Compressible Flow
By
Dr. Eng. Essam Elgendy
Objectives
• Develop the general relations for compressible flows encountered when gases
flow at high speeds.
• Introduce the concepts of stagnation state, speed of sound, and Mach number for
a compressible fluid.
• Develop the relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties for
isentropic flows of ideal gases.
• Derive the relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties as
functions of specific-heat ratios and Mach number.
• Derive the effects of area changes for one-dimensional isentropic subsonic and
supersonic flows.
• Solve problems of isentropic flow through converging and converging–diverging
nozzles.
• Discuss the shock wave and the variation of flow properties across the shock wave.
• Develop the concept of duct flow with heat transfer and negligible friction known
as Rayleigh flow.
• Examine the operation of steam nozzles commonly used in steam turbines.
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STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation (or total) enthalpy
Static enthalpy: the ordinary enthalpy h
Energy balance (with no heat or work
interaction, no change in potential energy):
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If the fluid were brought to a complete stop, the energy balance becomes
Stagnation enthalpy: The enthalpy of a fluid
when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
During a stagnation process, the kinetic energy of a fluid is
converted to enthalpy, which results in an increase in the
fluid temperature and pressure.
The properties of a fluid at the stagnation state are called
stagnation properties (stagnation temperature, stagnation
pressure, stagnation density, etc.).
The stagnation state is indicated by the subscript 0.
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Isentropic stagnation state: When the
stagnation process is reversible as well as
adiabatic (i.e., isentropic).
The stagnation processes are often
approximated to be isentropic, and the
isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas
with constant specific heats
T0 is called the stagnation (or total)
temperature, and it represents the
temperature an ideal gas attains when it is
brought to rest adiabatically.
The term V2/2cp corresponds to the
temperature rise during such a process and is
called the dynamic temperature.
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The pressure a fluid attains when
brought to rest isentropically is called
the stagnation pressure P0.
Stagnation density 0
When stagnation enthalpies are used,
the energy balance for a single-stream,
steady-flow device
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas
with constant specific heats
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SPEED OF SOUND AND MACH NUMBER
Speed of sound (or the sonic speed): The
speed at which an infinitesimally small
pressure wave travels through a medium.
To obtain a relation for the speed of sound
in a medium, the systems in the figures are
considered.
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Speed of
sound
For an ideal gas
Mach
number
Ma = 1 Sonic flow
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow
Ma 1 Transonic flow
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ONE-DIMENSIONAL ISENTROPIC FLOW
During fluid flow through many devices such as nozzles, diffusers, and turbine
blade passages, flow quantities vary primarily in the flow direction only, and the flow can
be approximated as one-dimensional isentropic flow with good accuracy.
EXAMPLE
A converging–diverging nozzle.
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We note from Example that the flow area
decreases with decreasing pressure up to a
critical-pressure value (Ma = 1), and then it
begins to increase with further reductions in
pressure.
The Mach number is unity at the location of
smallest flow area, called the throat.
The velocity of the fluid keeps increasing after
passing the throat although the flow area
increases rapidly in that region.
This increase in velocity past the throat is due to
the rapid decrease in the fluid density.
The flow area of the duct considered in this
example first decreases and then increases. Such
ducts are called converging–diverging nozzles.
These nozzles are used to accelerate gases to
supersonic speeds and should not be confused
with Venturi nozzles, which are used strictly for
incompressible flow.
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Variation of Fluid Velocity
with Flow Area
In this section, the relations for the
variation of static-to-stagnation property
ratios with the Mach number for pressure,
temperature, and density are provided.
This relation describes the variation of
pressure with flow area.
At subsonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in converging ducts (subsonic
nozzles) and increases in diverging ducts
(subsonic diffusers).
At supersonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic
nozzles) and increases in converging
ducts (supersonic diffusers).
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This equation governs the shape of a
nozzle or a diffuser in subsonic or
supersonic isentropic flow.
The proper shape of a nozzle depends on the
highest velocity desired relative to the sonic
velocity.
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a converging
nozzle at subsonic velocities and a diverging
nozzle at supersonic velocities.
To accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities, we
must use a converging–diverging nozzle.
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Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
The relations between the static
properties and stagnation properties
of an ideal gas with constant specific
heats
Critical
ratios
(Ma=1)
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ISENTROPIC FLOW
THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging or converging–diverging nozzles are
found in steam and gas turbines and aircraft and
spacecraft propulsion systems.
In this section we consider the effects of back
pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at the nozzle
discharge region) on the exit velocity, the mass
flow rate, and the pressure distribution along the
nozzle.
Converging Nozzles
Mass flow rate through a nozzle
Maximum mass flow rate
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Ma* is the local velocity
nondimensionalized with
respect to the sonic velocity at
the throat.
Ma is the local velocity
nondimensionalized with
respect to the local sonic
velocity.
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Converging–Diverging Nozzles
The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1), which
occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can be accomplished only by attaching
a diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the throat (a converging–diverging nozzle),
which is standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket propulsion.
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When Pb = P0 (case A), there will be no flow
through the nozzle.
1. When P0 > Pb > PC, the flow remains
subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the
mass flow is less than that for choked flow.
The fluid velocity increases in the first
(converging) section and reaches a
maximum at the throat (but Ma < 1).
However, most of the gain in velocity is lost
in the second (diverging) section of the
nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The pressure
decreases in the converging section, reaches
a minimum at the throat, and increases at
the expense of velocity in the diverging
section.
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2. When Pb = PC, the throat pressure becomes
P* and the fluid achieves sonic velocity at the
throat. But the diverging section of the nozzle
still acts as a diffuser, slowing the fluid to
subsonic velocities. The mass flow rate that
was increasing with decreasing Pb also
reaches its maximum value.
3. When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that achieved a
sonic velocity at the throat continues
accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section as the pressure decreases.
This acceleration comes to a sudden stop,
however, as a normal shock develops at a
section between the throat and the exit
plane, which causes a sudden drop in velocity
to subsonic levels and a sudden increase in
pressure. The fluid then continues to
decelerate further in the remaining part of
the converging–diverging nozzle.
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4. When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the
diverging section is supersonic, and the
fluid expands to PF at the nozzle exit with
no normal shock forming within the
nozzle. Thus, the flow through the nozzle
can be approximated as isentropic.
When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or
outside the nozzle.
When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and
expansion waves occur downstream of the
exit plane of the nozzle.
When Pb > PF, however, the pressure of the
fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in
the wake of the nozzle exit, creating what
are called oblique shocks.
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SHOCK WAVES AND
EXPANSION WAVES
For some back pressure values, abrupt
changes in fluid properties occur in a very
thin section of a converging–diverging
nozzle under supersonic flow conditions,
creating a shock wave.
We study the conditions under which shock
waves develop and how they affect the
flow.
Normal Shocks
Normal shock waves: The shock waves
that occur in a plane normal to the
direction of flow. The flow process
through the shock wave is highly
irreversible.
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Conservation of mass Fanno line: Combining the conservation of mass and
energy relations into a single equation and plotting it
on an h-s diagram yield a curve. It is the locus of
Conservation of energy states that have the same value of stagnation
enthalpy and mass flux.
Rayleigh line: Combining the conservation of mass
and momentum equations into a single equation and
Conservation of momentum plotting it on the h-s diagram yield a curve.
Increase of entropy
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The relations between various properties before and after the
shock for an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Various flow property ratios across the
shock are listed in Table A–33.
This represents the intersections of
the Fanno and Rayleigh lines.
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Since the flow across the shock is
adiabatic and irreversible, the
second law requires that the entropy
increase across the shock wave.
Thus, a shock wave cannot exist for
values of Ma1 less than unity where
the entropy change would be
negative.
For adiabatic flows, shock waves can
exist only for supersonic flows, Ma1
> 1.
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Oblique Shocks
When the space shuttle travels at supersonic speeds through the atmosphere,
it produces a complicated shock pattern consisting of inclined shock waves
called oblique shocks.
Some portions of an oblique shock are curved, while other portions are
straight.
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Unlike normal shocks, in which the
downstream Mach number is always
subsonic, Ma2 downstream of an oblique
shock can be subsonic, sonic, or supersonic,
depending on the upstream Mach number
Ma1 and the turning angle.
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All the equations, shock tables, etc., for normal shocks apply to oblique shocks as well,
provided that we use only the normal components of the Mach number. 35
The dependence of straight oblique shock deflection angle on shock angle for several
values of upstream Mach number Ma1. Calculations are for an ideal gas with k = 1.4. The
dashed black line connects points of maximum deflection angle ( = max). Weak oblique
shocks are to the left of this line, while strong oblique shocks are to the right of this line. The
dashed gray line connects points where the downstream Mach number is sonic (Ma2 = 1).
Supersonic downstream flow (Ma2 > 1) is to the left of this line, while subsonic downstream
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flow (Ma2 < 1) is to the right of this line.
37
Mach angle
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Prandtl–Meyer Expansion Waves
We now address situations where supersonic flow is
turned in the opposite direction, such as in the
upper portion of a two-dimensional wedge at an
angle of attack greater than its half-angle .
We refer to this type of flow as an expanding flow,
whereas a flow that produces an oblique shock may
be called a compressing flow.
As previously, the flow changes direction to
conserve mass. However, unlike a compressing flow,
an expanding flow does not result in a shock wave.
Rather, a continuous expanding region called an
expansion fan appears, composed of an infinite
number of Mach waves called Prandtl–Meyer
expansion waves.
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Prandtl–Meyer function
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DUCT FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER AND
NEGLIGIBLE FRICTION (RAYLEIGH FLOW)
So far we have limited our Rayleigh flows: Steady one-dimensional
consideration mostly to isentropic flow flow of an ideal gas with constant
(no heat transfer and no irreversibilities specific heats through a constant-area
such as friction). duct with heat transfer, but with
negligible friction.
Many compressible flow problems
encountered in practice involve
chemical reactions such as combustion,
nuclear reactions, evaporation, and
condensation as well as heat gain or
heat loss through the duct wall.
Such problems are difficult to analyze
exactly since they may involve
significant changes in chemical
composition during flow, and the
conversion of latent, chemical, and
nuclear energies to thermal energy.
A simplified model is Rayleigh flow.
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Mass equation
x-Momentum
equation
Energy
equation
Entropy
change
Equation
of state
Consider a gas with known properties R, k, and cp. For a specified inlet state
1, the inlet properties P1, T1, 1, V1, and s1 are known. The five exit properties
P2, T2, 2, V2, and s2 can be determined from the above equations for any
specified value of heat transfer q.
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From the Rayleigh line and
the equations
1. All the states that satisfy the
conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy equations as well as the
property relations are on the
Rayleigh line.
2. Entropy increases with heat gain, and
thus we proceed to the right on the
Rayleigh line as heat is transferred to
the fluid.
3. Heating increases the Mach number
for subsonic flow, but decreases it for
supersonic flow.
4. Heating increases the stagnation
temperature T0 for both subsonic and
supersonic flows, and cooling
decreases it.
7. The entropy change corresponding to a
5. Velocity and static pressure have specified temperature change (and
opposite trends. thus a given amount of heat transfer) is
6. Density and velocity are inversely larger in supersonic flow.
proportional. 45
Heating or cooling has opposite effects on
most properties. Also, the stagnation pressure
decreases during heating and increases during
cooling regardless of whether the flow is
subsonic or supersonic.
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Property Relations for Rayleigh Flow
Representative results are given in
Table A–34.
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Choked Rayleigh Flow
The fluid at the critical state of Ma =1
cannot be accelerated to supersonic
velocities by heating. Therefore, the flow
is choked.
For a given inlet state, the corresponding
critical state fixes the maximum possible
heat transfer for steady flow:
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STEAM NOZZLES
Water vapor at moderate or high
pressures deviates considerably from
ideal-gas behavior, and thus most of the
relations developed in this chapter are
not applicable to the flow of steam
through the nozzles or blade passages
encountered in steam turbines.
Supersaturated steam: The steam that
exists in the wet region without
containing any liquid.
Supersaturation states are
nonequilibrium (or metastable) states.
Wilson line: The locus of points where
condensation takes place regardless of
the initial temperatureand pressure at
the nozzle entrance.
When steam is
assumed ideal gas
with k = 1.3
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Summary
• Stagnation properties
• Speed of sound and Mach number
• One-dimensional isentropic flow
– Variation of fluid velocity with flow area
– Property relations for isentropic flow of ideal gases
• Isentropic flow through nozzles
– Converging nozzles
– Converging–diverging nozzles
• Shock waves and expansion waves
– Normal shocks
– Oblique shocks
– Prandtl–Meyer expansion waves
• Duct flow with heat transfer and
negligible friction (Rayleigh flow)
– Property relations for Rayleigh flow
– Choked Rayleigh flow
• Steam nozzles
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