24ESC131/231 Basic Electronics Dept.

ECE

MODULE-1 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE AND TRANSISTOR

Semiconductor Diodes and Applications: P-N Junction diode – its principle,

characteristics and parameters

Applications: Half-Wave Rectifier, Full Wave Rectifier (Two Diode, Bridge Rectifier),
Zener diode as Voltage regulator.

Bipolar Junction Transistor: BJT Operation, BJT Voltages and Currents, BJT as a
switch, Common Emitter Characteristics, Numerical examples as applicable.

1.1 Electronics: The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction
through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor is known as electronics.

An electronic device controls the movement of electrons. The study of electronic

devices requires a basic understanding of the relationship between electrons and the
other components of an atom. The movement of electrons within a solid and the
bonding forces between atoms can then be investigated. This leads to a knowledge of
the differences between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors, and to an
understanding of p-type and n-type semiconductor material. Junctions of p-type and
n-type material (pn-junctions) are basic to all semiconductor devices.

The atom consists of a central nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons. The electrons
have a negative charge, and the nucleus contains protons that are positively charged.

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Figure 1 – Atomic Structure

Figure 2 - Two-dimensional representations of silicon and germanium atoms. The

outer shells have four electrons and four holes.

Figure 3 – Energy band diagrams for insulators, semiconductors, and conductors.

Semiconductor atoms normally have four outer-shell electrons and four holes, and
they are so close together that the outer-shell electrons behave as if they were orbiting
in the valence shells of two atoms. In this way each valence-shell electron fills one of
the holes in the valence shell of an adjacent atom. This produces a bonding force
referred to as covalent bonding. It would appear that there are no holes and no free

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electrons drifting about in the semiconductor material. In fact, some of the electrons
are so weakly attached to their atoms that they can be made to break away to create a
current flow when a volage is applied.

As shown in fig. 3, The forbidden gap in a semiconductor is very much narrower than
that in an insulator, and the application of small amounts of energy can raise electrons
from the valence band to the conduction band. Sufficient thermal energy for this
purpose is available when the semiconductor is at normal room temperature. If a
voltage is applied to the semiconductor, conduction can occur by both electron
movement in the conduction band and by hole transfer in the valence band.

Properties of Semiconductors

(i) The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a
conductor.

(ii) Semiconductors have negative temperature co-efficient of resistance i.e. the

resistance of a semiconductor decreases with the increase in temperature and vice-
versa. For example, germanium is actually an insulator at low temperatures but it
becomes a good conductor at high temperatures.

(iii) When a suitable metallic impurity (e.g. arsenic, gallium etc.) is added to a
semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably.

1.1.1 n-TYPE AND p-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS

Doping: Pure semiconductor material is known as intrinsic material. The process of

adding the atoms to intrinsic is termed doping. To make the semiconductor conduct
electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added. Two different types of
doping are possible: donor doping and acceptor doping. After doping, the
semiconductor material is known as extrinsic material.

Donor Doping – n – type semiconductor:

Impurity atoms with five valence-shell electrons (Pentavalent: antimony,

phosphorus, and arsenic) are added to the semiconductor material.

Acceptor Doping – p – type semiconductor:

Impurity atoms with three valence-shell electrons (trivalent: boron, aluminium, and
gallium) are added to the semiconductor material.

1.1.2 THE pn-JUNCTION

Junction of p-Type and n-Type

When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor the

contact surface is called a P-N junction. The p-n junction is also called as

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semiconductor diode. A diode is a simple electrical device that allows the flow of
current only in one direction. So, it can be said to act somewhat like a switch.

Figure 4 – pn junction diode – material view

Figure 5 – Diode symbol

As shown in figure 5, in the n-type layer, electrons are the majority charge carriers,
and holes are the minority charge carriers. In the p-type layer, holes are the majority
charge carriers, and electrons are the minority charge carriers. Due to the
concentration difference, diffusion occurs in majority charge carriers and recombines
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with minority charge carriers, which in turn are collected near the junction. This
region is known as the depletion region.

The initial diffusion of charge carriers creates a barrier voltage at the junction, which
is negative on the p-side and positive on the n-side.

The magnitude of the barrier voltage at a pn-junction can be calculated from a

knowledge of the doping densities, electronic charge, and junction temperature.
Typical barrier voltages at 25°C are 0.3 V for germanium junctions and 0.7 V for
silicon. The barrier voltage opposes majority charge carrier flow and assists the flow
of minority charge carriers across the junction.

Biasing: Connecting supply voltage to the pn junction diode is called biasing. There
are two types of biasing namely forward biasing and reverse biasing.

Reverse Bias Condition

When the p type of the diode (anode) is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery and the n type of the diode (cathode) is connected to the positive terminal of
the battery, then this type of connection is called a reverse bias condition.

Forward Bias Condition

When the p type of the diode (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the n type of the diode (cathode) is connected to the negative terminal of
the battery, then this type of connection is called a forward bias condition.

Characteristics of Diode

The characteristics of the diode can be understood under the following topics:

• Forward-Biased Diode
• Reverse-Biased Diode
• Zero-biased diode or unbiased diode
Forward-Biased Diode

• When the diode is forward biased, due to the negative terminal on the n-side,
electrons from the n-side are pushed towards the p-region.
• Similarly due to positive voltage on the p-side of the diode, Holes from the p-
region are pushed towards n-side.
• Due to this the electrons will start converting the positive ions in the p-region
into neutral atoms and holes will start converting the negative ions in the n-
region to neutral atoms.
• Hence width of the depletion region starts reducing due to reduction in the
barrier potential. So current to flow from anode to cathode.
• At 0.6V in silicon, the depletion region resistance is completely negligible.
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Reverse-Biased Diode

• When the diode is reverse biased, the hole from the p-side will get attracted
towards the negative terminal of the supply and electrons from the n-side are
attracted towards the positive terminal.
• Hence the process of widening of the depletion region takes place and hence
more and more opposition to the flow of current takes place.

Figure 6 – Forward and Reverse Bias Diode

Figure 7 – VI characteristic of pn junction diode

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1.1.3 Diode Specification:

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV): The maximum voltage that a diode can withstand in the
reverse direction without breaking down.

Average Forward Current [IF(AV)]: The maximum average current that a diode can
conduct in the forward bias direction at the normal Temperature.

Froward Surge Current [IFS]: The maximum instantaneous current that a diode can
handle in the forward direction (say, up to one second).

Maximum Forward Voltage [VFM]: The voltage required to get current to flow across
the diode's junction.

Forward Voltage [VF]: The minimum voltage required to turn on an electrical

component and allow current to flow through it.

Reverse Current [IRM]: It is the maximum reverse saturation current at the maximum
reverse voltage at a given temperature.

Reverse Recovery Time [trr]: It is the maximum time taken by the device to switch
from ON to OFF state.

Power Dissipation [PD]: Power dissipation of the diode is the value of power that can
be dissipated by the device under specified temperature and normal operation of the
device. The maximum value of power, which a diode can dissipate without failure is
called power rating.

Shockley Equation

The equation relating pn-junction current and voltage levels is called the Shockley
equation.

Junction Voltage

The equation for the junction voltage for a given forward current.

1) For the silicon pn-junction, calculate the junction forward-bias voltage required to
produce a current of (a) 0.1 mA, (b) 10 mA.

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2) Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a silicon diode with the
characteristics Ip = 100 mA and at Vp = 50 V.

Dynamic Resistance:

The dynamic resistance of the diode is the resistance offered to changing levels of
forward voltage.

3) Determine the dynamic resistance at a forward current of 70 mA for the diode

characteristics given as ∆IF = 60 mA and ∆VF =0.025 V, estimate the diode dynamic
resistance.

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4) A silicon diode is used in the circuit shown in Fig. 2-9. Calculate the diode current.

1.1.4 Diode Applications

A PN junction diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one
direction. This property makes it useful for a variety of applications, including:

1. Rectification

The most common application of a PN junction diode is rectification, which is the

process of converting alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This is done by
allowing current to flow through the diode in one direction only, blocking the flow of
current in the opposite direction.

2. Voltage regulation

PN junction diodes can also be used to regulate voltage. This is done by using a diode
to limit the voltage that can be applied to a circuit. When the voltage exceeds a certain
level, the diode will start to conduct, shunting the excess voltage to ground.

3. Logic gates

PN junction diodes can be used to create logic gates, which are electronic circuits that
perform logical operations. Logic gates are used in computers and other digital
devices to perform a variety of tasks, such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication.

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4. Optoelectronics

PN junction diodes can also be used in optoelectronic devices, which are devices that
convert light into electricity or electricity into light. Optoelectronic devices include
solar cells, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and photodiodes.

5. Sensors

PN junction diodes can also be used as sensors. For example, a diode can be used to
sense the presence of light, heat, or magnetic fields.

6. Power electronics

PN junction diodes are also used in power electronics, which is the field of electronics
that deals with the control and conversion of electrical power. Power electronics
devices include rectifiers, inverters, and voltage regulators.

7. Other applications

In addition to the applications listed above, PN junction diodes are also used in a
variety of other applications, including:

• Circuit protection: Diodes can be used to protect circuits from damage caused
by overvoltage or overcurrent.

• Signal processing: Diodes can be used to process signals, such as clipping,

clamping, and filtering.

• Frequency mixing: Diodes can be used to mix two or more signals to create a
new signal.

• Voltage multiplication: Diodes can be used to multiply the voltage of a signal.

PN junction diodes are versatile and important electronic devices that have a wide
range of applications. Their ability to conduct current in only one direction makes
them useful for a variety of tasks, from rectifying AC to regulating voltage.

1.2. Rectifiers:

One of the most important applications of diodes is rectification: conversion of

sinusoidal ac waveform into single-polarity half cycles. Rectification may be
performed by half-wave or full-wave rectifier circuits.

1.2.1. Half-wave rectifier:

Half wave rectifier consists of a single diode in series with load resistance. The ac
voltage across the secondary winding A & B is applied across a junction diode, then
the current will flow only in the part where it is forward biased.

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Types of half-wave rectifiers:

1. Positive half-wave rectifier

2. Negative half-wave rectifier

1.2.1.1. Positive half-wave rectifier

• An alternating input voltage is applied via a transformer (T1) to a single diode

connected in series with a load resistor RL.
• The transformer is normally necessary to dc- isolate the rectifier circuit from
the ac supply.
• The diode is forward-biased during the positive half cycles of the input
waveform, and reverse-biased during the negative half cycles.
• Substantial current flows through RL only during the positive half cycles of the
input.
• For the duration of the negative half cycles, the diode behaves almost as an
open switch. The output voltage waveform developed across RL, is a series of
positive half cycles of alternating voltage with intervening very small negative
voltage levels produced by the diode reverse saturation current.

Figure 8 – Positive half-wave rectifier.

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Peak output voltage:

When the diode is forward-biased, the voltage drops across it is VF, and the output
voltage is (input voltage) — VF.

Vpi = 1.414Vi, where Vi is the rms level of the sinusoidal input voltage to the rectifier
circuit (from the transformer output).

Peak forward current:

During the negative half-cycle of the input, the reverse-biased diode offers a very high
resistance. So, there is only a very small reverse current (Ip), giving an output voltage

While the diode is reverse-biased, the peak voltage of the negative half-cycle of the
input is applied to its terminals. Thus, the peak reverse voltage, or peak inverse
voltage (PIV), applied to the diode is

5) A diode with Vp = 0.7 V is connected as a half-wave rectifier. The load resistance

is 500 Q, and the (rms) ac input is 22 V. Determine the peak output voltage, the peak
load current, and the diode peak reverse voltage.

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1.2.1.2. Negative half-wave rectifier

• An alternating input voltage is applied via a transformer (T1) to a single diode

connected in series with a load resistor RL.
• The diode is reverse-biased during the positive half cycles of the input
waveform, and forward-biased during the negative half cycles.
• Substantial current flows through RL only during the negative half cycles of the
input.
• For the duration of the positive half cycles, the diode behaves almost as an open
switch. The output voltage waveform developed across RL, is a series of
negative half cycles of alternating voltage with intervening very small positive
voltage levels produced by the diode reverse saturation current.

Figure 9 – Negative half-wave rectifier.

1.2.2. Full-wave rectifier:

Two-Diode Full-Wave Rectifier

• The full-wave rectifier circuit uses two diodes, and its input voltage is supplied
from a transformer (T1) with a centre-tapped secondary winding.
• The circuit is essentially a combination of two half-wave rectifier circuits, each
supplied from one half of the transformer secondary.
• When the transformer output voltage is positive at the top, the anode of D1 is
positive, and the centre tap of the transformer is connected to the cathode of D1
by RL. Consequently, D1, is forward-biased, Load current flow through T1 top
winding (+) –> D1 -> RL ->centre tap of the transformer T1.

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• During this time, the polarity of the voltage from the bottom half of the trans
former secondary causes diode D2 to be reverse-biased.
• For the duration of the negative half-cycle of the transformer output, the
polarity of the transformer secondary voltage causes D1 to be reverse-biased
and D2 to be forward-biased. IL flows from the bottom terminal the transformer
secondary through diode D2, through RL, from top to bottom, and back to the
transformer centre tap.
• The output waveform is the combination of the two half-cycles, that is, a
continuous series of positive half- cycles of sinusoidal waveform. This is
positive full-wave rectification.

Figure 10 - Positive full-wave rectification.

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Two diode negative full-wave rectification is produced by connecting the diodes to

conduct during negative half-cycles of the transformer output.

Figure 11 - Negative full-wave rectification.

Why bridge rectifier or four diode rectifiers?

The centre-tapped transformer used in the full wave rectifier is usually more
expensive and requires more space than additional diodes. So, a bridge rectifier is the
circuit most frequently used for full-wave rectification.

1.2.3 Bridge Rectifier

• The bridge rectifier circuit consist of four diodes connected with their arrow
head symbols all pointing toward the positive output terminal of the circuit.
• Diodes D1 and D2 are series connected, as are D3 and D4. The ac input
terminals are the junction of D1 and D2 and the junction of D3 and D4.
• During the positive half-cycle of input voltage, diodes D1 and D4 are in series
with RL. Load current (IL) flows from the positive input terminal through D1 to
RL and then through RL and D4 back to the negative input terminal. Note that
the direction of the load current through RL is from top to bottom.
• During this time, D2 & D3 are reverse-biased during the positive half-cycle of
the input.
• Diodes D2 and D3 are forward-biased during the negative half-cycle of the input
waveform, while D1 and D4 are reverse biased.
• Although the input terminal polarity is reversed, IL again flows through RL
from top to bottom, via D3 and D2. It is seen that during both half-cycles of the
input, the output terminal polarity is always positive at the top of R L and
negative at the bottom. Both positive and negative half-cycles of the input are
passed to the output. The negative half-cycles are inverted, so that the output
is a continuous series of positive half-cycles of sinusoidal voltage.

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Figure 12 - Bridge Rectifier

6) Determine the peak output voltage and current for the bridge rectifier circuit, when
Vi = 30 V, RL = 300Ω, and the diodes have VF = 0.7 V.

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1.2.4 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

Diodes designed for operation in reverse breakdown are found to have a breakdown
voltage that remains extremely stable over a wide range of current levels. This
property gives the breakdown diode many useful applications as a voltage reference
source and voltage regulators.

The electrons in the reverse saturation current can be given sufficient energy to cause
other electrons to break free when they strike atoms within the depletion region. This
is termed ionization by collision. The electrons released in this way collide with other
atoms to produce more free electrons in an avalanche effect. Avalanche breakdown is
normally produced by reverse voltage levels above 5 V. Although Zener and
avalanche are two different types of breakdowns, the name Zener diode is commonly
applied to all breakdown diodes.

Figure 13 – Zener Diode as Voltage regulator.

• The zener diode-based voltage regulator is usually employed as a voltage

reference source that supplies only a very low current (much lower than Iz) to
the output.
• Resistor R1 limits the Zener diode current to the desired level. Iz is calculated
as follows:

• The Zener current may be just greater than the diode knee current (Izk).
However, for the most stable reference voltage, Iz should be selected as IZT(the
specified test current).

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7) A 9 V reference source is to use a series-connected Zener diode and resistor

connected to a 30 V supply. Select suitable components, and calculate the circuit
current when the supply voltage drops to 27 V.

Data sheet for Zener diodes, shows that the most suitable device is a 1N757, which has
Vz = 9.1 V and IZT = 20 mA.

1.3 Bipolar Junction Transistor

A bipolar junction transistor is simply a sandwich of one type of semiconductor

material (p-type or n-type) between two layers of the opposite type. A block
representation of a layer of p-type material between two layers of n-type as shown in
figure 14. This is described as an npn transistor. The centre layer is called the base, one
of the outer layers is termed the emitter, and the other outer layer is referred to as the
collector. The emitter, base, and collector are provided with terminals, which are
appropriately labelled E, B, and C.

A small current at the central region terminal controls the much larger total current
flow through the device. This means that the transistor can be used for current
amplification and called current controlled device.

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Figure 14 - Block representation of npn and pnp bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).

Figure 15 – Circuit symbol representation of npn and pnp bipolar junction

transistors (BJTs).

Circuit symbols for pnp and npn transistors are shown in Fig. 15. The arrowhead on
each symbol identifies the transistor emitter terminal and indicates the conventional
direction of current flow. For a npn transistor, the arrowhead points from the p-type
base to the n-type emitter. For a pnp device, the arrowhead points from the p-type
emitter to the n-type base. Thus, the arrowhead always points from p to n.

Figure 16 – Depletion regions and barrier voltages at the junctions of an unbiased

npn BJT. The barrier voltage is always positive (+) on the n-side and negative (—) on
the p-side.
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1.3.1 npn Transistor Operation

Figure 16 illustrates the depletion regions and barrier voltages at the junctions of an
unbiased npn transistor.

• The outer layers are also much more heavily doped than the centre layer, so
that the depletion regions penetrate deep into the base, as illustrated.
• Because of this penetration, the distance between the two depletion regions is
very short (within the base).
• Note that the junction barrier voltages are positive on the emitter and collector,
and negative on the base of the npn device.

Figure 17 – Working operation of a npn BTJ.

• For normal operation, the base-emitter (BE) junction is forward-biased and

collector-base (CB) junction is the reverse- biased.
• The forward bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier voltage and causes
electrons to flow from the n-type emitter to the p-type base.
• The electrons are emitted into the base region: hence the name emitter.
• Holes also flow from the p-type base to the n-type emitter, but because the base
is much more lightly doped than the collector, almost all of the current flowing
across the BE junction consists of electrons entering the base from the emitter.
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• Thus, electrons are the majority charge carriers in a npn device.

• The reverse bias at the CB junction causes the CB depletion region to penetrate
deeper into the base than when the junction is unbiased.
• The electrons crossing from the emitter to the base arrive quite close to the large
negative-positive electric field (or barrier voltage) at the CB depletion region.
• Because electrons have a negative charge, they are drawn across the CB
junction by this bias voltage. They are said to be collected.
• Some of the charge carriers entering the base from the emitter do not reach the
collector, but flow out through the base connection.
• And because the base region is very lightly doped, there are few holes in the
base to recombine with electrons from the emitter.
• The result is that about 98% of the charge carriers from the emitter are drawn
across the CB junction to flow through the collector terminal and the voltage
sources back to the emitter.
• Increasing the BE bias voltage increases this current. Decreasing the BE bias
voltage to zero, or reversing it, cuts the current off completely.
• Thus, variation of the small forward-bias voltage on the BE junction controls
the emitter and collector currents, and the BE controlling voltage source has to
supply only the small base current.

1.3.2 pnp Transistor Operation

• In an unbiased pnp transistor, the barrier voltages are positive on the base and
negative on the emitter and collector
• The BE junction is forward-biased by an external voltage source, and the CB
junction is reverse-biased.
• In the lightly doped n-type base, the holes find few electrons to absorb. Some
of the holes flow out via the base terminal, but most are drawn across to the
collector by the positive-negative electric field at the reverse-biased CB
junction.
• Variation of the forward bias voltage at the BE junction controls the small base
current and the much larger collector and emitter currents.

The current flow in the device is due to both majority and minority carriers thus the
device is called bi polar junction transistor.

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Figure 18 – Depletion regions and barrier voltages at the junctions of an unbiased

pnp BJT.

Figure 19 – Working operation of a pnp BTJ.

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1.3.3 BJT Voltage and Current

Terminal Voltages

The terminal voltage polarities for a npn transistor are shown in Fig. 20

Figure 20 – A npn BJT must have its base biased positive with respect to its emitter,
and its collector must be biased more positive than the base.

Figure 21 – A pnp BJT must have its base biased negative with respect to its emitter,
and its collector must be biased more negative than the base.

For a npn transistor, the base is biased positive with respect to the emitter, and
the arrowhead points from the (positive) base to the (negative) emitter. The collector
is then biased to a higher positive voltage than the base.

Typical transistor base-emitter voltages are similar to diode forward voltages: 0.7 V
for a silicon transistor and 0.3 V for a germanium device. Typical collector voltages
might be anything from 3 V to 20 V for most types of transistors.

Transistor Current

• The current flowing into the emitter terminal is referred to as the emitter
current and is identified as IE.
• The current flowing into the collector terminal is referred to as the collector
current and is identified as IC.
• The current flowing into the base terminal is referred to as the base current and
is identified as IB.

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IE = IC+IB

Figure 22 - Terminal currents for a pnp & npn BJT. IE equals the sum of IC and IB.

• αdc (alpha dc) is the emitter-to-collector current gain, or the ratio of collector
current to emitter current. Typically range from 0.96 to 0.995

• The collector-base junction is reverse-biased, a very small reverse saturation

current (ICBO) flows across the junction.

• βdc (beta dc) is the Base-to-collector current gain, or the ratio of collector
current to base current. Typically range from 25 to 300.

8) Calculate IC and IE for a transistor that has αdc = 0.98 and IB = 100 µA. Determine
the value of βdc for the transistor.

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1.3.4 BJT Switching

A transistor can be used for switching operations or opening or closing of the circuit.
The main or basic concept of this operation relies on its operation generally low
voltage DC is on or off by the transistor in this mode.

• Cut- off (fully off)

• Saturation (fully on)

Cut-off Region

In the cut-off region of the transistor, it operates under conditions of zero input base
current (IB), zero output collector current (IC), and maximum collector voltage (VCE).
This configuration creates a significant depletion layer, preventing the flow of current
through the device and effectively switching it off.

Figure 23 – Cut off BJT configuration

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Saturation Region

In this the transistor will be biased so the maximum amount of the current is applied,
which results in the maximum collector current results in the minimum collector
emitter voltage drop which cause in depletion layer as a small as possible and
maximum current flowing through the transistor so the transistor is switched "Fully
ON".

Figure 24 – Saturated BJT configuration

9) Calculate IC, IB, and hFE for the switching circuit shown below. when Q1 is

switched into saturation.

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1.3.5 Common emitter configuration

Common emitter circuit:

The input voltage is applied between the base and emitter terminals, and the Output
is taken at the collector and emitter terminals, so that the emitter terminal is common
to both input and output hence called common emitter circuit.

Figure 25 - Circuit for investigating BUT common-emitter characteristics.

• Common-Emitter Input Characteristics

• Common-Emitter Output Characteristics

Common Emitter Input Characteristics:

When a graph is plotted against input voltage and input current keeping output
voltage constant, it is called input characteristic.

In CE mode VCE is held constant, VBE is set at convenient levels, and the corresponding
IB levels are recorded. IB is then plotted versus VBE,

Figure 26 - Common emitter input characteristics

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Common Emitter Output Characteristics:

When a graph is plotted against output voltage and output current keeping input
current constant, it is called input characteristic.

At each IB level, VCE is adjusted in steps and IC is recorded at each VCE step. The IC
values are plotted versus VCE for each IB level, to create the kind of output
characteristics family.

Figure 27 - Common emitter output characteristics

10) Determine the IB and IC levels for a device with the characteristics in Figs 26 and
27, when VBE is 0.7 V and VCE is —6 V. Calculate the value of βdc.

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Questions:
1. Using illustrations, explain how the depletion region and barrier voltage are
produced at a pn-junction. List the characteristics of the depletion region.
2. Draw a sketch to show the depletion region and barrier voltage at a pn-junction
with unequal doping of each side. Briefly explain.
3. A bias is applied to a pn-junction, positive to the p-side, negative to the n-side.
Show, by a series of sketches, the effect of this bias on depletion region width,
barrier voltage, minority carriers, and majority carriers. Briefly explain the
effect in each case.
4. A bias applied to a pn-junction, negative to the p-side and positive to the n-
side. Show, by a series of sketches, the effect of this bias on depletion region
width, barrier voltage, minority carriers, and majority carriers. Briefly explain
the effect in each case.
5. Sketch the voltage/current characteristics for a pn-junction (a) with forward
bias and (b) with reverse bias. Show how temperature change affects the
characteristics.
6. State typical values of barrier voltage for silicon and germanium junctions.
Discuss the resistances of forward-biased and reverse-biased pn-junctions.
7. State typical reverse saturation current levels for pn-junctions. Explain the
origin of reverse saturation current.
8. Sketch typical forward and reverse characteristics for a germanium diode and
for a silicon diode. Discuss the characteristics, and compare silicon and
germanium diodes.
9. For diodes, define forward voltage drop, maximum forward current, dynamic
resistance, reverse saturation current, and reverse breakdown voltage.
10. Show how the diode dynamic resistance can be determined from the forward
characteristics. Write an equation for calculating the dynamic resistance from
the de forward current.
11. Discuss the different types of junction breakdown that can occur in a reverse-
biased diode. Sketch the circuit symbol for a Zener diode, and briefly explain
Zener diode operation.
12. Sketch the circuit diagram for a Zener diode voltage regulator. Briefly explain
the circuit operation and discuss the effects of load current.
13. Sketch the ac equivalent circuit for a Zener diode voltage regulator. Write
equations for source effect and load effect.
14. Draw the circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier for producing a positive
output voltage. Sketch the input and output waveforms, and explain the circuit
operation.
15. Draw circuit diagrams to show two methods of producing a negative output
voltage from a half-wave rectifier. Briefly explain.

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16. Sketch a two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit for producing a positive output
voltage. Sketch the input and output waveforms and explain the circuit
operation.
17. Draw the circuit diagram for a bridge rectifier, together with its input and
output waveforms. Carefully explain the operation of the bridge rectifier
circuit, identifying the forward-biased and reverse-biased diodes during each
half cycle of the input waveform.
18. Draw diagrams to show how a negative output voltage can be obtained from:
(a) a two-diode full-wave rectifier circuit, (b) a bridge rectifier circuit. Briefly
explain.
19. Draw a block diagram of an unbiased npn BJT. Identify each part of the device
and show the depletion regions and barrier voltages. Briefly explain.
20. Draw a block diagram of an unbiased pnp BJT. Identify each part of the device
and show the depletion regions and barrier voltages. Briefly explain.
21. Sketch a correctly biased npn BJT. Show the effect of the bias voltages on the
depletion regions and barrier voltages. Show the movement of charge carriers
through the BJT. Explain the device operation.
22. Write equations for IC in terms of IE, and for IC in terms of IB. Define αdc, βdc,
and hFE and state typical values for each.
23. Discuss the operation of a BJT with its collector and base terminals connected
together.
24. Explain BJT common-emitter configuration and draw a circuit for determining
common-emitter characteristics.
25. Sketch typical BJT common-emitter input and output characteristics. Explain
the shape of the characteristics.

Numerical:

1. Calculate the static forward resistance for the characteristics in Fig. 1 at a 200
mA forward current. Determine the reverse resistance at 75 V reverse voltage.

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Figure 1 – Diode Characteristics

2. Determine the dynamic resistance at a 150 mA forward current for a diode with
the characteristics shown in Fig.1.
3. Calculate the forward current for a silicon pn-junction which has 0.65 V
forward bias. The reverse saturation current is 100 nA at 25°C.
4. A half-wave rectifier circuit has a 25 V (rms) sinusoidal ac input and a 600Ω
load resistance. Calculate the peak output voltage, peak load current, and diode
peak reverse voltage. Assume that VF= 0.7 V.
5. A half-wave rectifier circuit produces a 55 mA peak current in an 820Ω load
resistor. Calculate the rms ac input voltage and the diode peak reverse voltage
if VF = 0.7 V.
6. A 470Ω load resistor is connected at the output of a bridge rectifier circuit that
has a 15 V (rms) input. Calculate the peak output voltage, peak load current,
and load power dissipation. Assume the diodes have 0.3 V forward voltage
drop.
7. Calculate the values of IC and IE for a BJT with αdc= 0.97 and IB = 50µA.
Determine βdc for the device.
8. A BJT has the following measured current levels: IC =5.25 mA and IB = 100 µA.
Calculate IE, αdc and βdc, and determine the new IB level to give IC = 15 mA.
9. Calculate the collector and emitter current levels for a BJT with αdc = 0.99 and
IB = 20µA.
10. A BJT with measured current levels of IC = 16 mA and IE = 16.04 mA is replaced
with another BJT that has βdc = 25. Calculate the new level of IC and IE, assuming
that the base current remains constant.

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