Chapter One: Steel Structures, their Analysis and Design

1.1 Introduction to Steel Structures

Civil engineering structures can be categorized based on the construction material used.
Structures made from structural steel are steel structures. Power House, Steel Mill
Buildings, Factories, Workshops, Ware House, Exhibition Pavilion, Hangers, Roofs, Domes,
Radio and TV Towers, Transmission Towers, Steel Tanks, Multi-Storey Steel Framed
Buildings, Steel Bridges are some of the examples of steel structures.

Following characteristics of steel are key factors, which influence the use of steel in
structures.
a. High strength
b. Air and water tightness due to high density
c. Assured quality , reliability and durability
d. Industrialization of construction, ease of fabrication and erection
e. Ease of dismantling or demolition and replacement of structural member
f. High ductility
g. Reuse of material

Susceptibility to corrosion, loss of strength at high temperature, compulsion of using

standard rolled steel sections, requirement of skilled manpower and expensiveness are
major drawbacks of steel structures.

Bureau of Indian Standard has standardized structural steel to be used in steel structures. It
recommends 9 grades of steel as structural steels. They are designated as E165, E250 (A),
E250 (B), E250 (C), E300, E350, E410, E450 (D) and E450 (E)

(Refer to Table 1)

Properties
Grade / Yield Stress
U. Tensile Stress Elongation
Classification (MPa)
(MPa) (%)
<20mm 20-40mm >40mm
E165 165 165 165 290 23
E250 (A) 250 240 230 410 23
E250 (B) 250 240 230 410 23
E250 (C) 250 240 230 410 23
E300 300 290 280 440 22
E350 350 330 320 490 22
E410 410 390 380 540 20
E450 (D) 450 430 420 570 20
E450 (E) 450 430 420 590 20

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According to the need and functionality requirements of structures, assemblage of
structural members in steel structures may be in different forms or in different structural
systems. Basic and widely used systems/forms of steel structures are as follow.

a. Frame structures - In this type of structures, primary loads are carried or

transmitted by assemblage of steel members connected rigidly at their ends.

b. Arch structures - In this type of structures, primary loads are carried or

transmitted by rib of steel arch.

c. Cable structures - In this type of structures, primary loads are carried or

transmitted by cables.

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 d. Truss structures - In this type of structures, primary loads are carried or transmitted
by assemblage of members in the form of truss.

e. Grillage structure - In this type of structures, primary loads are carried or

transmitted by assemblage of beams connected either by simple or rigid joints.

In these structural systems, structural member may transmit compressive load, tensile load,
transverse load, torsional load or combination of two or more type of loads. According to
nature of loads supposed to carry or transmit by the structural members or the function of
structural member they may be classified as

a. Compression member – Member, whose structural behaviour is governed by

compressive load.
b. Tension member - Member, whose structural behaviour is governed by tensile load
c. Flexure member - Member, whose structural behaviour is governed by transverse
load.
d. Connection – Component, which is required to connect two or more members at a
joint of structure
e. Torsional member - Member, whose structural behaviour is governed by torque.

1.2 Structural Steel and Classification of Steel Section

Steel appropriate for construction of steel structure is structural steel. Structural steel is
used for the manufacture of rolled steel sections, fastenings and other structural elements.

Structural steels can be classified depending upon their chemical compositions. The mild
steel, medium carbon steel and low alloy steels are generally used steels in steel structures.

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Mechanical Properties of Structural Steel

Structural steel should possess strength, ductility, weldability, fatigue strength, notch
ductility, malleability, and machinability.

• Strength – Ability to resist maximum tensile stress without fracture

• Ductility – Ability of steel to deform continuously without fracture
• Weldability – Ability to be welded
• Fatigue strength – Ability to withstand cyclic loads
• Notch ductility – Ability to resist brittle fracture or arrest cracks initiated at notches
• Malleability – Ability to be bent or pressed to form different shapes without fracture
• Machinability – Ability to be machined by cutting tools

Important mechanical properties of the structural steels, mostly used in design are their
yield stress, tensile strength and ductility.

Stresses corresponding to the lower yield point and the point of ultimate strength of stress –
strain diagram are yield stress ‘fy’ and tensile strength ‘fu’ of steel. In continuously yielding
steel (High tensile steel), stress corresponding to 0.002 strain is taken as yield stress.
Ductility of steel is its capacity to deform without fracture. Percentage elongation is used to
measure of ductility of steel.

Stress-Strain Relationship in Structural Steel

Stress Stress

fu
fu
fy
fy

Strain Strain
0.002

Sharp yielding structural steel Continuously yielding structural steel

(Mild Steel) (High Tensile Steel)

Other physical properties of structural steel (Ref. Cl. 2.2.4.1) required in design are

• Unit weight of steel – 7850 Kg/m3

• Modulus of elasticity – 2× 105 N/mm2
• Poisson’s ratio – 0.3
• Modulus of rigidity – 0.769 × 105 N/mm2
• Coefficient of thermal expansion/contraction – 12 × 10-6/ 0c

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Structural Steel Section

Structural steels are prefabricated materials and manufactured in the different form of steel
sections. Depending upon the manufacturing process, steel sections are available in the
form of hot rolled and cold rolled (cold formed) sections. These sections are designated by
their cross sectional shapes and sizes. Shapes and sizes of the rolled steel sections have
been developed to address the today’s structural needs (Ref. structural steel sections book).

Following type of steel sections are available in our market.

1. Hot Rolled Steel Section

Rolled Steel I Section- ISJB, ISLB, ISMB, ISWB, ISSC, ISHB, ISNPB, ISWPB
Rolled Steel T Section- ISNT, ISDT, ISLT, ISMT, ISHT, ISJT
Rolled Steel Bar - ISSQ, ISRO
Rolled Steel Flat - ISF
Rolled Steel Plate - ISPL
Rolled Steel Sheet and Strip- ISSH, ISST
Rolled Steel Channel Section - ISJC, ISLC, ISMC, ISMCP
Rolled Steel Angle Section - Equal and Unequal ISA, ISBA
Rolled Steel Tube Section- YSt210, YSt240, YSt310

2. Cold Formed Steel Section

Thin plates of steel can be moulded into a wide range of steel sections by cold rolling. In
these types of structural steel plastic deformation undergoes during cold rolling, which
causes increase in yield strength and reduction in ductility of steel. Their uses are limited
to purlin, grits, roof sheeting and cladding.

Channel Section Z Section Hat Section

Lipped Channel Section Lipped Z Section Corrugated Sheet

IS handbook/structural steel section book provides the dimensions, weights and geometrical
properties of various rolled steel sections available in the market.

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Local buckling and classification of section

Sections of structural member used in steel structures are usually made up of thin plates.
Thin plates subjected to compressive stress are susceptible to buckling called local buckling.
Local buckling significantly reduces the load carrying capacity of the structural member. So
in the design of steel structure, it should be ensured that no local buckling occurs before the
section of member yields.

b b b

Let a rectangular plate supported on its four edges is subjected to compressive stress. When
compressive stress reaches the critical buckling stress, plate buckles into a number of waves
with approximate length ‘b’. This critical buckling stress is found by

σcr = kπ2E/[12(1-γ2)(b/t)2]

To ensure that the yield stress of plate occurs before local buckling, σcr ≥ fy i.e.
Where,

𝒌𝝅𝟐 𝑬 K- Coefficient depends on support

b/t ≤√ condition and the ratio a/b
𝟏𝟐(𝟏−𝜸𝟐 )𝒇𝒚
b- Width of plate
t- Thickness of plate
E- Modulus of elasticity
γ- Unit weight of steel plate

From the above equation, we understand that the local buckling can be prevented by
limiting the width to thickness ratio of each element.

On the basis of local buckling behaviour, the steel sections are classified as

• Plastic section (Class 1)

• Compact section (Class 2)
• Semi compact section (Class 3)
• Slender section (Class 4)

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Plastic Section (Class 1)

Cross section, which can develop plastic hinges and have adequate rotation capacity
required for failure of the structure by formation of plastic mechanism. In plastic section,
every fibre of section reaches to yield stress. These sections are used in plastic analysis and
design and limit state design.

Compact Section (Class 2)

Cross section, which can develop plastic hinges but do not have adequate rotation capacity
required for failure of the structure by formation of plastic mechanism. In compact section,
every fibre of section reaches to yield stress. These sections are used in limit state design.

Semi -Compact Section (Class 3)

Semi-compact section has small rotation capacity. So it cannot develop plastic hinge and
consequently plastic moment of resistance. In this type of section, only few extreme fibres
in compression reach to yield stress. These sections are used in elastic design.

Slender Section (Class 4)

Elements of slender section buckle locally before reaching yield stress. These sections are
not preferred in the design of main structural member. They are used in cold formed
members.

Applied
Moment Class 1
M=Mp

Mp
Class 2
M=Mp

My
Class 3 M>My
M<Mp

Class 4 M<My

Rotation

Moment – Rotation Curve

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 Limiting Value of Width to Thickness Ratio of Steel Element (Refer to Table 2)

Type of plate Type of

Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
element section
Outstand of Rolled b/tf ≤ 9.4ε 9.4ε≤ b/tf ≤ 10.5 ε 10.5ε≤ b/tf ≤ 15.7 ε
compression flange Welded b/tf ≤ 8.4ε 8.4ε≤ b/tf ≤ 9.4 ε 9.4ε≤ b/tf ≤ 13.6 ε

Internal element of
Rolled b/tf ≤ 29.3ε 29.3 ε≤ b/tf ≤ 33.5 ε 33.5 ε≤ b/tf ≤ 42 ε
compression flange in
Welded
bending

Internal element of
Rolled
compression in axial Not applicable Not applicable b/tf ≤ 42ε
Welded
compression

Web of I,H or Box

Rolled d/tw ≤ 84ε 84≤ d/tw ≤ 105ε 105≤ d/tw ≤ 126ε
Section with NA at
Welded
mid depth

d/ tw ≤ 105ε/(1+r1) (for
Web of I, H or box d/ tw ≤ d/ tw ≤
Rolled r1 is –ve)
section with NA not at 84 ε/(1+r1) ≤42 ε 126 ε/(1+2r2) ≤42 ε
Welded d/ tw ≤ 105ε/(1+1.5r1)
mid depth
(for r1 is +ve) ≤ 42 ε

Web of I, H, Channel
Rolled
or Box Section in axial Not applicable Not applicable d/tw ≤ 42ε
Welded
compression

Single or Double b/t ≤ 15.7ε

Rolled
Angles (separated) in Not applicable Not applicable d/t ≤
axial compression 15.7ε(b+d)/t≤25 ε

Angle in bending Rolled b/t ≤ 9.4ε 9.4≤ d/t ≤ 10.5ε b/t ≤ 15.7ε
compression d/t ≤ 9.4ε 9.4≤ d/t ≤ 10.5ε d/t ≤ 15.7ε

Outstand leg of an
angle in contact with
the outstand leg of Rolled d/t ≤ 9.4ε 9.4≤ d/t ≤ 10.5ε d/t ≤ 15.7ε
another angle or
component

Stem of T Section Rolled d/tf ≤ 8.4ε 8.4≤ d/tf ≤ 9.4ε 9.4≤ d/tf ≤ 18.9ε

Tubular Section in Rolled

D/t ≤ 42ε2 42ε2≤ D/t ≤ 52ε2 52ε2≤ D/t ≤ 146ε2
bending compression Welded

Tubular Section in Rolled

Not applicable Not applicable D/t ≤ 88ε2
axial compression Welded

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 Various Steel Section for Limiting Width to Thickness Ratio (Refer to Fig 2)

b bf b B

d h tw D d
tw

tf b
tf

D d tf d
d
t t

b be bbi f tf be bi bf tf

t
d d
t d
t

b bf bf

tf tf
d d t
tw

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1.3 Method of Structural Analysis and Design
Analysis Methods

Determination of responses of structure/structural member after the application of

loads/excitations is analysis of structure. IS code specifies following four methods of analysis
to determine the effect of design action on the steel structure.

• Elastic Method of Analysis

• Plastic Method of Analysis
• Advanced Analysis
• Dynamic Analysis

Design Methods

Determination of appropriate shape, size, quantity and quality of material of steel member/
steel structure so that structure will be able to bear or transmit loads and excitations
subjected to it is design of steel structure. IS code specifies following three method of
design of Steel structures.

• Working stress design method

• Limit state design method
• Plastic design method

Working Stress Design Method

In working stress design method, structures are assumed to behave elastically. In this
method responses to worst combination of service loads are ascertained and the structural
members are designed to respond these responses in such away so that stresses developed
will not exceed working/permissible stresses.

Limit State Design Method

In limit state design method, the structures are assumed to behave elasto-plastically or
plastically. In this method responses to worst combination of design loads are ascertained
and the structural members are designed to respond these responses in such away so that
responses do not to exceed some limits imposed in design. Beyond the limit, the structure is
assumed to be unfit for use. In this methods structure are basically examined for limit state
of strength and limit state of serviceability.

Plastic Design Method

In plastic design method, the structures are assumed to behave plastically. Method is based
on the concept of ultimate load and inelastic behaviour of structure. This method utilizes
plastic strength and ultimate load carrying capacity of steel. In this method failure implies
collapse after extremely large deformation.

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1.4 Design Process and Basis for Design

Design Process

In the design of a structure, design works are carried out in the following order.

1. Conceptual Design of Structure

Design starts from conceptual design of structure. Conceptual design includes
functional planning, structural planning and preliminary design of structure.
Functional planning takes into consideration the purpose for which the building or
the structure is designed. It includes space planning and planning of arrangement of
operating utilities necessary for the structure.
In structural planning layout plan and form/system of structure are decided. Layout
plan and structural form should suit functional, economic, aesthetic and strength
requirements of structure.
Responses of structure cannot be assessed unless loads subjected to structure and
member sizes of structural members are known. Approximate sizing of structural
member and the selection of material is called preliminary design. After structural
planning, sizes of structural member are approximated based on experiences, codal
guidance or by using simplified analytical procedure.

2. Analysis of Structure
After conceptual design, structure is analysed. Analysis of structure includes
assessment of all possible loads i.e. dead load, live load, impact load, snow load,
wind load, earthquake load etc., load combinations and determination of responses
of structure to loads and excitations. Due to the fact that real structure with real
loads cannot be analysed, prior to analysis, loads and structure are idealized
(modelled).

3. Design and detailing of structural member

In the first phase of design of structure, assumed member sizes of structural member
are checked for their adequacy in resisting the design forces obtained from
structural analysis or shape, size of structural members and quantity and quality of
materials are determined.
In the second phase of design, structure/structural members should be checked for
service requirements such as sway, limiting deflections, vibration, fatigue, fire
resistance, stresses due to temperature variation. Sections should also be verified for
its weight and relative stiffness assumed in preliminary design.
Phenomenon not covered by design is addressed by carrying detailing of structure.

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 4. Preparation of working drawing of designed structure
Working drawings of designed structure/structural members are primarily required
to work out the quantity of materials to construct and to execute construction works
as per design. The working drawings strictly should be in engineering and
construction drawing format.

Design Process

Architectural/
Conceptual Design

Functional Planning

Drawing
Preparation of
Structural Planning working drawing

Preliminary Design Revise

shape/size/
material

Detailing of design
If not
acceptable

Design and Detailing

Assessment of loads If acceptable

Acceptability Check
Analysis

Idealization of loads
and structures
Verification/
determination of
Determination of shape, size and
responses of structure material of
structural members

Basis for Design

Designed structure should be

1. Serviceable throughout its life with no excessive deformations or vibrations and no

discomfort to the user.
2. Strong , stable and safe enough to carry the loads under any possible combination
3. Inexpensive as possible
4. Appealing from aesthetic considerations and functional.

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