Automata Theory

Context-Free Grammars

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16. Context-Free Grammar Introduction Automata Theory

Definition: A context-free grammar (CFG) consisting of a finite set of grammar rules is

a quadruple (N, T, P, S) where

 N is a set of non-terminal symbols.

 T is a set of terminals where N ∩ T = NULL.

 P is a set of rules, P: N → (N U T)*, i.e., the left-hand side of the production rule
P does have any right context or left context.

 S is the start symbol.

Example
 The grammar ({A}, {a, b, c}, P, A), P : A → aA, A → abc.
 The grammar ({S, a, b}, {a, b}, P, S), P: S → aSa, S → bSb, S → ε
 The grammar ({S, F}, {0, 1}, P, S), P: S → 00S | 11F, F → 00F | ε

Generation of Derivation Tree

A derivation tree or parse tree is an ordered rooted tree that graphically represents the
semantic information a string derived from a context-free grammar.

Representation Technique:
1. Root vertex: Must be labeled by the start symbol.
2. Vertex: Labeled by a non-terminal symbol.
3. Leaves: Labeled by a terminal symbol or ε.

If S → x1x2 …… xn is a production rule in a CFG, then the parse tree / derivation tree will
be as follows:

x1 x2 xn

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There are two different approaches to draw a derivation tree:

1. Top-down Approach:
(a) Starts with the starting symbol S
(b) Goes down to tree leaves using productions
2. Bottom-up Approach:
(a) Starts from tree leaves
(b) Proceeds upward to the root which is the starting symbol S

Derivation or Yield of a Tree

The derivation or the yield of a parse tree is the final string obtained by concatenating the
labels of the leaves of the tree from left to right, ignoring the Nulls. However, if all the
leaves are Null, derivation is Null.

Example
Let a CFG {N,T,P,S} be

N = {S}, T = {a, b}, Starting symbol = S, P = S → SS | aSb | ε

One derivation from the above CFG is “abaabb”

S → SS → aSbS →abS → abaSb → abaaSbb → abaabb

S S

a S b a S b

ε a S b

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Sentential Form and Partial Derivation Tree

A partial derivation tree is a sub-tree of a derivation tree/parse tree such that either all of
its children are in the sub-tree or none of them are in the sub-tree.

Example
If in any CFG the productions are:

S → AB, A → aaA | ε, B →Bb| ε

the partial derivation tree can be the following:

A B

If a partial derivation tree contains the root S, it is called a sentential form. The above
sub-tree is also in sentential form.

Leftmost and Rightmost Derivation of a String

 Leftmost derivation - A leftmost derivation is obtained by applying production to
the leftmost variable in each step.

 Rightmost derivation - A rightmost derivation is obtained by applying production

to the rightmost variable in each step.

Example
Let any set of production rules in a CFG be

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

over an alphabet {a}.

The leftmost derivation for the string "a+a*a" may be:

X → X+X→ a+X→ a+ X*X →a+a*X→ a+a*a

The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below:

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Step 1:
Step 2:
X X

X + X X + X

a
Step 3:

X
Step 4:
X
X + X

X + X
X * X
a
X * X
a
Step 5:
X a

X + X

X * X
a

a a

The rightmost derivation for the above string "a+a*a" may be:

X → X*X→ X*a → X+X*a →X+a*a→ a+a*a

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The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below:

Step 1:
Step 2:
X X

X * X X * X

X Step 4:
Step 3:
X
X * X

X * X
X + X
a
X + X
a

Step 5: a
X

X * X

X + X
a

a a

Left and Right Recursive Grammars

In a context-free grammar G, if there is a production in the form X → Xa where X is a
non-terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is called a left recursive production. The
grammar having a left recursive production is called a left recursive grammar.

And if in a context-free grammar G, if there is a production is in the form X →

aX where X is a non-terminal and ‘a’ is a string of terminals, it is called a right recursive
production. The grammar having a right recursive production is called a right recursive
grammar.

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17. Ambiguity in Context-Free Grammars Automata Theory

If a context free grammar G has more than one derivation tree for some string w ∈ L(G),
it is called an ambiguous grammar. There exist multiple right-most or left-most
derivations for some string generated from that grammar.

Problem
Check whether the grammar G with production rules:

X → X+X | X*X |X| a

is ambiguous or not.

Solution

Let’s find out the derivation tree for the string "a+a*a". It has two leftmost derivations.

Derivation 1: X → X+X→ a +X→ a+ X*X →a+a*X→ a+a*a

Parse tree 1:

X + X

X * X
a

a a

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Derivation 2: X → X*X→X+X*X→ a+ X*X →a+a*X→ a+a*a

Parse tree 2:

X * X

X + X
a

a a

Since there are two parse trees for a single string "a+a*a", the grammar G is ambiguous.

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 18. CFL Closure Property Automata Theory

Context-free languages are closed under:

 Union
 Concatenation
 Kleene Star operation

Union
Let L1 and L2 be two context free languages. Then L1  L2 is also context free.

Example:

Let L1 = { anbn , n>0}. Corresponding grammar G1 will have P: S1  aAb|ab

Let L2 = { cmdm , n≥0}. Corresponding grammar G2 will have P: S2  cBb| ε

Union of L1 and L2, L = L1  L2 = { anbn }  { cmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional production S  S1 | S2

Concatenation
If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then L1L2 is also context free.

Example:

Union of the languages L1 and L2, L = L1L2 = { anbncmdm }

The corresponding grammar G will have the additional production S  S1 S2

Kleene Star
If L is a context free language, then L* is also context free.

Example:

Let L = { anbn , n≥0}. Corresponding grammar G will have P: S  aAb| ε

Kleene Star L1 = { anbn }*

The corresponding grammar G1 will have additional productions S1  SS1 | ε

Context-free languages are not closed under:

 Intersection : If L1 and L2 are context free languages, then L1  L2 is not

necessarily context free.

 Intersection with Regular Language : If L1 is a regular language and L2 is a

context free language, then L1  L2 is a context free language.

 Complement : If L1 is a context free language, then L1’ may not be context free.

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 19. CFG Simplification Automata Theory

In a CFG, it may happen that all the production rules and symbols are not needed for the
derivation of strings. Besides, there may be some null productions and unit productions.
Elimination of these productions and symbols is called simplification of CFGs.
Simplification essentially comprises of the following steps:

 Reduction of CFG
 Removal of Unit Productions
 Removal of Null Productions

Reduction of CFG
CFGs are reduced in two phases:

Phase 1: Derivation of an equivalent grammar, G’, from the CFG, G, such that each
variable derives some terminal string.

Derivation Procedure:

Step 1: Include all symbols, W1, that derive some terminal and initialize i=1.

Step 2: Include all symbols, Wi+1, that derive Wi.

Step 3: Increment i and repeat Step 2, until Wi+1 = Wi.

Step 4: Include all production rules that have Wi in it.

Phase 2: Derivation of an equivalent grammar, G”, from the CFG, G’, such that each
symbol appears in a sentential form.

Derivation Procedure:

Step 1: Include the start symbol in Y1 and initialize i = 1.

Step 2: Include all symbols, Yi+1, that can be derived from Yi and include all
production rules that have been applied.

Step 3: Increment i and repeat Step 2, until Yi+1 = Yi.

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Problem
Find a reduced grammar equivalent to the grammar G, having production rules, P: S 
AC | B, A  a, C  c | BC, E  aA | e

Solution

Phase 1:

T = { a, c, e }

W1 = { A, C, E } from rules A  a, C  c and E  aA

W2 = { A, C, E } U { S } from rule S  AC

W3 = { A, C, E, S } U 

Since W2 = W3, we can derive G’ as:

G’ = { { A, C, E, S }, { a, c, e }, P, {S}}

where P: S  AC, A  a, C  c , E  aA | e

Phase 2:

Y1 = { S }

Y2 = { S, A, C } from rule S  AC

Y3 = { S, A, C, a, c } from rules A  a and C  c

Y4 = { S, A, C, a, c }

Since Y3 = Y4, we can derive G” as:

G” = { { A, C, S }, { a, c }, P, {S}}

where P: S  AC, A  a, C  c

Removal of Unit productions

Any production rule in the form A → B where A, B ∈ Non-terminal is called unit
production.

Removal Procedure:

Step 1: To remove A→B, add production A→x to the grammar rule whenever B→x
occurs in the grammar. [x ∈ Terminal, x can be Null]

Step 2: Delete A→B from the grammar.

Step 3: Repeat from step 1 until all unit productions are removed.

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Problem
Remove unit production from the following:

S → XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → M, M → N, N → a

Solution:

There are 3 unit productions in the grammar:

Y → Z, Z → M, and M→N

At first, we will remove M → N.

As N → a, we add M → a, and M → N is removed.

The production set becomes

S → XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → M, M → a, N → a

Now we will remove Z → M.

As M → a, we add Z→ a, and Z → M is removed.

The production set becomes

S → XY, X → a, Y → Z | b, Z → a, M → a, N → a

Now we will remove Y → Z.

As Z → a, we add Y→ a, and Y → Z is removed.

The production set becomes

S → XY, X → a, Y → a | b, Z → a, M → a, N → a

Now Z, M, and N are unreachable, hence we can remove those.

The final CFG is unit production free:

S → XY, X → a, Y→a|b

Removal of Null Productions

In a CFG, a non-terminal symbol ‘A’ is a nullable variable if there is a production A → ϵ or
there is a derivation that starts at A and finally ends up with

ϵ: A → .......… → ϵ

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Removal Procedure:
Step1 Find out nullable non-terminal variables which derive ϵ.

Step2 For each production A → a, construct all productions A → x where x is obtained

from ‘a’ by removing one or multiple non-terminals from Step 1.

Step3 Combine the original productions with the result of step 2 and remove ϵ-
productions.

Problem
Remove null production from the following:

S→ASA | aB | b, A → B, B → b | ϵ

Solution:

There are two nullable variables: A and B

At first, we will remove B → ϵ.

After removing B → ϵ, the production set becomes:

S→ASA | aB | b | a, A → B| b | ϵ, B → b

Now we will remove A → ϵ.

After removing A → ϵ, the production set becomes:

S→ASA | aB | b | a | SA | AS | S, A → B| b, B→b

This is the final production set without null transition.

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 20. Chomsky Normal Form Automata Theory

A CFG is in Chomsky Normal Form if the Productions are in the following forms:

 A→a
 A → BC
 S→ϵ

where A, B, and C are non-terminals and a is terminal.

Algorithm to Convert into Chomsky Normal Form:

Step 1 If the start symbol S occurs on some right side, create a new start symbol S’
and a new production S’ → S.

Step 2 Remove Null productions. (Using the Null production removal algorithm
discussed earlier)

Step 3 Remove unit productions. (Using the Unit production removal algorithm
discussed earlier)

Step 4 Replace each production A → B1…Bn where n > 2 with A → B1C where C → B2
…Bn. Repeat this step for all productions having two or more symbols in the
right side.

Step 5 If the right side of any production is in the form A→ aB where a is a terminal
and A, B are non-terminal, then the production is replaced by A→ XB and X→
a. Repeat this step for every production which is in the form A→ aB.

Problem:
Convert the following CFG into CNF

S→ ASA | aB, A → B | S, B→b|ϵ

Solution:

(1) Since S appears in R.H.S, we add a new state S0 and S0→S is added to the production
set and it becomes:

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB, A → B | S, B→b|ϵ

(2) Now we will remove the null productions:

B→ϵ and A→ϵ

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After removing B → ϵ, the production set becomes:

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a, A → B | S | ϵ, B → b

After removing A → ϵ, the production set becomes:

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA | S, A → B | S, B → b

(3) Now we will remove the unit productions.

After removing S→ S, the production set becomes:

S0→S, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, A → B | S, B → b

After removing S0→ S, the production set becomes:

S0→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA

A → B | S, B→b

After removing A→ B, the production set becomes:

S0 → ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA

A→S|b

B→b

After removing A→ S, the production set becomes:

S0 → ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, S→ ASA | aB | a | AS | SA

A → b |ASA | aB | a | AS | SA, B → b

(4) Now we will find out more than two variables in the R.H.S

Here, S0→ ASA, S → ASA, A→ ASA violates two Non-terminals in R.H.S.

Hence we will apply step 4 and step 5 to get the following final production set which is in
CNF:

S0→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA

S→ AX | aB | a | AS | SA

A → b |AX | aB | a | AS | SA

B→b

X→ SA

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(5) We have to change the productions S0→ aB, S→ aB, A→ aB

And the final production set becomes:

S0→ AX | YB | a | AS | SA

S→ AX | YB | a | AS | SA

A → b |AX | YB | a | AS | SA

B→b

X→ SA

Y→a

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