LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
2. OPENING UP OF DEPOSITS
For the physical development of a surface mine it is necessary to establish the different benches
in waste/overburden rocks and in ore body/seam(s) for their subsequent handling/extraction. For
this an access is to be established first to facilitate the developments of different benches. The
access to a surface mine is made through the box cut.
2.1. Box Cut
Box cut is the initial/first cut given for the physical development of a mine. The name ‘Box cut’ has
been attributed to this cut as this cut generally looks like a top open box having an inclined floor
and walls on three sides (front wall and two side walls) in case of opening up of subsurface
deposits. However, in today’s surface mining terminology the initial cut given for the physical
development of a mine is called a box cut whether it looks like an open box or not.
′
B
Section B -′ B
A ′
A
Section A - A
′
BOX CUT
2.1.1. Objectives and Types of Box Cut
Objectives
The main objectives of box cut are:
To reach the ore body / coal seam
To provide a smooth entry to the pit
To provide space for development of working / production benches
Types and Applicability
Box cuts are of two types – Internal box cut and External box cut.
Internal box cut
When the box cut is located fully or partially on the mineralized zone, it is called an internal box
cut. This is applicable for all types of deposit. The cut follows a direction that is usually oblique to
both the strike and dip direction. Generally, the direction is so chosen that the haul road ramp
formed by this cut and subsequent cuts will not have unnecessary steep turning at any position.
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
External box cut
When the box cut is placed totally outside the mineralized zone, it is called an external box cut.
This is applicable only for shallow and gently dipping bedded deposits. The cut is generally
located at the middle of the rise-most side.
ORE BEARING ZONE
ORE BEARING ZONE
INTERNAL BOX CUT EXTERNAL BOX CUT
2.1.2. Box Cut - Parameters and Methods
Parameters
The main parameters of a box cut are – Maximum level difference (H), width of the floor (W),
longitudinal inclination of the floor (θ), front slope angle (α) and side slope angles (β 1 & β2).
B′ B′
β2
A
A′ W
C β1
A H
B B
C
θ A′
H
α
BOX CUT PARAMETERS
Maximum level difference (H) or the height of the box cut is generally equal to the proposed
bench height. Width of the floor (W) of the box cut should such that the movement of the
machinery is smooth. If shovel – dumper combination is used for the box cut, then there should be
sufficient space for the shovel movement for excavation & loading and the width should be at least
three times the width of the dumper being used. Longitudinal inclination of the floor (θ) of the
box cut depends on the intended use of it at later dates. If it is planned that the box cut will form a
part of the haul road ramp, then the cut is generally made with an inclination between 4.086 deg.
(1in 14) and 4.764 deg. (1 in 12). Front slope angle (α) and side slope angles (β1 & β2) are
generally dependent on the rock-mass properties (physico-mechanical) and the pore pressure
condition at the cut site, and the maximum height of the cut. The front slope angle is generally
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
steeper than the side slope angles. The side slope angles are generally same, but under certain
conditions they may be different.
Methods
For establishing box cut shovel – dumper combination or backhoe – dumper combination is
generally used. However, in certain cases dragline can also be used for the purpose. The
schemes for establishing box cut by shovel – dumper combination, backhoe – dumper
combination and dragline are shown below.
For establishing box cut in some situations (in hard rocks), it may be necessary to adopt drilling &
blasting to loosen the rock mass to facilitate its excavation & loading. For this, holes of different
depths are required to be drilled and blasted to form the inclined floor of the cut.
BOX CUT BY SHOVEL BOX CUT BY BACKHOE
BOX CUT BY DRAGLINE DRILLING PATTERN FOR BOX CUT
2.1.3. Calculation of Cut Volume of Box Cut
Transverse Section
N1 N1
M1
C1 O1 β2
A1 B1 B1
W
A B C O B β1
N M N
H
A O C
θ
H
Longitudinal Section α
B
The points O and O1 are the projections of points B and B1 respectively on the surface
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
Considering the longitudinal section and the transverse section,
OB = O1B1 = H (height of the cut)
From Δ ABO, tanθ = OB / AO => AO = OB / tanθ = H / tanθ
From Δ OBC, tanα = OB / OC => OC = OB / tanα = H / tanα
AC = AO + OC => AC = H [(1 / tanθ) + (1 / tanα) => AC = H [( tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)]
From Δ OBN, tanβ1 = OB / ON => ON = OB / tanβ1 = H / tanβ1
From Δ O1B1N1, tanβ2 = O1B1 / O1N1 => O1N1 = O1B1 / tanβ2 = H / tanβ2
N 1 M1
A1
O1 C1
O C
A
N M
Again considering the surface projections of surfaces ABCMNA and A1B1C1M1N1A1,
From Δ AON and Δ ACM, MC / ON = AC / AO = (AO + OC) / AO = 1 + (OC / AO)
=> MC = ON [1 + (OC / AO)]
=> MC = (H / tanβ1) [1 + (H / tanα) / (H / tanθ)] = (H / tanβ1) [1 + (tanθ / tanα)]
=> MC = (H / tanβ1) [(tanα + tanθ) / tanα] = H [(tanα + tanθ) / (tanα tanβ1)]
Similarly from Δ A1O1N1 and Δ A1C1M1,
M1C1 / O1N1 = A1C1 / A1O1 = (A1O1 + O1C1) / A1O1 = 1 + (O1C1 / A1O1)
=> M1C1 = O1N1 [1 + (O1C1 / A1O1)] => M1C1 = H [(tanα + tanθ) / (tanα tanβ2)]
=> MM1 = MC + M1C1 = H [(tanα + tanθ) / (tanα tanβ1)] + H [(tanα + tanθ) / (tanα tanβ2)]
=> MM1 = H [(tanα + tanθ) / tanα] [(1/ tanβ1)+(1/ tanβ2)]
If β1 = β2 = β, then MM1 = 2H [(tanα + tanθ) / (tanα tanβ)]
For calculation of the cut volume, the whole volume has been divided into three segments –
segment ABCC1B1A1, segment ABCMN and segment A1B1C1M1N1. Of these, the segment
ABCC1B1A1 is an inverted triangular prism of width W, and when the other two segments ABCMN
and A1B1C1M1N1 are joined together they form an inverted pyramid with a triangular base AMM 1A1
as shown below.
A1 C1
W B1
A C
H
B
M1
A1 B1 C1
A B C
M
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
Let,
V1 be the volume of the prism ABCC1B1A1 and V2 be the volume of the pyramid MM1BA.
So, the total cut volume, V = V1 + V2
V1 = W Area of Δ ABC = W (1/2) AC OB = (W/2) [H (tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)]
H
=> V1 = H 2 (W/2) [( tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)]
V2 = (1/3) H Area of Δ AMM1 = (1/3) H (1/2) (MC + M1C1) AC
=> V2 = (H/6) H [(tanα+tanθ) / tanα][(1/ tanβ1)+(1/ tanβ2)] H [(tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)]
=> V2 = H 2 (H/6) [(tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)] [(tanα+tanθ) (tanβ1+tanβ2)/( tanα tanβ1tanβ2)]
If β1 = β2 = β, V2 = H 2 (H/3) [(tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)] [(tanα+tanθ) (tanβ)/( tanα tanβ)]
V = V1 + V2 = H 2 [(tanα+tanθ)/(tanα tanθ)] [(W/2)+(H/6)(tanα+tanθ)(tanβ1+tanβ2)/(tanα
tanβ1tanβ2)]
If β1 = β2 = β, V = H 2 [(tanα+tanθ) / (tanα tanθ)] [(W/2) + (H/3) (tanα+tanθ)/( tanα tanβ)]
2.1.4. Factors affecting the Selection of Box-Cut Site
Selection of location of box cut for any surface mine is of utmost importance as it has far reaching
effects on the economy of the mine. The location should be so chosen that there is a minimum of
foreseeable trouble with uncovering the ore body and a maximum of economy. In selecting the
optimum box cut location, the following factors are necessary to be taken into consideration.
Site accessibility: The site for establishing the box cut should be easily accessible/reachable for
men and machinery.
Minimum excavation requirement: The location of box cut should be so chosen that the material
to be excavated to reach the ore body will be as less as possible. This will ensure early production
of ore from the mine, and this is very important from the view point of the economics of mine
operation.
Availability of dumping space: The cut material should preferably be handled only once and
stacked off the mineral bearing zone. For dumping the excavated material, sufficient space should
be available nearby. This will improve the economy of transport of the cut material.
Pit haulage plan: If the box cut is planned to be a part of the pit haulage system, it must match
with the haulage plan for the complete pit. The roads, as far as practicable, should be put in but
once and used as much as possible.
Overall mine plan: The box cut location should be so chosen that it matches with the overall
mine plan including the waste dump locations, sites for infrastructural facilities and sites for other
facilities. It should not hinder the pit progress/expansion at a later date. Also, the location should
be such that the overall economy of ore and waste transport over the whole mine life is
maintained.
Water condition: Drainage is one of the most important aspects for the box cut. Surface drainage
must be diverted, preferably by gravity. If possible, the location of the cut should be so chosen that
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
the problems of accumulation of water from surface water and/or ground water are not there or
minimum.
Geological disturbance: The box cut location should preferably be free of any geological
discontinuities and structural disturbances.
Reclamation requirement: The reclamation requirements may dictate that the box cut material
should be dumped/emplaced at particular location. This may affect the location of the cut in order
to satisfy such requirements most economically.
If the box cut is a part of the pit haul road system, particularly in case of external box cut for a
bedded deposit, preferably the cut should be placed at the middle of the rise-most side of the
deposit for the economy of transportation provided that the location is not dictated otherwise by
some other factors.
2.2. Production Benches
2.2.1. Formation of Benches
Once the box cut is established upto the 1 st bench floor level, the development of the 1st bench is
started. Once the 1st bench is developed over a considerable area, the development of
subsequent benches are done by two methods – by establishing additional cuts or by extending
the existing box cut after widening the same.
Formation of benches by establishing additional cut
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
In this method, the first bench (I – Bench) is developed by extending the initial box-cut. Proper
working face is established and the bench of designed height and slope is advanced sufficiently.
This is followed by establishing the next cut (second cut), a separate one from the first cut, leaving
sufficient gap/space between the two cuts to allow unrestricted movement of dumpers between
the first bench and the surface. The second cut is generally established oblique to the first cut.
Once the second cut is established fully, the development of the second bench of designed height
and slope starts; and the same process continues for development of subsequent benches.
Formation of benches by extending the existing box cut
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
In this case, the first bench (I – Bench) is developed by extending the initial box-cut. Proper
working face is established and the bench of designed height and slope is advanced sufficiently
(figures i to iii). This is followed by establishing the next cut (second cut) by extending the first cut
after widening the same so as to leave sufficient gap/space to allow unrestricted movement of
dumpers between the first bench and the surface. The second cut effectively becomes as an
extension of the first cut. Once the second cut is established fully, the development of the second
bench of designed height and slope starts; and the same process continues for development of
subsequent benches.
2.2.2. Bench Parameters and their selection
A surface mine bench is characterized by the following bench parameters – Bench height, Bench
width, Bench length, Bench face slope and Bench floor slope.
Bench height is the vertical distance between the crest and toe of a bench. As specified by the
Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS), it shall not be more than the -
(i) maximum digging height of the excavator excavating the bench in case of hard formation
(ii) maximum digging height of the excavator excavating the bench + 3m in case of soft formation
H - Bench Height W – Bench Width L – Bench Length - Bench Face Slope
BENCH PARAMETERS
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
From the operational point of view, the bench height is decided based on the following criteria –
optimum digging height of the excavator for efficient excavation, one pass drilling length should
preferably be more than the bench height, and the blending requirement dictated by the geological
parameters.
For benches worked by rope shovels and draglines, the bench height is generally selected on the
basis of optimum digging height of the excavator. In case of hydraulic excavators, the bench
height is generally selected on the basis of maximum digging height. In case of bucket wheel
excavator (BWE) workings, the bench height depends on – the height of the cutting boom pivot
point, the effective length of cutting boom including the cutting wheel and the allowable maximum
angle of inclination of cutting boom in the vertical plane limited by the dynamic angle of repose of
the cut material.
Bench width is the horizontal distance between the crest of a bench and the toe of the
immediately upper bench. As specified by the DGMS, it shall be more than -
(i) the bench height
(ii) the maximum width of the largest machine + 2m
(iii) three times the width of largest size dumper that is plying on the bench
From the operational point of view, minimum width of a working bench should be equal to
0.8 X bench height + dumper width + shovel dimension + 4m.
Bench length in a surface mine is the length (straight or curve as the case may be) measured
along the floor of the bench between its two extremities. It is generally decided based on the
operational requirements and conveniences. The minimum bench length required is generally
dictated by the frequency of primary blasting and the advancement of the face along the length of
the bench per blast, and also on the type of excavator used.
In a mine that is being worked by shovel – dumper combination with full scale blasting, minimum
bench length required may be calculated as follows.
Let,
(i) The frequency of primary blasting in the bench is once per week
(ii) The volume of material to be handled per week from the bench is V
(iii) The height and width of the bench are H and W respectively
The length of broken material required per week, l = V / (H W)
The minimum bench length, L = 3 l
The minimum bench length, L shall be equal to 3l as an additional length of l will be required for
drilling while the blasted material is being handled by the excavator and another extra length of l
for maintaining the flexibility.
For dragline benches, the minimum bench length should be 300m to 500m in view of marching
requirements and operational conveniences.
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
For the mines being worked by bucket wheel excavator (BWE) – conveyor combination, the
minimum bench length should be decided on the basis of the production requirement, the method
of work of BWE (full block or half block), shiftable belt conveyor shifting frequency and other
operational conveniences.
The maximum bench length is generally selected on the basis of depositional features and/or
transport requirement.
Bench face slope is the slope of a line (in the vertical plane) that joins the toe and the crest of the
bench. It is generally selected considering the requirements of slope stability and inclined hole
blasting, and criterion of complete removal of blasted material by the excavator excavating the
bench.
Bench floor slope: Generally, 1% to 2% longitudinal slope is provided on the bench floor to
facilitate the drainage of water to the sump area.
LECTURE NOTES – SURFACE MINING
