THE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF KENYA

HAILE SELASSIE AVENUE, P. O. BOX 52428, NAIROBI, 00200 TEL:+254 (020) 3343672, 2219929, 0732388765 EXT.268
SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Department of Chemical and Process Engineering
EMCI 1131: Introduction to Computing
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
1.1 What is a Computer?
Def.1: A Computer is an electronic device that accepts data, performs computations, and makes
logical decisions according to instructions that have been given to it; then produces meaningful
information in a form that is useful to humans. The name computer is derived from a Latin
word Computer, which has a meaning of, “to compute”.

Def.2: A computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in
its own memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future use.

Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

▪ Takes/accepts data as input
▪ Stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them when required
▪ Processes the data and transforms it into useful information
▪ Generates outputs
▪ Controls all the above four processes

1.2 Nature of Computers

The characteristics of a computer show the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money; labours etc. and they answer the questions like
why computers are used and why have they become so popular?

The following are items that characterize a computer:

▪ Speed: In general, no human being or any other device can compete to solve complex
computation, faster than computer.
▪ Accuracy: Since the Computer is programmed, so whatever input we give it, it gives
result with high degree of accuracy. In other words, it does computation with high
precision.
▪ Storage: Computer has the capacity to store mass volume of data with appropriate
format.
▪ Diligence: Computer never feels bored and it can work for hours and hours without any
break and creating error.
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 ▪ Versatility: Computers are multipurpose. A Computer can perform completely
different types of work at the same time.
▪ Power of Remembering: It stores data for future use.
▪ No IQ: Computer needs to be instructed to do its job i.e. it cannot think for itself.
▪ No Feeling: Computer does not have emotions, knowledge, experience and feeling.

1.3 The Computer System

A computer is actually a system (computer system) comprising the following elements:
▪ Hardware
▪ Software
▪ People ware
▪ Data

1.3.1 Hardware
The physical components of a computer system i.e. the tangible devices that can be seen,
touched and felt. The most common hardware components of a basic computer include a
keyboard, a monitor/screen and a system unit. However, hardware components generally fall
into five categories as follows:
▪ Input Devices ▪ Output Devices
▪ System Unit ▪ Communication Devices
▪ Secondary Storage

a) Input Devices
Input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment to provide data and
control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or other information
appliance. They translate data and programs that humans can understand into a form that the
computer can process. The most common input devices are the mouse and keyboard but there
are many more used to capture text, images, voice, video, and touch signals into the computer.

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b) System Unit
This is the electronic circuitry housed within the computer cabinet. It consists of the following
components: Central Processing Unit and Primary Memory.

Central Processing Unit (CPU): A CPU is brain of a computer. It is responsible for all
functions and processes. Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element
of a computer system. A microcomputer CPU is contained on a single integrated circuit or a
microprocessor chip.

The CPU controls and manipulates data to produce information. It also thinks for the computer
with the help of the human using it. The CPU performs calculations, compares data and
produces results.

The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

▪ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Executes all arithmetic and logical operations.
Arithmetic calculations like as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Logical operation like compare numbers, letters, or special characters (=, <, >)

▪ Control Unit (CU): controls and co-ordinates computer components:

o Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.
o Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
o Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory.
o Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
o If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct
the hardware to perform the requested operation.
o
▪ Registers: Stores the data that is to be executed next, "very fast storage area".
▪ Primary Memory
▪ RAM: Random Access Memory (RAM) is a memory scheme within the computer
system responsible for storing data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly
accessed by the processor as and when needed. It is volatile in nature, which means
that data will be erased once supply to the storage device is turned off. RAM stores
data randomly and the processor accesses these data randomly from the RAM
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 storage. RAM is considered "random access" because you can access any memory
cell directly if you know the row and column that intersect at that cell.

▪ ROM (Read Only Memory): ROM is a permanent form of storage. ROM stays
active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off. ROM devices do
not allow data stored on them to be modified.

c) Secondary Memory
Stores data and programs permanently: it is retained after the power is turned off.
▪ Hard drive (HD): A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a "disk drive," "hard drive," or
"hard disk drive," that store and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data
on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces.

▪ Optical Disk: an optical disc drive (ODD) is a disk drive that uses laser light as part of the
process of reading or writing data to or from optical discs. Some drives can only read from
discs, but recent drives are commonly both readers and recorders, also called burners or
writers. Compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which
can be read and recorded by such drives. Optical drive is the generic name; drives are
usually described as "CD" "DVD", or "Bluray", followed by "drive", "writer", etc. There
are three main types of optical media: CD, DVD, and Blu-ray disc. CDs can store up to 700
megabytes (MB) of data and DVDs can store up to 8.4 GB of data. Blu-ray discs, which
are the newest type of optical media, can store up to 50 GB of data. This storage capacity
is a clear advantage over the floppy disk storage media (a magnetic media), which only has
a capacity of 1.44 MB.

▪ Flash Disk: A storage module made of flash memory chips. A Flash disks have no
mechanical platters or access arms, but the term "disk" is used because the data are accessed
as if they were on a hard drive. The disk storage structure is emulated.

Comparison between Main Memory (RAM) and Secondary Memory (Hard Disk)

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d) Output Devices
An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the
results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer)
which converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form.

e) Software
Software is a generic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions, often
broken into two major categories: system software that provides the basic non-task-specific
functions of the computer, and application software which is used by users to accomplish
specific tasks.

There are two types of software:

A. System software is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system so that other software and the users of the
system see it as a functional unit without having to be concerned with the low-level details
such as transferring data from memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display. Generally,
system software consists of an operating system and some fundamental utilities such as
disk formatters, file managers, display managers, text editors, user authentication (login)
and management tools, and networking and device control software.

B. Application software is used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the
computer system. Application software may consist of a single program, such as an image
viewer; a small collection of programs (often called a software package) that work closely
together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet or text processing system; a larger
collection (often called a software suite) of related but independent programs and packages
that have a common user interface or shared data format, such as Microsoft Office, which
consists of closely integrated word processor, spreadsheet, database, etc.; or a software
system, such as a database management system, which is a collection of fundamental
programs that may provide some service to a variety of other independent applications.

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 Comparison Application Software and System Software

1.4 Types/Classification of Computers

There are different types of Computers. Besides size and purpose of application, their
differences also stem from variations in terms of how they function or method of operation.
1.4.1 Classification by the Method of Operation (Processing)
a) Analog Computers
Analog computers operate by measuring. They deal with continuous variables; as opposed to
discrete values or numbers, rather, they operate by measuring physical magnitude such as
pressure, temperature, voltage, current etc.
Examples:
▪ Thermometer, Voltmeter, Speedometer
▪ Gasoline pump – Contains an analogue computer that converts the flow of pumped fuel
into two measurements the price of the delivered gas and the quantity of pumped fuel.
▪ Other Examples?
Note: They are special purpose computers, and they are known for limited accuracy.
b) Digital Computers
Digital computers deal with discrete variables; they operate by counting rather than measuring.
They operate directly upon numbers (or digits) that represent numbers, letters, or other special
symbols.
Examples:
▪ Abacus
▪ Desk & pocket computers
▪ The general purpose computers
Note: Digital computers have higher accuracy and speed than the analogue ones.
c) Hybrid Computers
The best features of analogue and digital computers can be combined into a single device to
form a hybrid computer. A hybrid computer processes the information by collecting input data
with analogue methods and converting it into digital quantities; processes the digital values and
then converts the output from digital to analogue form.

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Example: In hospital or healthcare centres, analogue devices can be used to measure a patient’s
heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements can then be converted
into numbers and supplied to a digital component in the system. This component is used to
monitor the patient’s vital signs and sends an immediate signal to the healthcare station if any
abnormal readings are detected.

1.4.2 Classification by Purpose of Application

Computers can be applied or used for different purposes. Based upon their application, they
are classified as special purpose or general-purpose computers.
a) Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of problem, that is their components and functions are
uniquely adapted to a specific situation involving specific application.
Example:
▪ The public telephone box
▪ Traffic control system
▪ Ticket machines (used in grocery, super markets etc.),
▪ Pocket calculator
▪ Counters
▪ Any other examples?
Most analogue computers are special purpose computers.

b) General-purpose computers
They are designed to solve variety of problems through the use of “store program concept”. A
program or set of instructions designed to solve a problem is read and stored into the memory
and then executed by the computer one by one. The same computer can be applied to solve
another set of problem using different program. General purpose computers are more flexible
and versatile.
Examples:
▪ Micro computers
▪ Mini computers
▪ Super computers etc.

1.4.3 Classification by Physical Size, Capacity and Performance

At this stage, by a computer, we mean a general-purpose digital computer. There is a wide
variety of general purpose digital computers on the market place today, in terms of physical
size, price, capacity, and performance. They are classified as follows by their capacity and size:
a) Super Computers
Super computers are the fastest, largest and most potential types of computer. They have speed
of hundreds of millions of operation per second, a primary memory capacity of about 80 million
characters, and a secondary memory of capacity of about 20 times its primary memory.

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They are multi-user systems in intercontinental range and can carry out enormously complex
scientific calculations. They are used to process huge amount of data and are commonly used
in areas where there is a pressing need for big storage as well as performance capacity.
Sectors where Super computers are in high demand include space technology centres,
meteorology stations, astronomical observatories, intercontinental communications, airline
organizations.
b) Mainframe computers
Smaller than supercomputers in size and capacity, lower in speed & memory capacity than the
supercomputers. However, they are multi-user systems and handle hundreds of users, usually
used in large organizations.
c) Mini computers
Have relatively lower speed, can handle multi-users, are smaller in size than the mainframe
computers. They use terminals for inputs and output. Mini computers are used in small
organizations.
d) Microcomputers
Microcomputer (personal or desktop computer) is a computer whose CPU is a microprocessor.
Microprocessor is a processor all of whose components are on a single integrated-circuit chip.
Since its CPU is integrated in a single circuit, it can serve only a single user at a time. Most of
home and personal office computers are microcomputers. The relative performance and usage
of personal computer is relatively increased with a very high rate.
Today, there are various types of microcomputers ranging from the traditional desktop/person
computers to smartphones.
Desktop Computer: This, in its traditional form, comprises of a separate system unit, monitor,
keyboard, mouse and other peripheral devices. However, modern desktop computers may only
consist of a monitor with inbuilt system unit.
Laptop: A laptop is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be easily carried and
used in a variety of locations. Many laptops are designed to have all of the functionality of a
desktop computer, whichmeans they can generally run the same software and open the same
types of files. However, some laptops, such as netbooks, sacrifice some functionality in order
to be even more portable.
Netbook: A netbook is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable. Netbooks
are often cheaper than laptops or desktops. They are generally less powerful than other types
of computers, but they provide enough power for email and internet access, which is where the
name "netbook" comes from.
Mobile Device: A mobile device is basically any handheld computer. It is designed to be
extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or in your pocket. Some mobile
devices are more powerful, and they allow you to do many of the same things you can do with
a desktop or laptop computer. These include tablet computers, e-readers, and smartphones.
Tablet Computers: Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable. However, they
provide a very different computing experience. The most obvious difference is that tablet
computers don't have keyboards or touchpads. Instead, the entire screen is touch-sensitive,
allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger as a mouse pointer. Tablet
computers are mostly designed for consuming media, and they are optimized for tasks like web
browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing games. For many people, a "regular"
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computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use some programs. However, the
convenience of a tablet computer means that it may be ideal as a second computer.
Smartphones: A smartphone is a powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a variety of
applications in addition to phone service. They are basically small tablet computers, and they
can be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, playing games and more.

1.5 History and Evolution of Computer Systems

1.5.1 History of Early Day Computers
The History of computer systems is about the developments from early simple devices to aid
calculation to modern day computers. The following are some of the calculating devices that
precede modern day computers:
a) Abacus
It is one of the earliest mechanical computational devices. The abacus was early used for
arithmetic tasks. It was in use in the Middle East as early as 2500 BC The familiar Chinese
abacus ( dating approximately 1200 AD ) is composed of a frame and a number of wires.
b) Pascal’s calculator
Pascal’s calculator was the first true mechanical calculator. In 1642, at the age of 19, the French
philosopher and mathematician Blaise Pascal developed a rotating wheel calculator, the
predecessor of the latter popular desktop calculator.
c) The Difference Engine
The difference engine is believed to be the forerunner of the modern computer. Charles
Babbage (1792-1871), a British mathematician and engineer, is considered by many to be the
real father of today’s computer was the developer of the difference engine and designer of the
analytical engine. He also designed a significantly improved version of the difference engine
(but not built) called Analytic engine. It has different key components:
▪ The store: A memory wheel consisting of set of counter wheels
▪ The mill: An arithmetic unit capable of performing the four basic arithmetic operations.
It operated on pairs of mechanical registers and produced a result stored in another
register, all of which were located in the store.
▪ Operation cards: These cards selected one of the four arithmetic operations by
activating the mill to perform the selected function.
▪ Variable cards: These cards selected the memory locations to be used by the mill for
a particular operation (a source of operand and the destination of the result).
▪ Output: was to print or a card punch device.
d) Herman Hollerith’s Tabulating Machine
Herman Hollerith was a statistician, in 1880; he developed the tabulating machine
commissioned by the U.S. Census Bureau.
e) Mark I
Developed by Howard Aiken at Harvard University in 1944, Mark I, was the first
electromechanical computer. Instructions were provided by means of punched paper tape,
which combined the functions of Babbage’s operation cards and variable cards. Each
instruction had the format: A1 A2 OP, where A1 and A2 are registers storing the operands and
OP is the operation to be performed (e.g. +, -, x, %). Mark I, was able to do a single addition
in 6 seconds and division in 12 seconds.

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f) ENIAC( Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)
Developed by Eckert and Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania. This was the first
electronic calculator and first general purpose digital computer. This machine was enormous,
weighing 30 tons, occupying 15,000 square feet of floor space and containing over 18,000
vacuum tubes. While running it used to consume over 140 KWh of power. It had the capacity
to perform 5,000 additions per second. Its memory consisted of 20 “accumulators” each
capable of holding a 10 digit decimal number. The following are some of the characteristics of
ENIAC.
▪ ENIAC did not use internally stored programs. Programs were wired on boards similar
to a telephone switch board.
▪ One of the major drawbacks of ENIAC was that it had to be programmed manually by
setting switches and plugging and unplugging cable

1.5.2 The Advent of Modern Days Computers

a) The Von Neumann Machine
The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. At the time
when ENIAC was first in use, the person named Von Neumann was the consultant on the
ENIAC project, having a closer look at of ENIAC’s shortcomings he forward advanced the
stored program concept, the then new concept enabled the computer to get its instruction by
reading them from memory alongside the data and a program could be set or altered by setting
the values of a portion of a memory. Based on this concept, the first true electronic computers
were developed by the name EDVAC( Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) and EDSAC(
Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer).
b) Commercial Computers
The 1950s saw the birth of computers industry with two companies, Sperry and IBM,
dominating the market place. In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly developed their successful
commercial computer called UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer).
c) Generations of Computers
Although computer professionals do not agree on exact dates or specifics, computer
developments are often categorized by generations. Actually there are four generations and
major characteristics that distinguish these generations are the following:
▪ Dominant type of electronic circuit elements used.
▪ Major secondary storage media used.
▪ Computer language used.
▪ Types or characteristic of operating system used.
▪ Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a word or data from memory).
Computer generations are usually categorized by dramatic improvement in the hardware,
typically refold or better increases in speed and reliability.
A. First generation (1950s)
▪ Used vacuum tubes as components for the electronic circuit.
▪ Punched cards were the main source of inputs, and magnetic grams were used for
internal storage.

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 ▪ Operate in a speed of milliseconds (thousandths of a second) and could handle more
than 10,000 additions each second.
▪ Most applications were scientific calculations.

B. Second generations (early 1960s)

▪ Transistors were the main circuit components. (Transistors are a solid state device
made from silicon which is smaller, cheaper, faster, dissipate less energy and more
reliable than vacuum tube but work in the same way with the vacuum tube.)
▪ Invented by Bell Labs.
▪ Magnetic tapes (similar with music tape caste), used for main storage,
▪ Operate in microseconds (millionths of a second) with more than 200,000 additions
possible each second.
▪ Business applications become more commonplace, with large data files stored on
magnetic tape and disk. (Magnetic disk: is a circular platter constructed of metal or
plastic materials coated with magnetizable substance.)
▪ High-level languages COBOL and FORTRAN were introduced during this period.
Batch operating systems are used that permitted rapid processing of magnetic tape files.

C. Third generation (late 1960s, early 1970s)

Characterized by solid-state logic and integrated circuit (IC). (A single, self-contained
transistor is called discrete component. In early 1960, electronic equipment composed of
discrete components transistors, capacitors, resistors, were available:
▪ Computer storage switched from magnetic cores to integrated circuit boards that
provide modularity (expandable storage) and compatibility (interchangeable
equipment)
▪ New input/output methods such as optical scanning and plotters.
▪ Software become more important with sophisticated operating systems, and
improved programming languages.

D. Fourth generation (late 1970s, early 1980s,)

▪ Greatly expanded storage capabilities and improved circuitry.
▪ Has a large-scale integrated circuits (LSI) which has several hundred thousands
transistors placed on one tiny silicon chip.
▪ Computer memory operates at speeds of nanoseconds (billionths of a second) with
large computers capable of adding 15 million numbers per second.

E. Fifth generation
The fifth generation computer development is still in progress. An architecture, which makes
use of the changes in technology and allows a simple and natural methodology for solving
problems, is being sought. These computers will have intelligent processors i.e., processors
which can draw inferences. Users will also be able to interact with them in natural languages
such as in plain English or a particular language of choice.

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1.6 Definition of Key Terminologies/Concepts
1.6.1 Data
Data is an individual unit that contains raw materials (facts, figures, symbols etc.) that do not
carry any specific meaning.
1.6.2 Information
Information is a group of processed data that collectively carries a logical meaning.
1.6.3 Register
Small memory units used to store intermediary results.
1.6.4 Networking:
The interconnection of two or more computers to exchange/share information.
1.6.5 Internet
The network of networks.
1.6.6 Computer Science
Computer Science is the study of Computers and Computational systems. It is a science
concerned with the representation, storage, manipulation or processing and presentation of
information. Like any other science, which uses some devices for the practical aspect, computer
Science uses an electronic or digital device called Computer.
Like other sciences, Computer Science has different fields of specialization or sub-disciplines.
Major Fields of study in Computer Science include artificial intelligence, computer systems
and networks, security, database systems, human computer interaction, vision and graphics,
numerical analysis, programming languages, software engineering, bioinformatics and theory
of computing. A description for some of the disciplines is given below:
▪ Software engineering: It is concerned about the development of a better quality
software by applying scientific and basic engineering principles.
▪ Computer Networks: It is concerned with connecting computers for the purpose of
sharing resources.
▪ Database Systems: involves the study and design of efficient methods for information
storage, process & retrieval.
▪ Artificial Intelligence: It is concerned with the means by which Computers can
perform tasks that would be characterized as intelligent if performed by human beings.
▪ Register: small memory units used to store
▪ intermediary results.
▪ Networking: the interconnection of two or
▪ more computers.
▪ Internet: the network of networks.
1.6.7 Information Technology (IT)
The term Information Technology is defined as the study or use of systems (especially
computers and telecommunications) for storing, retrieving, and sending information. It refers
to the uses of computers, networking, software and other equipment to manage information.
In the modern world, information technology is integral to the success of business and most
companies are equipped with computers, DBMS (Database Management Systems),
servers(computers with high computing capacity) for storing, processing, retrieving and
protecting information of the company.

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1.6.8 Information and Communication Technology(ICT)
ICT is an umbrella term that includes communication device or application, encompassing:
radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite
systems, etc. and all the technical means for processing and communicating information .
The terms encompasses both digital as well as pre-digital technologies, including paper-based
writing. However, it is most often used to describe digital technologies including:
▪ Components of data communication such as communication protocols, transmission
techniques, communications equipment, transmission medium. , as well as
▪ available techniques for data storage and information processing.

The term has been coined out due to the convergence of information technology (IT) and
telecommunication technology. In a nutshell ICT encompasses elements such as storage media
to record information (whether paper, pen, magnetic disk/ tape, optical disks - CD/DVD, flash
memory etc.); and also technology for broadcasting information - radio, television,; and any
technology for communicating through voice and sound or images- microphone, camera,
loudspeaker, telephone to cellular phones and the Internet .

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