3.3 6.

Article

Research on Low-Carbon Design

and Energy Efficiency by
Harnessing Indigenous Resources
through BIM-Ecotect Analysis in
Hot Climates

Habib Ullah, Hong Zhang, Hongyu Ye, Ihsan Ali and Meng Cong

https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146057
 sustainability

Article
Research on Low-Carbon Design and Energy Efficiency by
Harnessing Indigenous Resources through BIM-Ecotect Analysis
in Hot Climates
Habib Ullah 1 , Hong Zhang 1, * , Hongyu Ye 1 , Ihsan Ali 1 and Meng Cong 2

1 School of Architecture, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; [email protected] (H.U.);

[email protected] (H.Y.); [email protected] (I.A.)
2 Architects Engineers Co., Ltd. of Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In the face of contemporary challenges, such as economic instability, environmental

degradation, and the urgent global warming crisis, the imperative of sustainability and energy
efficiency has reached unparalleled significance. Sustainability encompasses not only the natural
environment, but also extends to our immediate surroundings, including the built structures and the
communities they serve. Embracing this comprehensive perspective, we embarked on a mission to
conceive and construct a model house that harnesses state-of-the-art energy-efficient technologies.
Our goal was to seamlessly integrate these features not only to meet our sustainability objectives,
but also to mitigate environmental threats.This model embodies a harmonious fusion of indigenous
resources, employing locally sourced stone and employing traditional construction techniques.
Through this approach, we achieved significant reductions in carbon emissions and established a
framework for passive cooling and heating systems. Moreover, the design is intrinsically attuned to
its contextual surroundings, preserving the diverse tapestry of regional architectural styles. This study
stands as a testament to the potential of innovative design and technology in shaping a sustainable
future. The research employs a multi-dimensional approach, encompassing strategies of architectural
design with a traditional planning approach, sustainable material selection, energy efficiency, and
Citation: Ullah, H.; Zhang, H.; Ye, H.;
life cycle assessment across a diverse set of case studies. Building energy analysis is conducted
Ali, I.; Cong, M. Research on
through the application of BIM (Ecotect), providing insights into how BIM can adapt and thrive
Low-Carbon Design and Energy
Efficiency by Harnessing Indigenous
in various environments. Key findings underscore that thermal performance, minimizing energy
Resources through BIM-Ecotect loads, and reducing carbon emissions are pivotal aspects in designating a building as both green and
Analysis in Hot Climates. energy efficient.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su16146057 Keywords: sustainability; passive cooling; energy efficiency; indigenous resources; BIM; carbon
emission
Academic Editors: Francesco Nocera
and Antonio Caggiano

Received: 13 May 2024

Revised: 13 June 2024 1. Introduction
Accepted: 9 July 2024 With the escalating awareness of the potential of sustainable buildings and construc-
Published: 16 July 2024 tion, there has been a notable surge in concern for the environment, propelling green
building practices to the forefront [1]. As stated, “Global warming and climatic variation
are important factors for the rising awareness of green buildings.” [2]. Buildings account
for 30% of worldwide energy use and 27% of global carbon emissions. This means that
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
energy and environmental issues require urgent attention [3]. Since buildings account for
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
40% of the world’s energy usage, efforts are being made to achieve almost zero energy
distributed under the terms and
use [4].
conditions of the Creative Commons The expanding urban sprawl is driving an increased demand for energy [5], and it is
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// projected that by 2030, a substantial 60% of the global population will be residing in urban
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ areas [6]. Green buildings stand as the optimal choice, offering a cost-effective solution for
4.0/).

Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16146057 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 2 of 21

developers and policymakers in mitigating the adverse environmental impacts of develop-

ment [7], while simultaneously enhancing stakeholder relations through improved public
image, community outreach, and education [8]. Achieving carbon neutrality and address-
ing peak carbon in buildings require optimizing energy savings in rural dwellings [9]. If
organic and sustainable materials are used in buildings, the overall environmental impact is
greatly decreased, and remarkable zero-emission results are obtained. To attain sustainable
growth, certain standards in the areas of the economy, environment, and society must
be met.
This study highlights the qualities and technologies of energy-efficient practices while
examining their vital value. Energy efficiency must be given top priority in buildings to
ensure sustainability. Energy-intensive construction techniques and the need for heating,
cooling, ventilation, and lighting lead to an interaction between building energy con-
sumption and environmental impact. These requests deplete important natural resources.
Buildings can, however, be made to minimize the use of energy and resources while still
satisfying the needs of their occupants in terms of thermal comfort, aesthetic appeal, and
psychological well-being.
As the building industry has evolved, smart and sustainable construction techniques
represent a major turn during sustainability. Digital tools improve design to support
daylight, air quality, and well-being [10]. Our energy-efficient model house demonstrates
our commitment to sustainable practices and energy-efficient design by incorporating
several energy-saving measures, meticulous planning, and locally sourced materials. This
method helps us design spaces that are more ecologically friendly.
To meet sustainability goals, this study assesses a method of building energy analysis.
Using BIM-Ecotect analysis, it looks at reducing carbon emissions as well as building energy
load and demand. The study investigates the load and demand on energy, emphasizing
the usage of locally produced products to lower carbon emissions and lessen energy
requirements. Vernacular approaches are combined with passive strategies, including
using a mumpty as a wind catcher and lowering window widths to improve ventilation in
the summer. Analyzing building energy usage and suggesting PV panels for upcoming
energy requirements are examples of active techniques. The goal of this research is to
improve building comfort and energy efficiency through the integration of local materials
and technologies. Because carbon reduction has been effectively addressed using local
materials in conjunction with smart design and energy analysis, this technique is viable for
rural areas with harsh climatic conditions.
The substantial decrease in carbon emissions highlighted in this paper demonstrates
our ongoing commitment to sustainability. We utilized locally sourced materials based on
their durability and sustainability in the environment, considering the climatology of the
area. The building is a model for regions with varying climates because of its design, which
combines thermal mass components with regional building methods. Future research will
use cutting-edge software for life cycle assessments and building energy analysis.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Energy Efficiency and Energy Efficient Building
“Using less energy to provide the same and require services”. The best way to under-
stand energy efficiency is through examples: While replacing a single-pane window with
an energy-efficient one, the new one prevents heat from escaping in the winter, thus saving
energy. In summer, efficient windows keep the heat out, so the air conditioning does not run
as often, thus saving power. Energy efficiency in buildings is a first step towards achieving
sustainability. It helps control rising energy costs, reduces environmental footprints, and
increases the value of buildings [11]. In recent decades, there has been a global interest in
zero-energy buildings (ZEBs), which provide acceptable thermal conditions with minimum
energy use [12].
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 3 of 21

2.2. Energy Efficiency in Architecture

Current building designs lead to environmental issues due to high energy consump-
tion. This stems from using energy-intensive methods for heating, cooling, ventilation, and
lighting, depleting natural resources. It suggests that buildings can be designed for comfort
while minimizing energy use through an integrated approach. This involves incorporating
solar passive techniques to reduce reliance on conventional systems while utilizing natural
energy sources.
Further, it emphasizes various strategies for energy conservation in building design.
It suggests using energy-efficient equipment, controls, and operation strategies for arti-
ficial lighting and HVAC systems. Incorporating renewable energy systems like solar
photovoltaic and solar water heating can help offset building energy needs. Additionally, it
recommends using low-energy materials and construction methods, along with minimizing
transportation energy. Efficient structural design, reducing the use of high-energy materials
like glass and steel, and opting for low-energy building materials, are also highlighted.
Overall, an energy-efficient building combines passive solar design, efficient equipment,
and renewable energy sources [13]. Green finance is seen as a key approach for sustainable
development and environmental protection [14].
One effective strategy for addressing climate change is to optimize the construction
sector for energy efficiency [15,16]. Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
can be considerably decreased by creating energy-efficient buildings, which can be accom-
plished by implementing strategies like installing renewable energy sources and adopting
durable materials. Retrofitting buildings can reduce energy consumption by 57% [17].
Energy efficiency improvements in a Turkish school resulted in a 60% reduction in energy
use and CO2 emissions [18].

2.3. Green Buildings

A green building provides specified building performance requirements while mini-
mizing disturbance to improve the functioning of the local, regional, and global ecosystems,
both during and after its construction and specified service life [19]. A green building also
optimizes efficiencies in resource management and operational performance and minimizes
risks to human health and the environment.
Green building is a trillion-dollar industry that acts as a catalyst for the adaptation
of green construction and design across the globe and inspires innovation in material
products and processing [20]. According to the definition of sustainable buildings, “the
results of an applied sustainable way of construction sustainability approach to create
a built environment that should be focused on high-performance green buildings” [21].
Nowadays, we can call them net zero buildings or zero energy building, which produce
energy as they need to consume it, and energy that should be produced on site through
renewable sources like wind, sun, and water [22].
Better resource management and construction are the main goals of sustainable, green,
and energy-efficient buildings. Choices made in the process of designing, manufacturing,
operating, and demolishing a building determine its overall impact on the environment
and resource efficiency [23].

Challenges of Green Buildings

Emphasis is needed on the identification of green building adaptation barriers in devel-
oping countries [24]. Time, budget, and risk are highly influenced while adapting to decide
to go green [25] for some individual, external, corporate, and project-level drivers [26].
Many barriers have been identified in Malaysia while developing green building, which are
the risk of investment, lack of demand, and lack of credit resources [27]. In Saudi Arabia,
the major challenges identified to the adoption of green buildings identified were financial,
technical, cultural, and market [5]. In Asia [28], there is a lack of awareness, training, and
education about sustainability. Over all, this study has the following challenges:
a. Technical difficulties during the construction process.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 4 of 21

b. High-green appliance design and energy + material cost savings [29].

c. Lack of awareness and knowledge about green buildings [30]
d. Lack of integrated building regulations and bye-laws within the green framework.
e. Lack of motivated demand from customers and insufficient policy implementation
efforts [31].
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) defined “green or
sustainable buildings as creating a healthy, resource-efficient model of construction, reno-
vation, operation, maintenance, and demolition” [32]. Green buildings play a key role in
the urban sustainability movement, complementing strategies like roof-top gardens [33],
urban parks [34], green belts, and green ways [35] to reduce urban ecological footprints.
The built environment is a significant consumer of natural resources in the United States,
accounting for 40% of energy consumption [35], 65% of power consumption, and 30% of
green gas emissions and raw material usage, and produces 136 million tons of waste output
annually [36].

2.4. Evaluation of Building Materials for Greenness

Resource management is the general criterion for evaluating building materials, pol-
lution, indoor environmental quality (IEQ), and performance [33,37]. Resources used by
materials include all components and energy used to extract, process, transport, use, dis-
pose of, or recycle [33]. Materials with low durability, no matter how benignly produced,
can hardly qualify as green. Proper design, installation, and detailing are critical to en-
suring long-term durability. Construction materials can endure much longer than other
materials [33,38]. Approximately 60% of the materials extracted from the Earth’s crust end
up in the built environment [38], and they have a life cycle that is mostly related to the time
when the building is in operation.

2.5. Common Materials Used in Green Buildings

The green and sustainable building materials with low carbon characteristics are
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Common materials used to make a building energy efficient.

S. No Type Characteristics
Sustainably sourced timber and engineered wood products like cross-laminated timber
1 Wood
(CLT) are popular choices due to their renewable nature.
A rapidly renewable resource, bamboo is strong, lightweight, and can be used in
2 Bamboo
various construction applications.
Using recycled steel reduces the demand for new steel production, which has a
3 Recycled Steel
significant environmental impact.
Incorporating recycled concrete aggregates helps divert waste from landfills and
4 Recycled Concrete
reduces the need for new concrete production.
A technique where natural raw materials like earth, chalk, lime, or gravel are compacted
5 Rammed Earth
to form walls.
6 Straw Bales Used for insulation and can be an excellent natural insulating material.
Recycled Glass and Used in the production of glass countertops, tiles, and architectural elements. Some
7
Recycled Plastic prefabricated materials incorporate recycled plastics, which helps reduce plastic waste.
Sustainable Insulation
8 These can include materials like sheep’s wool, cotton, or recycled denim.
Materials
Vegetative layers on the roof provide insulation, reduce storm water runoff, and
9 Green Roofs
improve air quality.
Solar Panels and
10 These are integrated into the structure to generate renewable energy.
Photovoltaic Cells
Energy-Efficient Windows
11 These are designed to minimize heat loss and gain.
and Doors
Rainwater Harvesting
12 Collecting and reusing rainwater for non-potable uses.
Systems
Source: [21].
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 5 of 21

3. Design and Methodology

3.1. Materials and Methods
Phase 1. This study includes a significant amount of data collection and a literature
review that was studied and analyzed [39]. The literature data for the understanding
of green buildings and energy efficiency were only taken from published studies based
on data collected from the industry, and the literature was used for analysis and studies
of terminologies in terms of energy-efficient buildings and sustainability. The research
methodology in this article includes work flow guidelines, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Methodological flow chart framework for building design and energy evaluation.

Phase 2. After devising the strategies of methodological design through relevant

literature and site studies and analysis, ground was made. After the data collection,
as per the user’s requirement and climatic sensitivity and materials studies, the design
stage was initiated and completed. As per the client and climatic condition demand, the
Ecotect analysis simulation/evaluation process was applied for the energy analysis of the
buildings, as per discussed in Results in detail. To achieve the main objective of claiming it
as a green and energy-efficient building, along with the main ingredients and components
of sustainable residential requirements and design, and to establish the interrelationships
between green buildings, the role of BIM (Ecotect) in design and construction, and the
materials used for sustainable buildings were discussed, analyzed, and implemented.

3.2. The Analysis Tool of Choice Is Autodesk Ecotect

Autodesk Ecotect is a flexible building performance simulation tool. It addresses
thermal performance, sun exposure, artificial and daylight lighting, materials, and resource
use. To analyze daylighting and solar exposure, the tool needs the exact building geometry.
Examining light and shadow projection on any surface—interior or exterior—at any time
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 6 of 21

of year is made possible by detailed models. The design and direction of a residence are
examined in this study using Ecotect to optimize natural lighting.

4. Case Study
4.1. Geographical Location and Climatic Zone
The district Kohat lies between north latitudes 32◦ 47′ and 33◦ 53′ and east longitudes
70◦ 34′and 72◦ 17′ . It is bounded [40] on the north by the district Peshawar, the capital city
of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province of Pakistan and the Afridi and Orakzai hills; on the east
by Indus; on the south by the district Bannu; and on the west by the river Kurrum and
Waziri hills. There are four major climatic zones, i.e., highland climate, low land climate,
desert/arid climate, and coastal/maritime climate, in the district Kohat, which lies in the
rain-fed arid zone of the province and is separated into two main zones based on rainfall,
temperature, and soil texture. One is the Thall zone, which is comparatively hot and has
less than 500 mm of annual rainfall.

4.2. Project Overview

Table 2 presents the project characteristics in full, including building typology, climatic
conditions, methodologies used, and all relevant information.

Table 2. Project Details.

S. No Type Detail
1 Project Location District Kohat, Pakistan
Residential,
2 Context
Sub-urban area
Climatic Arid zone (hot)
3
Zone Zone 4
4 Building type Residential
1 master bed room
+ 2 bed rooms having
5 No of Users
attached bath rooms,
kitchen–dining + porch
Site Area Covered Open
6 Project Area
8900 Sq-ft 2878 Sq-ft 6022 Sq-ft
Techniques and
7 Energy efficient, sustainable and passive environmental control system.
methodology
Sedimentary stone, mortar (sand and cement), T-iron, and Chawka brickwork with clay used
8 Building Materials:
in the roof.
The client, a civil engineer with over 20 years of experience in Doha, Qatar, prioritized
Client/User sustainable and energy-efficient techniques. Inspired by villas utilizing passive means, he
9
Requirement demanded a design reflecting local and indigenous styles. His vision included sustainable
living, incorporating farming, livestock, and extensive landscaping within the house.
The plot area is covered with an outside landscape, including for livestock (chickens and
10 Other
pigeons). Open areas include landscape features, use, and farming.

4.3. Site Reading and Analysis

Table 3 includes some relevant and basic information about the site where we designed
it; these are the basic steps moving towards the site and collecting data about the site. The
solar path, wind directions, neighborhood, views, noise, access, and climatic graphs are the
relevant information; the site reading and analysis about the site are shown in Figure 2a,b.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 7 of 21

Table 3. Site details.

S. No Type Details
The site is connected from two sides and 22 feet wide. The road on the south and east sides
1 Accessibility
of the site and the main 30-foot-wide road are connected on the eastern side.
Shape and Area
2 Rectangular and plain.
of Site
Availability All the major utilities are available along the adjacent road to the site. Sewerage and water
3
of Services supply lines. Gas and electricity are available at adequate capacity.
4 Topography The site is plain, having no contours.
The north is at a 30-degree angle to the site. The sun’s path is east toward west through
5 Orientation
south. Wind direction: summer wind west to east, and winter wind north towards south.
With reference to the context of the proposed area, there are residential buildings on three
6 Context
sides of the site, and one side is open.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. (a) Site plan and analysis; (b) solar path and climate graph.

4.4. Design Development Process

Some of the basic developmental processes highlighted by wind movement and
ventilation studies along with wind directions are shown in Figure 3a,b.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. (a,b) The development process highlights wind movement and ventilation studies a long
with wind directions.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 8 of 21

4.5. Planning (Ground Floor Plan)

The house’s one-story floor plan is shown in Figure 4, together with the covered area,
open plot area, and spatial dimensions. Brown stone masonry walls, measuring eigh-
teen inches, adorn the external enclosure. Important features include the main entrance,
eastward-facing trees that shade and shield the building from the summer sun, and a par-
tially covered north-facing verandah intended for summer use. This design demonstrates
how structural elements and natural elements are integrated to improve the comfort and
functioning of the home. The internal structure of the building is seen in Figure 5, which
also highlights the passage of air and wind, as well as how it interacts with the mumpty,
which serves as a wind catcher.

Figure 4. Ground floor plan highlighting spatial relationships and solid-voids.

Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 9 of 21

Figure 5. Section at A-A’ highlighting the wind direction and technique used in the mumpty.

4.5.1. Structure and Methodology

The structure consists of thick, heavy masonry walls of stone that support the entire
structure, also accompanied by tie beams, girders, lintels, trusses, and angle iron. T-iron
and steel guarders are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged
connections to form stability.

4.5.2. Masonry and Foundation Details

In exterior walls, the masonry is stone; the wall thickness is 18 inches and it is con-
structed with cement mortar having a ratio of 1:4. The interior wall masonry is brick; the
wall thickness is 9 inches and it is constructed with cement mortar having a ratio of 1:4. All
the interior walls and the inner surface of the exterior wall are plastered with cement with
a ratio of 1:6. The exterior walls are finished with pointing. Excavation of 3 feet has been
done and the soil is compacted. A 6-inch P.C.C. layer with a ratio of 1:4:8 has been laid for
the leaning of the surface. Stone masonry with concrete mortar extends above the natural
soil up to the DPC level, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Typical section of a wall, highlighting the masonry work and details.

4.5.3. Openings/Doors and Windows

All the windows have been considered a primary source of light and ventilation. The
size and placement of windows are measured as per the requirements of day light, privacy
factors, and ventilation. The shape is rectangular as per the local style and surrounded by
horizontal and vertical shading devices. The glass is placed on the inner side to achieve
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 10 of 21

defuse light and avoid glare and radiation, convection of direct light, and reflection. Further,
to achieve pleasant, ventilated environments, the windows act to catch the outside breeze
passing through trees.

4.5.4. Membrane, Roof, and Air Flow Management

The roof is composed of steel guarders and T-iron with brick tiles; after the primary
member, the roof is covered by a thick layer of mud with a 3-inch thickness; the roof is
totally water-proofed by bitumen; and finally, it is covered by Chawka brick. Roofs are
specially treated for summer hot solar radiation through passive techniques, as shown in
Figure 7b.

(a) (b)

Figure 7. (a) Mumpty floor plan, highlighting the wind scope and inlet and outlet of the stack effect;
(b) typical section of a roof having slab details.

4.5.5. Landscape, Livestock, and Farming

The client has been focused on the landscape, and the landscape is mainly divided
into two parts: a garden and a farming area. The garden is designed with local horticultural
species. The paving is designed with local sandstone slabs. Space for livestock and poultry
includes two rooms, for goats and one room for chickens, as shown in Figure 8a,b.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) Landscape features and open space; (b) floor plan for livestock and farming.

4.6. Energy Efficient Strategies Followed in Design

4.6.1. Primary Materials
The main materials selected for the building are wood for windows and doors, as
depicted in Figure 9, and 18-inch stone masonry.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 11 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a,b) Primary material highlighting the sedimentary stones.

4.6.2. System/Techniques Used

The following techniques were used: Winds, inside and outside air flow, stack effect,
catching/sucker windows, construction system control through material, width of exte-
rior walls and openings, and controlling the emission of carbon and radiation through a
green landscape.

4.6.3. Orientation and Rainwater Harvesting

The mass is placed according to the axis of approaching access. Most opening sched-
ules are installed according to the flow of wind and daylight utilization. The site is in a
harsh climatology, where water is not sufficient to fulfill the needs of farming and vege-
tation. We tried to collect the rainwater that comes from the roof to store it in a channel,
which is an underground water tank. This is further used for the landscape as well as
for livestock.

4.7. Three-Dimensional Views and Details

Figures 10–12 offer detailed views of the house’s design and features. Figure 10
presents a 3-dimensional view showcasing all four sides, including trees, a water body, an
entryway, a roof, and the wind-catching mumpty. Figure 11 focuses on the parapet, wooden
porch, window air scope, and shading devices, while Figure 12 displays the building’s
southwest perspective.

Figure 10. View highlighting neighborhood, context, and rainwater harvesting storage.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 12 of 21

Figure 11. View highlighting the shading devices and air flow of the building through the scoop.

Figure 12. View highlighting the traditional inspired parapet wall and open space through the north.

5. Building Energy Evaluation

5.1. Building Energy Analysis through Ecotect
In the general simulation, in accordance with the Karachi Zone 1 local context, Google
SketchUp was used for 3-dimensional modeling and imported to Ecotect for energy analysis.
The building envelope serves as a crucial conduit for exchanging environmental heat
both within and outside the building, significantly influencing the overall energy usage [41].
The thermal insulation characteristics of the building envelope have a direct impact on the
cooling requirements in summer and heating demands in winter. The extent of heat gain
indicates the room’s load level to some degree [42]. When the building envelope exhibits
strong thermal insulation, there should be a noticeable temperature contrast between
the interior and exterior of the building, resulting in a minimal influence of the outdoor
temperature on the indoor temperature. By examining the hourly temperature pattern,
envelope heat gain, and other simulation outcomes of building models, we can assess
the effectiveness of the building envelope’s thermal performance and gather insights to
enhance building energy efficiency.
This study conducted separate calculations for hourly temperature, hourly heat gain,
hourly heat loss, annual monthly heating—cooling load, gain and loss, monthly degree
days, temperature distribution, and the proportion of various types of heat gain (or loss) for
the model. Additionally, we performed an evaluation of energy consumption and explored
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 13 of 21

the potential for energy savings based on the analysis of these calculations. Figure 13
illustrates the hourly temperature profile of the model on the hottest day (28 May) in
Kohat based on Zone 1 (Karachi), without air conditioning. Figure 14 depicts the hourly
temperature profile of the model on the coldest day (January 15) in Kohat based on Zone 1,
without air conditioning.

Figure 13. Hourly temperature graph on Monday, 28 May, Zone−1, at the −hottest day, analyzed
tt
through Ecotect.

−
Figure 14. Hourly temperature graph on Monday, 15 January, Zone−1 at the coldest day, analyzed
through Ecotect.

5.2. Hourly Temperature Profile of the Building on the Hottest Day Analyzed
Table 4 illustrates the hourly average temperature, while Figure 13 and Table 5 indi-
cates the temperature of the hottest day (28 May). The simulation results show that the
outside temperature from 12 p.m. to 2 p.m. was almost 40 ◦ C and the Zone 1 temperature
remained 18 ◦ C, while the solar radiation was high from 3 p.m. to 5 p.m. and the wind
speed was high from 11 a.m. to 2 p.m.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 14 of 21

Table 4. Average Temperature on Monday, 28 May (hottest day).

S. No Zone 1
1 Avg. Temperature 31.2 ◦ C (Ground 26.2 ◦ C)
2 Total Surface Area 69.079 m2 (351.9% flr area).
3 Total Exposed Area 46.660 m2 (237.7% flr area).
4 Total South Window 0.000 m2 (0.0% flr area).
5 Total Window Area 4.181 m2 (21.3% flr area).
6 Total Conductance (AU) 85 W/◦ K
7 Total Admittance (AY) 364 W/◦ K
8 Response Factor 3.95

Bed room (15′ × 14′ ) fully air conditioned with bands 18–26 ◦ C.

Table 5. Hourly temperatures dated Monday, 28 May (hottest day).

S. No Hour Inside Outside Temperature Difference

1 0 26 28 −2
2 1 26 27 −1
3 2 26 27 −1
4 3 26 27 −1
5 4 26 26 0
6 5 26 26 0
7 6 26 27 −1
8 7 26 28 −2
9 8 26 30 −4
10 9 26 32 −6
11 10 26 36 −10
12 11 26 37 −11
13 12 26 44 −18
14 13 26 39 −13
15 14 26 40 −14
16 15 26 39 −13
17 16 26 38.5 −12.5
18 17 26 36.7 −10.7
19 18 26 35 −9
20 19 26 31 −5
21 20 26 31 −5
22 21 26 30 −4
23 22 26 30.5 −4.5
24 23 26 29 −3

5.3. Hourly Temperature Profile of the Building on the Coldest Day Analyzed
Figure 14 and Table 6 shows the Autodesk Ecotect 2011 (Energy Simulation Software)
analysis of the temperature of the coldest day (15 January). The simulation results indicate
that the outside temperature at 12 p.m. was 6 ◦ C and at 2 p.m. was 10 ◦ C, and the zone
temperature from 2 a.m. to 10 p.m. almost remained 17 ◦ C to 18 ◦ C, while the solar
radiation and wind speed changed with time.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 15 of 21

Table 6. Hourly temperatures dated Monday, 15 January (coldest day).

S. No Zone 1
1 Avg. Temperature 16.6 ◦ C (Ground 26.2 ◦ C)
2 Total Surface Area 69.079 m2 (351.9% flr area).
3 Total Exposed Area 46.660 m2 (237.7% flr area).
4 Total South Window 0.000 m2 (0.0% flr area).
5 Total Window Area 4.181 m2 (21.3% flr area).
6 Total Conductance (AU) 85 W/◦ K
7 Total Admittance (AY) 364 W/◦ K
8 Response Factor 3.95

5.4. Hourly Gains Profile of the Building on the Hottest Day Analyzed
Figure 15 and Table 7 below indicates the hourly gains of the hottest day (28 May).
The simulation results indicate that at 7 a.m., 1000 watts was consumed for HVAC, and at
8 a.m., 1100 watts was consumed for HVAC, while in the afternoon, at 12 p.m., 1200 watts
was consumed for HVAC, and the internal zone remained normal.

Figure 15. Hourly gains profile graph of the building on 28 May hottest day at Zone−1 analyzed.−

Table 7. Hourly gain dated Monday, 28 May (hottest).

S. No Hour Inside Outside Temperature Difference

1 0 18 15 3
2 1 18 15 3
3 2 18 14 4
4 3 18 13 5
5 4 18 11.5 6.5
6 5 18 12 6
7 6 18 11 7
8 7 18 6.1 11.9
9 8 18 13 5
10 9 18 14 4
11 10 18 14.5 3.5
12 11 18 16 2
13 12 18 17 1
14 13 18 17.5 0.5
15 14 18 18 0
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 16 of 21

Table 7. Cont.

S. No Hour Inside Outside Temperature Difference

16 15 18 18 0
17 16 18 17.5 0.5
18 17 18 17 1
19 18 − 18 16 2
20 19 18 15 3
21 20 18 14 4
22 21 18 12 6
23 22 18 11 7
24 23 18 11 7

5.5. Monthly Heating–Cooling Load of the Building Analyzed

Figure 16 and Table 8 indicates the monthly energy load for heating and cooling. Ac-
cording to the simulation results, in January and December, the building consumed almost
40,000 watts of energy for heating purposes, while it consumed most of that energy in May,
amounting to −340,000 watts, and in June, it consumed 380,000 watts for cooling purposes.

Figure 16. Monthly heating and cooling load of the building graph at Zone–1 analyzed.

Table 8. Monthly heating–cooling load.

S. No Zone 1
1 Operation Weekdays 00–24, Weekends 00–24 −
2 −
Thermostat Settings 18.0–26.0 ◦ C −
3 Max Heating 666 W at 07:00 on 15 January
4 Max Cooling 1293 W at 15:00 on 3 June

5.6. Hourly Gains Profile of the Building on the Coldest Day Analyzed
Figure 17 and Table 9 shows the hourly gains of the coldest day (15 January). The
simulation results indicate that at 7 a.m., the building consumed −250 w for HVAC, and
at 8 a.m. it consumed −160 w, while in the afternoon at 12 p.m. it consumed −80 w for
HVAC, and the internal zone remained normal.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 17 of 21

Figure 17. Hourly gains profile graph of the building on 15 January, coldest day in Zone–1, analyzed.

Table 9. Hourly gains Monday, 15 January.

HVAC FABRIC SOLAR VENT INTERN ZONAL

S. No Hour
(Wh) (Wh) (Wh) (Wh) (Wh) (Wh)
1 0 325 161 0 65 98 0
2 1 269 140 0 31 98 0
3 2 262 134 0 30 98 0
4 3 242 115 0 29 98 0
5 4 176 78 0 0 98 0
6 5 143 45 0 0 98 0
7 6 188 59 0 31 98 0
8 7 247 83 0 65 98 0
9 8 343 111 0 134 98 0
10 9 450 156 0 196 98 0
11 10 674 262 0 314 98 0
12 11 776 310 0 368 98 0
13 12 1120 484 0 537 98 0
14 13 969 429 0 442 98 0
15 14 1112 493 0 521 98 0
16 15 1036 481 0 456 98 0
17 16 1076 569 0 409 98 0
18 17 916 464 0 354 98 0
19 18 844 445 0 301 98 0
20 19 616 355 0 163 98 0
21 20 598 350 0 149 98 0
22 21 560 333 0 128 98 0
23 22 537 324 0 115 98 0
24 23 474 289 0 87 98 0
Total - 13,951 6670 0 4925 2356 0

6. Results and Discussion

6.1. Analysis of the Hourly Temperature Profile of the Building on the Hottest Day
From the temperature profile of 28 May, which was the hottest day, the findings of the
simulation indicate that while the temperature inside Zone 1 stayed much lower at 18 ◦ C,
the outside temperature peaked at about 40 ◦ C between 12 and 2 p.m. This indicates how
well the building’s materials and design worked to keep the interior environment cooler
despite the high outside temperatures. Furthermore, the peak hours for wind and solar
radiation were, respectively, 3 and 5 p.m. and 11 a.m. and 2 p.m. These are contributory
variables that the passive design characteristics of the building effectively countered.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 18 of 21

6.2. Analysis of the Hourly Temperature Profile of the Building on the Coldest Day
The Ecotect analysis for 15 January, the coldest day, illustrates that, by 12 p.m., the
outside temperature was 6 ◦ C, and by 2 p.m., it was 10 ◦ C. Nonetheless, from 2 a.m. until
10 p.m., the inside temperature of the structure stayed comparatively constant, ranging
from 17 ◦ C to 18 ◦ C. This stability suggests that the interior temperatures are successfully
regulated by the building’s thermal mass and insulation, allowing for comfort without the
need for significant active heating systems. Throughout the day, variations in wind and
solar radiation intensity enhance the building’s resistance to outside weather changes.

6.3. Analysis of the Hourly Gains Profile of the Building on the Hottest Day
The energy gained per hour on 28 May showed that the HVAC systems used 1000 watts
at 7 a.m., 1100 watts at 8 a.m., and 1200 watts at 12 p.m., according to the simulation. This
slow rise corresponds with increasing outside temperatures, emphasizing the HVAC sys-
tem’s function in preserving comfort within. The efficiency of the system is demonstrated
by the internal zone being within acceptable thermal limitations despite the significant
energy use.

6.4. Analysis of the Monthly Heating-Cooling Load of the Building

According to the data for the monthly energy load of the building for cooling and
heating, January and December had a notable heating demand of 40,000 watts, which is
consistent with lower outside temperatures. On the other hand, May and June had the
highest cooling demand, using 340,000 and 380,000 watts, respectively. This significant
energy use highlights the necessity of passive cooling techniques and efficient insulation to
lessen reliance on active systems during the hottest summer months.

6.5. Analysis of the Hourly Gains Profile of the Building on the Coldest Day
On the coldest day (15 January), the hourly energy increased. The energy consumption
of the HVAC system was negative; it was −250 watts at 7 a.m., improved to −160 watts
at 8 a.m., and reached −80 watts by 12 p.m. This negative consumption suggests that
less energy is needed for heating, most likely because of the building’s thermal mass
and efficient passive heating elements. The building’s ability to sustain pleasant condi-
tions with low energy use is further confirmed by the internal zone temperature, which
remained consistent.

6.6. Analysis of Building’s Thermal Performance and Energy-Saving Measures

The thermal performance of this building’s external wall is better as compared to the
houses that exist in the neighborhood. The roof is specially treated for summer hot solar
radiation through passive techniques and methodology, having a 7-inch width while using
local materials to resist heat absorption in summer and absorb heat rays in winter. The
roof membrane is composed of steel guarders and T-iron with brick tiles. After the primary
member, the roof is covered by a thick layer of mud with a 3-inch thickness and a total of
7 inches. The roof is totally water-proofed by bitumen and finally covered with Chawka
local brick.
The ventilation heat gain and loss of the building is too much; we should consider
reducing the air exchange frequency in summer and winter, strengthening the seal, or
setting up a shelter to appropriately avoid wind at the entrance appropriately. The systems
and techniques used to control the indoor environment are the stack effect, catch/sucker
windows, construction system control through material, 18-inch width of exterior walls and
openings, controlling the emission of carbon and radiation through the green landscape,
and wind scope, and the inlet and outlet of the stack effect is achieved through the mumpty
for air flow.
Technically, windows have been considered a primary source of light and ventilation.
The size and placement of windows are measured as per the requirements of daylight,
privacy factors, and ventilation. The shape is rectangular as per the local style and sur-
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 19 of 21

rounded by horizontal and vertical shading devices. The glass is placed on the inner side
to defuse light and avoid glare and radiation, convection of direct light, and reflection.
Further, to provide pleasant, ventilated environments, the windows act as a scope to catch
the outside breeze passing through trees. Changes have been simultaneously made in
the design in Ecotect to improve the design, minimize its energy requirement, and reduce
carbon emissions.
The effectiveness of the building’s design is demonstrated by the investigation of
temperature profiles, energy consumption on the hottest and coldest days, and monthly
heating and cooling loads, as discussed above. The building uses passive design techniques
and materials that are produced locally to keep internal temperatures constant while
using less energy. Ecotect simulations confirm that energy-efficient, sustainable results
can be obtained by combining conventional techniques with contemporary equipment.
Subsequent research endeavors will try to refine these strategies and investigate novel
materials to improve energy efficiency under varied climatic conditions.

7. Conclusions
This study conducted a detailed energy analysis on a custom-designed residential
house, representing a traditional building, using Building Information Modeling (BIM),
specifically Ecotect. This method enabled the evaluation of the building’s energy require-
ments, load, and consumption, with the goal of proposing energy-saving measures. The
results confirmed that this objective was met successfully.
The model house was constructed using locally sourced materials, predominantly
stone, and traditional construction techniques. This choice resulted in low carbon emissions
and facilitated passive cooling and heating systems. The design was meticulously tailored to
respond to the local climate and environmental conditions, avoiding high-tech solutions and
relying on proven traditional methods. By prioritizing user needs and climatic sensitivities,
the study demonstrated that the selection of indigenous materials was crucial for achieving
green and energy-efficient outcomes. The BIM (Ecotect) simulations and analysis verified
that the building met the desired benchmarks for minimizing energy load and consumption.
The research identified four major sustainable and indigenous techniques to enhance
energy efficiency and sustainability:
1. Solar energy: Utilizing photovoltaic (PV) panels to harness solar energy.
2. Rainwater harvesting: Implementing channels throughout the roof to collect rainwater.
3. Biogas production: Using cattle waste to produce and assemble a biogas plant.
4. Integration of indigenous practices and digital strategies: Combining traditional
methods with modern digital tools to enable the house to produce its own energy and
reduce its carbon footprint.
Future work will involve a detailed carbon evaluation using BIM simulation and
advanced digital strategies to further integrate these indigenous techniques. This ap-
proach aims to advance sustainable building practices in challenging environments, ensure
practicality and acceptance in similar regions, and promote a comprehensive model for
sustainable living.

Author Contributions: Data curation, H.U., H.Y., I.A. and M.C.; Writing—original draft, H.U.;
Writing—review and editing, H.Z. and H.U.; All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Key R&D Program of China (2022YFC3803804 in
2022YFC3803800).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The dataset is available on request from the authors.
Sustainability 2024, 16, 6057 20 of 21

Conflicts of Interest: Author Meng Cong was employed by the company Architects Engineers Co.,
Ltd. of Southeast University. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict
of interest.

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