Endocrinology

Is the science concerning with the normal function of

endocrine glands (synthesis, storage, release of their
hormones).

Coordination of Body Functions by Chemical Messengers

The multiple activities of the cells, tissues, and organs of the body
are coordinated by the interplay of several types of chemical
messenger systems:
1. Neurotransmitters are released by axon terminals of neurons into
the synaptic junctions and act locally to control nerve cell functions.
2. Endocrine hormones are released by glands or specialized cells
into the circulating blood and influence the function of cells at
another location in the body.
3. Neuroendocrine hormones are secreted by neurons into the
circulating blood and influence the function of cells at another
location in the body.
4. Paracrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and
affect neighboring cells of a different type.
5. Autocrines are secreted by cells into the extracellular fluid and
affect the function of the same cells that produced them by binding
to cell surface receptors.

Endocrine glands:-
They are small ductless organs of the body whose secretion
(hormones) goes directly to blood, it is in contrast to the exocrine
glands whose secretion is carried by a duct, pancreas is the only
gland that has both (exocrine, endocrine).

Endocrine hormones:-
It is a chemical substance synthesized and release from a known
endocrine gland, it release directly to blood stream and carried by
blood to another area to produce it's biological action on target
organ.

Chemical nature of hormones: - There are

3classes
1-peptide and protein hormones:-

1
Are long or short chain peptides having several amino acids.
e.g.:-growth hormone, Antidiuretic hormone, oxytocine, LH,
FSH, TSH, ACTH. In general, polypeptides with 100 or more
amino acids are called proteins, and those with fewer than
100 amino acids are referred to as peptides.

2- Amine hormones: - are modified amino acids, they are all

derivatives from the amino acid tyrosine.
e.g.:- Thyroid hormones (T4, T3), Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine, Dopamine.

3- Steroid hormones: - cholesterol is the precursor of these

hormones, they include:-
a- Sex hormones (Gonadal hormones)
e.g.: - Estrogen, progesterone, Testosterone or Androgen.
b- Adrenal cortical hormone
e.g.:- Glucocorticoids (cortisone)
Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
c- Prostaglandin hormone (PG)
d- 1, 25 (OH) 2 D3 (1, 25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol)

Stages of hormones:-
(Synthesis, storage, secretion)
1- Polypeptide and Protein Hormones Are Stored in
Secretory Vesicles Until Needed.
Protein and peptide hormones are synthesized on the rough end of
the endoplasmic reticulum of the different endocrine cells.
They are usually synthesized first as larger proteins that are not
biologically active (preprohormones) and are cleaved to form
smaller prohormones in the endoplasmic reticulum.
These are then transferred to the Golgi apparatus for packaging into
secretory vesicles. In this process, enzymes in the vesicles cleave the
prohormones to produce smaller, biologically active hormones and
inactive fragments. The vesicles are stored within the cytoplasm, and
many are bound to the cell membrane until their secretion is needed.
Secretion of the hormones(as well as the inactive fragments) occurs
when the secretory vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and the
granular contents are extruded into the interstitial fluid or directly
into the blood stream by exocytosis
In many cases, the stimulus for exocytosis requires an
increase in cytosolic calcium concentration, and increased

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cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and subsequently
activation of protein
kinases that initiate secretion of the hormone. The peptide
hormones are water soluble, allowing them to enter the
circulatory system easily, where they are carried to their target
tissues.

Synthesis and secretion of peptide hormones

2- Steroid Hormones Are Usually Synthesized from Cholesterol

and Are Not Stored.
There is usually very little hormone storage in steroid-
producing endocrine cells, large stores of cholesterol esters in
cytoplasm vacuoles can be rapidly mobilized for steroid
synthesis (in smooth endoplasmic reticulum) after a stimulus.
Much of the cholesterol in steroid-producing cells comes from
the plasma.

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Because the steroids are highly lipid soluble, once they are
synthesized, they simply diffuse across the cell membrane
and enter the interstitial fluid and then the blood

3-Amine Hormones Are Derived from Tyrosine.

The two groups of hormones derived from tyrosine, the thyroid and
the adrenal medullary hormones, are formed by the actions of
enzymes in the cytoplasmic compartments of the glandular cells.
The thyroid hormones are synthesized and stored in the thyroid
gland and incorporated into macromolecules of the protein
thyroglobulin, which is stored in large follicles within the thyroid
gland. Hormone secretion occurs when the amines are split from
thyroglobulin, and the free hormones are then released into the blood
stream.
After entering the blood, most of the thyroid hormones combine
with plasma proteins, especially thyroxine-binding globulin, which
slowly releases the hormones to the target tissues.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are formed in the adrenal medulla,
which normally secretes about four times more epinephrine than
norepinephrine. Catecholamines are taken up into preformed
vesicles and stored until secreted. Similar to the protein hormones
stored in secretory granules, catecholamines are also released from
adrenal medullary cells by exocytosis.
Once the catecholamines enter the circulation, they can exist in the
plasma in free form or in conjugation with other substances.

Some hormones, such as norepinephrine and epinephrine, are

secreted within seconds after the gland is stimulated, and they may
develop full action within another few seconds to minutes; the
actions of other hormones, such as thyroxin or growth hormone,
may require months for full effect.
Hormones are “cleared” from the plasma in several ways, including
(
Activation of Target organ:-
Protein hormone, peptide – catecholamine → dopamine epi,nor 1)
metabolic destruction by the tissues, (2) binding with the tissues, (3)
excretion by the liver into the bile, and (4) excretion by the kidneys
into the urine.

a- epinephrine., the receptors are found on the cell membrane .

b- Thyroid hormone. , the receptors are found in nucleus.
c- Steroid hormone. , the receptors are found in the cytoplasm.

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Target organs:-
Are those organs which contain specific receptors for special
hormones?
Receptors: - It is a specific binding site on a plasma
membrane or in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus .
Mechanism of action of hormones
(biological action):-
Second Messenger Mechanisms
1-The first step of a hormone’s action is to bind to specific receptors
at the target cell. The hormone itself acts as first messenger.
2-Binding of the hormones with the receptor allows coupling of the
receptor to a G protein. If the G protein stimulates the adenylyl
cyclase enzyme it is called a Gs protein, denoting a stimulatory G
protein.
3- Stimulation of adenylyl cyclase, a membrane-bound enzyme, by
the Gs protein then catalyzes the conversion of a small amount of
cytoplasmic adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into cAMP inside the
cell(act as second messenger).
4-This then activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which
phosphorylates specific proteins in the cell,triggering biochemical
reactions that ultimately lead to the cell’s response to the hormone.

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 a- Protein hormone :-

ATP
CAMP phosphorylase phosphorylase
kinase inactive kinase active
2nd messenger

tein kinase protein kinase

active inactive

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b- Thyroid hormone :- their receptors are found in nucleus , the
hormone form a complex with the receptors
c- Steroid hormone: - the receptors are found in the cytoplasm.

The sequence of events in steroid function is essentially the

following:
1. The steroid hormone diffuses across the cell membrane and enters
the cytoplasm of the cell, where it binds with a specific receptor
protein.
2. The combined receptor protein–hormone then diffuses into or is
transported into the nucleus.
3. The combination binds at specific points on the DNA strands in
the chromosomes, which activates the transcription process of
specific genes to form mRNA.
4. The mRNA diffuses into the cytoplasm, where it promotes the
translation process at the ribosomes to form new proteins

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Measurement of Hormone Concentrations in the
Blood

1- Radioimmunoassay

2- Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay

(ELISA)

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 Control mechanism of hormone secretion;-
1-Mineral ions or organic nutrient control ( humoral control ):-
a-Ca ions (Ca ++ ): concentration in blood affect directly
on Para thyroid hormone ( PTH ), calcitonin.
↓Ca++ → ↑PTH

↑Ca++ → ↑calcitonin
b- Na ions (Na+):- concentration in blood affect
directly on aldosterone.
↓Na+→↑Aldosterone→secreted from cortex of adrenal
gland.
C- Glucose: - increasing glucose in blood affect directly
on insulin.

↑ Glucose ↑insulin
-ve
↓ Glucose

↓ Glucose ↑glucagon
+ve
↑glucose

2Neural control :- adrenal medulla stimulated by

sympathetic preganglionic nerves, to secret epinephrine
and norepinephrine .

3Hormonal control
A hormone that stimulate the secretion of another hormone
called tropic hormone .
e.g:- ↑TSH ↑Thyroxin ( T4 )

↑TSH

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 - Slight ↑ Estrogen ↑LH, FSH
(Very high) ↑↑↑Estrogen ↓LH, FSH

↑ACTH ↑Glucocorticoids

↓ACTH

4-Genetic control:-
e.g.:-growth hormone, it present in high amount in large
animals

Feed back mechanism:-

1- (-)Negative feed back mechanism :-
Increase of a particular ion, nutrient, hormone in blood will decrease
the secretion of other hormone.

2- Positive feed back mechanism (+ve):-

Increase of a particular ion, nutrient, hormone in blood will increase the
secretion of other hormone. One example of this is the surge of luteinizing
hormone (LH) that occurs as a result of the stimulatory effect of estrogen
on the anterior pituitary before ovulation. The secreted LH then acts on the
ovaries to stimulate additional secretion of estrogen, which in turn causes
more secretion of LH. Eventually, LH reaches an appropriate
concentration, and typical negative feedback control of hormone secretion
is then exerted.

Hypothalamus (HT):-
It is part of C.N.S has neural and endocrine function, it’s called
Neuroendocrine gland, it secrets neurohormones (hypothalamic
hormone) or (hypothalamic factors) called hypothalamic releasing
hormones or hypothalamic releasing factors to stimulate pituitary
gland.

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Areas of H. secretion in hypothalamus:-
1-Median Eminence (ME):-
It synthesized and secretes hormones that control the secretion of
adenohypophysis (anterior and intermediate pituitary gland).
2- Paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
It synthesized and releases the hormone oxytocine.
3-Supra optic nucleus (SON)
It synthesized and release thee hormone vasopressin (antidiuretic
hormone) (ADH)
*oxytocine &vasopressin are stored in the posterior pituitary gland
until they released.

HTRH = 11 7 anterior
ME = 9 2 intermediate
PVN = 1
SON = 1
Hypothalamo- pituitary relation ship:-
Pituitary gland (hypophysis):-
it lies in a pocket of the sphenoid bone at the base of the brain just
below the hypothalamus , the pituitary is connected to hypothalamus
by the infundibulum , anatomically the pituitary gland is divided into
3 lobes:-
1- Anterior lobe 2- intermediate lobe 3- posterior lobe.

Physiologically the 1&2 are called adenohypophysis, the 3 is called

neurohypophysis.
The adenohypophysis is connected to the hypothalamus by vascular
connection called hypophysial portal vessels.
The posterior lobe is connected to the hypothalamus by neural
connection called hypothalamo- hypophysial neural truct.
●Posterior lobe can’t synthesize any hormone but only stored the
hormones.
Hormones of posterior pituitary gland:
There are 2 hormones:-
a- Oxytocine.
b- Vasopressine (Antidiuretic hormone) ( ADH ).
These 2 hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported
down the axons (by nerves) to the posterior lobe where they are stored and
then secreted, in response to electrical activity in the nerve ending, they are
typical neural hormones. Posterior pituitary gland does not synthesize any
hormone but stored and secret only.

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These 2 hormones are protein hormones of 9 amino acids each.

A-OXYTOCINE: - it synthesized in the para ventricular nucleus (PVN).

Control of release:-
1- Mating in male.
2- Parturition in female.
3- Lactation.
Function:-
a- in female :-
1- Stimulate uterine contraction during mating, (help in transport
of sperms in uterus to fertilize the ova).
2- Stimulate uterine contraction during parturition.
3- Stimulate contraction mammary gland during lactation, by
stimulation of nipples and teats of mammary gland.

b- In male :-
Oxytocin stimulates the contraction epididymus during
ejaculation.

B- VASOPRESSINE (Antidiuretic) (ADH) hormone:-

It synthesized in the supra optic nucleus (SON)
Control of secretion:-
1- ↑ osmotic pressure
2- ↓extra cellular fluid ↑ release of ADH

↓urine volume ↑ H2O reabsorption

3- ↑ caffien & alcohol → ↓ADH →↓ H2O → ↑urine volume

reabsorption

Function:-
1- Increase H2O reabsorption from the kidney.
2- Vasoconstriction of visceral blood vessels → ↑bl.pressure
●Higher concentrations of ADH have a potent effect of constricting
the arterioles throughout the body and therefore increasing the
arterial pressure. For this reason, ADH has another name,
vasopressin.

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 Hormones of intermediate lobe of pituitary
gland
It synthesized and secret one hormone called melanocyte
stimulating hormone (MSH).
Control of release:-
1- MSH- RH: - stimulate secretion of MSH from intermediate
lobe.
2- MSH – IH :- it decrease the secretion of MSH

Function:-
MSH affects on the melanocyte cells in the skin to secret
melanin.

Hormones of anterior pituitary gland:-

1- Growth hormone ( somatotropin ) ( GH )
●↓GH → dwarfism
●↑GH → giant

Control of release (secretion):-

starvation
↓ Protein
↑ insulin → HT
↓ glucose ↓
Stress, sleep GH- RH& GH-IH(somatostatine)
↓ fatty acids in ↓
blood Ant. pit. gl
↓
GH
Function:-
1-Growth of body tissues (muscle, bones)
2-Elongation of bones
3-↑ Protein synthesis
4-↑ Energy sources (increased use of fatty acids for energy)
5- Decreased rate of glucose utilization throughout the body (but
there is increase in glucose concentration in blood).

2-Adreno corticotropic hormone ( corticotropin )

( ACTH )

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Control of release:-
1- stress
2- ↓ glucocorticoids → HT
↓
ACTH- RH
↓
Anti. Pit. gl
↓
ACTH
↓
Adrenal cortex
↓
Glucocorticoids
Function:-
1- stimulate growth of adrenal cortex or ( adrenal gland ).
2- Stimulate synthesis and release of glucocorticoids (cortisole,
cortisone, and corticosterone).
3- Stimulate synthesis and release of sex steroids (estrogen,
progesterone, and testosterone).
4- Stimulate release of renal erythropoitic factor(REF) from
kidney.
3- Thyroid stimulating hormone(Thyroprotein)
(TSH)
Control of release:-
1- Stress
2- ↓Ambiant temperature → HT
3- ↓ Body temperature ↓
TSH-RH
↓
Anti.pit.gl
↓
TSH
↓
Thyroid gl
↓
T3, T4

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 Function:-
1- Stimulate growth of thyroid gland.
2- Stimulate synthesis and release of thyroid hormone
(T3&T4).
3- Stimulate synthesis of Thyroglobulin.
4- Stimulate uptake of Iodine from the body.
Hyperthyroidism→ ↑Thyroid hormone
Hypothyroidism → ↓ Thyroid hormone

4-Prolactin hormone (lactogenic hormone) (PrL)

Control of release:-

1- Small amount of Estrogen

2- Large amount of Progesteron → HT
3- Stimulate nipples of mammery gl. ↓
PrL- RH
↓
Anti.pit.gl
↓
PrL
↓
M.G
↓
Milk
Function:-
1- In female:-
a- Stimulate growth of mammary gland.
b- Stimulate synthesis of milk protein and milk sugar.
c- Inhibit gonadotropins(affect on ovary&inhibits
ovulation at lactation).
2- In male:-
Stimulate release of Testosterone by the help of ICSH.

5-Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

It is a gonadotropine(affect gonads)
(Testis, ovary)

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 Control of release:-
HT
↓
FSH-RH
↓
Anti.pit.gl
↓
FSH
|
(ovary) (Testis)
Thecal cell ovarian follicles seminiferous sertoli
Tubules cells

Estrogen ovogenesis spermatogenesis inhibin

↓
Growth of follicles

Function:-
1- In female:-
a- Stimulate synthesis and release estrogen.
b- Stimulate growth of ovary.
c- Stimulate ovogenesis and follicular maturation.

2- In male:-
a- Stimulate growth of testis.
b- Stimulate spermatogenesis.
c- Stimulate synthesis and release of testosterone with LH.
d- Stimulate synthesis and release of inhibin from sertoli cells.

6-Luteinizing hormone (LH )

Also it is gonadotropin, in male this hormone is called

interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH).

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 Control of release:-

HT
↓
LH-RH
↓
Anti.pit.gl
↓
LH
Female Male
↓ ↓
(Ovary) (Testis)
Corpus luteum interstitial cells of leydig
↓ ↓
- Progesterone Testosterone
- Ovulation

Function:-
1-In female:-
a- Cause ovulation.
b- Stimulate synthesis and release progesterone from corpus
luteum.
c- Stimulate follicular growth with FSH

2- In male ( ICSH ):-

a- stimulate spermatogenesis with FSH
b- Stimulate synthesis and release of testosterone from the
interstitial cells of leydig.

Thyroid gland:-
It is situated in front of neck consist of 2 lobes connected by
isthmus, it is butter fly in shape.

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 Iodine Is Required for Formation of Thyroxine
To form normal quantities of thyroxine, about 50 milligrams of
ingested iodine in the form of iodides are required each year,
or about 1 mg/week. To prevent iodine deficiency, common
table salt is iodized with about 1 part sodium iodide to every
100,000 parts sodium chloride.

It is synthesized and releases the following hormones:-

1- Thyroid hormones:-
It is secreted from T-cells or follicular cells
1- Triiodothyronin T3
2- Tetraiodothyronin T4 (Thyroxin)
These hormones(T3, T4) are synthesized by combination of
iodine& amino acid Tyrosin.
T4:- Is inactive and must convert to T3 (active)
They get their effect by:
1-Iodide accumulation or trapping.
2- Iodination of Tyrosine.
3- Proteolysis of Thyroglobulin.

Transport of Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine to

Tissues
1-Thyroglobulin itself is not released into the circulating blood
in measurable amounts; instead, thyroxine and
triiodothyronine must first be cleaved from the thyroglobulin
molecule, and then these free hormones are released.
2-On entering the blood, Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine
are Bound to Plasma Proteins. They combine mainly with
thyroxine-binding globulin
3-Thyroxine and Triiodothyronine Are Released Slowly to
Tissue Cells.
4-Thyroid hormones have slow onset and long duration
of action.

Control of thyroid hormones:-

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They controlled by TSH (Thyroid stimulating H. from pituitary
gland),

Function of Thyroid hormones:-

1- Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR).
2- ↑heat production.
3- ↑blood glucose.
4- Promote growth and development of the
brain during fetal life and for the
first few years of postnatal life.
5- Stimulation of Fat Metabolism.
6- Maturation of skeleton&increase growth.
7-decreases the plasma cholesterol
concentration by increase significantly the rate of cholesterol
secretion in the bile and consequent loss in the feces
3- Calcitonin(CT):-

It is secreted from C-cells or para follicular cells.

Control of calcitonin:- by ↑blood calcium.

Function of CT: - ↓blood Calcium( by causing its deposition on
bone)

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Thyroid Hormones Increase the Number and
Activity of Mitochondria. which in turn increases the rate
of formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to energize
cellular function.

Stimulation of Carbohydrate Metabolism. Thyroid hormone

stimulates almost all aspects of carbohydrate metabolism,
including rapid uptake of glucose by the
cells, enhanced glycolysis, enhanced
gluconeogenesis,increased rate of absorption from the
gastrointestinal tract, and even increased insulin secretion
with its resultant secondary effects on carbohydrate
metabolism.
Effect of Thyroid Hormones on the Cardiovascular
System
1-Increased Blood Flow and Cardiac Output
2-Increased Heart Rate.
3-Increased Heart Strength.

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4-Normal Arterial Pressure.
Hyperthyroidism
1-In most patients with hyperthyroidism, the thyroid gland is
increased to two to three times normal size.
2-Thyroid glands secrete thyroid hormone at rates 5 to 15
times normal.
3- immunoglobulin antibodies that bind with the same
membrane receptors that bind TSH. They induce continual
activation of the cAMP system of the cells,with resultant
development of hyperthyroidism.
4-These antibodies are called thyroid stimulating
immunoglobulin and are designated TSI.
5-The antibodies that cause hyperthyroidism almost certainly
occur as the result of autoimmunity that has developed
against thyroid tissue.
Symptoms of Hyperthyroidism
(1) A high state of excitability.
(2) Intolerance to heat.
(3) increased sweating.
(4) Mild to extreme weight loss (sometimes as much as 100
pounds).
(5) Varying degrees of diarrhea.
(6) Muscle weakness.
(7) Nervousness or other psychic disorders.
(8) Extreme fatigue but inability to sleep.
(9) Tremor of the hands.
The most direct treatment for hyperthyroidism is surgical
removal of most of the thyroid gland.

Hypothyroidism
1-The effects of hypothyroidism, in general, are opposite to
those of hyperthyroidism,

2-diminished or absent secretion of thyroid hormone.

3-The term “goiter” means a greatly enlarged thyroid gland.

The mechanism for development of large endemic goiters is
the following: Lack of iodine prevents production of both
thyroxine and triiodothyronine. As a result, no hormone is
available to inhibit production of TSH by the anterior pituitary;
this causes the pituitary to secrete excessively large quantities

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of TSH.The TSH then stimulates the thyroid cells to secrete
tremendous
amounts of thyroglobulin colloid into the follicles, and the
gland grows larger and larger. But because of lack of iodine,
thyroxine and triiodothyronine production does not occur in the
thyroglobulin molecule and therefore does not cause the
normal suppression of TSH production by the anterior
pituitary. The follicles become tremendous in size, and the
thyroid gland may increase to 10 to 20 times normal size.

Treatment of Hypothyroidism
It is easy to maintain a steady level of thyroid hormone activity
in the body by daily oral ingestion of a tablet or more
containing
thyroxin.

Regulation of blood calcium ions:- Ca++

It is regulation by 3 hormones:-
1-Para thyroid hormone:- ↑Ca++ in blood.
2-Calcitonin: - ↓Ca++ in blood.
3-1, 25(OH) 2D3:- it is the active form of vit.D:-
↑ Blood calcium.
●↓Vit.D→ Rickets
●↓Vit.D→ Osteoporosis

Para thyroid gland

They are 2pairs of bean like organs located at or within the thyroid
gland cranially.

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They are lighter in colors; it synthesized and secretes Para
thyroid hormone (PTH).
Control of PTH:- ↓ blood Calcium .
Function of PTH:- ↑blood Calcium .
●↑ Secretion of PTH occur in hyper para thyroidism.
●↓secretion of PTH occur in hypo para thyroidism .
●↑ T3, T4→Hyperthyroidism.
●↓ T3, T4→Hypothyroidism.

1-Parathyroid Hormone Increases Calcium and Phosphate

Absorption from the Bone

2-Decreases Calcium Excretion and Increases Phosphate Excretion

by the Kidneys

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3-Increases Intestinal Absorption of Calcium and Phosphate

●Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate Mediates the Effects of

Parathyroid Hormone.

Vitamin D
Vitamin D has a potent effect to increase calcium absorption from
the intestinal tract; it also has important effects on both bone
deposition and bone absorption. However, vitamin
D itself is not the active substance that actually causes these effects.
Instead, vitamin D must first be converted through a succession of
reactions in the liver and the kidneys to the final active product,
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, also called 1,25(OH)2D3.

(Vitamin D3) Is Formed in the Skin.

Formation of 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol in the Kidneys

and Its Control by Parathyroid Hormone.

Actions of Vitamin D
The active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol,
has several effects:
1-“Hormonal” Effect of Vitamin D to Promote Intestinal
Calcium Absorption.

2-Promotes Phosphate Absorption by the Intestines.

3-Decreases Renal Calcium and Phosphate Excretion.

4-Vitamin D plays important roles in both bone absorption and bone

deposition.

Pineal gland
It is small mass located deep in the brain; it synthesized and releases
the hormone Melatonin which has immune effect.

Control of Melatonin:-
By light → inhibit Melatonin secretion.

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Function of Melatonin:-
1. Has immune function, it is Antigonadal.
2. modified amino acid that modulates skin pigmentation
3. secreted only at night; larger amounts secreted in winter
4. Involved in regulation of biorhythms
5. Helps establish the body’s wake and sleep cycles

Thymus gland
It is located in front of the Trachea below the thyroid gland.

Largest in infants and children

 It secrets the hormone Thymine which has an immune
function.
 Thymosin or Thymine hormone is responsible for
maturation of T- lymphocyte cells.

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