towards India.
o - Basis for future reforms by Sher
Shah and Akbar o 1297 onwards – Series of
campaigns against forts
• Military Campaigns:
defending Delhi.
o Gujarat (1299): Rai Karan,
o 1299, Battle of Kili (Qutlugh
Ruler of Gujarat fled.
Khwaza), 1303 Mongol Invasion
o Siri Fort and Siri City

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appointed as Amir-i-Tuzuk (Master of

Ceremonies).
• Alauddin had two victorious
expeditions during the reign of
Jalaluddin.
o After the first expedition of
Bhilsa (Vidisa) in AD 1292, he
was given the Iqta of Awadh, in
addition to that of Kara.
o He was also appointed Ariz-i-
Mumalik (Minister of War).
o In AD 1294, he led the first
Turkish expedition to southern
India and plundered Devagiri.
• In July AD 1296, he murdered
Jalaluddin Khilji (1290 – 1296): The Founder Jalaluddin Khilji and crowned
of the Khilji Dynasty himself as the Sultan.
• He tried to mitigate some of the harsh Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
aspects of Balban’s rule
• He also faced a few rebellions in
• He tried to win the goodwill of the succession during the early years of
nobility through a policy of tolerance. his rule. According to Barani, the
author of Tarikh-i-Firuz
o He retained the
Shahi, Alauddin felt that there were
earlier nobility in his
four reasons for these rebellions:
administration
o Inefficiency of the spy system
o He avoided harsh
punishments, even to those o General practice of the use of
who revolted against him wine
(Revolt of Malik Chhajju, Amir o Social intercourse among the
Ali Hatim Khan, the governor of nobles and intermarriage
Oudh). between them
o He forgave and rewarded them o Excess of wealth in the
to win their support possession of certain nobles.
• He was the first ruler of the Delhi • 4 ordinances to strengthen his rule &
Sultanate to clearly put forward the quell rebellions.
view that the state should be based on
the willing support of the Governed. o Organised intelligence system
to know secret activities of
• He won many battles and marched out nobles
against the Mongol hordes, and
successfully halted their entry into o Public sale of drugs & alcohol
India (1292 AD). was totally stopped
o Nobles were ordered not to
• Alauddin Khilji had helped his uncle in
have social gatherings or
his struggle for power and was

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intermarriages without his • The Sultan fixed the prices of all

permission. commodities from grain to cloth,
o Confiscated properties of slaves, cattle, etc.
Nobles. • Appointment of the controller of the
• Military Reforms: market (shahna-i-mandi), intelligence
officers (barids), and secret spies
o Alauddin was the first Sultan to (munhian).
establish a large permanent
standing army, which he paid o Regrating (ihtikar) was a
for with cash from the royal prohibited offence. It means
treasury. buying up essentials, hoarding
them till a shortage of supply
o He established an occurs, and then selling them at
innovative Chehra and Dagh a huge profit.
System, in which the Chehra
(full description of each • Peasants were forced to sell the grain
soldier) and Dagh (Horse to the grain merchants/ Banjaras
branding) were preserved. (karwanian) at the side of the field.

• Land Revenue Administration: • Diwan-i-Riyasat, a separate market

department, was established under the
o He was the first monarch in the command of Naib-i-Riyasat. Every
Sultanate who insisted that in merchant was registered with the
the doab, land revenue would Market Department.
be assessed on the basis of
measuring the land under Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316 CE)
cultivation.
o Alauddin wanted that the
landlords of the area—called
khuts and muqaddams, should
pay the same taxes as the others.
o Thus, they had to pay taxes on
milch cattle and houses like the
others and forgo other illegal
cesses which they were in the
habit of realizing.
Alauddin Khilji’s Market Reforms
• According to Barani, Alauddin set up
three markets at Delhi,
Military Campaigns:
o first for food-grains,
• Gujarat (1299):
o the second for cloth and
expensive items such as sugar, • Alauddin’s noted generals, Ulugh
ghee, oil, dry fruits etc., and Khan and Nusrat Khan, marched
against Gujarat.
o the third for horses, slaves and
cattle.

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• Rai Karan, the ruler of Gujarat, fled, CE, leading to the decline of the
and the temple of Somnath was Paramaras dynasty.
captured. • 1311- Chahmans of Siwana and Jalore
• It was here that Malik Kafur was (Western Rajasthan)
captured. • Devgiri (1306-07) :
• Ranthambore (1301): o The Yadav dynasty ruled it
• The ruler of during this time under the king
Ranthambore, Hamirdeva gave shelter Rai Ramchandra.
to two rebellious Mongol soldiers and o The kingdom of Devgiri was
refused to hand them over to the Khalji attacked when Ramchandra
ruler. refused to pay the yearly tax to
o To begin with, the Khalji forces Alauddin
suffered losses. Nusrat o Ramchandra was brought to
Khan even lost his life. Delhi, where he later
o Finally, Alauddin himself had to surrendered.
come on the battlefield. In 1301 o Rai Ramachandra became a
CE, the fort fell to Alauddin. vassal and gave his daughter
Jhatyapali in marriage to
Alauddin.
• Warangal/ Telangana (1308) :
o The Kakatiya dynasty was
ruling here under the ruler
Pratap Rudra Dev.
o He accepted Alauddin’s rule
and gifted him the Kohinoor
diamond.
• Mewar(Chittor) (1303) – • Dwar Samudra (1310 AD) :
o Raval Ratan Singh, ‘Jauhar’ of o It was geographically located on
Rani Padmini . the west coast of the state of
Karnataka
o Chittor was
renamed Khizrabad after the o It was ruled by Hoysala dynasty
name of the Sultan’s son Khizr under Ballal III.
Khan.
• Madurai (1311 AD) :
• Malik Mohd Jayasi wrote Padmavat in o The Pandya dynasty ruled it
16th century. under Vir and Sundar Pandya.
• Malwa (Mandu), 1305 o Sundar Pandya and Alauddin
o Mahakaladeva, Last known together defeated Vir Pandya
king of the Paramaras dynasty,
o Sundar Pandya, in turn,
was defeated and killed by Ala-
accepted Alauddin’s rule.
ud-din Khalji of Delhi in 1305
• Malik Kafur made Malik-Naib (vice-
regent of Alauddin’s Empire).

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Mongol Threat during Alauddin successfully – Mongols

Khilji’s Reign (1296-1316 AD) withdrew.
• 1306 – Dawa Khan died. Confusion
among the Chagatai Mongols.
End of Khilji Dynasty
• 1320 – Mubarak Shah killed by his slave
general Khusrau Khan .
• In his 3 months on the throne, Khusrau
Khan was highly unpopular among the
Muslim nobles in Delhi (accused of
favouring his original Hindu caste
• Dawa Khan – the Chagatai ruler of men).
Trans - Oxiana (Uzbekistan) – made an
advance towards India. Art and Architecture – Alauddin Khilji
• 1297 onwards – Series of campaigns • Alauddin Khilji patronized poets like
against forts defending Delhi. Amir Khusro & Amir Hasan

• 1299 – Battle of Kili - A force of • Built –

2,00,000 Mongol troops led by his son, o Alai Darwaja –
Qutlugh Khwaja, arrived to conquer Gateway/Entrance to Qutub
Delhi. Minar, True Arch and Dome
o The Mongols cut off all o Alai Minar – unfinished (twice
communications of Delhi with the size of Qutub Minar)
neighbouring areas.
o Hauz Khas lake
o Even entered the streets of the
city. • New capital – SIRI FORT

o Alauddin Khalji decided to face

the Mongols outside Delhi.
o His armies managed to defend;
but lost general Zafar Khan in
battle.
• 1303 – A 1,20,000 strong Mongol army
attacked again, when Alauddin was
campaigning in Chittorgarh.
Alai Minar
o Rushed back and fortified
himself at his new capital Siri (at
Delhi).
o The 2 armies camped facing each
other for 2 months.
o Despite daily skirmishes and a
lot of hardships to the citizens of
Delhi, Alauddin defended

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• Amir Khusrau, (1253-1325 CE), poet

Nuh-i-Sipihr This literary composition
and historian, is one of India's greatest
focuses on the political and
Persian-language poets.
social circumstances under
• He saw the rule of seven (7) Sultans Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah.
(Balban, Muhammad, Cakubad,
Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin Khilji, Khazain-ul- It is written in prose and
Mubarak Shah Khaliji, Ghiasuddin Fatuh includes descriptions of
Tughlaq). Alauddin Khalji's
• He was the first Muslim poet who achievements.
freely used Hindi words.
Tughluq- It is a historical masnavi. In
• Amir Khusro was the first person, who Nama this book, the triumph of
wrote together in Hindi, Hindavi and Ghiasuddin Tughluq over
Persian. Khusrau Khan is highlighted.
• He was the great disciple of Sheikh
Nizamuddin Auliya. Hasht He wrote this book(poem) in
Bihisht the reign of Alauddin Khilji. It
is a romantic masnavis (poetic
tale), dedicated to
Nizamuddin Auliya. It is
written in the Persian
language.

Matla ul It is the first masnavi meaning

Anwar - Rising Place of Lights,
consisting of 3310
verses with ethical and Sufi
Books Description themes. It gives insight about
Social Norms, Customs, and
Qiran-us- This historical masnavi was Institutions Pertaining to
Sadain written as poetry, Women.
“Meeting of emphasising the encounter
two between Kaiqubad and
auspicious Bughra Khan.
stars"

Dewan-ul- It is a verse-based work. This

Futuh/ book contains descriptions of
Miftah al- Jalaluddin Khalji's military
Futuh (1291) operations.

Dewan Rani In this masnavi, Amir

and Khizr Khusrau tell the tale of Khizr
Khan Khan and Dewal Rani's
romantic adventures

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 o Suppressed the followers of
Khusrau by confiscating their lands
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq adopted a
sustained and vigorous forward policy.
o Conquest of Warangal in 1321 and
1323
▪ Muhammad Tughlaq (Ulugh
Khan/Juna Khan) led the early
expeditions against Rai Rudra
Dev who was defeated after a
prolonged conflict and Warangal
was annexed under direct
control of the Sultanate.
▪ Warangal was renamed as
Sultanpur .
▪ Kakatiya territories annexed
o This was followed by the conquest
and annexation of Mabar.

o After this, Ulugh raided Odisha.

o By 1324 – The Delhi Sultanate
reached up to Madurai.
o 1324 to 1325 AD – After placing
Delhi under control of his son
• Ghazi Malik - Founder of Tughlaq Ulugh Khan, Ghiyasuddin
dynasty. Tughlaq led his army to Lakhnauti
• He was contemporary of Nizamuddin (Bengal), and captured it after a
Auliya((‘Hunuz dilli door ast’) series of battles.
• Title - Ghazi (Slayer of Infidels). o 1328 – The last Hindu principality
• He followed a policy of reconciliation of the area, Kampili was annexed.
with the nobles. • Contribution:
 o Built Tughlaqabad city (1321) with o 1330 - 1332 Introduced token
fortification to protect from Mongol currency (Bronze and Copper
attacks tankas in place of Silver tankas)
• Source:TughlaqNama of Amir khusrau’s o 1332 - 1333 Khorasan Expedition
provides a rise of Ghiyasuddin Tuglaq . o 1333 - Qarachil expedition (in
Kumaon Hills, to counter Chinese
incursions)
o Enhancement of land revenue in
the Doab
• However, Muhammad Tughluq’s
administrative measures were a failure.

Tughlaqabad in Delhi (one of the 7 cities).

• Mohammed-bin-Tughluq’s national
treasure had a great burden due to the
policy of huge presents given to
Tarmashrin, the Mongol leader to avoid
Mongol Invasion.
• Administrative Reforms:
o Launched a scheme by which
“Taccavi loans” were given to
farmers to buy seeds & to extend
• Only sultan who had received a
cultivation.
literary, religious & philosophical
o A separate Department for
education.
agriculture “Diwan – i –amir-i-
• Tolerant nature in religious matters.
kohi” was established.
• Following a liberal policy, he appointed
o Model farms created
officials irrespective of caste, creed, or
• Contribution:
religion.
o Jahanpanah was built in 1327 by
• Experiments:
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq.
o 1326 - 1327 Transferred the capital
• Rise of regional dynasty: During his
from Delhi to Daulatabad (Devgiri)
reign Vijayanagar(1336), Bahmani
(1347) and Madurai (1335) kingdom
emerged.
• Governors of Oudh, Multan and Sind • Jiziya (Protection tax) imposed on Non-
revolted against the authority of Muslims.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq • Prohibited practice of women going out
to worship
• Shias, Sufis and Hindus – persecuted
and treated as II class citizens.
• He revived the Iqtadari system and also
made it hereditary.
• He raised the salary of the revenue
officers.
• Soldiers in his reign were given land
assignments and their recruitment was
made hereditary.
• Stopped all harsh punishments
• Set up new departments
o Diwan – i- Khairat, Dar-ul-Shifa
o Department of Public work
o Diwan – i- Bandagan
• On Muhammad Bin Tughlaq’s Death, • Revised the fiscal policy with
Barani quoted “Finally sultan was freed Objectives of improving revenue and
from people & people from sultan” reducing the burden of taxes
• Barani called him as ‘’a mixture of • Abolished several taxes.He retained
opposites.’’ only 4 types of taxes
o Kharaj
o Jizya
o Zakat
o Khums
• 1st sultan to impose irrigation tax
(Haq– i-Sharb)
• Developed irrigation network – canals
from Yamuna to Hissar and Sutlej to
Hansi (200km)
• Reservoirs, wells, canals refurbished
• Appointed Malik Maqbul as his Prime • Horticulture Promotion
Minister and given the title Khan-i- • Royal factories –Karkhanas, where
Jahan. thousands of slaves were employed.
• Followed the advice of Ulemas in • No attempts to expand territory
administration • Led 2 expeditious to Bengal, but failed
• Imposed Sharia rule strictly throughout o 1338 – Bengal had broken free
realm.
 o 1342 – Ilyas Khan (a rebel noble)
captured Lakhnauti and Sonargaon.
Took the throne of Bengal under the
title Sultan Shamsuddin Ilyas
Khan.
• Territory extended from Tirhut to
Champaran & Gorakhpur, up to
Banaras.
• Firuz Tughlaq marched against Ilyas –
through Champaran and Gorakhpur,
and occupied the Bengali capital of
Pandua.
• Ilyas forced to sign treaty, river Kosi of
Bihar fixed as the boundary between 2
kingdoms.
1360 – Firuz Tughlaq, on his way back from • Built- Firozabad (Firoz Shah Kotla),
the Bengal campaign, raided Odisha. Hissar and Jaunpur .
• Firuz occupied the Odiya capital, • The Jami-Masjid was one of the largest
massacred the people. mosques in the Tughluq times.
• Desecrated the famous Jagannath
Temple.
• Weakened Odisha’s ruling dynasty,
Eastern Gangas.
• Later Gajapati dynasty (1435 – 1542)
came to power in Odisha, extended
Odiya rule southwards till Karnataka,
which brought them in conflict with
Vijayanagar.
• 2 Asokan Pillars were brought from
• Firuz Tughlaq also led a campaign
Topra (Ambala) and Meerut and
against Kangra, in the Punjab Hills.
erected in Firuzabad
• Firuz’s longest campaign was to quell
rebellion in Gujarat and Thatta.
• Rebellions crushed but army suffered
• The political control of Delhi gradually
huge losses because they lost their way
weakened during the rule of Firuz’s
in the Rann of Kutch.
successors.
• The last Sultan was Nasiruddin Khizr Khan 1414–1421
Muhammad. During his reign, northern
India fell victim to the fury of Amir Mubarak Shah 1421–1434
Timur (Turkish). The invasion of Timur
in AD 1398 left the sultanate desolate. Muhammad Shah 1434–1445
• By the end of Tughlaq rule (AD 1414),
the Sultanate was confined to a small Alam Shah 1445–1451
territory in north India.
Last prince of Sayyid dynasty – Alam Shah,
• A number of regions proclaimed
handed over throne to Bahlol Lodi, a strong
independent status.
Afghan noble & retired to Badaun.
o In the east, Bengal and
Orissa enjoyed complete
autonomy.
o In eastern UP and large parts of Ruler Reign
Bihar, a new independent kingdom
of Sharqis emerged. Bahlul Khan
1451–1489
o In the Deccan and Lodi
South Vijaynagar empires and
Sikandar Lodi 1489–1517
Bahmani kingdom became political
powers.
Ibrahim Lodi 1517–1526
o Independent nobles occupied large
parts of Punjab. Gujarat (Muzaffar
Shah I, 1394) and Malwa (Mahmud
Khalji I) became fully
independent.
• Rajput states in Rajasthan no longer
treated Delhi Sultans as their overlords.

• Khizr Khan was the governor of

Multan under Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
• Before his departure from India, Timur
appointed Khizr Khan as his deputy.
• He captured Delhi and founded the
Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• He did not assume the title of Sultan but • Bahlol Lodi’s energies were occupied
was comfortable with Rayat -i-Ala. mainly in his contest against Sharqi
Ruler Reign rulers of Jaunpur.
• Invited Afghans of Roh to come to India • The Sharqi sultans were great patrons of
and help in this conquest –“They will learning and culture. In course of time,
get rid of the ignominy of poverty and I Jaunpur came to be known as the
shall gain ascendancy.” "Shiraz of the East".
• In 1484, he defeated the Sultan of • Malik Muhammad Jaisi, the author of
Jaunpur and annexed the Sharqi Hindi work, Padmavat, lived at
kingdom. Jaunpur.
• Introduced Bahlul copper coins.

• At its height, it extended from Aligarh

in western Uttar Pradesh to Darbhanga
in north Bihar, and from the boundary
of Nepal in the north to Bundelkhand
• The Jaunpur kingdom had been set up in the south.
by Malik Sarwar, a noble of the time of Significance of Sharqi Rule:
Firuz Tughlaq. Malik Sarwar had been • The Sharqi rulers maintained law and
the wazir for some time, and then had order over a large tract following the
been nominated to the eastern areas collapse of the government in Delhi.
with the title Malik-us-Sharq (Lord of • They successfully prevented the rulers
the east). of Bengal in extending their control
• His successors came to be called the over eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Sharqis after the title. • They established a cultural tradition
• The Sharqi sultans fixed their capital at which continued long after the downfall
Jaunpur , which they beautified with of the Sharqis.
magnificent palaces, mosques and In 1484 Bahlul Lodi, the ruler of Delhi,
mausoleums. occupied Jaunpur and annexed the Sharqi
• They created style of their own, marked kingdom.
by lofty gates and huge arches.
 • 1506 – Shifted capital to Agra.

• Most powerful Lodi Sultan.

• A contemporary of Mahmud Begarha of
Gujarat and Rana Sanga of Mewar.
• Afghan sardars had a sturdy sense of
tribal independence.
• Unlike his predecessor, Sikandar Lodi
believed in the superior position of the
Sultan vis-a-vis the nobles.
• Sikander made the Afghan nobles bow
to the superiority of the Sultan.
• Sikander Lodi took the Khan of Nagaur
o All those who held jagirs, had to
under his protection.
submit accounts regularly.
• Tried to make Ranthambhor shift its
o Drastic punishments were given to
allegiance from Malwa to Delhi.
those who were embezzled money
or were corrupt.
• Sikander established efficient • After the death of Sikandar Lodi in AD
administration. 1517, his nobles helped Ibrahim Lodi to
• Laid great emphasis on justice. become Sultan.
• All highways were made safe from • 1518 – Battle of Khatoli, Rana Sanga
robbers and bandits. defeated Ibrahim Lodi, when he
• Prices of all Essential commodities were invaded Mewar.
remarkably cheap. • His reign proved to be a period of
• He took keen interest in agriculture. revolts.
• Octroi duty on grains was abolished. • Highly arrogant in nature & insulted
• Introduced a new measurement his nobles openly.
yardstick, the Gazz-i- Sikandari. • Nobles who revolted were put to
• Rent rolls prepared in his time, formed death.
the basis of rent rolls of Sher Shah later • Daulat Khan Lodi, governor of Punjab
on. invited Babur to invade India, who
• Sikandar is regarded as an orthodox and marched into Delhi & killed Ibrahim
a religious bigot. Lodi at the 1st Battle of Panipat.
• He re-imposed Jizya on non-muslims
• Demolished many temples (e.g.,
Nagarkot temple).
• Stern imposition of Sharia law.
• Expanded his dominions by conquering
the Rajput kingdoms of Gwalior and
Dholpur.
 The Sultan
• The Sultan was the head of the
administration with all military,
administrative and legal powers.
• He was responsible for the safety and
security of the state.
• He was also the commander in chief of
the military forces
• He was also responsible for the
maintenance of the law and justice.
• To discharge this function he appointed
judges. The sultan acted as a court of
appeal from the judges.
• No clear law of succession was
developed among Muslim rulers.
Central Administration
• The sultan was assisted by several
ministers who were chosen by him and
remained in office at his pleasure.
Wazir
• Lodhi Dynasty is Famous for Garden • The key figure in administration was
architecture style of Tombs Wazir.
• In the early period, the wazir was
primarily military leader.
• In the fourteenth century, the wazir
began to be considered more of an
expert in revenue affairs and presided
over the large department dealing with
both income and expenditure.
• Minor Departments under this office:
o Mustaufi-i-Mumalik [Auditor
General, in charge of expenditure]
• Mushrif-i-Mumalik [Accountant
General, in charge of income]
• Majmuadar [keeper of loans and
balances from treasury].
 • Diwan-i-Waqoof [introduced by • He and later Alauddin Khalji paid very
Jalaluddin Khalaji to supervise close attention to its working.
expenditure only, i.e., after separating • Alauddin was the first Sultan who paid
‘income’ records from ‘expenditure’ his soldiers in cash.
records]; • The special responsibility of the ariz’s
• Diwan-i-Mustakhraj [set up by department was – recruit, equip, and
Alauddin Khalaji to enquire into and pay the army.
realise arrears of revenue payments • The former dealt with religious matters,
from the different parts of the empire] pious foundations and stipends to
• Diwan-i-Amir Kohi- It was set under deserving scholars and men of piety.
Muhammad bin Tughlaq and was • It was headed by the Sadr-us-Sadr, who
responsible for bringing uncultivated was also the Chief Qazi and was
land into cultivation through state responsible for the administration of
support. justice .
Central Administration • Diwan-i-Insha: Headed by the Dabir-i-
• Naib-ul mulk / mamalikat Naib-ul Khas, looked after the department of
mulk was another officer who served as royal correspondence.
lieutenant of the realm. o The Dabir was the formal channel
• His powers were greater than the regent of communication between the
and the wazir. The wazir was simply a centre and the other areas of the
bureaucrat but ‘naib’ could take empire and was also a private
important decisions in the absence of the secretary to the Sultan.
king and issue directions. Spy Department
• But his authority and power depended • The rulers posted intelligence agents
on the personality of the Sultan. called barids in different parts of the
• Balban as naib practically exercised all empire to keep them informed of what
monarchical powers and Nasiruddin was going on.
Mahmud was reduced to just a Diwan-i-Riyasat
powerless monarch. • Function: registered all the supplies of
• However, Balban who himself enjoyed commodities and maintained standards
the unlimited power of naib was well in the markets [such as checking
aware of the dangers of the position of weights and measures, etc.].
naib, abolished the office of the naib. • The royal household [headed by
Diwan-i-Arz (Military Department) the Wakil-i-Dar], court ceremonies [led
• The head of the department was Ariz-i- by the Amir-i-Hajib], royal
Mamalik. bodyguards [under the Sar-i-Jandar].
• It was Balban who first set up a separate
Ariz’s department in India.
 o Iqta land – Lands assigned to
officials as iqtas instead of payment
for their services.
o Khalisa land – Land under the
direct control of the Sultan and the
revenues collected were spent for
the maintenance of royal court and
royal household.
o Inam land – Land assigned or
granted to religious leaders or
religious institutions.
• Ibn Battutah says that the soil was so
fertile that it could produce two crops
every year, rice being sown three times
Local Administration a year.
• The Sultanate comprised provinces • Sesame, indigo and cotton were also
(iqta) placed in charge of governors grown. They formed the basis of many
called wali or muqti; later, provinces • village industries, such as oil pressing,
were partitioned making of jaggery, weaving, and
into shiqs (administered by shiqdars) dyeing of cloth, etc.
for administrative convenience and • Subsistence economy
then shiqs partitioned into Pargana • All the peasants did not live at the level
(headed by Amil.) of subsistence. The village headmen
• The faujdars assisted (Muqaddams) and smaller landlords
Shiqdar in maintaining law and (Khuts) enjoyed a higher standard of
order during the Tughlaq period. life.
• Village Administration • A section that enjoyed a high standard
o The most important people of the of life was the Hindu Rais(Raja) or
villages were called Khuts autonomous Rajas.
(landowners) and muqaddam • These Rajas were holding their previous
(headmen). estates.
• Patwari • An important development was the
o The Patwari did the work of improvement of the Rahat so that
accounting at the village level. water could be lifted from a deeper
level for irrigation.
• Muhammad Bin Tughlaq established a
Peasants and Rural Gentry separate department (Diwan-i-Amir
• The lands were classified into three Kohi) to take care of agriculture.
categories:
Trade, Industry and Merchants
• A definite growth in towns and town
life – Flourishing Urban Economy.
• Ibn Battutah calls Delhi the largest city
in the eastern part of the Islamic world.
He says that Daulatabad (Deogir)
equalled Delhi in size.
• The other important cities - Lahore and
Multan in the northwest, Kara and
Lakhnauti in the east, and Anhilwara
(Patan) and Cambay (Khambayat) in
the west.
• Bengal and the towns in Gujrat were
India imported satin, glassware, and horses
famous for their fine-quality fabrics.
from west Asia, and raw silk and porcelain
o Cambay in Gujarat was famous for
from China
textile and gold and silver work.
o Sonargaon in Bengal was famous for • The overland trade with central and
raw silk and fine cotton cloth (called west Asia was in the hands of
Muslin later on) Multani’s, who were mostly Hindus,
• There were many other handicrafts as the Khurasanis, who were Afghans,
well, such as leather Iranis, etc.
• work, metal work, carpet weaving, • In addition to the royal road from
wood-work including furniture, Peshawar to Sonargaon, Muhammad
stonecutting, etc., for which India was Tughalaq built a road to Daulatabad.
famous.
o Art of Manufacturing paper was
introduced by Turks
o The production of textile was also
improved by the introduction of the
spinning wheel.
o Cotton carders bow (dhunia)
allowed cotton to be cleaned faster
o Sericulture centre was established in
Bengal by the fifteenth century.
o Building activity attained a new • Rituals and Ceremonies: In both Hindu
scale by the large use of brick and and Muslim families, ceremonies started
Mortar. with the child's birth.
• Marriage:
 o Among the Hindus, marriage • Prevalence of social evils: Ibn
within the sub-caste was allowed, Battuta mentions the ‘Sati’ practice. He
but intermarriage with other varna mentions, however, that prior
was forbidden. permission for one wanting to be a sati
o As for the Muslims, there was had to be taken from the Sultan. Among
complete freedom in choosing a the Rajputs, the practice of Jauhar was
wife or a husband. But importance also prevalent.
was given to the 'status' (kafu) of • Property rights: The commentators
the respective social groups. uphold the widow's right to the
• Caste: Caste was still the dominant property of a son-less husband,
category in marking social provided the property was not
differences. The smriti texts continued commonly held. The widow was not
to emphasise that punishing the wicked merely the guardian of this property but
and upholding the Chatur-varna (four- had the full right to dispose of it.
fold caste) social order by the force of • Custom of purdah: Both Hindu and
arms was the duty of the Kshatriya. Muslim aristocracy guarded their
• There was almost no change in the women by keeping them hidden within
lifestyle of the upper-caste Hindu the walled space of the antahpura
women during this period. Women (inner sanctum) and the harem. In
are subordinate to men in every walk of contrast, the poor (Muslim) women
life - as daughters, wives and even after used a burqa to cover their bodies.
their husband's death (under her eldest
son's care).
• Birth of a daughter was considered a
symbol of dishonour for the father.
• Their primary duty was to
produce progeny, especially the male
child.
• Early marriages of girls were prevalent.
• Education: Women of poor classes did
not have a chance for education, but
the higher strata women seem to have
received education and training. For
example, Raziya shows that the Muslim Literature
aristocracy also imparted education to • The Delhi Sultans patronised learning
their daughters. and literature.
• Many of them had great love for Arabic
and Persian literature.
• Learned men came from Persia and • The famous Rajatarangini written by
Persian language got encouragement Kalhana belonged to the period of Zain-
from the rulers. ul- Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir.
• Besides theology and poetry, the • Many Sanskrit works on medicine and
writing of history was also encouraged. music were translated into Persian.
Some of the Sultans had their own court • In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is
historians. the most famous work.
• The most famous historians of this • Regional languages also developed
period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us- during this period.
Siraj, Ziauddin Barani and Shams Siraj o Chand Bardai was the famous
Afif. Hindi poet of this period. Bengali
• Barani’s Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi contains literature had also developed and
the history of Tughlaq dynasty. Nusrat Shah patronised the
• Minhaj-us- Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i- translation of Mahabaratha into
Nasari, a general history of Muslim Bengali.
dynasties up to c.1260 CE.
• Amir Khusrau (c.1252–1325 CE) was the
most famous Persian writer of this
period.
• He wrote a number of poems. He
experimented with several poetical
forms and created a new style of Persian
poetry called Sabaq- i- Hind or the
Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi
verses.
• Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh
speaks about Alauddin’s conquests. His
famous work, the Tughlaq Nama, deals
with the rise of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
• Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link
languages in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Zia Nakhshabi was the first to translate
Sanskrit stories into Persian. The book
Tutu Nama or the Book of the Parrot
became popular and was translated into
Turkish and later into many European
languages.
Delhi Sultanate, in 1316

The dissolution of Hoysalas enabled Harihara

and Bukka to take over its complete territories
by 1346.
 • In the first two decades after the
founding of the empire, Harihara I
gained control over most of the area
south of the Tungabhadra river and
earned the title of Purvapaschima
By 1377 – Madurai Sultanate had been wiped
Samudradhishavara (“Master of the
out.
eastern and western seas”).
• Harihara II (1377 to 1404)
o Captured Goa and Belgaum from
the Bahmani kingdom.
• Raichur Doab/ Tungabhadra Doab
o Sent an expedition to northern Sri
• Krishna Godavari Basin
Lanka.
• Konkan strip between Western Ghats
• Deva Raya I (1406 -1422)
and the sea
o Defeated Sultan Firuz Shah
(Fertile and port of Goa facilitated trade –
Bahmani, and annexed entire Reddi
import of horses from Iran and Iraq)
territory upto the mouth of Krishna
river.
o Deva Raya I also constructed dam
on Tungabhadra.
Dynasty Period
o Dam on river Haridra.
Sangama Dynasty 1336 - 1485 o 1420 – Italian traveller Nicolo Conti
Saluva Dynasty 1485 – 1505 describes a magnificent capital city.

Tuluva Dynasty 1491 - 1570

Aravidu Dynasty 1565 – 1646

• Deva Raya II (1425 - 1446)
o Recruited 2000 Muslims in the
army (in order to strengthen it) and
gave them jagirs.
o According to Persian traveller
Abdur Razzaq, Deva Raya II’s
troops amounted to 11 lakhs.
o Portuguese traveller Nuniz ( 16th
Century) writes: Quilon, Sri Lanka,
Pulicat, Pegu and Tenasserim paid Krishna Deva Raya (1509 – 1529) had
tribute to Deva Raya II. to contend against
o The inscriptions speak of his title • Successor states to the Bahmani's,
`Gajabeteegara’ i.e., the elephant • Gajapatis (1435 – 1541 CE), and
hunter. • Portuguese at Goa.
o He built the major portion of o Acquired Raichur Doab (1512)
Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, and o Defeated Gajapati kings of Odisha
also Hazara Ramaswamy temple, (1514)
Hampi and Vijaya Vitthala temple. o Battle of Raichur, 1520 - Bijapur
o Vijaya Vittala Temple; Hampi Ruler, Ismail Adil Shah was
dedicated to Vishnu was built in completely defeated.
during the rule of Devaraya II. The • Domingos Paes, a Portuguese Traveller
Temple has some gorgeous stone has given an account of Krishna Deva
structures, such as the stone chariot Raya’s personality and described the
and the musical pillars, also known Vijayanagara City ( Tanks, Markets
as SaReGaMa pillars. etc.)
• Barbosa – presents him as a tolerant
king, and praises him for the justice
and equity prevailing in the empire.
• He also founded a sub – urban township
near Vijayanagara – Nagalpuram after
his mother.
• Krishnadevaraya was given the title of
Yavanarajya Prathishtapanacharya to
commemorate his act of freeing
Mahmud Shah from Adil Shah and
restoring his position as Sultan.
 • Rama Raja played the Muslim kingdoms
against one another.
• Entered commercial treaty with the
Portuguese – supply of horses to
Bijapur was stopped.
• Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar were
defeated.
• 1565 – These 3 combined to defeat
Vijaynagara at Bannihatti, near Talikota
(Battle of Talikota or Battle of Rakshasa-
• Krishnadeva Raya was also known as
Tangadi).
Andhra Bhoja.
• Rama Raja was executed, big massacre
• He authored “Amuktamalyada”
of Hindus, Vijayanagara was looted and
(Telugu work on polity) and
destroyed.
“Jambavati Kalyanam” and “Usha
Parinayam” (Sanskrit drama).
• Patronized 8 eminent scholars/poets in
his court (Astadiggaja).
o Tenaliraman was part of
Astadiggaja
o Greatest of them was Peddana (also
known as Andhra Kavita Pitamah).
o He Wrote:
▪ Manucharitam (Telegu)
▪ Harikatha saram (Telegu)

Sadashiva Raya (1543 to 1567)

• Real power in the hands of a triumvirate
leading person was by Rama Raja.
 • Provincial governors had a large
measure of autonomy.
Chronology of Discovery and • - own courts, appointed their own
Conservation of Hampi / officers, maintained their own armies,
Vijayanagar City: issued their own coins, power to
impose/remit taxes.

Rate of Land Tax (Sist) in

Agriculture:
Administration Under Vijayanagara
• 1/3rd of Produce of Kuruvai during
• The king was the ultimate authority in
winter.
the kingdom. He was also the supreme
• 1/4th of Produce of Sesame, Ragi,
commander of the army. He was
Horsegram. Tax
assisted by several high-ranking
• 1/6th of Millet and other crops
officers.
cultivated on dry land.
• The chief minister was known as the
Other taxes:
mahapradhani. He led a number of
• Property Tax, Tax on Sale of Produce,
lower-ranking officers, like Dalavay
Profession Taxes,
(commander), Vassal (guard of the
palace), Rayasam (secretary/ • Tax on Marriage, Military Contribution
accountant), Adaippam (personal etc.
attendant), and Kariya-karta (executive Currency -
agents) • Gold Coin → Varaha/Pagoda
• Silver coin → Tara
• Jital, Duggani
 • Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by
strong enclosures and characterized by
ornate
pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage
halls); tall rayagopurams (carved
monumental towers at the entrance of
the temple).
• Influence of Indo- Islamic architecture
(Prakarams)
• Some famous temples exemplifying the
Vijayanagar style include
the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and
the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya
II etc.
• Caste System: In his Manucharitam,
Allasani Peddanna mentions four castes
in Vijayanagar society: Brahmins,
Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras.
• Slavery is mentioned by Nicolo Conti.
• Condition of Women: According to
Nuniz, a large number of women were
employed as dancers, domestic
servants, and palanquin bearers in royal
palaces.
• Devdasi or temple dancer system
became more popular - Paes
• Practice of sati was prevalent- Nuniz
• Religion: The Sangama rulers were
chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was
their family deity. But other dynasties
were Vaishnavites. But all kings were
tolerant towards other religions.

Vijayanagara style of Architecture:

• Preferred for its durability, local hard
granite was the building material of
choice.
Nicolo Conti, Italian Devaraya - I 1. fortifications
1420 - 1421 of the city
2. Slavery

Abdur Razzaq Persian Devaraya - II Wealth and life in the

(1443 -1444) Diplomat Vijayanagar kingdom.
Matla us Saddin wa
Majuma ul Baharain.
- Troops

Athanasius Russian Bahmani His narrative “ The

Nikitin merchant kingdom under journey beyond 3 seas”
Period: (1470- Muhammad III
1474 A.D.) (1463-82).

Barbosa (1500 – Portuguese Krishna Deva The king allows such

1516) Raya freedom that every man
may come and go and
live according to his own
creed, without suffering
any annoyance and
without enquiry,
whether he is Christian,
Jew, Muslim, or Hindu’.

Domingo Paes Portuguese Krishna Deva Devdasi system

Period: (1520- Raya “Chronicle of the
1522 A.D.) Vijayanagar kings"
(Chronica dos Reis de
Bisnaga).

Fernao Nuniz Portuguese Achyutdeva • Prevalence of Sati and

Period: (1535- Merchant Raya polygamy in the
1537 A.D.) Vijayanagar Empire.
Women in multiple
roles.
 kingdom as the agent of a deity to whom all
the land south of the river Krishna was
supposed to belong? (2015)
1. Who among the following rulers of
Vijayanagara Empire constructed a large (a) Amoghavarsha I
dam across Tungabhadra River and a canal (b) Ballala II
cum-aqueduct several kilometres long from
(c) Harihara I
the river to the capital city? (2023)
(d) Prataparudra II
(a) Devaraya I
5. According to Portuguese writer Nuniz, the
(b) Mallikarjuna
women in the Vijayanagara Empire were
(c) Vira Vijaya experts in which of the following areas?
(d) Virupaksha (2021)
2. In medieval India, the term “Fanam” 1. Wrestling
referred to: (2022)
2. Astrology
(a) Clothing
3. Accounting
(b) Coins
4. Soothsaying
(c) Ornaments
Select the correct answer using the code given
(d) Weapons below.
3. Regarding the taxation systems of (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
KrishnaDeva, the ruler of Vijayanagar,
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
consider the following statements: (2016)
(c) 2 and 4 only
1. The tax rate of land was fixed depending on
the quality of the land. (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. Private owners of workshops paid an

industry tax.
Which of the statements given above is/are
correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
4. Who of the following founded a new city
on the south bank of a tributary to river
Krishna and undertook to rule his new
Foundation –
• Zafar Khan who declared independence
in 1345 at Devagiri shifted his capital to
Gulbarga in northern Karnataka.
• He took the title, Bahman Shah and the
dynasty he founded became known as
the Bahmani dynasty (1347–1527).
• Hasan Gangu (Alauddin Hasan) –
Alauddin Bahman Shah( 1347 – 1358) • Well acquainted in religious sciences
• Capital – Gulbarga / Hasanabad. (read both Old and New Testaments)
and the Quran and natural (botany,
geometry) sciences.
• Good calligraphist and poet.
Spoke many languages (According to
Ferishta, he was well versed not only in
Persian, Arabic and Turkish, but also in
Telugu, Kannada and Marathi. Had many
wives from different regions.

• Wanted to make Deccan the cultural

centre of India. With the Decline of the
Delhi sultanate, many learned people
had migrated to the Deccan.
• Bahman Shah had also to contend in the
The Chisti-order Sufi saint, Banda Nawaz
east with the rulers of Warangal and
Gesu Daraz, settled down in Gulbarga.
Orissa.
• His attempt to exact an annual tribute
from the state of Warangal, the Reddi
kingdoms of Rajahmundry and
Kondavidu, led to frequent wars.
• Bahman Shah emerged victorious in all
these expeditions and assumed the title
Second Alexander on his coins.
• Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397 to 1422)

• Large scale induction of Hindus in the

administration.
• Built astronomical observatory at
Daulatabad.
• Founded Firozabad, a few kilometres
south of Gulbarga.
• Developed Chaul and Dabhol ports
(used for trade across Persian Gulf and
Red Sea)

• Called “Wali” (saint) because of his

association with famous Sufi Gesu
Daraz / Khwaza Banda Nawaz.
• Continued the struggle for domination
of the eastern seaboard of southern
India (Krishna Godavari delta region).
• 1425 - Killed ruler of Warangal and
annexed his territories
• Shifted capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.

• Prime minister of Sultan Muhammed

• Started the Bahmani expansion
Shah III (1463-1482).
towards Berar by defeating Gond Raja
• A Persian by birth, Mohammed Gawan
Narsingh Rai of Kherla.
was well-versed in Islamic theology,
• Narsingh Rai was made amir of the
Persian, and Mathematics. He was also a
province.
poet and a prose-writer.
• Defeated by Vijayanagara ruler
• The Mohammed Gawan Madrasa in
Devaraya I in 1419.
Bidar, with a large library, containing
• Had to abdicate the throne in favour of
3000 manuscripts, is illustrative of his
his brother Ahmad Shah I (1422 – 1436).
scholarship
• Kingdom was at its peak under his able
guidance.
• Successful war campaigns against
Vijayanagar and Orissa.
(He used Persian chemists to teach the • He placed some districts in the
preparation and the use of gunpowder. In provinces directly under central
his war against the Vijayanagar Kings in administration (Khalisa).
Belgaum, he used gunpowder.) • Gawan sought to curtail the military
• Deep raid in Vijaynagar territories up to powers of the governors by allowing
Kanchi. them to occupy only one fort in their
• Overran the west coast ports – Dabhol territory. The other forts remained
and Goa. under the Sultan’s direct control.
• Mahmud Gawan defended Berar from • The royal officers who were given land
Mahmud Khalji of Malwa after a series assignments as pay were made
of bitter battles, with the help of Gujarat accountable to the Sultan for their
sultans. income and expenditure.
• Expanded maritime trade with Iran, • Efforts were made to measure land and
Iraq, etc. calculate amount of revenue to be paid
by cultivator to the state.
The infighting – Nobles were divided into:

• Deccanis (oldies)
• Afaqis/ gharibs (new comers) –
Mahmud Gawan was a newcomer.
The administrative reforms introduced by
Gawan improved the efficiency of the
government, but curtailed the powers of the
provincial chiefs, who were mostly Deccanis.

• So, the already existing rivalry among

Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, Bidar the two groups of nobles, Deccani
Administrative reforms to increase Muslims and Pardesi (foreigner)
Muslims, further intensified and
central control.
conflicts broke out.
• In order to tighten the administration
• After his opponents poisoned the mind
and to curb the power of provincial
of the young Sultan, Mahmud Gawan
governors (Tarafdars), who functioned
was executed in 1482.
virtually as kings, Gawan divided the
• After his death, more infighting
existing four provinces of the Bahmani
continued.
Sultanate into eight provinces (Tarafs)
• This not only limited the area under the
rule of each governor but also made the
provincial administration more
manageable.
 • Numerous mosques, madrasas and
libraries were built.
• The Jami Masjid at Gulbarga, the
Golconda fort at Hyderabad,
Golgumbaz at Bijapur and the Chand
Minar at Bidar are some of the best
specimens of Bahmani architecture.
• Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, Fort of
Bidar, and Gulbarga fort

Finally, the Bahmani Kingdom got divided

into five splinter states:

• Bijapur:
o Established by Yusuf Adil Shah of
the Adil Shahi Dynasty in 1490.
o Annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.
• Ahmednagar:
o Established by Malik Ahmed of the
Nizam Shahi Dynasty
o Annexed by Shah Jahan in 1637.
• Berar:
o Established by Imad Shah of the
Imad Shahi Dynasty in 1490
o Annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574
• Golconda:
o Established by Quli Qutub Shah of
the Qutub Shahi Dynasty in 1512
o Annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687
• Bidar:
o Established by Ali Amir Barid of
the Barid Shahi Dynasty in 1526
o Annexed by Bijapur in 1618-19

Persianate - Indo-Islamic style

• The Bahmanis constructed many
buildings in cities such as Gulbarga,
Bidar and Bijapur.
• Mongol empire, empire founded
by Genghis Khan in 1206. Originating
from the Mongol heartland in
the Steppe of central Asia, by the late
13th century it spanned from
the Pacific Ocean in the east to
the Danube River and the shores of
the Persian Gulf in the west. At its
peak, it covered some 9 million square
• Timur was a member of the Turkicized
miles (23 million square km) of
Barlas tribe, a Mongol subgroup that
territory, making it the
had settled in Transoxiana (now
largest contiguous land empire
roughly corresponding to Uzbekistan)
in world history.
after taking part in Genghis Khan’s
son Chagatai’s campaigns in that
region
 • 1504 – Babur was pushed to south to
Kabul; Uzbeks came up to Herat.
• 1511-1512 - Babur defeated Uzbeks with
the help of Safavid Iran and was
reinstalled at Samarkand, but as
provincial governor under the Safavids.
• Uzbek tribes returned to Central Asia –
Babur retreated to Kabul, once again.

Reasons for Invasion of India -

• The rich resources of India and the
meagre income of Afghanistan, as Abul
Fazl comments, might have been one
major attraction for Babur.
• The unstable political situation after
Sikandar Lodi’s death convinced him of
political discontentment and disorder in
the Lodi Empire.
• Invitations from Rana Sanga and
Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of
Punjab, might have whetted Babur’s
ambitions.
• Timur’s legacy also provided some
background for his invasion.
Thus, Babur had both reasons and
opportunity to look towards India.
1494 – 12-year-old Timurid prince, Babur – Political Condition of India on the
became ruler of Ferghana valley.
eve of Babur’s Invasion –
• Soon captured Samarqand from his • Widespread political instability with
uncle, in a succession war. the disintegration of the Tughlaq
• Uzbeks under Shaibani Khan overran dynasty
Samarkand and ousted Babur. o Both the Saiyyad (1414-1451) and
the Lodi (1451-1526) rulers failed to
cope with the disruptive forces.
 • Nobles resented and rebelled at the Battle of Panipat-I (1526 AD):
earliest opportunity. • It was fought between Babur and
o In south, there were powerful Ibrahim Lodi.
Vijayanagara and Bahmani • Nobels were very strong and
kingdoms. influential during the Lodi dynasty.
• There were numerous Afghan chieftains They were not happy with the Lodi
around Agra. administration and hence planned a
• There was confederacy of Rajput coup with Babur.
principalities which was ready to • Use of gunpowder and Ottoman
seize the control of Hindustan. gunners and techniques gave Babur
advantage despite smaller army.

Tulughma was a military strategy used by the

Mughal emperor Babur in the First Battle of
Panipat in 1526:

Significance of Battle of Panipat

The battle of Panipat was undoubtedly one of
the decisive battles of Indian history.

• It smashed the power of the Lodis, and

• 1518-19 – Babur conquered Bhira fort. opened up the entire territory upto
• 1520 to 1521 – Crossed the Indus and Jaunpur to Babur’s control.
captured Bhira and Sialkot once again. • The rich treasures stored by the Lodi
• 1523 – Captured Lahore. Sultans at Agra relieved Babur of his
financial difficulties.
However, the battle of Panipat, though,
Military expansion: formally established the Mughal rule in India,
Battle of Lahore it was first among the series of battles in the
• It was the first step towards conquering years to come before he could consolidate his
India. position.
• He occupied Lahore by defeating
Daulat Khan Lodi who was the
Governor.
 • For example, to secure this triumph, it • After this battle, Babur assumed the
was equally important to overcome title ‘Ghazi’.
Rana Sanga of Mewar and the Battle of Chanderi(1528 AD):
chieftains in and around Delhi and • Babur attacked Rajput ruler Medini
Agra. Rai.
• Another important opponent in the • He captured the Chanderi region.
eastern India was the Afghans. Battle of Ghagra (1529 AD):
• To add to this, problems were mounting • It was fought between Babur and
within his own nobility. Afghani Sultan Mahmud Lodi and
• Thus, politically the battle of Panipat Nusrat Shah ruling in the Bengal
was not as decisive as it was militarily. region.
However, it marks a new phase in • Babur defeated Afghans in Bihar near
the struggle for the establishment of a the Ghagra river.
hegemonic political power in north India. • Babur, with this battle consolidated
North India.
• No decisive victory – Afghans in Bihar
Battle of Khanwa (1527 AD):
and Bengal continued to be
• It was fought between Babur and Rana
independent.
Sanga of Mewar.
• The battle location was Khanwa village
near Agra, currently in the Bharatpur • Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age
district, Rajasthan. of forty seven. Buried at Aram Bagh in
• The reason was Rana Sangha was not Agra; later his body was taken to
happy with the Babur settling in Delhi Kabul.
after overthrowing the Lodi Dynasty.
Hence, Rana Sangha waged a war
against Babur.
• The ferocious march of Rana Sanga,
with a formidable force strengthened
by Afghan Muslims, Mahmud Lodi,
brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and Hasan
Khan Mewati, ruler of Mewat,
confronted the forces of Babur.
• With strategic positioning of forces
and effective use of artillery, Babur
defeated Rana Sanga’s forces. This
Babur’s tomb at Bagh-e-Babur, Kabul.
victory was followed by capturing
forts at Gwalior and Dholpur, further
strengthening Babur’s position.
 • Re-established prestige of the Delhi
crown for the first time since Firuz
Shah Tughlaq.
• Popularised gunpowder and artillery
in India.
• Autobiography BABURNAMA
(Tuzuk-i-Babari) - Chagtai Turkish
Language.
• Cultural Contribution:
Charbagh style of Architecture

• Its features are

o An Indo Persian type of gardening.
o Quadrilateral layout based on 4
gardens of paradise.
o 4 Gardens are divided by small
walkways.
o Walkways meet at a point that
contains a water fountain.
Painting:
• Babur had a keen eye for portraiture
and this is also recorded in his
memoirs. Among the artists, who find
mention in Babur’s memoirs is
Bihzad. Bihzad was a master artist
from the Persian school of painting,
Significance of Babur’s advent into
Herat (now in present day
India
Afghanistan), and was known for his
sophisticated compositions and colour
Inclusion of Afghanistan in an
tints. empire based in India.
• Also, Shah Muzaffar finds a mention • Although Afghanistan was considered
as a painter, who Babur thought an integral part of India in antiquity,
excelled in the representation of and was often called “Little India”
hairstyle. even in medieval times, politically it
had not been a part of India after the
downfall of the Kushan empire.
• Since ancient times, Afghanistan had
been the staging place for an onslaught
on India.
 • By keeping control of Afghanistan, and • The inclusion of Kabul and Qandahar
its two doors to India, Kabul and in the empire created a favourable
Qandahar, Babur and his successors opportunity for the increase of India’s
safeguarded India from foreign share in the great trans-Asian trade.
invasion for around 200 years. Introduction of cannon and muskets
in India -
• The introduction of cannon and
muskets in India has generally been
ascribed to Babur.
• Although gunpowder which is of
Chinese origin was introduced into
India from China, and was used for
mining under the walls of the forts
from the middle of the 13th century, its
use for cannons and muskets was
India became a participant in Central of European origin.
Asian Politics - • Babur quickly look it up by employing
• Powerful rulers of the area — Turan, two Ottoman mastergunners in 1516,
Iran, Ottoman Turkey, and others kept used in the battles of Panipat
close diplomatic contact with India, and Khanwa, and other battles fought
and also sought its support on by Babur.
occasions.
• On their part, Babur and the
succeeding Mughal rulers kept a close
watch on political developments in
Central Asia by means of a constant
exchange of envoys.
• Thus, with the arrival of Babur, a new
phase begins in India’s foreign policy
and strategic perception.
Economic Significance -
• Control over Kabul and Qandahar Re-establishing the prestige of
strengthened India’s foreign trade. crown.
• As Babur says in his Memoirs, “There Emergence and Foundation of new
are two trade-marts on the land-route
Indian Empire -
between Hindustan and Khurasan; one
• Babur paved the way for the
is Kabul, the other, Qandahar.”
emergence of a new Indian empire,
sweeping away the balance of power
in his favour.
 Battle of Daurah/ Dadrah, 1532
• Humayun’s victory over Afghans at
Daurah in 1532.
• Humayun’s siege of Chunar fort, the
gateway to eastern India.
• Humayun’s agreement with Sher
Shah Suri to get Chunar fort in
exchange for a hostage son

Humayun and Bahadur Shah

Under control of Kamran Mirza

• As per the terms of the treaty, Bahadur
Shah ceded the town and fort of
Bassein (Vasai), along with its
surrounding territories, to the
Portuguese.
• The treaty gave the Portuguese control
over the islands of Bombay
(Bombaim), which later became the
city of Mumbai, and other surrounding
areas.
• This control enabled the Portuguese to
strengthen their maritime dominance
and establish a crucial base for trade
and naval operations in the Arabian
Sea.
• Allowed Portuguese to build a factory
at Diu.
• In return for these territorial
concessions, the Portuguese promised
to provide military aid to Bahadur
Shah in his conflicts, particularly
against the Mughal forces. This
alliance was important for Bahadur
Shah to maintain his power in Gujarat.
 Events Battle of Battle of
Chausa / Kanauj /
• The widespread presence of Afghan
Buxar Bilgram
tribes in north India and their
Date 26 June May 17, 1540 propensity to band together under an
1539 effective leader like Sher Shah Suri.
Location Chausa, Kannauj, Uttar • The Mughals were destined to remain
Bihar Pradesh outnumbered without the help of the
zamindars and local lords.
Forces Sur Sur Dynasty
• Humayun’s differences from his
Involved Dynasty Ruler, Sher
brothers and his purported character
Ruler, Shah Suri, and
flaws.
Sher Shah Mughal
• Humayun was a capable general and
Suri and Emperor
politician, but he lost because of two
Mughal Humayun
errors—the poorly planned Bengal
Emperor
campaign and the incorrect
Humayun
understanding of Sher Shah’s
Result Sher Shah Sher Shah proposition.
emerged defeated • Negligence of Humayun to recapture
victorious Humayun's the territory from Kanauj to Banaras
in this army, after his defeat at Chausa in 1539.
battle due resulting in However, he consistently adopted a
to his Humayun defensive policy. His reputation was
superior losing his downgraded by such a course of
political kingdom. action.
and • During the Battle of Kanauj, Humayun
military made a number of faults. He
skills. erroneously decided to set up camp on
Humayun a low area of ground.
suffered a o He remained inactive and didn’t
defeat, engage the enemy with any force for
lost many two months. Humayun failed
soldiers, because he was unable to employ
and had his artillery when Sher Khan
to escape suddenly launched an attack.
by
swimming
across the
Ganga.
 • Conquered Ajmer, Nagaur, Jalore and
many other small neighbouring
fiefdoms.
• Mewar civil war ongoing.
• Maldeo also conquered Bikaner, after
killing its ruler in battle.
• The slain Bikaner ruler’s sons, Kalyan
Das and Bhim, took shelter with Sher
Shah.
• Rulers of Merta too, sought help from
Suri King.
• Maldeo’s attempt to create a large
centralised state in Rajasthan, under
his aegis → threat to the ruler of
Delhi/Agra.
• Sher Shah was the founder of Sur • The contest between Maldeo and Sher
Dynasty. Shah now began over the strategically
• His original name was Farid. important eastern Rajasthan.
• He was the son of Hasan Khan, a
jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
• He was given the title Sher Khan for
his bravery under the Afghan Rule of
Bihar.
• Sher Shah ruled over the mightiest
empire of northern India, since
Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Fought extensive wars with the
Rajputs.
• His conquests include Punjab, Malwa,
Sind, Multan and Bundelkhand.

1532 – Maldeo Rathore ascended the throne

of Marwar.

He brought the whole of western and

northern Rajasthan under his control.
1544 – Battle of Giri - Summel
(Present Location - Jaitaran, between
Ajmer and Jodhpur)
• After waiting for about a month, Rao
Maldeo withdrew his main forces back
towards Jodhpur. His army
commanders Jaita and Kumpa fought
bravely.
• After winning at Giri summel, Sher
Shah besieged and conquered Ajmer
and Jodhpur.
• Forced Maldeo into the fort of
Siwana.
• Sher Shah returned Bikaner to • Built by Shershah himself, it is an
Kalaynmal and Merta to Biramdev. architectural masterpiece with an
• After Sher shah’s death, Maldeo impressive dome and minarets.
reoccupied all lost territories. • It is a blend of Indo-Islamic
• The Rana of Mewar submitted in front architectural styles
of Sher Shah. This allowed Sher Shah • Its interiors are decorated with
to set up outposts up to Mount Abu. intricate artwork
• The gardens and water channels
create a serene ambience here.
• Sher Shah’s last campaign was at
Kalinjar – a strong fort, that was a key
to Bundelkhand.
• 1545 – Accidental explosion of canon –
death of Sher Shah Suri.

• Though his rule lasted for only 5 years,

he has organized an excellent
administrative system.
• The king was aided by four important
ministers:
 o Diwan–i- Wizarat or Wazir – in o Agra to Berhampur
charge of Revenue and Finance o Jodhpur to Chittor
o Diwan-i-Ariz – in charge of Army o Lahore to Multan
o Diwan-i-Rasalat – Foreign Minister o Sarais (rest houses) were established
o Diwan-i-Insha – Minister for along the highways, providing
Communications traders with food and
• Sher Shah’s empire was divided into accommodation, promoting
forty-seven Sarkars commerce and the growth of towns.
• Each sarkar was further divided into
various Parganas and in charge of
various officers.
o Shiqdar – Military Officer • Succession and rule of Islam
o Amin – Land Revenue Shah: Sher Shah was succeeded by his
o Fotedar – Treasurer second son, Islam Shah, who ruled
o Karkun – Accountant until 1553.
• Under Sher Shah, the land revenue • Islam Shah's early death created
administration was well organized. confusion regarding the succession
• The land survey was sensibly done. o Firuz Shah, was killed by Adil shah
• All cultivable lands were classified into o Mohammed Adil Shah - 1554
three classes – good, middle and bad. • Appointed Hemu, a Hindu merchant
• The state’s share was one-third of the as his Wazir and later as army
average production and it was paid in commander
cash or crop. • Civil war among Suri clansmen
• The rights of the peasants were duly • Total chaos in North India, which
recognized and the liabilities of each provided an opportunity for
were clearly defined in the kabuliyat Humayun to reclaim Delhi and Agra
(deed of agreement), which the State from the Sur rulers.
took from him, and the patta (title- • Battle of Sirhind (1555).
deed), which it gave him in return. • Unfortunately, Humayun's second
• Sher Shah introduced new copper reign was short-lived.
coins called “Dam”, Silver coins “ • Shortly after regaining Delhi,
Rupiya” and gold coins “Mohur”. Humayun met his demise when he
• Shah borrowed many ideas like the accidentally slipped down the library's
branding of horses from Alauddin stairs in the fort at Delhi.
Khalji • Humayunnama – written by
• Sher Shah had also developed the Gulbadan Begum.
communications by laying four Built a new city on the banks of the river
important highways. Yamuna near Delhi – Shergarh (Dinpanah)
o Sonargaon to Sind Old fort - Purana Qila
 • Hemu's army suffered a setback when
an arrow struck him in the eye, leading
• Born to Humayun and Hamida Banu
to the demoralisation of his forces and
Begum at Amarkot in 1542.
resulting in a Mughal victory,
• Coronated in 1556 at the age of 13 at
establishing Akbar's rule over Agra
Kalanaur, Punjab, by Bairam Khan.
and Delhi.
• Bairam Khan, served as the regent
• Hemu was captured and executed.
from 1556-1560.
• Challenges:
o The Afghans and Rajputs were still
influential and posed a significant
challenge. Yet he had a guardian
and protector in Bairam Khan.
o Hemchandra Vikramaditya, a
Hindu general of Afghans had
occupied Agra after Humayun’s
sudden death.
o Sikander Shah Sur, the defeated
Afghan ruler, was still loitering in
the Shiwalik Hills.

• Akbar agreed at Munim Khan's

instance, to pardon the Uzbek leaders
and also to restore their jagirs (1566).
• The Second Battle of Panipat took
place in November 1556 between the
forces of Hemu, and Akbar's Mughal
forces.
• Hemu marched towards Delhi with an
army of 50 thousand cavalry, 500
elephants, Strong park of artillery.
• Hemu defeated the Mughals near
Delhi and occupied the city.
• Bairam Khan marched with his army
to face Hemu.
 Western India
• Conquest of Rajputana:
North and Central India
o Akbar realised that to have a stable
• Gwalior and Jaunpur
Empire, he must subjugate the large
o Capture Gwalior and Jaunpur in
tracts under Rajput kings in the
1559-60 A.D.
neighbouring region of Rajputana.
o After a brief war, Ram Shah
o A policy was devised not only to
surrendered the Gwalior fort.
conquer these areas but turn their
o Khan Zaman was sent to Jaunpur
rulers into allies.
ruled by Afghans who were
o The ruler of Mewar, Rana Udai
defeated easily and it was annexed
Singh, put up a great fight before
to the Mughal Empire.
losing Chittor, which was
• Malwa
conquered by Akbar after a siege of
o Adham Khan and others led the
six months. Rana Udai Singh
expedition against Malwa - 1561
retreated to the hills.
o Baz Bahadur was defeated and
o Yet his generals Jaimal and Patta
fled towards Burhanpur.
carried on their fight. Finally, the
• Garh Katanga or Gondwana
generals, along with 30,000 Rajputs
o An independent state in central
were killed. Out of admiration for
India ruled by Rani Durgawati,
the gallant Jaimal and Patta, Akbar
widow of Dalpat Shah, was
honoured them by erecting statues
conquered in 1564, by Mughal
to their memory outside the chief
forces led by Asaf Khan.
gate of Agra fort.
o Later, in 1567, Akbar handed over
o The capture of Chittor was
the kingdom to Chandra Shah, the
followed by the surrender of
brother of Dalpat Shah.
Rajput states like Ranthambhor,
Kalinjar, Bikaner, Jodhpur and
Jaisalmer.
o Akbar with the exception of
Chittor's Rana Pratap, managed to
secure the allegiance of all the
Rajput kingdoms.
o The Battle of Haldighati, fought on
June 18, 1576, was a significant
conflict between the Mughal Empire
led by Emperor Akbar's general,
Raja Man Singh I, and the forces of
Maharana Pratap, the ruler of
Mewar in Rajasthan.
 o A large number of them Were Western India
absorbed in Mughal nobility and • Gujarat, 1572
helped Akbar in expanding and o Sultan Muzaffar Shah Ill was the
consolidating the Mughal Empire. nominal king claiming overlordship
over 7 warring principalities.
o One of the princes, Itimad Khan,
had invited Akbar to come and
conquer it.
o Akbar himself marched to
Ahmedabad. The town was
captured without any serious
resistance.
Akbar Rajput Policy o Surat with a strong fortress offered
• This Policy can be perceived in 3 some resistance but was also
phases captured.
• In the first phase, Akbar more or less o Akbar organised Gujarat into a
continued with the policy followed by province and placed it under Mirza
the Delhi Sultans till 1572. Aziz Koka
• In the second phase, Akbar tried to o Within six months various
develop and extend the alliance with rebellious groups came together and
Rajputs but certain components of the revolted against the Mughal rule
earlier policy were retained. (1572 - o The Mughal governor had to cede a
1578) number of territories.
• The third and last phase is marked by o On receiving the news of rebellion in
Akbar’s break with Muslim Agra, Akbar started for
orthodoxy.(From 1578 till end) Ahmedabad. Akbar along with a
o In third and the last phase - Rajputs small force reached Gujarat within
were treated as partners in the 10 days and suppressed the
kingdom and were the Sword Arm of rebellion – 1573.
the Empire. o For almost a decade there was peace
• Akbar’s Rajput policy was combined in Gujarat.
with a broad religious toleration. • Eastern India
o He abolished the pilgrim tax and o In 1564, Sulaiman Karrani the
later the jizya. governor of Bihar, brought Bengal
• Proved to be beneficial to the Mughal also under his rule.
state as well as to the Rajputs. o Sulaiman realizing the growing
o The alliance secured to the Mughals strength of Akbar had
the services of the bravest warriors. acknowledged the overlordship of
o On the other hand it ensured peace the Mughals.
in Rajasthan .
o After his death in 1572, his younger
son Daud came to occupy his
throne. Daud refused to
acknowledge Mughal suzerainty.
o In 1574, Akbar along with Mun'im
Khan Khan-i Khanan marched
towards Bihar.
o In a short time, Hajipur and Patna
were captured and Daud fled Khandesh Region
towards Garhi.
o After a brief stay Akbar returned.
Mun'im Khan and Raja Todar Mal
continued to chase Daud.
o He was finally killed by the Mughal
forces under Khan-i Jahan and Gaur
(Bengal) was taken.
o This ended the in independent rule
of Bengal in 1576 which had lasted
with few interruptions, for almost
two centuries.
o Around 1592, Mansingh brought
the whole of Orissa under the Deccan and South
Mughal rule. • Deccan rulers should accept his
overlordship.
• Rebels often took the refuge in these
Deccan states.
• Internal conflict among the Deccan
states was more like an invitation for
Akbar to intervene.
• To protect the trade route towards the
Gujarat sea-ports and to establish his
domination.
• To drive Portuguese away.
Deccan and Mughals:

• The word mansab means a place or

position.
• Mansab denoted three things:
o It determined the status of its holder
(the mansabdar) in the official
hierarchy.
o It fixed the pay of the holder.
o It laid upon the holder the
obligation of maintaining a
specified number of contingent with
horses and equipment.
• Hence the system was formulated to
streamline rank of the nobles, fix their
salary and specify the number of
cavalry to be maintained by them.
• Under the mansab system ranks were
expressed in numerical terms.
o The lowest unit was of ten
horsemen, then came one hundred,
one thousand and so on.
 o Abul Fazl states that Akbar had Mansabdari System – Recruitment
established grades of Mansabdars
ranging from commanders of 10
horsemen to 10,000 horsemen.

Mansabdars – Salary and Nature

• The salary of Mansabdars was
commensurate with their ranks.
• Mansabdars who received payments
through the land was known as
Mansabdari System - Origins Jagirdars. Basically, Jagirdars were
• The Mansabdar appears to be a given the right to collect revenue from
Central Asian institution. a piece of land.
• There is a view that this institution
• Mansabdars who received payments
came to India with Babur. However,
through cash was known as Naqdi.
during Babur’s time, instead of the
• The post of Mansabdar was not
term of Mansabdar, the term Wajahdar
hereditary.
was used.
• They were liable to be transferred from
• Mansabdari was the administrative
one branch of the administration (civil)
system implemented by Mughal
to another (military).
Emperor Akbar in 1571.
Duh-Aspah Sih-Aspah System
• Jahangir introduced the Duh-Aspah
Sih-Aspah system.
• It is a system whereby the selected
nobles could be allowed to maintain a
larger quota of troopers, without
raising their Zat rank.
• The system was popular as ‘du-aspah'
(a trooper with two horses) or ‘sih-
• This is very much similar to Iqta
aspah’ (a trooper with three horses)
during sultanate period.
system.
• The Mughal Emperors gave
• This was the du-aspah sih-aspah
assignments instead of cash salaries.
system which implied that a
The areas assigned were generally
mansabdar holding this rank had
called jagir, and its holders jagirdar.
maintained double the quota of
• These were non hereditary in nature.
troopers indicated by his sawar rank.
• It was not land that was assigned, but
• Thus, a mansabdar holding a zat rank
the income/revenue from the
of 3000, and 3000 sawars du-aspah sih-
land/area was given to the jagirdars.
aspah would be required to maintain
• This system developed over a period of
6000 troopers.
time and underwent many changes
before stabilising. However, the basic
framework was developed during
• The number of Mansabdars increased,
Akbar’s reign.
but there was a land shortage due to
the Jagirdari crisis. • Estimated Revenue - Jama
• An order was issued to reduce the • Revenue collected - Hasil
number of sawar under a specific • Paibaqi - Revenue from reserved
Mansabdar. lands which were sent to the central
• Month-ratio or Month-scale system: treasury.
It was a new scaling device under
which the salaries of mansabdars
Central Administration
were put on a month scale: ten
• Wakil: Given to important nobles from
months, eight months, six months or
time to time, but they played little part
even less. The obligations of the
in administration.
mansabdars for maintaining a quota
• Wazir/ Diwan or Diwan –i-ala : Head
of sawars were brought down
of the revenue department.
accordingly.
• Mir Bakshi: Head of the military
• If a mansabdar did not receive the
department was called the Mir Bakshi.
total salary for the year, he could
o Recommendations for appointment
reduce the number of sawars under
to mansabs or promotions etc were
him.
made to the emperor through the
• If a mansabdar did not receive his six-
Mir Bakshi.
month salary, he was allowed to
o Also, headed the intelligence and
reduce the number of sawars, but their
information agencies.
rank and classification did not
change.
• Mir Saman: In-charge of the Royal
household including the supply of all
provisions and articles for the use of
the inmates of the Harem.
• Chief Qazi : Headed the department of
the Judiciary. (Abdun Nabi)
• Chief Sadr : Responsible for all
charitable and religious endowments.
• In c. 1580 CE, Akbar divided the
empire into 12 subas or provinces
initially.
• These were Bengal, Bihar, Allahabad, • Emphasis was put on Sawars recruited
Awadh, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, by the nobles who were experienced
Kabul, Ajmer, Malwa and Gujarat. • A descriptive roll (Chehra) of the
Later on, Berar, Ahmednagar and soldier was maintained.
Khandesh were added. • Horse was branded with the imperial
• With the expansion of the Mughal mark.This was called the Dagh system
empire, the number of provinces rose • Periodic inspection.
to twenty. • Mixed Contingents, drawn from all
groups - Mughal, Pathan, Hindustani,
Rajputs.
• Tried to weaken the forces of
Tribalism and Parochialism.
• Maintained an Artillery Park, devised
detachable guns
• Key Weakness – Lack of a strong Navy

• Zabti System/ Todar Mal’s Bandobast:

The system of revenue collection based
on the measurement and the
assessment of the land is called the
Zabti System.
• Dahsala System, 1580:
 o Average produce of different crops • This system was better than the
and Average prices in last 10 years previous one but proved
were calculated. unsatisfactory for a number of
o One-third of the average produce reasons.
was the state share, stated in cash. o Qanungos being local zamindars,
Remission if there was drought, were not interested in revealing in
floods. full the actual state of affairs.
o Parganas with same type of produce o Thus, neither the crop-rates, nor the
were grouped together into jama based on the record of the
separate assessment circles. actual produce were found to be
Therefore, peasant paid on the basis correct.
of local prices + local productivity. o Also, the system of kankut or
estimation provided loop-holes to
local officials for corruption.
Dahsala System
• Incomplete information, and the rapid
expansion of the empire aggravated
the problem. This, in essence, was the
background of the Dahsala or the Ten-
• In the twelveth year (1567), Raja Todar Year rates proclaimed in the twenty-
Mal effected a major change. fourth year (1579), on the basis of
• Collection of land revenue data from which state demand was expressed as
Qanungos. a cash rate based on local productivity
and local prices.
• Qanungos were asked to provide
• Under this system, both productivity
information about
o The area of land cultivated and and continuity of cultivation were
uncultivated, taken into account -
o Produce of the land, and • Polaj:
o The land revenue-figures or o Lands which were continually
statistics (taqsimat). under cultivation.
• On the basis of the new data - • Parati:
o New estimate of the revenue for the o Lands which were fallow (parauti)
empire was made. for a year, paid full rates when they
o Instead of a single price-list for the were brought under cultivation.
whole empire, the crop-rates began • Chachar:
to be converted into cash on the o Chachar was land which were
basis of the prices prevalent in fallow for three to four years due to
differing regions. inundation etc.
 o It paid a progressive rate, the full • Nasaq system: Rough calculation of
rate being charged in the third year. the amount payable by the peasant on
• Banjar: the basis of past payment.
o Banjar was cultivable waste-land. • Kankut, based on rough estimation.
o To encourage its cultivation, it paid • Qanungos – Hereditary holders of land
full rates only in the fifth year. as well local officials conversant with
• Dahsala System local conditions.
• The lands were further divided into • Karoris - Officials responsible for the
good, bad and middling. collection of crores of Dams and
o One-third of the average produce checked the facts and figures supplied
was the state share. by Qanungos regarding land revenue.
o However, in some areas, such as
Multan and Rajasthan, one-fourth
was charged. • Deeply interested in the improvement
o In Kashmir, where saffron was and extension of cultivation area
sown, the state share was half. • Asked Amil to act as a father to the
• Use of Sikandari Gaj (32 digit)- Later peasants
it was replaced by Ilahi Gaj (41 digit). • Offered to advance money by way of
• Basic unit of land revenue system was loan (taccavi) to the peasants for
Bigha. o Seeds
• Although the state preferred cash, the o Implements
peasant had the option of paying either o Animals etc
in cash or in kind on the basis of crop- • Try and induce the peasant to plough
sharing. as much land as possible and sow
o Whenever the state share was paid superior quality crops.
in kind, it was inevitably sold and
converted into cash, as revenue-
papers from Rajasthan indicate.
• Emergency cess - Dah-Seri.
• Provision of Nabood (Cropless area)-
Cropless area was kept out of
assessment- But this area could not
exceed the 12.5% of total sown area. • Abolished the pilgrimage tax on
• Batai or Ghalla-Bakshi System: bathing at holy places such as Prayag,
Produce was divided between the Banaras.
peasants and the state in a fixed • Abolished the practice of forcible
proportion. conversion of war prisoners of war to
Islam.
• 1564 - Abolished the poll tax or Jizyah
which the non-Muslims were required
• The Din-i Ilahi was a syncretic creed
to pay
propounded by the Mughal emperor
• Laid the foundation of an empire based
Akbar in 1582 AD, intending to merge
on equal rights.
the best elements of the religions of
• Brought Hindus into the Nobility.
his empire, and thereby reconcile the
• 1575 – Built Ibadat Khana differences that divided his subjects.
• 1579 - He issued infallibility decree/ o It was derived from different
Declaration/ Mahzar - in case of religions like Islam, Hinduism,
conflict among Ulemas/ Mujtahids, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity.
the emperor’s view will be accepted. o A simple, monotheistic cult, tolerant
• Personal Discussions: Purushotam in outlook, it centred on Akbar as a
and Devi (Hinduism), Meherji prophet.
Rana (Zoroastrianism), the Portuguese o To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, he
Aquaviva and changed the name of Prayag to
Monserrate (Christianity), and Hira Allahabad (pronounced as
Vijaya Suri (Jainism). ilahabad) in 1583.
• 1582 - Tauhid-i Ilahi (Divine
Monotheism) (Din-i-Ilahi).
• State based on Sulh –i-kul (equal
respect and toleration for all)
Characteristics of Din - i - Ilahi -
• Ten Virtues -
o Liberty and beneficence
o refraining from bad action and
repulsion of anger with mildness
o Limiting worldly desires
o Taking the path of non-violence in
social lie
o Piety, wisdom and meditation
o Sublimity
o Soft voice, gentle words and
pleasing speeches.
o Brotherly attitude for others
o Development of attachment
towards the Supreme Being
o Self-purification by enkindling
longing for God

Ibadat Khana
 • No Sacred book or scripture, no • Widow remarriage: Widows
priestly hierarchy, no sacred place of remarriage was also legalized.
worship and no rituals or ceremonies • Akbar was against anyone having
except that of initiation. more than one wife unless the first wife
• Not a religion - It was not a religion was barren.
and Akbar never intended to establish • Marriage Age for Girls and Boys: The
a church, neither force nor money was age of marriage was raised to 14 for
employed to enlist disciples and it was girls and 16 for boys.
entirely a personal matter. • Education Reforms:
• It is accepted that the policy of sulh-e- o Revised the educational syllabus,
kul, which formed the essence of Din- laying more emphasis on moral
i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not education and mathematics.
merely for religious purposes, but as a o He also focused on secular subjects
part of general imperial like agriculture, geometry,
administrative policy. astronomy, rules of government,
Enrolling disciples logic, history, etc.
• Four degrees of Faith:
• A member had to give a written
promise of having accepted the four
degrees of devotion (first mentioned
by Badayuni), viz., readiness to
sacrifice to the Emperor:
o property,
o life,
o honour • Jahangir was born to Mariam- uz
o religion. Zamani on 30 August 1569 CE.
• Akbar was very selective in choosing • After a long and patient wait and with
those who qualified for the four the blessings of the great Sufi saint
degrees of devotion. Mohammad Salim Chishti.
• There were only 18 nobles who • Original name was Mirza Nur-ud-din
qualified for these degrees. Beig Mohammad Khan Salim, who
• Among these, Birbal was the only was known simply as Prince Salim.
Hindu. • Rebellion against Akbar. He started
staying at Allahabad and held his own
court!
• Sati system: Stopped sati and the
• He assumed the royal title of Jahangir
burning of a widow unless she of her
when he assumed the Mughal throne.
own free will, persistently desired it.
• Khusrau Mirza revolted against
Jehangir after Akbar’s death.
 • Jehangir executed the 5th Sikh Guru, • Thus, Jahangir completed the task
Arjun Dev, because he had begun by Akbar, and further
blessed/supported Prince Khusrau, strengthened the alliance with the
thus gaining the enmity of Sikhs for Rajputs.
Mughals forever 1615 -1616 – 1st Ahom Mughal War.
The Battle of Samdhara
• Mughals allied with Cooch Behar
(Koch Hajo kingdom).
• Disastrous campaign for Mughals
• This battle is a testament to the
strategic prowess and resilience of the
Ahoms.

Suppression of Rebellion of
Afghans in the East:
• During Jahangir’s reign, conflict arose
in the east.
• In c. 1608 CE, Jahangir sent Islam
Khan, the grandson of Sheikh Salim
Chisti (famous Sufi saint) to Bengal.
• Islam Khan handled the revolt with Imperial Expansion under Jahangir:
great energy and foresight. He Deccan:
defeated the Afghan rebels and thus • After Akbar’s death, Malik Ambar
Mughal power was firmly allied with Bijapur to drive Mughals
established in East Bengal. out of Berar, Balaghat and
Imperial Expansion under Jahangir: Ahmednagar.
• The main achievement of Jahangir was • By 1610 – Mughals lost all conquests
the settlement of the outstanding made by Akbar in the Deccan.
dispute with Mewar. • However, later Malik Ambar fell out
• In c. 1615 CE, Amar Singh of Mewar with his allies.
(son of Maharana Pratap) submitted • 1616 – Khan-i-Khanan returned as
before Jahangir. Mughal viceroy of the Deccan and
• Rana’s son, Karan Singh was made formed alliances with Habshis
mansabdar with the rank of 5000, (Ethiopians) and Marathas (Jagdev
which had earlier been accorded to the Rai, Babaji Kate, Udaji Ram, etc.).
rulers of Jodhpur, Bikaner and Amber.
 • Defeated combined forces of • In 1621 A.D. Persia attacked Kandhar
Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda and conquered it in early 1622 A.D.
• 1617 – Malik Ambar was defeated by The Mughul help failed to reach for the
Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan); but defence of Kandhar because of the
continued his resistance against revolt of Shah Jahan.
Mughals without any success. Shah Jahan’s rebellion,1622
• Jahangir did not enlarge/go beyond • The immediate cause of the rebellion
Akbar’s conquests in the Deccan. was Shah Jahan’s refusal to proceed
Kandhar: to Qandahar which had been besieged
• The Mughul empire suffered a serious by the Persians ( Safavid Ruler – Shah
loss during the reign of Jahangir. It lost Abbas – I).
Kandhar to Persia. • He was afraid that the campaign
• Shah Abbas, the ruler of Persia desired would be a long and difficult one and
to conquer Kandhar from the very that intrigues would be hatched
beginning of the reign of Jahangir. He against him during his absence from
instigated some Amirs in the vicinity the court.
of Kandhar to attack Kandhar and they • Hence, he put forth a number of
besieged it in 1606 A.D. during the demands like full command of the
time when prince Khusrau revolted army which included the veterans of
against Jahangir. the Deccan, complete sway over
• The Mughul governor Shah Beg Khan Punjab, control over a number of
faced the besiegers boldly and when important forts, etc.
the help reached from Delhi in the • In the battle near Delhi, Shah Jahan
beginning of 1607 A.D., the Persians was defeated by the forces led by
withdrew. Mahabat Khan. This rebellion
• Shah Abbas expressed his regrets to distracted the Mughals for 4 years till
Jahangir, blamed his nobles for their c. 1626 CE when both father and son
foolish act and extended the hand of reconciled.
friendship to him. • This rebellion led to
• Thereafter, he moved diplomatically, o Loss of Qandahar and
sent his ambassadors with costly o Emboldened the Deccan to recover
presents and messages of friendship at all the territories surrendered to the
the court of Jahangir in the years 1611, Mughals during Akbar’s reign.
1615, 1616 and 1620 A.D. respectively.
• That made Jahangir a little careless
towards the defence of Kandhar.
 Jahangir in Darbar, Jahangirnama, Abul
Hasan and Manohar, 1620, Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston

• Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Jahangir’s
Memoirs) highlights his deep
appreciation for arts, nature, and
scientific accuracy in painting.
• Under his patronage, Mughal painting
achieved naturalism and scientific Jahangir gifts a book to Shaikh Husain of the
precision, especially in the depiction of Chishti shrine, reinforcing his religious
flora and fauna. legitimacy.
• Muraqqas (Albums) became popular,
with highly illuminated margins in
gold, featuring flora, fauna, and
human figures.
• He incorporated Christian religious
themes and European artistic
sensibilities into Mughal painting.
• Jahangir’s artists merged Indigenous,
Persian, and European influences,
making Mughal art a melting pot of
styles.
• His court paintings reflected a blend
of symbolism, realism, and political
messaging.
 • Born from Rajput wife from Marwar
Princess Jagat Gosain.
• He was Jahangir’s third son and
considered the ablest and competent
to be king.
• He was educated in martial arts and a
variety of fine arts. He was brought up
chiefly by Akbar’s first wife, the
childless Empress Ruqaiya Sultan
Deccani Sultanates - Mughal Begum.
Conflict (1629 - 1636) • Married Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand
• 1629 – Mughal campaigns against Banu Begum) in 1612 AD.
Ahmadnagar began, with Maratha • Before becoming king, as a prince, he
Support. had been the governor of the Deccan,
• 1632 – Shah Jahan’s attempt to placate Bihar, Bengal, Gujarat and Delhi.
Malik Ambar’s son Fath Khan. • ‘Shahjahan’ was the name of the title
• Fath Khan taken into Mughal service. he received in the Battle of Deccan. It
• Jagirs around Poona previously given means ‘conqueror of the world’.
to Shahji, now transferred to Fath Khan 1622 – Rebelled against Jahangir’s orders to
→ Mughal-Maratha conflict starts. march to Kandahar and campaign against
• Result - Mughals under Shah Jahan the Safavids.
conquered Ahmednagar in 1636 and Immediately after the death of Jahangir, Nur-
an ahdnama (treaties) were signed Jahan wanted to crown her son-in-law
with Bijapur and Golconda. Shahryar Khan but due to the efforts of Nur-
Ahom-Mughal Conflict (1636-1639) Jahan’s brother and Prince Khurram’s father-
Battle of Sualkuchi (1636) in-law Asaf Khan, Prince Khurram
• Treaty of Asurar Ali (February 1639) - succeeded as the next Mughal emperor with
Guwahati & Western Assam (Kamrup) the title Shah-Jahan, on 14th Feb, 1628.
ceded to the Mughals, Mughals
acknowledged Ahom independence.
• 1646 to 1647 – Balkh and Bukhara
campaigns under Prince Murad, to
Central Asia → First victory of Indian
forces in Central Asia.
Shah Jahan (1628-1658)
• Original name is Shahab-ud-din
Muhammad Khurram Prince
Khurram’s birth in Lahore has dated 5
January 1592 AD.
 • Shah Jahan completed the settlement
of the Deccan by entering into a treaty
with Golconda as well. The ruler
agreed to include the name of Shah
Jahan in the khutba and to exclude
the name of the Iranian emperor from
it.
Peace with the Mughals enabled the
Deccani states to expand their territories
Mughals under Shah Jahan conquered towards the south.
Ahmednagar in 1636 and an ahdnama
• However, this rapid expansion
(treaties) were signed with Bijapur and
weakened the central control of
Golconda.
Bijapur and Golconda.
• According to the agreement with • Nobles like Shahji and Shivaji (in
Bijapur, Adil Shah agreed to Bijapur) and Mir Jumla (in Golconda)
recognise the Mughal suzerainty, to carved out spheres of influence for
pay an indemnity of twenty lakh themselves.
rupees and to not interfere in the • Balance of power in the Deccan was
affairs of Golconda which was upset by benevolent Mughal policy
brought under Mughal protection. under Shah Jahan.
• Any dispute between Bijapur and
Golconda was to be referred to the
Mughal emperor for arbitration.
• Adil Shah also agreed to cooperate Battle of Sualkuchi (1636)
with the Mughals in reducing Shahji to • Ahoms, with 10,000 troops and a fleet,
submission. In return for these, defeated the Mughals.
territory worth about twenty lakh huns • Sualkuchi captured; significant spoils
(about 80 lakh rupees) annually secured.
belonging to Ahmednagar was ceded • Victory led to further Ahom advances,
to Bijapur. including the capture of Hajo.
Mughal Offensive at Samdhara
(1638)
• Mughals advanced up the
Brahmaputra, halting at Samdhara in
October 1638.
• Fierce battle ensued; Ahom admiral
retreated, but Samdhara fort garrison
resisted bravely.
 • Mughals suffered heavy losses and
abandoned their campaign.
Treaty of Asurar Ali (February 1639)
Key Terms:
• Guwahati & Western Assam ceded to
the Mughals.
• Ahom king recognized Mughal
authority in Kamrup. Shah Jahan – Later Life
• Mughals acknowledged Ahom • When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658,
independence and renounced claims Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal’s eldest
east of Barnadi (north) & Kalang son) assumed the role of regent, which
(south). swiftly incurred the animosity of his
• Ahoms agreed not to interfere in brothers.
Kamrup. • Upon learning of his assumption of
• Trade and commerce resumed the regency, his younger brothers,
between both powers. Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad
Significance Baksh, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared
• Marked a temporary peace in the their independence and marched upon
Ahom-Mughal struggle. Agra in order to claim their riches.
• Mughals gained partial control over • Aurangzeb, the third son, gathered a
Assam, but Ahoms retained well-trained army and became its chief
independence. commander.
• Set the stage for future conflicts, • He faced Dara’s army near Agra and
culminating in Ahom victory at defeated him during the Battle of
Saraighat (1671). Samugarh.
• Although Shah Jahan fully recovered
from his illness, Aurangzeb declared
• 1638 – Shah Jahan bribed the Persian him incompetent to rule and put him
governor of Kandahar (Ali Mardan under house arrest in Agra Fort.
Khan) defect to the Mughals. • Jahanara Begum Sahib, Mumtaz
• 1646 to 1647 – Balkh and Bukhara Mahal’s first daughter, voluntarily
campaigns under Prince Murad. shared his 8-year confinement and
• Captured Samarqand, but Mughal nursed him in his dotage. He died on
army was routed by Uzbeks, while 22 January 1666 aged 74 years.
retreating in the winter.
• First victory of Indian forces in
Central Asia.
• Battle of Khajwa (Khajuha, a place near
Fatehpur-Haswa in Allahabad) was a
battle fought on January 5, 1659,
between the newly crowned Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb and Shah Shuja
who also declared himself Mughal
Emperor in Bengal.
• The commander of this wing was
Maharaja Jaswant Singh Rathor of
Jodhpur who had earlier fought
against Aurangzeb in the Battle of
Dharmat, but had then joined his side
after Dara abandoned his father and
escaped to Punjab.
• Aurangzeb was known as “Zinda Pir”
or “Darvesh” due to his simple way of
living and high-level thinking.
• He was a highly orthodox Sunni
Muslim ruler with the least tolerance
for religious matters. He ruled
according to the Sharia law in the • According to sources, Aurangzeb
Quran. destroyed around 15 big temples
• He banned drinking and singing in during his reign.
court. Public drinking was also • The famous Vishwanath temple in
prohibited. Banaras, and Keshav Rai in Mathura,
• Muhtasibs was appointed to assure were destroyed, and mosques were
that people do not drink in public built in the same spot.
places and followed sharia, a • Several temples in Odisha, historic
traditional Islamic law. temples in Udaipur and Jodhpur,
• He prohibited Kalma, an Islamic along with surrounding Parganas,
Inscription on coins, as he believed it were also pulled down. After 1679,
might get polluted when passed from there was no large-scale construction
one person to another. of temples in the south.

• He put restrictions on the celebration • On 24 November 1675, the Guru Teg

of Nauroz, a festival celebrated by the Bahadur was publicly beheaded on the
Safavid rulers of Iran. orders of Aurangzeb, at Chandni
Chowk in Delhi. Gurdwara Sis Ganj
• He banned singing and dancing in
Sahib was built in 1783 at the place
courtrooms but allowed ‘Naubat’, the
where he was beheaded.
royal band in courts, and instrumental
music. 10th Guru- Guru Govind singh
• He abolished the practice of weighing established Panth Khalsa in 1699.
the Emperor with gold, and the • In 1679, Aurangzeb re-introduced the
practice of Jharokha darshan, initiated jizyah tax or the poll tax for the non-
by Akbar. muslim population. However,
• He allowed the renovation of old economically weak sections of society,
houses of worship, stating that the elderly, children, and women, were
“buildings cannot last forever”. exempted from paying these taxes.
 Revolts During Aurangzeb's Reign
The Jat uprising, which occurred during the by Rajputs
late 17th century, (1669 - 1691) was driven by • The Rajput revolts were driven by
a combination of factors, including agrarian various factors, including Aurangzeb's
grievances, economic hardships, and religious policies, attempts to
resentment towards Aurangzeb's policies. undermine Rajput autonomy, and
imposition of heavy taxes on the
Jats led by charismatic leaders such as
Rajput kingdoms.
Gokula, Churaman, and Raja Ram, the Jats
• Rajputs of Marwar under Durgadas
organized themselves into a formidable force
Rathore 1678-1707
and launched a rebellion against the Mughal
• Rajputs of Mewar (Rana Raj Singh)
Empire.
Joined Marwar rebellion
• The Jats managed to establish their
own independent principalities in
certain areas, exerting control over
territories that were previously under
Mughal administration.
• Although the Jat revolt was ultimately
suppressed by Aurangzeb's forces, it
left a lasting impact on the region.
Aurangzeb vs Ahoms:
• Taking advantage of Mughal civil wars
• In 1661, Mir Jumla had led a major
and weakness, Churaman carved out a
campaign against the Ahoms and
separate Jat principality in the area and
compelled Ahom to accept the
ousted the Rajput zamindars during
Mughal suzerainty, to surrender
the 18th century.
some territory and to pay heavy
indemnity.
• However, in 1667, Ahoms captured
Guwahati.
• Aurangzeb sent Raja Ram Singh I of
Amber to lead an
• invasion against the Ahom.
• The battle that followed is known as
Battle of Saraighat, 1671. It was a
• 1672 – Revolt of Satnamis decisive victory of Ahoms under
• (1672 –1675) – Revolt of Afghans leadership of Lachit Borphukan.
• Mughals were again defeated in the
Battle of Itakhuli in 1682. The
Mughal hold over Kamrup was lost
forever.
• Weak navy and difficult terrain was
the major reasons behind the failure
of Mughal to control north-east.

Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad

• Last 27 years of his life were spent in

multiple Deccan campaigns, out of the
capital Delhi
• Even after defeating Bijapur and
Golconda (1686) and the death of
Shivaji in 1680, he could not subdue
Marathas.
• Died in 1707 near Ahmednagar.
• He had exhausted the royal treasury, Badshahi Masjid, Lahore
himself and the vast empire in those 27
years

Moti Masjid, Red Fort.

Mughal empire at its Zenith!

 • Then he reached the village named
Senani, where he was offered a bowl of
milk rice by a girl named Sujata,. After
all this, he took a seat under the Peepal
tree facing east, where he resolved not
to rise again until enlightenment was
attained.
The story of Mara - The lord of Illusions
happened to distract Buddha from his vow,
but Gautam’s wisdom broke through his
illusion, and the power of his compassion
• 6th century BCE - A period of great
transformed the demon’s weapons into
Religious upheaval - As many as 64
flowers.
Heterodox sects came forward to
challenge the Brahmanical dominance • Thus, at the age of 35, he ultimately
prevalent at that time. attained Nirvana/Enlightenment at
• Out of these 64 - Buddhism and Gaya under a Peepal Tree at Uruvela,
Jainism came to the forefront and laid on the banks of river Niranjana, and
a strong foundation that exists even to came to be known as Buddha, the
this day. enlightened one.
(Attempts to Destroy this tree - By
Pushyamitra Sunga in 2nd century BCE and
King Shashank in 600 CE)

• He meditated with established

teachers of that era (Alara Kalama,
Uddaka Ramaputta).
• Then, being unconvinced he left all
• Buddha delivered his first sermon on
the teachers and sat on the foot journey
the deliverance of suffering to his five
in search of truth - he practiced severe
former companions who had deserted
austerities until his body was almost
him in a deer park at Sarnath.
emaciated, and thus he realized that
-----This event is known as ‘Dharma Chakra
these austerities will not lead to
Pravartana’ meaning ‘turning the wheel of
enlightenment.
Dharma’ - and this way his disciples became
Arhats / Arhant.
(A perfected person, one who has gained
insight into the true nature of existence and
has achieved nirvana (spiritual
enlightenment)

• Thus, Buddha constituted an audience

of his disciples which came to be
known as Sangha.
• He finally attained Mahaparinirvana
at the age of 80 at Kusinara (Malla
Mahajanapada).

The Doctrine of Dependent

Origination (Pratitya-Samutpada):
• It is central to Buddhist philosophy.
• All phenomena, including physical
objects, mental states, and
experiences, are the result of a chain
of interdependent causes and
conditions.
• These causes and conditions give rise
to each other in an intricate network,
with no fixed or permanent essence.
• Therefore, nothing exists in isolation
or as a separate, independent entity.
 • It describes the interconnected nature • Six Sense Bases (Ṣaḍāyatana): The
of all phenomena, emphasizing that senses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body,
everything arises and exists in and mind) through which we perceive
dependence on multiple causes and the world.
conditions. • Contact (Sparśa): Interaction between
• Principal cause of Dukha is the senses and their objects.
our ignorance, which creates a • Feeling (Vedanā): Sensations that arise
harmful Karmic effect on us, pulling from contact (pleasant, unpleasant,
us into a cycle of birth and rebirth. neutral).
• Craving (Tṛṣṇā): Desire or thirst for
more pleasant experiences or to avoid
unpleasant ones.
• Clinging (Upādāna): Attachment to
cravings.
• Becoming (Bhava): Formation of
karmic tendencies that lead to rebirth.
• Birth (Jāti): Entry into a new existence.
• Old Age and Death (Jarā-maraṇa):
Suffering, decay, and death,
completing the cycle

The 12 Links of Dependent

Origination
Buddha explained this concept using 12
interconnected links that describe the cycle
of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra). They
are:

• Ignorance (Avidyā): Not

understanding the true nature of
reality.
• Mental Formations (Saṃskāra):
Actions and habits shaped by The Division of Wisdom
ignorance.
• Right Understanding
• Consciousness (Vijñāna): Awareness
• Right Thought
that arises from mental formations.
The Division of Ethical Conduct
• Name and Form (Nāma-rūpa): Mind
• Right Speech
and body, or the psycho-physical
• Right Action
organism.
 • Right Livelihood Doctrines of Buddhism
The Division of Mental Discipline • The essence of Buddhism is
• Right Effort the attainment of enlightenment /
• Right Mindfulness attainment of nibbana . It points to a
• Right Concentration way of life that avoids self-indulgence
According to Buddha, the Middle Path and self-denial.
(Madhyam Marg) or Middle Way describes • Buddhism neither denies nor accepts
the character of the Noble Eightfold Path that the existence of a supreme god creator.
leads to liberation. • Buddhism rejects the authenticity of
the Vedas.
Five Precepts or Pancasil and refrain from
• It also rejects the concept of existence
them.
of Soul ( world is soulless, anatta)
• Violence unlike Jainism.
• stealing • The world is transient and constantly
• sexual misconduct changing (anicca).
• lying or gossip • Buddhism believes in Karma Doctrine.
• taking intoxicating substances e.g. • Buddha considered Varna based on
drugs or drink Action and not based on birth, thus
Three Jewels (triratnas) embraced Sangha had members from all the castes.
under Buddhism • However, it was not all-inclusive, there
were a certain number of conditions
which a joinee must adhere to. Entry of
debtors, slaves, soldiers without
permission from their respective masters
was prohibited.
Buddhist Place Ruler President Significance
Council

Vinaya Pitaka - Rules of the

Sattapani/
Order - Recited by Upali and
First Saptaparni
Ajatashatru Mahakassapa Sutta Pitaka – a collection of
483 BCE Caves,
Buddhas Sermon - recited by
Rajagriha
Ananda.

To settle the debate on

certain practices among
Buddhist Monks, led to the
division of Buddhism into
Second
Sabakami sects - Sthaviravadins and
383 BCE Vaishali Kalashoka
Mahasangikas .
These 2 groups will
eventually evolve into
Hinayana and Mahayana
Buddhism.
• The objective was to
purify the Buddhist
movement from
opportunistic
factions.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka
Third
Pataliputra Ashoka Mogaliputta Tissa was composed,
250 BCE
Completing the
Tripitaka, coded in
Pali Language.
• Sent Buddhist
Missionaries to other
countries

• Buddhism further
Fourth divided into
Vasumitra and
1st Century Mahayana and
Kashmir Kanishka Ashvagosha
CE Hinayana Sect.
• Tripitaka translated
from Pali to Sanskrit.

• It is considered as an orthodox school

and to follow the original thought and
Hinayana School (Theravada)
teaching of Buddha.
• Literal Meaning - ‘The Lesser Path’
• Theravada is considered to be the
and Theravada means ‘Doctrine of the
original school of Buddhism.
Elders’.
 • Its scriptures are in Pali, the language • It is based on ‘Two Truths Doctrine’,
in which Buddha taught. which means ‘conventional’ and
• It treats Buddha as nothing more than ‘ultimate’ truths.
a Human Being who does not believe • Conventional truth is the truth of
in Idol Worship and tries to attain consensus reality and common sense
Individual salvation through self- notions of what does and does not
discipline and meditation. exist.
• Ultimate aim is Nirvana • Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by
• At present, found in Sri Lanka - an awakened or enlightened mind.
Myanmar - Thailand. • Great emphasis is placed on the role of
• Ashoka patronised Hinayana. guru in Vajrayana and the Tibetan
Mahayana School translation of Guru is Lama.
• Literal Meaning - ‘The Greater Path’ • Popular in eastern India – Bengal and
• It has 2 further philosophical schools Bihar and is predominant in
- Madhyamika and Yogachara. Himalayan nations of Tibet, Nepal,
• Its scriptures are in Sanskrit. Bhutan, and also Mongolia.
• It treats Buddha as equal to God and
worships idols of Buddha and
Boddhisattvas.
• It believes in universal liberation from
suffering for all living beings.
• The ultimate aim is ‘spiritual
upliftment’.
• At present practiced in Japan, China.
• Kanishka patronized Mahayana • Buddhism is world’s fourth largest
Buddhism. religion after Christianity, Islam and
Hinduism. Around 7% of the world’s
Vajrayana School
population embraces Buddhism.
• Literal Meaning ‘Vehicle of the
Buddhists make up 0.7% of India’s
Thunderbolt’.
population, or 8.4 million individuals.
• Vajrayana or Diamond Vehicle is also
referred to as Mantryana, Tantrayana,
or Tantric Buddhism.
• It was a form of Buddhism which
appeared in eastern India and was
finally established in Tibet in the 11th
century as a result of the mission sent
from the great Vajrayana monastery
of Vikramshila.
Sarvastivadins (They who say “All is”), had • Two Truths: Madhyamika recognizes
the view that the constituents of phenomena two levels of truth: conventional truth
(dharmas) were not wholly momentary, but and ultimate truth. Conventional truth
existed forever in a latent form. is the relative truth that we experience
in our daily lives, while ultimate truth
is the absolute truth that underlies all
phenomena.
Its basic text is called as Madhyamika Karika
by Nagarjuna.

• Note: Yogacara school of Buddhist

philosophy originated in India
around the 4th century CE from
Mahayana School of Buddhism.
• Madhyamika is a school of Buddhist • Yogacara/Vijnanvadin school (way of
philosophy that originated in India the union) propounded by Asanga and
around the 2nd century CE. his brother, Vasubandhu.
• Madhyamika is propounded by • Yogacara is also known as the "Mind
Nagarjuna. Only“/ idealistic school because
• Madhyamika is also known as the • It emphasizes consciousness
"Middle Way" because it preaches (Vijñāna) as the basis of all reality.
midway that is neither nihilism • According to Yogachara, the external
(nothing exists) nor realism world is just a projection of the
(everything self-exists & is permanent) mind—like a dream.
is endorsed. it emphasizes the nature of consciousness and
knowledge and is absolutist in nature
Key Concepts of Madhyamika:
• Emptiness / Sunyata : Emptiness is the • Note: Yogacara school of Buddhist
key concept of Madhyamika. philosophy originated in India
According to this view, all phenomena around the 4th century CE from
lack inherent existence. In other words, Mahayana School of Buddhism.
nothing exists independently or • It introduces the idea of "storehouse
intrinsically. Everything is dependent consciousness" (Ālaya-vijñāna),
on other factors and conditions. where all past experiences and karmic
• Dependent Origination: This is seeds are stored and shape our
another key concept of Madhyamika. perception.
According to this view, all phenomena • Instead of emptiness, it focuses on how
arise in dependence on other factors the mind constructs reality and aims
and conditions. Nothing exists for purification of the mind through
independently or intrinsically. meditation.
And Yogachara school is absolutist in nature. o Vinaya Pitaka - 5 books
o Abhidhamma Pitaka - 7 books.
Non-canonical texts or semi-
canonical texts –
• Canonical texts - Directly linked to
• Commentaries and observation on
Gautam Buddha in one way or the
canonical texts, Historic information,
other. (Difference among various sects
quotes, etc.
as to, which source can be considered
o Milindapanho – A dialogue in Pali
as canonical).
language consisting of a
• Books which lay down the basic tenets conversation between Indo-Greek
and principles of Buddhism such as the King Milinda/Menander and the
Tipitakas (The Three monk Nagasena.
Baskets/Collections). These are the • Vishuddhimagga - The Path to Purity,
Buddha’s teachings written on long written by Buddhaghosa, deals with the
Narrow Leaves. development from the purity of
o Vinaya Pitaka (Disciplinary Code) - discipline to Nibbana/enlightenment.
recited by Upali • Vishuddhimagga - The Path to Purity,
o Sutta Pitaka (Conventional written by Buddhaghosa, deals with the
Teaching) - recited by Ananda development from the purity of discipline
o Abhidhamma Pitaka (Moral to Nibbana/enlightenment.
Psychology)
• Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) -
This contains the rule for monks and
nuns of the Monastic Order (Sangha).
• Sutta Pitaka (Basket of Discourses) -
These texts are known as words of
Buddha as it refers to what the Buddha
himself said, The authority of these
texts has been accepted by all the
schools of Buddhism. These texts are
arranged in the manner of how they
were delivered by Buddha.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka (Basket of Higher
Teachings) - contains a thorough study
and systemization of the teachings of the
Sutta Pitaka through summaries,
questions, and answers.
• These 3 Pitakas are divided into
Nikayas (Books).
o Sutta Pitaka - 5 collections
Prominent disciples of Buddha in
ancient period
• Sariputta – chief disciple
• Mahamoggallana - chief disciple
• Ananda – listened to Buddha
teachings the most among others.
• Mahakasyapa
• Purna Maitrayani-putra
• Anuruddha
• Rahul
• Katyayana
• Upali
 • Ananthapindaka
• Subhuti
• Jivaka
The predecessor of Buddha under Buddhism
was Kassapa Buddha and his successor will
be Maitreya.

• Mudras are a non-verbal mode of

Bhumisparsha Mudra
communication and self-expression,
• Literally, Bhumisparsha translates into
consisting of hand gestures and finger
‘touching the earth’. It is more
postures.
commonly known as the ‘earth
• They are symbolic sign-based finger
witness’.
patterns taking place, but retaining the
• This mudra, formed with all five
efficacy of the spoken word, and are
fingers of the right hand extended to
used to evoke in the mind ideas
touch the ground, symbolizes the
symbolizing divine powers or the
Buddha’s enlightenment under
deities themselves.
the Bodhi tree, when he summoned
• They are also used by monks in their
the earth goddess, Sthavara, to bear
spiritual exercises of ritual meditation
witness to his attainment of
and concentration and are believed to
enlightenment.
generate forces that invoke the deity.
• It is in this posture that Sakyamuni
Dharmachakra Mudra - means ‘Wheel of
overcame the obstructions of Mara
Dharma’
while meditating.
• Symbolises one of the most important
moments in the life of Buddha, the
occasion when he preached to his
companions the first sermon after his
Enlightenment in the Deer Park at
Sarnath.
• It thus denotes the setting into motion
of the Wheel of the teaching of the Varada Mudra
Dharma. • This mudra symbolizes charity,
compassion, and boon-granting.
• It is the mudra of the accomplishment
of the wish to devote oneself to human
salvation.
• The five extended fingers in this
mudra symbolize the following five
perfections- Generosity, Morality,
Patience, Effort, Meditative
concentration.
PYQs
Q. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well-known as (UPSC CSE
2023)
A. capital cities
B. ports
C. centres of iron-and-steel making
D. shrines of Jain Tirthankaras

Q. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul
were well known as ( UPSC CSE 2020)
A. ports handling foreign trade
B. capitals of powerful kingdoms
C. places of exquisite stone art and architecture
D. important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

Ports of Ancient
Location Important Facts
India

Lothal Bhogava River, a ▪ Important port during Mature Harappan

tributary of Period.
Sabarmati River,
▪ Lothal had an artificial dockyard.
Gujarat
▪ Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia, Persia,
and Egypt.
▪ Artifacts like Persian Gulf seals,
Mesopotamian seals, and semi-precious stones
indicate long-distance commerce.
▪ Excavated by S.R Rao in 1954.
Champa Bihar ▪ Capital of the Anga Mahajanapada. (around modern
Bhagalpur and Munger districts in Bihar)
▪ It was a great center of trade and commerce and its
merchants regularly sailed to distant Suvarnabhumi.
▪ An imp. Port in between 6th century BCE (Mahajanapada
era) to Gupta period.
 Bharuch/ Barygaza/ At the mouth of ▪ Important Port in the Mauryan and Post – Mauryan
Bhrigukaccha/ the Narmada Period.
Broach River, Gujarat
▪ Mentioned in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st
century CE), Ptolemy’s Geography.

Sopara / Suppara / Near present- ▪ It was the largest township on India’s west coast,
Suparaka day Nala engaging in trade with Mesopotamia, Egypt, Cochin,
Sopara in Arabia, and Eastern Africa.
Mumbai. ▪ Mentioned in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st
century CE).
▪ Important Port during Satavahana Period.
▪ The finding of the relics in a stupa and the rock edicts
(the fragments of the 8th and 9th major rock edicts) of
Ashoka in 1882 prove the importance of this port town
from the 3rd century BCE to the 9th century CE..

(Western port: Kalyani; Eastern ports: Gandakasela and Ganjam, A.P)

Tamralipti / Located on the ▪ According to the Mahavamsa, an epic history of Sri
Tamluk eastern coast near the Lanka, it was the departure point of Prince Vijaya’s
confluence of the expedition to colonize Sri Lanka (c. 500 BCE).
Bay of Bengal and
▪ It was the departure point for the Buddhist
River Ganga, just
missionary expedition dispatched by the
South of
Mauryan emperor Ashoka to Sri Lanka 250 years
Rupnarayan River,
later.
West Bengal.
▪ Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang calls the town Tan-
mo-lih-ti (te).
▪ Heun-Tsang reported presence of Buddhist
monasteries and an Ashokan pillar there. He
referred to Tamralipti as a port for export of indigo,
silk and copper (tamra), from which it derived its
name.

Muziris Port / Crangnore / ▪ Important port of Cheras during Sangam Age,

Pattanam Kodungallur, Kerala
▪ Primarily known for exporting spices, notably black
pepper, along with other treasures like semi-precious
stones, diamonds, ivory, and pearls. Goods arriving at
Muziris port included textiles, wine, wheat, and gold
coins.
▪ A temple of Roman emperor Augustus was
constructed here.
▪ Mentioned in Sangam literature, Periplus of the
Erythraean Sea.

Tyndis Malabar Coast, 2nd Important port of Cheras during Sangam Age.
Kerala
Arikamedu / Puducherry ▪ Finds mention in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Podouke and Tamil poems of the Sangam period.
▪ An active trading port of the Chola region with Roman
Empire as early as second century BC.
▪ Mortimer Wheeler excavated Arikamedu, discovering
Roman pottery, glass bowls, gems, and coins.

Puhar/ Tamil Nadu ▪ Important port of Cholas during Sangam Age.

Poompuhar /
▪ 2nd century CE, Karikala founded the port city of
Kaveripattam/
Puhar (identical with Kaveripattinam)
Camera
▪ "Silappatikaram," describes the city's prosperity and its
role as a vibrant trade hub.

Korkai/ Colchi Tamil Nadu ▪ Principal port of the Pandya dynasty, Korkai was
renowned for its pearl fisheries and trade in pearls,
fish, and salt.
▪ The Pandya Kingdom profited from trade with Roman
Empire and sent embassies to Roman Emperor,
Augustus.

Chaul On the mouth of ▪ Visitors referred to Chaul as Symulla, Sibor,

Kundalika River, Saimur, Chimolo, Chemuli, Chava and
Konkan coast, Chivil
Maharashtra.
Kadura and Andhra region
Ghantasala

Barbaricum Near Karachi Ancient port near Karachi in Indus Delta.

Important for Indo-Roman trade in ancient times.

Chandraketu-garh West Bengal Important port city in Bengal during Mauryan times.

Nirppeyarru Tamil Nadu An ancient port equated with modern

Mahabalipuram; it played a role in connecting India
with other countries
PYQ
Q. Which one of the following was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya kingdom?
A. Kakinada
B. Motupalli
C. Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam)
D. Nelluru

Ports of Medieval
Location Important Facts
India

▪ Important port of Kakatiya Dynasty, which ruled

during the 12th - 14th century CE.
Motupalli/ Prakasam ▪ Italian traveller Marco Polo who had visited the port
Mousopalli/ district, in 1287 CE, had given a vivid account on the
Desyuyakkonda Andhra flourishing trade activities at the port during the reign
Pattanam/ Mutfili Pradesh of Kakatiya queen Rudrama Devi.
▪ Major exports: Textiles, delicate cotton, fine silk clothes,
muslin etc., Diamonds, and Spices.

Motupalli/ ▪ Motupalli Inscription, dated 1244-45, was issued by the

Mousopalli/ Prakasam Kakatiya ruler Ganapatideva, carved on the pillar of the
Desyuyak- district, Veerabhadra Swamy Temple, in Telugu and Sanskrit.
Andhra
konda Pattanam/ Pradesh ▪ It promised the sea-borne merchants security of their
Mutfili cargoes and a minimal duty on their shipments.
 ▪ An important ancient port since at least 2nd century BC,
and had trade relations with Europe, China and South-
East Asian Countries.
Flourishing EXIM trade during the times of the Cholas
and continued during the Kakatiyas of Warangal,
Reddis of Kondaveedu, Sangamas of Vijayanagara, and
Qutub Shahi periods.

▪ Prominent port under Golconda rulers.

Machilipatnam/ Krishna
▪ Became crucial in the 17th century as European powers
Masulipatnam/ district,
(Dutch, British, French) established trade posts.
Masula/ Maesolia/ Andhra
Bandar Pradesh ▪ The Dutch set up a trading post in 1605, followed by the
British in 1611.

▪ Important port during the reign of Vijayanagar kings on

East Coast.
▪ Renowned for muslin trade under the Golconda rulers.

Andhra ▪ The Dutch established their settlement at Pulicat in

Pulicat Port 1610.
Pradesh
▪ Pulicat served as the Coromandel headquarters of the
Dutch East India Company, till 1658.
▪ Diamonds were exported from Pulicat to the western
countries.

▪ One of the busiest ports and trading centres.

▪ Located on Arabian Sea, this west coast port was an
important trading port especially for spices including
pepper, cloves and cinnamon.
▪ History of this port goes back to 1100 CE.
Calicut (Kozhikode) Kerala ▪ It began to grow as a notable trade centre under Chera
regime.
▪ It became one of the most important seaports in India
after arrival of the Portuguese sailor Vasco Da Gama in
the year 1498. Landing of the Portuguese sailor opened
the routes for a never-ending relation between east and
west.