Jayawant Shikshan Prasarak
Mandal
Surveying
Resource Manual
Author: - Prof. A.R. Deshmukh
Creation Date: - December 2014
Last Updated: - December 2014
Version: - 1
© JSPM Group of Institutes,Pune. All Rights Reserved. All the information in this
Course Manual is confidential. Participants shall refrain from copying, distributing,
misusing/ or disclosing the content to any third parties any circumstances
whatsoever.
Session 1: Geodetic Surveying
Session objective –
1) To get knowledge of Objects,
2) Methods of Geodetic surveying
Objects
The object of geodetic surveying is the determination of precise position of different
widely distant points on the surface of the earth.
Those points are referred to as control stations which are located through Geodetic
Survey are used as reference point in other surveys like engineering Survey,
topographical, cadastral, etc., Such surveys are conducted only by the agencies of the
Governments.
Methods of Geodetic surveying
The most common type of geodetic survey is known as triangulation. It differs from the
plane survey mentioned earlier in that more accurate instruments are used instrumental
errors are either removed or predetermined so that they can be compensated for in the
computations and more rigorous procedures are employed to reduce observational errors.
Another very important difference is that all of the positions established by triangulation
are mathematically related to each other.
Basically, triangulation consists of the measurement of the angles of a series of triangles.
The principle of triangulation is based on simple trigonometric procedures. If the distance
along one side of a triangle and the angles at each end of the side are accurately
measured, the other two sides and the remaining angle can be computed. Normally, all of
the angles of every triangle are measured for the minimization of error and to furnish data
for use in computing the precision of the measurements
The measured side of the base triangle is called a base line. Measurements are made as
carefully and accurately as possible with specially calibrated tapes or wires of invar, an
alloy highly resistant to changes in length resulting from changes in temperature. The
tapes or wires are checked periodically against standard measures of length (at the
Bureau of Standards in the United States and corresponding agencies in other countries).
The geodimeter and tellurometer, operating on electro-optical and electronic principles
respectively, have replaced the older methods of base measurement in the recent surveys.
The work can be completed more rapidly and accurately than with wire or tape. The laser
equipped geodimeter has proven to be the most accurate and it can measure much longer
distances without losing accuracy.
To establish an arc of triangulation between two widely separated locations, a base line
may be measured and longitude and latitude determined for the initial point at one end.
The locations are then connected by a series of adjoining triangles forming quadrilaterals
extending from each end.
Session 2: concept of triangulation
Session 2
Session objective –
1) Introduction to Triangulation
2) To understand classification of triangulation.
Introduction to Triangulation
Fig. 1
The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition
that if one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be
computed. Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the directions of the
remaining sides can be determined. A triangulation system consists of a series of joined
or overlapping triangles in which an occasional side is measured and remaining sides are
calculated from angles measured at the vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the
triangles are known as triangulation stations. The side of the triangle, whose length is
predetermined, is called the base line.
OBJECTIVE OF TRIANGULATION SURVEYS
The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of
stations whose relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are
accurately established. More detailed location or engineering surveys are then carried out
from these stations.
THE TRIANGULATION SURVEYS ARE CARRIED OUT
(i)To establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by
terrestrial methods
(ii)To establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
(iii) To assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making
observations for latitude, longitude and gravity.
(iv)To determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as;
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
PRINCIPLE OF TRIANGULATION
Fig. 1.2 shows two interconnected triangles ABC and BCD. All the angles in both the
triangles and the length
L of the side AB, have been measured.
Also the azimuth θ of AB has been measured at the triangulation station A, whose
coordinates (XA, YA), are known. The objective is to determine the coordinates of the
triangulation stations B, C, and D by the method of triangulation. Let us first calculate the
lengths of all the lines.
By sine rule in ΔABC, we have
Fig. 1.2 Principle of triangulation
Now the side BC being known in ΔBCD, by sine rule, we have
CLASSIFICATION OF TRIANGULATION SYSTEM
Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of
accuracy desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-
order or secondary, and third-order or tertiary.
First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to cover a
vast area like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation
system can be connected.
A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order
triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country, or province.
A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-order
triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for
detailed engineering and location surveys.
S.No. Characteristics First-order Second-order triangulation third-
triangulation triangulation order
1 Length of base lines 8 to 12 km 2 to 5 km 100 to 500 m
2 Lengths of sides 16 to 150 km 10 to 25 km 2 to 10 km
3 Average triangular less than 1" 8" 15"
error(after correction for
spherical excess)
4 Actual error of base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000
5 Probable error of base 1 in 10,00,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
6 Discrepancy between two 5 √k mm 10 √k mm 25√ k mm
measures (k is distance in
kilometre)
7 Probable error of the 1 in 50,000 to1 in 1 in 20,000 to1 in 1 in 5,000 to1 in
250,000 50,000 20,000
Session: 3
Session objective –
To study different Triangulation figures
Understand the well conditioned Triangle
Basic triangulation figures
The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic
quadrilateral, and the polygon with a central station (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3 Basic triangulation figures
The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows :
1. Single chain of triangles
2. Double chain of triangles
3. Braced quadrilaterals
4. Centered triangles and polygons
1 Single chain of triangles
When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as
a valley between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used
as shown in Fig. 1.4. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting
only four other stations, and does not involve observations of long diagonals.
On the other hand, simple triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route
through which distances can be computed, and hence, this system does not provide any
check on the accuracy of observations. Check base lines and astronomical observations
for azimuths have to be provided at frequent intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of
errors in this layout.
Fig. 1.4 Single of triangles
2 Double chains of triangles
A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 1.5. This arrangement is used for
covering the larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of
triangles system.
Fig. 1.5 Double chain of triangles
3 Braced quadrilaterals
A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals shown in Fig. 1.6 is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced
quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest
and the best arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths
of the sides using different combinations of sides and angles.
Most of the triangulation systems use this arrangement.
Fig. 1.6 Braced quadrilaterals
4 Centered triangles and polygons
A triangulation system which consists of figures containing interior stations in triangle
and polygon as shown in Fig. 1.7 is known as centered triangles and polygons
Fig. 1.7 Centered triangles and polygons
This layout in a triangulation system is generally used when vast area in all directions is
required to be covered. The centered figures generally are quadrilaterals, pentagons, or
hexagons with central stations.Though this system provides checks on the accuracy of the
work, generally it is not as strong as the braced quadrilateral arrangement. Moreover, the
progress of work is quite slow due to the fact that more settings of the instrument are
required
LAYOUT OF PRIMARY TRIANGULATION FOR LARGE COUNTRIES
The following two types of frameworks of primary triangulation are provided for a large
country to cover the entire area.
Fig. 1.8 Grid iron system of triangulation
1. Grid iron system
2. Central system.
1 Grid iron system
In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of triangles, which
usually runs roughly along meridians (north south) and along perpendiculars to the
meridians (east-west), throughout the country The distance between two such
Chains may vary from 150 to 250 km. The area between the parallel and perpendicular
series of primary triangulation, are filled by the secondary and tertiary triangulation
systems. Grid iron system has been adopted in India and other countries like Austria,
Spain, France, etc.
2 Central system
In this system, the whole area is covered by a network of primary triangulation extending
in all directions from the initial triangulation figure ABC, which is generally laid at the
centre of the country (Fig. 1.9). This system is generally used for the survey of an area of
moderate extent. It has been adopted in United Kingdom and various other countries.
Fig. 1.9 Central system of triangulation
Well conditioned triangles
The accuracy of a triangulation system is greatly affected by the arrangement of triangles
in the layout and the magnitude of the angles in individual triangles. The triangles of such
a shape, in which any error in angular measurement has a minimum effect upon the
computed lengths, is known as well-conditioned triangle
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one side is generally obtained from
computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two sides if any, will affect
the sides of the triangles whose computation is based upon their values. Due to
accumulated errors, entire triangulation system is thus affected thereafter. To ensure that
two sides of any triangle are equally affected, these should, therefore, be equal in length.
This condition suggests that all the triangles must, therefore, be isosceles.
Let us consider an isosceles triangle ABC whose one side AB is of known length (Fig.
1.10). Let A, B, and C be the three angles of the triangle and a, b, and c are the three sides
opposite to the angles, respectively.
As the triangle is isosceles, let the sides a and b be equal
Applying sine rule to ΔABC,
We have
Fig. 1.9 Triangle in a triangulation system
Session 4:
Session objective –
1) Selection of triangulation stations
2) Selection of the layout of triangles.
Criteria for selection of triangulation stations
1. Triangulation stations should be intervisible. For this purpose the station points should
be on the highest ground such as hill tops, house tops, etc.
2. Stations should be easily accessible with instruments.
3. Station should form well-conditioned triangles.
4. Stations should be so located that the lengths of sights are neither too small for too
long. Small sights cause errors of bisection and centering. Long sights too cause direction
error as the signals become too indistinct for accurate bisection.
5. Stations should be at commanding positions so as to serve as control for subsidiary
triangulation, and for possible extension of the main triangulation scheme.
6. Stations should be useful for providing intersected points and also for detail survey.
7. In wooded country, the stations should be selected such that the cost of clearing and
cutting, and building towers.
8. Grazing line of sights should be avoided, and no line of sight should pass over the
industrial areas to avoid irregular atmospheric refraction.
Criteria for Selection of the layout of triangles
The under mentioned points should be considered while deciding and selecting a suitable
layout of triangles.
1. Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.
2. Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably approximate squares.
3. Centered polygons should be regular.
4. The arrangement should be such that the computations can be done through two or
more independent routes.
5. The arrangement should be such that at least one route and preferably two routes form
well conditioned triangles.
6. No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the
series is used for computation.
7. Angles of simple triangles should not be less than 45°, and in the case of quadrilaterals,
no angle should be less than 30°. In the case of centered polygons, no angle should be
less than 40°.
8. The sides of the figures should be of comparable lengths. Very long lines and very
short lines should be avoided.
9. The layout should be such that it requires least work to achieve maximum progress.
10. As far as possible, complex figures should not involve more than 12 conditions.
It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known
side it does not affect the accuracy of triangulation.
Session 5
Session objective –
1) Determine the different cases for inter visibility
2) Use of different method for inters visibility.
Determination of inter visibility of triangulation stations
As stated above, triangulations stations should be chosen on high ground so that all
relevant stations are inter visible. For small distances, inter visibility can be ascertained
during reconnaissance by direct observation with the aid of binocular, contoured map of
the area, plane mirrors or heliotropes using reflected sun rays from either station.
However, if the distance between stations is large, the inter visibility is ascertained by
knowing the horizontal distance between the stations as under.
Case-I Inver visibility not obstructed by intervening ground
If the intervening ground does not obstruct the inter visibility, the distance of visible
horizon from the station of known elevation is calculated from the following formula:
Where,
h = height of the station above datum,
D = distance of visible horizon,
R = earth’s mean radius, and
m = mean coefficient of refraction taken as 0.07 for sights over
land, and. 0.08 for sights over sea.
Substituting the values of m as 0.071 and R as 6370 km in Eq. (1.13), the value of h in
meters is given by
h = 0.06735 D2 ... (1.14)
Where D is in kilometers
In Fig. 1.17, the distance between two stations A and B of heights hA and hB respectively,
is D. If DA and DB are the distances of visible horizon from A and B, respectively,
we have
Fig. 1.10 Inter visibility not obstructed by intervening ground
We have D = DA + DB
or
DB = D − DA
For the known distance of visible horizon DB as above, the height of station B is
computed. If the computed value is h'B , then h'B = 0.06735 2B D ... (1.16)
The computed value of height’
Bh is compared with the known value hB as below:
If hB ≥ hB', the station B will be visible from A, and
If hB < hB', the station B will not be visible from A.
If B is not visible from A, (hB' −hB) is the required amount of height of signal to be
erected at B. While deciding the intervisibility of various stations, the line of sight should
be taken at least 3 m above the point of tangency T of the earth’s surface to avoid grazing
rays.
Case-II Inter visibility obstructed by intervening ground
In Fig. 1.18, the intervening ground at C is obstructing the intervisibility between the
stations A and B.
From Eq. (1.15), we have
DA = 3.853 hA ... (1.17)
The distance DT of the peak C from the point of tangency T, is given by
DT = DA − DC ... (1.18)
Fig1.11. Intervisibility obstructed by intervening ground
If hC' >hC, the line of sight is clear of the obstruction, and it becomes Case-I discussed
above. If hC' <hC then the signal at B is to be raised. The amount of rising required at B
is computed as below.
From similar Δs A'C'C" and A'B'B" in Fig. 1.19, we
Alternate method (Captain G.T. McCaw’s method)
A comparison of elevations of the stations A and B (Fig. 1.20) decides whether the
triangulation stations are intervisible or not. A direct solution suggested by Captain
McCaw is known as Captain McCaw’smethod.
Let hA = elevation of station A
hB = elevation of station B
hC = elevation of station C.
2S = distance between A and B
(S + x) = distance between A and C
(S – x) = distance between C and B
h = elevation of the line of sight at C
ξ = zenith distance from A to B
= (90°-vertical angle)
From Captain McCaw’s formula
Practically in most of the cases, the zenith distance is very nearly equal to 90° and,
therefore, the value of cosec² ξ may be taken approximately equal to unity.
However, for accurate calculations,
In Eq. (1.23), the value of is usually taken as 0.06735.
Therefore
If h > hC , the line of sight is free of obstruction. In case h < hC, the height of tower to
raise the signal at B, is computed from Eqs. (1.21) and (1.22).
Example 1
Two stations A and B, 80 km apart, have elevations 15 m and 270 m above mean sea
level, respectively. Calculate the minimum height of the signal at B.
Solution:
It is given that
hA = 15 m
hB = 270 m
D = 80 km
From Eq. (1.15), we get
Hence, since the elevation of B is 270 m, the height of signal required at B, is
= 285.25 – 270 = 15.25 ~− 15.5 m.
Triangulation Adjustment
Unit Rationale
Upon completion Students will be able to: -
Eliminate Possibilities of errors to creep in, irrespective of the
precautions and precision exercised.
Correct linear and angular measurements.
Assess and distribute the errors by adopting statistical techniques.
Adjust the field measurements to provide MVP and consistent values
of the field observations.
Session 1
Session objective –
To study different types of errors and their nature
Quality of measurements by means of number of weight.
Nature of error
Errors in a measurement may be positive if the measurement is too large, or negative if
the same is too small as compared to its true value. Errors are classified as systematic
error and accidental errors.
Systematic error
These are the errors which occur from well understood causes and can be reduced by
adopting suitable methods. For example, the error due to sag of a tape supported at its
ends can be calculated and subtracted from each measurement. However, the tape can be
supported throughout its length at short intervals and the sag error may be reduced to a
negligible quantity. It always has the same magnitude and sign is long as the condition
remains the same, and such an error is called systematic error. Whereas system change
the magnitude of the error changes and is known as variable systematic error.
Accidental errors
These are the error due to a combination of cause and are beyond the control of the
surveyor. These can be positive or negative. Erroneous calibration of a chain is an
example of an accidental error.
There is reality no fixed boundary between the accidental and systematic error. Every
accidental error has some cause, and if the causes were perfectly understood and the
amount and sign could be determined, it would cause an accidental error, Would be
classed as systematic.
Concept of weights in measurements
Weight is the worth or reliability of one measurement relative to a standard or
another measurement.
Measurements with higher precision should be assigned higher weights
Measurements with higher weights should receive smaller corrections after an
adjustment
Weights are relative, and therefore, determined by comparing with another
measurement
Weights are inversely proportional to some precision index of measurements
Weight of a mean value computed from repeated measurements is proportional to
the number of repetitions
Weight assigned to an elevation difference, determined by differential leveling, is
inversely proportional to the number of set-ups or the length of the level line
Laws of weight
1. The weight of arithmetic mean of observation of individual weight is equal to the
number of observations.
𝑊
From equation 𝑤 =n, if w=1, then W=n.
2. The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean of observations of unit weight is equal to
the sum of the individual weights.
Let angle A be measured three times by the repetition method
<A weight
48028’8” 3
48020’10” 2
48020’12” 3
Sum of the weight 3+2+3 = 8
Weighted arithmetic mean=48020’+ (1/8)x(8”x3+10”x2+12”x3)
=48020’8”
Weight of the arithmetic mean 48 20’10” is 8.
0
3. If two or three quantities are added algebraically, the weight of the result is equal to the
reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual weight.
For example,
α= 46030’30” w=3; β=24042’20”, w=2
1
Weight of α+β(71012’50”)= 1 1 =(6/5)
( )+( )
3 2
4. If a quantity is multiplied by a factor, the weight of the product is equal to the weight
of that quantity divided by the square of the factor.
For example;
α=32012’12” and w=2, then weight of 3α(96036’36”)=(2/32)=(2/9)
5. If the quantity is divided by a factor, the weights of the result equal the weight of that
quantity multiplied by square of that factor.
For example; α=41031’15” and w=2 then
Weight of (α/3) x (13050’45”) = 2x32 = 18
6. If an equation is multiplied by own weight, the weight of the resulting equation is
equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the equation.
For example, let angle (A+B) = 189040’20” and weight of angle (A+B) = (4/9), then
weight of (4/9)(A+B), i.e. of 84017’55.55” = (9/4)
7. I f equation is added to or subtracted from a constant or if all the signs of the equation
are changed, the weight remains unchanged.
For example, if (<A+<B) = 78045’22” and its weight=3 then,
Weight of 1800 – (<A+<B), i.e. of 101014’38” = 3
Session 2
Session objective
To determine the most probable values (MPV) of observations
Determination of most probable values (MPV) of conditioned and independent
quantities
Two basic methods
• Direct adjustments - Adjustment of measurements
• Indirect adjustments - Computation of parameters directly by an adjustment procedure
An adjustment is performed when
• There are redundant measurements
• Only random errors are present in the measurements
Adjustments can be
• Simple, e.g. compass rule for traverses
• Rigorous, e.g. Least Squares
A rigorous adjustment can
• Accommodate different precision of measurements
• Yield most probable values for parameters
Direct Observation of equal weight
Probable error of a single observation,
Σ𝑣 2
Es = 0.6745√
𝑛−1
Also Es = 0.845v
Probable error of an average (arithmetic mean),
Em = Es/√𝑛
Probable error of a sum of measurements,
Esm =√(𝐸12 + 𝐸22 + 𝐸32 + 𝐸42 + 𝐸52 + ⋯ . . +𝐸𝑛2 )
Where n= number of observation in series
V= difference between any single observation and the mean of the series
E1, E2 ….En = probable errors of several observation which sum up in a measurement
Direct Observation of unequal weight
Probable error of a single observation of unit weight,
Σ𝑤𝑣 2
Esu = 0.6745√ 𝑛−1
Probable error of observation of weight w,
Esuw = Esu/√𝑤
Probable error of weighted arithmetic mean,
Esmw = Es/√Σ𝑤
Where w= weight of an observation
Indirect Observation of independent quantities
Probable error of an observation of unit weight,
Σ𝑤𝑣 2
Es = 0.6745√ 𝑛−𝑞
Probable error of an observation of weight
Esiw = Esi/√𝑤
Where q = number of unknown quantities.
Indirect Observation involving conditional equation
Probable error of an observation of unit weight,
Σ𝑤𝑣 2
Esic = 0.6745√𝑛+𝑝−𝑞
Probable error of an observation of weight w,
Esicw = Esic/√𝑤
Where p= number of condition
Session3
Session objective –
Able to distribute the errors
Able to find the MPV of a quantity which has been measured for several times.
Method of Least Squares
The principle of disturbing error by the method of least square is of great help to find the
most probable value of a quantity which has been measured for several times, perhaps by
different methods and different observers and calculating the trust worthiness of such a
value. In the method of least square, the discrepancies or error of the discrepent
observations are assumed to be of accidental nature only. According to this principle, the
most probable value of an accidental nature is the one for which sum of the square of the
error is a minimum.
The equation of the probability curve is
2
ℎ𝑒 −𝑛−𝜀
Y= √π
where h is the index of precision and y the probability of occurrence of an error
Let 1/√𝜋 =C, then
2
Y=Cℎ𝑒 −𝑛−𝜀
Differencing the above solution with respect to h and putting it equal to h and putting it
equal to zero for maximum y gives
1
𝜀2 = 2
2ℎ
Considering errors
2 1 1 1
𝜀12 + 𝜀22 + ⋯ + 𝜀𝑛 = 2+ 2 +⋯+
2ℎ1 2ℎ2 2ℎ𝑛2
1
Then 𝜀12 = 2ℎ2
1 1
As h increases, decreases, thus maximum accuracy is achieved when 𝜀12 = 2ℎ2 is
2ℎ 2
minimum.
The main object of the method of least square are (a) To determine the best values which
can possibly be obtained from a given set of measurement, (b) To determine the degree of
dependence which can be placed upon these values, (c) to enable us to trace to their
sources the various error affecting the measurements, And consequently, (d) to increase
the accuracy of the result by a proper modification of the methods and the instrument
used. The observer can modify his method of observing so as to reduce the effect of such
errors. Variations in the result, which are greater than the error of observation shown by
precision measures, are likely to mean that systematic error of observation is present.
This tracing of errors to their sources, and the consequent modification of instruments
methods, may constitute the most important application of the method of least squares.
Steps needed in a least squares adjustment
• Identify points (coordinates) or benchmarks (elevations) that need to be adjusted
• Identify coordinates, elevations, azimuths or any other quantities that will be held fixed
• Ensure that there are redundant measurements
• Organize measurements in some order
• Assign weights to different observations based on some precision estimate
• Form observation equations
• Form normal equations by minimizing sum of weighted squares of residuals
• Solve normal equations
• Analyze results
Session 4:
Session objective –
Able to distribute errors by direct method or method of difference
Distribution of error to the field measurement
The closing error is distributed to the various observed quantities as per the following
rule.
The correction is to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the
weight of the observation
The correction is to be applied to an observation is inversely proportional to the
square of the probable error
The correction to be applied to the line of levels is proportional to the length of
the route
Session 5: Method of correlates and Station adjustment
.Session objective –
Able to determine the most probable values of unknowns.
Method of correlates
Correlates are the unknown multiples or four independent constants used for finding most
probable values of unknowns.
The condition equation was used to eliminate one of the unknowns thus giving one more
observation equation. In the method of correlates, the equation of condition imposed by
the theory of least squares is used in addition to all the other available condition
equations. This method is very advantageous as the computations are reducing to a large
extent.
Figure adjustment
The strength of figure is a factor to be considered in establishing a triangulation system to
maintain the computations within a desired degree of precision. It plays also an important
role in deciding the layout of a triangulation system.
In any system of triangulation, determination of the most probable values of the angles so
as to fulfill the geometrical condition is called Figure adjustment. It is necessary to adjust
the angles so as to obtain the best possible and most probable value. The best solution can
be obtained by the method of least squares, also known as the rigid method. The
adjustment is usually done by an approximate method.
Triangulation Adjustment
Even after exercising care and taking all precautions, errors creep into the observation
made. In order to compute the coordinates of the triangulation stations, the observations
made are adjusted by distributing the observational errors. The most accurate method is
that of least squares but is very complicated since all the angles are simultaneously
involved. However, using an approximate method, the adjustment can be achieved by
adjusting angles, stations and figures separately. After adjusting the triangulation figure
the sine rule is applied for computing sides. Then the positions of the points are
determined by calculating the geodetic coordinates.
Station adjustment
The station adjustment consists of determining the most probable values of the angles
measured at a station so as to satisfy the geometric consistency. The various condition
can be 1.closing the horizon, 2.measuring the angles with equal or unequal weight, and
3.measuring different angles at a station individually or in combination. In the first case,
the error if any is disturbed equally to all the three angles. In second case it is distributed
inversely as the respective weight.
Session6
Session objective –
Able to determine the MPV of the angles for different geometrical conditions
Able to adjust the angles for MPV.
Able to apply the different methods for adjusting quadrilateral
Adjustment of a geodetic quadrilateral
In a geodetic quadrilateral, all the eight angles are measured are independently along the
two diagonals. In case the quadrilateral is of large size, the angle should be corrected for
spherical excess to deduce the plane angle for further adjustment. While standing on the
intersection of the diagonals looking towards the sides, angles 1,3,5,7 shown in fig are on
the right and are called right hand angles, whereas angles 2,4,6,8 will be on the left and
are called left hand angles.
3 4
2 5
1 6
8 7
The condition to be fulfilled by the adjusted values of angles is
Angle equations
‹1+‹2+‹3+‹4+‹5+‹6+‹7+‹8 =3600 ……… (1)
‹1+‹2 = ‹5+‹6 ………. (2)
‹3+‹4 = ‹7+‹8 ………. (3)
Side equations
If any one of a quadrilateral is known, then any other side can be computed by different
combinations of triangles. For a perfect quadrilateral, the computed side should be the
same, irrespective of the combination of triangles used. The condition is expressed as a
side equation which is:
∑log sin(‹1, ‹3, ‹5, ‹7 ) = ∑log sin(‹2, ‹4, ‹6, ‹8 )
Session7: Spherical triangle, Calculations of spherical excess
Session objective –
Able to apply the effect of curvature of earth in triangulation.
Spherical excess
In triangulation of a small area with sides of the triangles less than 3.5km, the triangles
are considered to be plane. But in a geodetic survey, the curvature of the earth is given
due consideration and the sides of triangles are considered to be arcs. The sum of three
angles will always be more than 1800 by an amount known as spherical excess. Its value
is approximately 1” for every 196km2 area. However, exact value may be calculated
from the following formula.
A
Spherical excess in degrees=∏𝑟 2 x1800
A
OR Spherical excess in seconds= ∏𝑟 2x1800 x60x60
A
=∏𝑟 2x648000
𝐴
=sin 1"𝑟 2
A
=𝑟 2x206265
Where
A= area of spherical triangle and r= radius of the earth (km).
Normal equations
The solution of the normal equations may be obtained by the direct method or by the
method of differences
a) Direct method
In the method each side of the observation equation is multiplied by the weight of
the observation. The weighted observations containing that quality are the
multiplied by their respective coefficients to yield normal equations. These
equations are then solved simultaneously to determine the individual and the most
probable values of the quantities.
b) Method of differences
In the beginning, the reported single observations are assumed to be the most
probable values, and for the remaining quantities, the most probable value is
obtained by subtracting it from two or three variable equations. Let the
discrepancy be k1, k2 …….etc. the observation equation are then formulated in
terms of k1, k2 ……etc. to express the discrepancies between the observed results
and those given by assumed values, always subtracting the latter from the former.
The equations thus obtained are multiplied by the respective weights, and the
normal equations are formed by multiplying each side by the coefficients of k 1, k2,
…..etc. these simultaneous equations are then solved for k1, k2,……etc. and are
added algebraically to the assumed values of the quantities.
The arithmetic work is reduced in this method and hence it is particularly
advantageous when the numbers of conditions are more.
Session8
Session objective –To determine the sides of a spherical triangle with different methods.
