1

ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING

Max. Marks :100
Time: 3 Hours (Theory: 80,Internal: 20)

NOTE FOR PAPER SETTER

i. Paper setter will set nine questions in all, out of which students will be required to attempt five
questions.
ii. Q.No 1 will be compulsory and will carry 16 marks. There will be four short -answer type Questions
of 4 marks each to be selected from the entire syllabus.
iii. Two long answer type question will be set from each of the four units, out of which the student will
be required to attempt one question from each unit. Long- answer type questions will carry 16 marks
each.

Course Contents:

Unit I
Introduction to Assessment & Evaluation
●Concept of Assessment & Evaluation and their inter relationships.
●Purposes and objectives of assessment for placement, providing feedbacks, grading promotion,
certification, diagnostic of learning difficulties.
●Critical review of current evaluation practices:
a) Formative and summative evaluation
b) Prognostic and diagnostic
c) Norm referenced test and Criterion referenced test
d) Quantitative and Qualitative

Unit II
Assessment of Learning
●Concept of Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor domain of learning (Revised taxonomy of objectives
(2001)
●Constructing table of specifications & writing different forms of questions – (VSA, SA, ET &
objective type, situation based)
●Construction of achievement tests- steps, procedure and uses
●Construction of diagnostic test – Steps, uses & limitation
●Kinds of tasks: projects, assignments, performances

Unit III
Assessment Process & tools
●Need for CCE its importance and problems faced by teachers
●Meaning & Construction of process-oriented tools – observation schedule; check-list; rating scale;
anecdotal record;

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●Assessment of group processes – Nature of group dynamics; Socio-metric techniques; steps for
formation of groups, criteria for assessing tasks; Criteria’s for assessment of social skills in
collaborative or cooperative learning situations.
●Portfolio assessment – meaning, scope & uses; developing & assessing portfolio; development of
Rubrics.

Unit IV
Construction Interpretation and Reporting of student’s performance
1. Interpreting student’s performance :
a) Descriptive statistics (measures of central tendency & measures of variability,
percentages)
b) Graphical representation (Histogram, Frequency Curves)
c) NPC – percentile.
d) Grading – Meaning, types, and its uses
●Role of feedback to stake holders (Students, Parents, Teachers) and to improve teaching – learning
process; Identifying the strengths & weakness of learners.
●Reporting student’s performance – Progress reports, cumulative records, profiles and their uses,
Portfolios.

UNIT 1
QUES1:-Discuss the concept of assessment and evaluation? How assessment and evaluation are
interrelated?

Ques:- Discuss the concept of assessment and evaluation? How assessment and evaluation are interrelated?

Ans:- Introduction:- Teaching and testing are two important responsibilities of every teacher. Measuring the
student’s performance after instruction is an integral part in education. It is used by all institutions to
determine the level of learning. For this purpose, a variety of assessment, and evaluation techniques,
evaluation tools are used frequently. But now the question arises. What is assessment and what is evaluation?

Meaning of Assessment:- We use the term assessment in various ways in our day to day life. Such as
assessment of the mental value of a building, internal assessment of student’s performance, quality
assessment of a thing or person etc. It is often used interchangeably with terms evaluation and measurement.
However assessment has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than measurement. But
in education it is a process which is used to describe processes to examine or measure student learning that
results from academic programs. It is an ongoing process which aimed at improving student learning.
Assessment is not based on one task or one task, nor it is expressed by mark or grade but rather in a report
form with scales or levels as well as description and comment from the teacher.

Definitions:-

1. According to Mirrian – Webster Dictionary, “The action or instance assessing, appraisal, etc.

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2. According to University of Oregon, (Teaching Effective Program), “Assessment is the process of

gathering and discussing information from multiple and diverse sources, in order to develop a deep
understanding of what students know, understand; can do with their knowledge as a result of their
educational experiences; the process culminates when assessment results are used to improve
subsequent learning.”

3. P.J.Black& D. William, “The term assessment refers to all those activities undertaken by teachers
and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide information to be used as feedback to
modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged.

4. HerryDodds&Corna Smith, “Assessment in education is the process of gathering, interpreting,

recording and using information about pupils responses to an educational task.

5. According to the higher learning commission (USA), “Assessment is a process that

●Provides data/information we need o our students’ learning.

●Engages you and others in analyzing and using this data/information to confirm and improve
teaching and learning.

●Guides you in making educational and institutional improvements.

●Evaluate whether changes made improve/impact student learning and documents the learning and
your efforts.”

Thus, we see that assessment is a tool that measures how well the students achieve the learning outcomes.
It’s not just a test at the end of a unit. Rather it is performance based, seamless and ongoing process which is
used for the purpose of improving learning and development.

Characteristics/Nature of assessment:-Assessment assists learning. It helps focus effort on implementing

strategies to facilitate learning both inside and outside the classroom. Assessment is

● A fact finding activity:-that describes conditions that exist at a particular time.

● A measure of the degree:- to which instructional objectives have been attained.

● Appraisal:- appraising the presence of one or more personal characteristics.

● Assessing human behavior:- and mental processes include such procedures as observations,
interviews, rating scales, check lists, inventories, projective techniques, and tests of various types.

● Process of gathering and discussing information:- from multiple and diverse sources about pupils’
responses to an educational task.

● Feedback to modify teaching and learning activities:- Assessment is a process of gathering

information and the information gathered is used a feedback to modify teaching and learning
activities.

● Evaluating an individual:- with respect to this various traits.

● Process of observing :- a sample of students behavior and drawing inferences about their
knowledge and abilities.

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● Measure the quality and quantity of learning:- Assessment is the process whereby one attempts to
measure the quality and quantity of learning and teaching using various assessment techniques.

● Measure of the degree to which instructional objectives have been attained.

● Assessing the personality characteristics:-and behavior of a small groups of individuals by having

them perform a variety of tasks during a period of a few days.

IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSMENT

1. Motivation:- Assessment can help to motivate students. If students know they are doing poorly,
they may begin to work harder.

2. Modification of behavior:- Assessment is designed to understand students progress towards

course goals and modify their behavior in order to meet those goals.

3. Helps Teachers;- Assessment not only help the students but teachers also. It allows teachers
to see if their teaching has been affective or not. It also allows teacher to ensure students what they
need to learn to meet learning objectives.

4. Helps Students:- Assessment is a key component of learning because it helps students to

learn. When students are able to see how they are doing in a class, they are able to determine their
understanding about course material.

5. Affects many facets of Education:- It is important for better education because it affects many
facets of education, including students grades, placement and advancement as well as curriculum,
instructional needs and school funding.

6. For feedback:- Assessment is really as good as the feedback that response to student work. In
order to make assessment as effective as possible, teacher should provide their feedback as well as
a letter grade

Concept of Evaluation:-

Introduction: Every individual is different from other. But how an individual is different from other and how this
different can be checked? The answer to this is evaluation. Evaluation is the most commonly used term. In
Ancient time ‘the guru’ used to access, the abilities, talents of ‘the shishya’ through Oral Evaluation. In 1702
written evaluation started in Cambridge University (England). The concept of evaluation was developed by
B.S.Bloom, the famous educationists of Chicago. He brought this concept to India in 1958 and gave its
detailed understanding. It was under his guidance that N.C.E.RT., Delhi continued the concept.

Meaning of Evaluation:- In simple words, evaluation is to judge or calculate the quality importance, amount or

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value of something, Acc. to Wikipedia, evaluation is a systematic determination of subjects merit, worth and
significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It is broader, more comprehensive, more inclusive
than the term measurement. Evaluation is a process of making over all judgement about one’s work or a whole
school’s work. It is also broader concept than assessment as it focuses on the overall or all summative
experiences.

Old Concept:

The old concept of evaluation was limited and narrow. It was judgment about a few facts of life especially the
academic side of personality. It was not as scientific as we have it now. It was more of subject centered.

Modern Concept:

The old concept of evaluation has undergone a complete change with the passage of time because the new
philosophy of education laid stress upon the pupil’s growth and development. Now the main focus is on the
child and not on the subject-matter. Secondly learning done by students is most important thing. Thirdly total
personality of the child is considered for the purpose of assessment. Thus modern concept does the
evaluation in comprehensive manner. It includes all around growth of individual academic & non –academic
aspects.

Definition of Evaluation:

“Evaluation is a relatively new technical term introduced to design a more comprehensive concept of
measurement. T.W. Wrightstone

“Evaluation can be defined as a systematic process of determining the extent to which education objectives
are achieved by the pupils.”

Dandekar

“Evaluation is a continuous process it forms an integral part of total system of education and is intimately
related to educational objectives”. Kothari Commission

Therefore Evaluation =Quantitative description+ Qualitative Description + value judgment

Characteristics of Evaluation:

1. Continuous: evaluation is a continuous process. It goes hand in hand with the teaching learning
process.

2. Comprehensive: evaluation is not only related with the academic aspects but includes all the
aspects of personality be it academic or non-academic.

3. Scientific & Systematic: Evaluation of each aspect is done very systematically and scientifically.

4. Child centered: the new concept of evaluation give more importance to learning of the child. It is not
subject centered but deals with the achievement of learners on a certain objectives.

5. Cooperative process: evaluation is a cooperative process involving students, teachers, parents and

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peer group.

6. Not confined to classroom only: Evaluation also takes into consideration what happens outside the
classroom. Outdoor activities are also judged through evaluation.

7. Serves as a guide: Evaluation serves as a guide to the teachers as well as the learners. So that the
teachers are able to teach in a better way and learners learn in a better way.

8. Remedial in nature: Evaluation is remedial in nature because the process of evaluation helps the
learner to improve at every step.

9. Both qualitative and quantitative: Evaluation includes both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of
human personality. Further the value judgment is given to the traits.

10. Teaching method and competencies can also be evaluated with the help of evaluation.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION

A strong student evaluation is an essential ingredient to strong educational programme. It is the primary tool
for guiding student development, crossing all academic disciplines. In our educational system, evaluation is
needed for the following two special tasks:-

1. To improve programme design and implementation:- It is important to periodically assess and adapt
school activities, to ensure they are as effective as they can be. Evaluation helps to identify areas for
improvement and efficiency.

2. To demonstrate programme impact:- Evaluation enables us to demonstrate a programme success or

progress. The information collected helps to better communicate programme’s impact to others,
which is essential for public relations, staff morale, and attracting and retaining support from current
and potential funds.

In general, the need and importance of evaluation can be felt in our education system by the following
points:-

1. In directing as well as guiding teaching learning:- Evaluation reveals the specific points of strength
and weakness in teaching and learning. It is diagnostic in nature.

2. To measure the validity and reliability of instruction:- It is essential to evaluate all activities of the
teacher in the light of their adequacy to promote the democratic way of life and on how nearly do the
students realize the objectives of education. The measurement of effective teaching finds its great
value in the possibilities it offers for the improvement of teaching and learning.

3. Aids in devising more effective instructional material and procedure of instruction:- Today,
educational literature is filled with enthusiastic advocacy of various co-operative researches, and if

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worked alongwith line, will determine the degree of success and effectiveness of evaluation.

4. Stimulates students study:- A questioning teacher creates incentives for students to learn more. By
oral or written examination he sets up effective and definite goals for his students which compels
them to study harder and better work.

5. Evaluation is used to enforce external standards upon the individual or class:- A better method of
evaluation can encourage a flexible curriculum, which is required to bring the changes needed for the
modern life and to the variations in the local conditions. For it, local schools should be left free to
select and develop instruments for development, which are appropriate for their curricula.

6. Helps to understand pupils:- Evaluation helps parents to understand pupil, his growth, interests and
potentials.

7. Evaluation helps teachers to discover the needs of the pupils:- Evaluation helps to discover the
needs of the pupils being evaluated and then to design learning experiences that will satisfy these
needs.

8. It helps to provide objective evidence for effective co-operation between parents and teachers:- The
increasing complexity of our present society has emphasized the importance of the co-operation of
the school, the home and the community in making significant educational progress.

9. Evaluation helps and assists students in their problems of adjustment:- It provides information to the
guidance counselor who help the students to make right decisions.

10. Useful for research:- Evaluation provides information to the researchers in the field of education for
investigating the effectiveness of different teaching methods and improving courses and curricula.

11. Helpful to the teacher:-

i.Evaluation enables teacher to understand his contribution to the accomplishment of the total goals
or aims of the school system.

ii. It assists the teacher for taking instructional decisions related to monitoring student progress,
diagnosing learning difficulties, determining the need for remedial measures, and improving
the quality of the learning environment.

iii. Evaluation helps the teacher to co-ordinate his efforts with the efforts of others, who contribute
to the general educational goals.

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12. Helpful to administrators:- Evaluation provides information to the administrators for the purpose of
selecting or promoting student to higher grade; grouping of students; providing in-service training to
teachers and providing necessary facilities in the institution.

13. Helpful in employment:- Evaluation has accountability to society in terms of demands and
requirements of the employment market. It also provides information different categories and their
various personality characteristics.

14. Information to higher authorities:- Evaluation provides information to the university or Board regarding
the strengths and weaknesses of instruction and learning.

15. Support for the school from Govts.:- Evaluation helps in securing support for the school from Govt.,
local or National. The people frequently complaint that schools in our country are inadequately
supported.

Inter relationship

Introduction:- Evaluation and assessment have similar meaning and they are closely related with each other.
Journey Vs Snapshot:- One could look at assessment and evaluation as the journey (assessment) versus
snapshot (evaluation). Assessment requires the gathering of evidence of student performance over a period
of time to measure learning and understanding. Evidence of learning could take the form of dialogue, journals,
written work, portfolios, tests along with many other tasks. Evaluation on the other hand occurs when a mark
is assigned after the completion of a task test, quiz lesson or learning activity. A mark on a spelling test will
determine if the child can spell the given words and would be seem as an evaluation.

Meaning of Assessment:-

Assessment:- Acc. to Bob Adamson – Assessment is the process of collecting information or evidence of a
learner’s learner process and achievement over a period of time, in order to improve teaching and learning.

Assessment is typically used to describe processes to examine or measure student learning that results
from academic programmes. It is an ongoing process aimed at improving student learning. Assessment is not
based on one test or on task, nor it is expressed by mark or grade, but rather in a report form from the scales
levels as well as description and comment from the teacher. The student achievement is often measured
against his own starting point, rather than comparison against the skills or abilities of other students.

Evaluation:- Acc. to Cameron – Evaluation is the process of making overall judgement about one’s work or a
whole school’s work.

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Evaluation is concerned with a whole range of issues in and beyond language education: lessons,
courses, programmes and skills can be evaluated. It produce a global view of achievement usually based on
many different types of information such as observation of lessons, student test scores, teacher’s
assessment report course documents or interviews with students and teachers.

Interrelationship between assessment and evaluation

Education use two distinct processes to help students build lifelong skills assessment and evaluation.Both
are related concepts. Assessment provides feedback on knowledge, skills, attitudes and work products for
the purpose of elevating future performance and learning outcomes. Evaluation determines the level of quality
of a performance or outcome and enables decision making based on the level of quality demonstrated.These
two processes are complementary and necessary in education.

Effective teachers will use both assessment and evaluation techniques regularly and on a daily basis
to improve student learning and to guide instruction. Both assessment and evaluation measure whether or not
learning and/or learning objectives are being met. Assessment and evaluation both have their purposes and
when used correctly both can add significant value to teaching/learning. However there can be detrimental
effects when the people involved have not agreed whether the process is evaluation or assessment or when
the assessment methodology gets confused with the evaluation methodology.

Although assessment and evaluation are used for different reasons, they have some similar steps.
Both involve specifying criteria to observe in a performance or outcome. Both require the collection of data and
other evidence by observing the performance of by looking at the outcome or product. Both require a performer
and a person who collects information about the performance. Both process also conclude with a report of the
findings which include all the similarities and at least as many differences.

The relationship between the people involved is different in the assessment and evaluation process.
In both cases a person, either evaluator or assessor, observed or collects evidence about a performance or
outcome, another person, either assessed or evaluate performs or develops an outcome. In both cases, a
person, either the assessee or client, requests the process (either evaluation or assessment).In the
assessment process, the report includes information about why the performance was as strong as it was and
describes what could be done to improve future performance. In assessment, there is no mention of the
actual quality of the performance, only how to make the next performance stronger. There is no language
indicating the level of quality, such as ‘good’, ‘terrible’, ‘horrible’ etc.Conversely in the evaluation report only
information regarding the actual quality of the performance is given. This might be in the form of a grade or a
score or an evaluate comment such as ‘good work’. The purpose of evaluation report is to report the level of
quality. It is not used to suggest improvements in future performance.

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In all, evaluation determines whether a standard was met, success or failure while assessment
provides feedback on performance, strength, areas for improvement and insights.In simple words, evaluation
is what we do with the assessed material, we have collected throughout the project.

Thus we see evaluation involves assessment and measurements. It is wider and more inclusive term
that assessment and measurement. Their relationship can be represented in the following figure:-

Points Assessment Evaluation

1. Purpose It is a process of evaluating on It is a continuous process and

individuals with various traits. give importance to the learning of
child.

It also requires collection of data

Requires the collection of data
2. Steps / methods and evidence by looking at the
and evidence to observe the
outcome or product.
performance of a child.

This also requires a performance

This process requires a performer
and a person to observe.
and a person to collect
3. Requirements
information about performer.

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In this process a report has been In this, also a report has been
prepared to tell how to make the prepared containing information
next performance stronger. regarding the actual quality of the
4. Report performance.

It is wider process and is based

It is narrower process and it is first
on the collected data throughout
step prepared in the starting.
the assessment project.

It also has an objective of

5. Interrelated It has quantitative objective. qualitative improvement.

Evaluation sometimes also refers

as assessment as they have
Evaluation term is also in place of
some meaning.
assessment.

6. Objective
In this case, also to obtain the
measurement tests as well as

In order to obtain the objective instruments are used in

measurements tests as well as wider range.

7. Interchangeable objective instruments are used.

It also serves as a guide to the

teachers as well as the learners.

It serves as a guide to teacher as

well as the learners.
It not only related with academic
8. Process
aspects but all the aspects of
personality also.

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Conclusion:- It has been observed that Assessment is a process used to improve as performance or outcome
whereas Evaluation is a process used to determine the quality of a performance or outcome and to make
decisions based on the quality. Both processes can be formative or summative. Before striking either
assessment or evaluation it is essential for instructors to clarify the purpose of the process. It is then critical
to communicate this purpose to everyone involved and to establish whether this will be conducted as
assessment or evaluation.Both are related concepts. Assessment provides feedback on knowledge, skills,
attitudes and work products for the purpose of evaluating future performance, and learning outcome and
enables decision-making based on the level of quality demonstrated.These two processes are
complementary and necessary in education.

Ques2:- What is placement assessment? what are the objectives and purposes of assessment for placement?

(In writing a short note. You have to write a answer of 2.5 pages including all main points but with less
explanation).

(Note-Before explaining placement assessment give the meaning, definitions and characteristics of
assessment.)

Objectives and purposes of Assessment

Acc. to Kellough & kellough (1999), “Teaching and learning are reciprocal processes that depend upon and
affect one another. Thus the assessment component deals with how well the students are learning and how
well the teacher is teaching. In spite of this there are many different forms of assessment, serving a variety of
purposes.

In general following purposes are served by the use of assessment in the teaching learning process.

Purposes

Placement Providing Grading Certification Diagnostic

Purposes Feedback Promotion Learning
Difficulties

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● Introduction
● Placement means the assigning of a worker to the job for which he is judged best fitted.
Fitness includes the individuals satisfaction with the job as well as his abilities for the job. The
purpose of placement testing is to determine current level of skills and knowledge in reading, writing
and math.
Definitions

● According to Andrew and Willey, “Placement refers to all the activities performed in assisting the
student to make an adequate adjustment to the next step in his training whether that he is taking a full
or part time job or making a choice of additional educational training.”

● According to Freohlich, “Placement is concerned with helping pupils to take the next step, whatever
it may be such as placement service assists pupils in finding jobs, it also helps them find their place
in appropriate extracurricular activities. In essence, it helps them make use of their opportunities.

● Through these definitions, it is clear that assessment data help in taking decision about the
selection or placement of te students in a particular academic or professional course available in a
particular educational institute. Proper assessment is capable of placing the right student to the right
academic or professional field.

● PLACEMENT ASSESSMENT:-
Placement assessments are used to “place” students into a course, course level, or
academic program. For example, an assessment may be used to determine whether a student is ready for
Algebra I or a higher-level algebra course, such as an honors-level course. For this reason, placement
assessments are administered before a course or program begins, and the basic intent is to match
students with appropriate learning experiences that address their distinct learning needs.

Purposes and objectives of assessment for placement

1. Personal Guidance:- Assessment supplies information to the pupil personally. It also introduce
the pupil with various methods of entering into save occupation or some educational programme of
his choice.In this way it provides personal guidance.

2. Occupational information:-Assessment is done to acquire information’s regarding vacancies,

competitions for scholarships procedure of registration in a college etc, organizing such
information’s properly and maintaining them.

3. Counseling former pupils:- Frequently those pupils who have dropped out will return to the
school for placement. The placement personnel are in excellent position to know about a person’s
employment experience and assist him again in getting a job and place him also on part time basis.

4. Determining reasons of drop out:- It is revealed through studies that pupils begin to drop out
from studies very early. What are the conditions that lead to drop outs? This question is answered
by assessment for placement.

5. Curriculum planning:- Assessment for placement provide many helpful suggestions which can
used in curriculum planning as the placement people are always in touch with the demands of the
field which they try to serve.

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6. Logical selection of courses and curricular:- Assessment for placement aims at helping the
students in making logical and intelligent choices to pursue educational courses for selecting a
suitable vocation.

7. Providing occupational information:- The personnel involved in assessment help the student to
get appropriate and relevant information about jobs, modes of applying for them, preparing for the
interview curd on getting a job, how to make success of it.

8. Help in locating part time employment:- Assessment for placement also help the individual
pupils in finding part time jobs and add to their resources for purpose of meeting expenses for
higher studies and also to gain experiences before getting final placement.

9. Help in providing full time jobs:- The chief aim of assessment for placement is to help the
individual to get full time and permanent employment. Assessment for placement help the students
get appropriate jobs after completion of their education.

Objectives of assessment for placement :

1. Scholastic track -To situate the pupil in the proper scholastic track in the proper course.

2. Co-curricular activities:- To find out a proper choice of co-curricular activities available in college /
university.

3. Placement:- To find out a proper place in the post college or post university environment.

4. Choice of job:- To achieve the choice of job oriented courses.

5. Admission:- To get admission in a college or professional institution or university.

6. Part time jobs:-To get part time jobs, during working session and whole time jobs after getting
education and training.

7. Selection of courses:- To assist pupils in selection of courses or school subjects.

8. Selection of activities:- To assist pupils in selection of counselor activities in the school or other
activities in the school or community.

9. Promotion:-To assist pupils in their transfers from one grade to another or from one school to
another.

10. Grouping:- To group pupils in their classes or a single class.

11. Vocational Training:-To assist pupils in their efforts to enter college, vocational school, or any other
training institution when they leave school at the time of passing out or other otherwise.

12. Permanent employment:- To assist pupil in locating and securing permanent employment when they
have school after passing out or otherwise.

Conclusion :-Placement is concerned with helping pupils to take the next step, whatever it may be such as
placement service assists pupils in finding jobs, it also helps them find their place in appropriate

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extracurricular activities.Placement assessments are administered before a course or program begins, and
the basic intent is to match students with appropriate learning experiences that address their distinct learning
needs. Assessment for placement help the students get appropriate jobs after completion of their education.

Ques3:- What do you mean by feedback. Define the principles of providing feedback?

Or

Write a short note on feedback.

(Note:- In writing a short note. You have to write a answer of 2.5 pages including all main points but with less
explanation)

Note-Before explaining feedback give the meaning, definitions and characteristics of assessment.)

Objectives and purposes of Assessment

Acc. to Kellough & kellough (1999), “Teaching and learning are reciprocal processes that depend upon and
affect one another. Thus the assessment component deals with how well the students are learning and how
well the teacher is teaching. In spite of this there are many different forms of assessment, serving a variety of
purposes.

In general following purposes are served by the use of assessment in the teaching learning process.

Purposes

Placement Providing Grading Certification Diagnostic

Purposes Feedback Promotion Learning
Difficulties

Feedback:- Feedback is an essential element of the learning process. It provides information about an
individual’s performance or their behavior. It also clarifies the areas where students can improve and provides
opportunity to students to self assess their skills and capabilities. It can be provided individually or to group &
not only by academic staff but can be by self assessment or source.

Dictionary of Education (C.V. Good, 1939) defines feedback as a process whereby an observer reports to a

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group on how well it is functioning.”

Feedback stands for a sort of mechanism or device to provide information to an individual, his behavior or
performance in order to modify it in a desirable way.

Purposes and function of assessment for feedback

Feedback as explained aims to provide information about the functioning or working of an individual or a
system. It serves the following two broad purposes or function in the learning and development of the
students.
Function

Controlling Reinforcement
Functions Functions

Controlling Functions:- Feedback provides a proper mechanism for exercising control over the functioning and
working of an individual or a system. The controlling functional of the feedback mechanism can be explained
and illustrated in the following ways:-

1. Behavior modification:- An individual behaves in a particular way. Feedback helps him to exercise
control over his behavior and style of interaction.

2. Fulfillment of goals:- A learner aims to achieve certain objectives through his learning. He time to
time evaluates his learning outcomes in the light of his objectives. Such evaluation helps him to
provide feedback and with this feedback he is helped in bringing changes in the contents of the
learning experiences, learning methods and learning environment etc.

3. Better control and administration:- Assessment data provide information to the school officials and
educational authorities about the progress and functioning of the teaching learning activities. From it,
they may be able to exercise proper control over the working of the school under their control.

4. Fixing accountability:- Assessment helps in fixing responsibilities and accountability for the poor
performance of the students. In the light of this, remedial measures can be applied for improvement.

Reinforcement functions:- Reinforcement is usually defined as something which can create conditions or

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situations for strengthening the existing or ongoing behavior of an individual or system. The feedback
mechanism provides proper reinforcement to an individual or a system simply because it provides proper
information about one’s level of performance as may be evident from. These are:-

1. Helpful for teachers:- Assessment provides feedback to the teachers in terms of the function ability
and effectiveness of their models and strategies of teaching. The goal of this feedback is to inspire
and motivate teachers to improve.

2. Helpful for students:- Feedback helps students understand the subject being studied and gives
them clear guidance to on how to improve their learning.

Acc. to Bellon, “Academic feedback is more strongly and consistently related to achievement than
any other teaching behavior. Such feedback can improve a student’s confidence, self awareness and
enthusiasm for learning. It should enhance learning and improve assessment.

3. Helpful for learning:- A learner while proceeding on a learning path gets immediate knowledge of his
results and progress. Such type of feedback is quite capable of reinforcing his learning behavior and
as a result he may gain due encouragement and incentive for the proper strengthening of his learning
behavior in the achievement of the desired learning objectives.

4. Helpful for child:- A child behaves in a particular way. In consequence he is admired, blamed or
attended in any way. The output of his behavior thus provides sufficient feedback for reinforcing his
behavior. He knows well that by behaving in this particular way, he is able to catch the attention or get
admiration. This knowledge or feedback helps him to get due reinforcement for continuing his
present behavior with more zeal and enthusiasm.

5. Helpful for other persons:- Feedback not only helps students, teachers, individual but also other
persons like parents school heads and officials of department. From feedback they know about the
learning abilities, potentials and capacities. They feel reinforced and try to improve themselves in
every context.

6. Helpful for stakeholders:- The results of the tests and other assessment measures are always
conveyed by the teachers to the different stakeholders like learners, parents and administrators. The
learners always remain quite eager to know about their performances. The supply of the information
about their test papers and performances provides them needed feedback for controlling and
reinforcing their learning behavior.

Conclusion:- Feedback is an important part of assessment for learning. There is a significant impact of
feedback on student learning and achievement. Teacher’s feedback should act as scaffolding to support

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learner’s skill building and the acquisition of knowledge. Teacher’s provide the ‘X’ factor in promoting learning
through intervention strategies and feedback on learner’s performance. In all, assessment feedback is very
helpful for the overall improvement of the teaching learning process. Feedback is providing information to an
individual which focuses on their performance or behaviour.Feedback must not be confused with doing the
work for the learners or giving them so much help that it becomes the teacher’s work. There is an art of
providing support and feedback and it is definitely not giving learners the solution as soon as they become
stuck.

Ques:- 4 Grading promotion, certification and diagnostic of learning objectives ?

Grade promotion:- Assessment’s purpose is to give grade and promotion to the students. Students who are in
good academic standing as known by assessment and acquire pass grade to be eligible for promotion, are
given promotion and certificates. Grades are the means by which teacher assess or evaluate studenys.
Grades from cumulative assessments are used to certify that the quality and integrity of assessment is
essential to guarantee the credibility of qualification and the academic reputation of issuing institution.

ASSESSMENT FOR CERTIFICATION:- Another key purpose of assessment is to gather evidence to make a
judgement about a student’s level of performance against the specified learning objective. On its base,
students are given certificates. Students are usually assessed at the end of an element of learning such as
the end of a topic or midule, mid semester orend of semester. They are given results typically as marks or
grades to represent a particular level of achievement i.e. high, medium or low. The judgemental summative
process formally provides the evidence to verify or certify which students may progress to the next level of
their studies.

How diagnostic of learning difficulties is helpful in assessment of learning?

MEANING:-The process of determining the causesof educational difficulties is known as educational
diagnosis. The scope of educational diagnosis is much larger than the use of testsand examinations. Identify
areas of strength and areas of weakness.
Definitions:-
Acc. To Tiges :- major function of diagnosis is to facilitate the optimum development of every student.
Acc. To Good:-diagnosis is the procedure by which the nature of a disorder, whether physical, mental, or
social,is determined by discriminating study of the history of the disorder and of symptoms present.
Acc. To Barr et al:- the correction and elimination of the weaknesses through a constructive attack on their
causes constitute an essesntial complementary process closely related to diagnosis.
Importance/purposes/advantages of diagnostic of learning difficulties:-
1.Determine readiness for school level course work:- for attaining maximum effectiveness in teaching,
diagnosis of a child’s learning difficulties should be made as early as possible. When the nature, extent and
causes of a child’s retardarion and acceleration are known, together with data on his/her capacity for learning,
effective development or corrective teaching can be planned.

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2. Knowledge or skills:-primarily serve to determine whether a student has the developed the knowledge and/
or skills needed to take the college entry-level courses in a specific subject area.
3. Specifying and limiting the difficulty area:- These tests notify the strengths and weaknesses of students in
a subject area. For instance, if a student has taken a placement test in Mathematics, the test may show that
the student understands pre-algebra since he answered all, or most, related questions correctly.
4. Assessment and the early identification of learning difficulties· the preliminary screening of pupilsby their
class teacher, using checklists, rating scales, screening profiles or curriculum profiles in the case of very
young children, and standardised norm-referenced tests from the middle of first class onwards ·
5. The selection of pupils for diagnostic assessment · an initial diagnostic assessment by the learning-
support teacher, the interpretation of the outcomes of the assessment, and a determination of the most
appropriate form of learning support for each pupil · A review of each pupil’s progress at the end of an
instructional term, comprising assessment of the pupil’s progress, evaluation of the learning programme
which has been implemented, consideration of the level of learning support the pupil may require in the future,
and revision of learning targets.
Conclusion:- Educational diagnosis is the basis of effective and intelligent taching.diagnosis in education
means a case study of the condition of learning to determine its nature and to find out the causation, with the
main purpose of correcting and remedying the difficulty involved in active remembering.

Ques5: Critically examine the current evaluation practices in India?

(Note:- Explain the meaning of evaluation from ques no.1)

Ans:- “If examinations are necessary, a thorough reform of these is still necessary”
Evaluation is the estimation of the worth of a thing, process or programme in order to reach meaningful
decisions about thing, process or programme.it calls for evidence of effectiveness, suitability of goodness of
the programme or process.Evauation aims at the clse inter-dependence between educational objectives,
learning experiences and continuous evaluation so that each may modify itself and grow in correspondence
with the rest.
Why assessment?
-helping students meet certain standards
-using the assessment data to identify strengths and weaknesses in student performance, and to
improve the quality of teaching and learning
Following types of evaluation practices are currently used in teaching learning process:-

a) Formative and summative

b) Prognostic and diagnostic

c) Norm referenced and criterion referenced test

d) Quantitative and qualitative

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Formative Evaluation

As the term implies ,formative evaluation takes place this during the entire teaching-learning
process;The term formative evaluation was originally coined by Serivan (1967) to classify evaluation for the
purpose of moving instruction. it is usually done when some content or some portion of a unit of instructions
have been completed. When the teacher teaches some part of syllabus, he needs to know about the
effectiveness and outcome of his teaching. Similarly,it has been seen that the students also want to know
about their own progress during the process of learning. In such a situation, the formative evaluation helps
both the teacher and the student their performance. They come to know about their strengths and weakness
and also that of the teaching-learning process.

Definitions Of Formative Evaluation:-some definitions of formative evaluation are defined by different

educationists.These are :

According to Tanner, “Formative evaluation refers to the use of tests and other evaluative procedures while the
course and instructional programme is in progress.”

According to Gronlund, “The specific use of formative evaluation is to plan corrective action to overcome
learning difficulties or deficiencies to aid in motivating learning and to increase retention and transfer of
learning, needs of classroom group and correction in learning deficiencies are made through periodic testing
and evaluation of pupils during the instructions.”

According to Monika Sharma, “Formative evaluation must be undertaken in all the educational
programme because through this approach of evaluation, we come to know about the shortcomings of the
educational plan and programme in between the process and we can take up appropriate steps for dealing
with these shortcomings and problems.”

In all,formative evaluation is a reflective process that intends to promote student attainment .it provides
feedback at appropriate stages of the teaching learning process,which help in making changes in
curriculum,teaching strategies and the learning environment.it uses the tests and other evaluative procedures
while the course and instructional programme is in progress.

Essential Features of Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation has following features and characteristics:

1. Formative evaluation is administered during some units, lessons are being taught.

2. In this type of evaluation, a particular unit, lesson of content is selected.

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3. It tells the students about their progress and performance during the teaching-learning process.

4. It tells the teacher about the success and effectiveness of his teaching methods and strategies.

5. Formative evaluation suggests remedial materials in the form of programmed instruction, work-
books etc.

6. Formative evaluation tell us, upto what degree the aims and objectives of education are achieved.

7. It makes the teaching learning process more effective.

8. Formative evaluation provides motivation.

9. It also reinforces learning.

10. Varied techniques of evaluation are used in formative evaluation.

11. The results of such evaluation should not necessarily appear in any official record.

12. Formative evaluation can in no way be used for making comparisons among students and making
judgements about them.

Advantages/Uses/Merits of Formative Evaluation

Formative evaluation has following merits:

1. Provides Feedback to the Students: One of the most important merits of formative evaluation is that
it tells the students where they are strong and where they are weak. By knowing their strengths and
weakness, the students can work on improving their weak point and further strengthen their
strengths. Thus, it provides proper feedback to the students.

2. Provides Feedback to the Teachers: Formative evaluation provides feedback not only to the students
but also to the teachers. Through formative evaluation, the teachers come to know about the
effectiveness of their teaching methods and strategies etc. Keeping in mind this feedback, the
teachers can improve their teaching skills.

3. Helps in Diagnosing Learning Difficulties: Another important advantage of formative evaluation is

that it helps in diagnosing the learning difficulties of the students. During the teaching learning-
process, the students face a lot of problems and difficulties which obstruct their learning. These
problems and difficulties are diagnosed by formative evaluation.

4. Helps in Reinforcement: Through formative evaluation, the students and the teacher comes to know

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the direction in which the teaching-learning process is heading. After assessing the actual progress of the
student, the teacher can provide appropriate reinforcement to them.

5. Helps in Accelerating Learning: The formative evaluation also helps in accelerating the learning of
the students. Through formative evaluation, teachers come to know about the learning difficulties of
the students, the effectiveness of their teaching methods etc. By taking appropriate steps in these
directions the teacher can accelerate the learning process.

6. Helps in Assessing the Condition of Educational Set-up: Formative evaluation helps in assessing the
condition of education set-up. Through this type of evaluation, the actual and real condition of
educational system can be assessed. It tells about merits and limitations of the whole educational
system.

7. Makes Teaching Learning Process more Effective: By providing proper feedback to teachers and
students, diagnosing the learning difficulties of students and providing proper reinforcement, the
formative evaluation makes the teaching-learning process more effective.

8. Suggests Remedial Measures: Formative evaluation not only tells us about the actual condition of
teaching-learning process and learning difficulties. It also provides remedial measures to tackle these
problems and difficulties.

9. Helps in Framing Proper Sequence of Learning: Another important advantage of formative evaluation
is that it helps in framing proper sequence of learning. Through it, the teachers and educational set-up
come to know about the problems of educational system. So they can reframe the proper sequence
of learning for effective learning.

10. Can be Carried out in Both Formal and Informal Way: Another important merit of formative evaluation
is that it can be carried out in both formal and informal way. In formal way, the teacher can use class-
tests, questionnaire etc. But when financial, time-related and other factors don’t allow formal
evaluation, the teacher can summarise the class discussions of the students and other related
behavior to evaluate the performance of the student.

Disadvantages:

1. Time consuming and requires resources: Formative evaluation is considered to be time consuming process

if they are followed on a monthly, weekly or daily basis. These evaluations are time and resource intensive,

this is because they are in need of frequent gathering of data, analysis, reporting as well as refinement of new

implementation and how effective it should be.

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2. Tiring process1: Planning and exercising can be tiring process and few recommendations cannot be

implemented at all times. Hence this disadvantage leads many individuals to avoid the practice.

3. Trained and qualified professionals: In order to process with the formative evaluation well qualified and

trained individuals are required so that formative evaluation is carried over successfully and ended.

4. Develops challenges: There are number of methodological challenges with formative evaluation at times of

rapid refinement process which takes place when trying to evaluate the impact of intervention.. Another

disadvantage is the difficulty in determining the change in the intervention at certain outcomes.

5. Not appropriate for conflict resolution1: Conflict resolution needs and initiatives are not met by formative

evaluation method. Formative evaluation is a method that improves work and is also not an end by itself.

6. Funding limitations: The intensity of formative evaluations is limited by funding aspects. If funding

proposals are complete and perfect then formative evaluations can be offered with mid-course actions and

corrections.

7. Results must be related to implementation: When formative evaluation is considered, results must be based

on the context of the program implementation rather than complete program assessment result. A simple

example can be that mid-stream evaluation can present unfavorable results, but can be made favorable by

collecting summative data for prolonged periods.

8. Evaluators must preserve objectivity: Intervention is shaped with ongoing feedback and where objectivity

rises for evaluators. There should be proper standard strategy format so that required distance is maintained

for objectivity With all the advantages and disadvantages mentioned, the instructors or evaluators can make a

note of them and make their projects or tasks successful.

9. Stages of formative evaluation: There are three stages when formative evaluation is considered, they are

pre-implementation, implementation and post-implementation. The first stage in a formative evaluation is the

development stage where the determinants of the current phase are identified. Along with this the barriers and

facilitators are also identified. The feasibility to access proposed intervention is achieved in this initial stage.

The development stage also includes integrating findings with the intervention design as well as with

refinement before implementation.

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Conclusion:- A formative evaluation is an evaluation which is used for learning. The main intention of a

formative evaluation is to present a measure to both the students and instructor and find them where they stay

in their course of study.. A formative assessment is far better in many ways than a summative evaluation and

helps in finding out why a program doesn’t work. The main hindrance for a formative evaluation is that it does

not require time and money and hence it is a barrier to undertake it. It is equally important for people to view it

as a mandatory program which brings about successful outcome. With this measure, the instructor would be

able to adjust and make few variations so that the studies aren’t affected. With the help of formative

evaluations more interest is presented by the instructor and students and their way of learning. The research

evidence clearly indicate the good, well developed formative evaluation system, even more than other

students, reducing overall achievement gaps

Summative Evaluation

While formative evaluation takes place in between the teaching of a particular lesson or unit, summative
evaluation is carried out at the end of an instruction, unit or lesson. Summative evaluation is often carried out
at the end of a session, unit, or term. It aims at summarizing the outcomes of the teaching-learning process,
hence comes its name summative evaluation. Thus summative evaluation represents final test, measure or
evaluation of a students’ performance, progress and gain made by him as result of some course of learning.
The main techniques of summative evaluation are class-tests, term tests, quiz competitions, oral tests,
practical tests etc. The annual examinations, term examinations, semester examinations etc. both internal and
external are integral part of summative evaluation. So we can also classify summative evaluation, as internal
and external examination.

Definitions of summative evaluation:

According to Monika Sharma, “Summative evaluation, carried out at the end of instructional programme is
an effective tool to measure the outcome of any such programme.”

According to Serivan(1967),”Summative Evaluation is a method to judge the worth of a curriculum at the end of
the syllabus,when the focus is on the outcome.”

According to C. Kumar, “Summative evaluation is helpful not only in assessing the results and outcome of
an educational programme but also in modifying, restructuring and reframing the curriculum, objectives,
teaching-learning methodology, strategies and personnels as well.”

summative evaluation is comprehensive in nature, and is used to check the level of learning at the

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end of the programme.For example,if upon completion of programme,students will have the knowledge to
pass an accreditation test,taking the test would be summative in nature.Since it is based on the cumulative
learning experiences.

Main Features/Characteristics of Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation has followed essential features:

1. It is carried out at the end of a particular instructional lesson, topic or content, session or semester.

2. It summarizes the performance and progress of the students as a result of a unit, content-portion or
lesson.

3. It is carried out less frequently than formative evaluation.

4. The results of summative evaluation can be utilized for making comparisons among the students.

5. This evaluation can also be used for making certifying judgement for the students.

6. Summative evaluation doesn’t provide any feedback for the students or the teachers.

7. It can also be used for classifications.

8. Formative evaluation judges the effectiveness of educational programme, proficiency of teacher and
practical value of curriculum.

9. Formative evaluation is usually used for promoting the students to next class.

10. Formative evaluation can be used for predicting the future success of any educational programme.

Advantages/Uses/Merits of Summative Evaluation

1. Knowledge about Overall Performance and Progress of the Student: In summative evaluation, the all
round development and progress of the student is assessed. In this type of evaluation, various
techniques are used to assess the overall performance of the student after the completion of the
course. Thus, the teacher comes to know overall performance of the student through it.

2. Basis of Certification: In summative evaluation, sometimes a minimum criterion is set. If the student
satisfies the minimum criterion, then he is awarded relevant certificate Stating that the student has
passed this instructional course. If the student does not satisfy this minimum criterion, he is not
awarded any such certificate. Thus, summative evaluation acts as a basis of certification.

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3. Basis for Awarding Grades: One of the most important advantage of summative evaluation is that it
can be utilized to award grades to the students. Depending upon the marks obtained by the students
in the examination as well as their participation in the co-curricular activities, the students can be
awarded grades.

4. Helpful in Making comparisons amongst Groups: Summative evaluation is also helpful in making
comparisons among groups. For example, if there are four sections of tenth class in the school. They
are provided same conditions of learning, then what are the learning outcomes of these different
section? Their results can be compared with each other to arrive at a conclusion.

5. Helpful in Making Predictions about an Educational Programme: Summative evaluation is carried out
at the end of instructional programme. It concludes this programme. Thus it can also be used for
making predictions about an educational programme.

6. Helpful in Guidance: Another important advantage of summative evaluation is that, it is very helpful
for providing guidance to the students. Though the summative evaluation the strengths, weaknesses,
interests, aptitudes etc. of the students are assessed. This information is quite helpful in proper
guidance of the students.

7. Helpful in Promotions: Summative evaluation is an effective tool for promoting the students to the
next/higher classes. It they satisfy the minimum criteria of promotion to higher class through
summative evaluation, then they are promoted to higher classes.

8. Helpful in Checking Proficiency of Teacher: Summative evaluation takes place when a teacher has
completed a lesson, unit or term syllabus. How effective was his teaching? It can be assessed
through summative evaluation. Thus, summative evaluation helps in checking proficiency of teachers.

9. Helpful in Resetting Objectives: Summative evaluation tells us about the performance of the
students at the end of a lesson, unit or term. It also tells us about the effectiveness of methodologies,
materials and techniques of teaching. Thus, it provides an overall picture of educational system. This
information is very helpful in resetting the objectives of teaching-learning process.

10. Helpful in Curriculum Changes: Summative evaluation tells us about the effectiveness and
relevance of curriculum. Therefore, summative evaluation is also helpful in bringing about curriculum
changes. Results of summative evaluation can be used effectively for this purpose.

Disadvantages of Summative Evaluation:

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With all the advantages mentioned, there are few disadvantages which need to be focused on before opting

for a summative evaluation. Few of them are mentioned below.

1. Demotivates individuals: It is mentioned that summative evaluation motivates individuals so that they put in

more effort for their studies. When student motivation and its impact is reviewed, the evidence for policy and

practice information and a coordinating center at the University of London found the relation that sustained

between self-esteem and standardized tests. It was found that there prevailed a lower self-esteem by

students who performed in a poor manner. This in turn, led them to put in less effort towards their studies and

for their future academic progress.

2. Rectification is late: The main disadvantages of summative evaluation are that since it focuses on output at

the end, in case there are hindrances or difficulties, learning process at the end can be tough. There is no

chance to recover as the results are at the end. This is not an accurate reflection when learning is considered.

3. Disruptive: Since it is being a single test at the end of the complete session of academics, it makes almost

all individuals anxious and disruptive. They face the summative evaluation with nervousness and fear.

4. No remedy: Nothing is done to identify hindrances or challenges well in advance in a summative evaluation.

Instructional issues are not identified until they blow up and become critical.

5. Not accurate reflection of learning: When summative evaluation is considered, it focuses mainly on the

performance of the teachers as they teach to the test. A simple example is that when any state level test

focuses mainly on analogies and anagrams, students are interested in focusing and working on those

exercises for hours. By this way, they divert from reading and writing or development of their vocabularies.

Overall it is concluded that summative evaluation isn’t perfect because even an outstanding student may face

questions that may bring them down. The main reason for that would be that a student gets nervous or tensed

due to pressure for exams. Hence, summative evaluation is not considered as the best reflection for learning.

6. Negative effect for students: Repeated practice test for low-achieving students lowers their self-confidence

and self-esteem.1 The summative evaluation results have a negative effect on low achievers when they are

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more pronounced for students than for schools or authorities. Secondary age low-achievers may perform in a

worse manner as they are failing in the course of time. It is also considered as a limiting process for the more

able individuals. Anxiety is another reason which is caused in big bang test especially amongst girls and leads

to expanding the gap between higher and low achieving individuals.

7. Issues with teaching and curriculum: The instructors and teachers work towards the test and deviate

themselves from curriculum and content. There can be chances for distortion in terms of teaching techniques.

The other disadvantage is that summative evaluation questions may not be framed in a manner similar to

formative evaluation. The instructors and teachers may themselves have to dedicate more time for summative

evaluation which may not actually enhance individual’s knowledge. With all this, teachers also adopt some

didactic teaching style which may not be perfect and comfortable for many students.

8. Reliability and validity: The evaluation must be developed in a manner that covers and reflects that complete

content and how the material has been taught. Tasks should also possess better consistency which is

unavailable and the way they are marked internally and externally across various versions. Reliability and

validity errors are few factors that must be focused on with summative evaluation as they measure students’

performance.

9. Biasing: Summative evaluations are considered to possess limited means of expression especially that

standardized test which has a number of multiple choice questions for automatic grading. This has the main

disadvantage for many students which can be non-native speakers with less knowledge of the language,

there are students who face cultural barriers and may face difficulties in understanding the questions, and

there may be students with physical or learning disabilities and pupils who give a poor performance due to

pressure in the testing conditions.

10. Authenticity: There are more chances that summative evaluation measures wrong aspects. Harvard

University’s graduate school of education professor David Rose and the principal architect of universal design

for learning suggest that the evaluation of students does not offer the right result or accurate information.

Questions in the summative evaluation are asked in a manner where they do not understand or unable to

answer. These aspects cannot judge if a student knows the subject or not.

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Conclusion :The above listed are few advantages and disadvantages of summative evaluation. Teachers and

students should gain knowledge of these and try for new steps to avoid disadvantages in future.

n order to improve summative evaluations and enhance learning process the teachers can follow a few hints. T

hey can plan for a test after each learning session. By this way the material and curriculum is also covered. D

ifferent kind of options for evaluation can be followed. When standardized test or national tests are c

onducted, there is very little room for re-imagining. A long form test, a visual or audio presentation, an i

ndividual essay are few ways where students can explain the material in medium. By this way they are c

omfortable and teachers can also capture a picture of their understanding. Education can be moved out of c

lassrooms by making them contact with real world application. By this way pressure and stigma is e

radicated where they also temp to avoid plagiarize.

Difference between formative evaluation and summative evaluation:

Assessment refers to the evaluation of something. When it comes to learning, students are assessed by the
educational institution, to analyse their learning graph, their understanding level and progress. It also helps in
planning further study material. Assessment can be of two types, i.e. it can be formative or summative.
The formative assessment (FA) is conducted during the learning process, whereas the summative
assessment (SA) is undertaken only at the end of the course or unit. The basic points of difference between
formative and summative assessment are provided in the article .

Formative evaluation Summative evaluation

1. Purpose The purpose of formative evaluation is to The purpose is classifications and promotion of
diagnose the strength and weakness of the students.
pupils.

2. Uses of Evidences secured by it are used for further Its results are used for certification and passing
result improvement of instruction and students judgment on pupils achievement.
better progress.

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3. Focus Its focus is on improvement of pupils Its focus is on measurement of pupils achievem
achievement.

4. Evaluation It refers to continuous evaluation by means of It refers to the term tests, annual tests and exte
unit tests, assignments etc. examinations.

5. Criteria It is an integral part of teaching-learning It is treated as an end of the course activity.

process.

6. Feed back It provides continuous feedback to both pupil It does not provide feedback.
and teacher.

7. Time of It is done during the course of instruction. It is done at the end of academic session/years.
evaluation

8. Reliability It gives relevant information which helps to It provides the overall results of the teaching lea
improve classroom instructions. process.

9. Plans for Its results are used for providing remedial Its results are used for classified placement and
future measures and enrichment program for slow prediction for future success.
and gifted learners respectively.

10. Goal The goal of formative evaluation is to gather The goal of summative evaluation is to measure
feedback that can be used by the teacher and level of success that has been obtained at the e
the students to guide improvement in the instructional unit.
ongoing and learning context.

11. Manner of It refers to continuous evaluation by means of It refers to term test and external examinations,
evaluation unit tests ,assignments etc.

12. Frequency It has more frequency testing. It is less frequent.

13. Analyses it analyse strengths and weaknesses towards It analyses document achievement to evaluate p
improving.

14. Nature It is developmental in nature. It is judgemental in nature.

15. Conduction Formative evaluation is conducted during the It is conducted after completion of a programme
time development of a programme or a product. course of study.

16. Known as It is known as process It is known as product.

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Conclusion:-

Evaluation is a continuous process, it forms an integral part of total system of education, and is intimately
related to educational objectives. It exercises a great influence on pupils study habits and teachers method of
instructions and thus helps not only to measure educational achievement but also be improve it. from the
above study it has been observed that purpose of formative evaluation is to enhance learning not allocate
grades whereas summative evaluation are designed to locate grades.formative evaluation is to improve and
summative is to prove.formative evaluation is known as process while summative evaluate in as product.Both
evaluations are good whether in one aspect or the other.each has its own positive or negatives . STAKE clearly
explains these two aspects in these interesting but funny words ,”when the cook tastes the soup ,that’s
formative .when the guests taste the soup ,that’s summative,”so both are good if they used accordingly their
reqirements.

Ques6:- Critical review of current evaluation practices:-PROGNOSTIC AND DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION

(Note:- Explain the meaning, definitions and characteristics of evaluation and then describe prognostic
evaluation)

Prognostic Evaluation

Prognosis is a medical term denoting the clinician’s prediction of how a patient’s disorder will progress and
whether there is chance of recovery. Prognosis is assessment, evaluation or prediction ( in the sense of a best
educated guess) of the future course of the development, outcome or progress of a condition or phenomenon,
based on a careful diagnosis of the case. It is an attempt to anticipate probable consequences.

Prognostic Evaluation in Education

Prognostic Evaluation in education is carried out for setting out a learning plan, career or developmental path
for a learner. It helps in the predicting or guessing about the learning progress, development and future
success of an individual in one or the other learning and performance area. In this way prognostic evaluation is
used to predict the future success and development of an individual.

In the field of education, many of the aptitude tests, are developed by psychologists and educationists. These
are utilized to predict the future success of a child in one or other field. The base is made his present
performance. With the assessment or evaluation of his present learning performance, abilities or capacities, it
can be predicted with a reasonable confidence that how for he will get success in pursuing study or other
work activities in one of the other learning or work area.

Functions/Benefits of Prognostic Evaluation in Education

1. Future Guidance: It predicts the future success of a child in one or other field.

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2. Present situation:- It gives present performance and status of the child regarding his studies. It
provides real picture of one’s abilities and capabilities

3. Proper assessment:- It gives proper measurement and assessment of child’s potential in terms of
his learning outcomes.. On its bases it predicts the future achievements of the individual.

4. Proper diagnosis:- It gives proper diagnosis of the learning difficulties and incapacities of a learner.It
helps in drawing conclusions about the progress of an on going teaching learning attempts.

5. Helps in taking decision: Prognostic evaluation helps in taking decision about the future plans of the
students.

6. Helpful for all:- It helps the employees to select right type of workers for their work..it helps the
students for better placement and services. In an in-direct way, it presents the efforts of the school
and its officials.

Prognostic Test:- Prognostic test attempts to predict how a student will perform on a course. In education, a
prognostic test is an aptitude test. The purpose of a prognostic test is to predict achievement in a specific
subject area.

The high school prognostic tests provide projected placements in college specialized courses long before
students arrive on campus. By using these tests, colleges can ensure that more incoming students are
prepared for college level specialized courses. Both colleges and students can then avoid the extra time and
costs associated with remedial courses.

Diagnostic Evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation is used to determine an individual’s strength and weakness that are left unresolved by
the standard corrective prescription of formative evaluation, in order to improve performance. This type of
evaluation is much more comprehensive and detailed. It includes vision tests, hearing tests and other tests
used to determine how the students approaches a reading assignment, such as, does the student rely on
pictures, sound out words, use content clues, does the student skip over unfamiliar words, etc.

Meaning of Diagnostic Evaluation

In general, diagnostic evaluation deals with the process of evaluation with the aim of defining a problem and
taking a required action to resolve the problem. Diagnostic evaluation involves the process of documentation
which enables the researcher or evaluator to define a problem. This process is a form of inquiring technique
used in problem solving. One could not solve a problem without first defining the problem and its degree and
magnitude.

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Diagnostic evaluation can happen in various discipline. In the field of health, it enables doctors to see their
patient’s health problems through a careful analysis of the patient’s internal and external conditions. In
educational setting, diagnostic evaluation is used to document in measureable terms skills, attitudes, beliefs
or knowledge. Such evaluation could focus on individuals.

Diagnostic Evaluation in the field of Education

The diagnosis of student deficiencies in academic achievement is one of the most difficult tasks that
confront teachers in their day-to-day life. If individual alised instruction is to attain maximum effectiveness, it
must be based on educational diagnosis. Diagnosis in education resembles diagnosis in medicine.

Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with the pupil’s persistent or recurring learning difficulties that are left
unresolved during the course of classroom teaching and formative evaluation. If a pupil continuous to
experience failure in reading, mathematics or other subjects despite the use of prescribed alternative methods
of instruction (e.g. programmed materials, visual aids etc), then the need for a more detailed diagnosis is
indicated.

Pre-Evaluation Process

In educational field, diagnostic evaluation occurs at the beginning of the teaching/learning cycle. It provides
teachers with information about student’s prior knowledge and misconceptions before beginning a learning
activity.

Diagnostic evaluation is also known as pre-evaluation because:-

1. It made to determine what a student does and not does not know about a topic.

2. It occurs at the beginning of a unit of study.

3. It is used to inform instruction/instructor makes up the initial phase of evaluation for learning.

Advantages/ Uses of Diagnostic Evaluation

1. Effective diagnostic evaluation improves learning and teaching.

2. It provides teachers with information about students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions before
beginning a learning activity.

3. It also provide baseline for understanding how much learning has taken/lack after the learning
activity is completed.

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4. If conducted prior to and during teaching and learning, it determines:

i.The existing knowledge, skills, attitudes, interests and needs of the students.

ii. The range of individual difference among students.

iii. Programmes and modifications required to meet the needs of the students.

5. It is best at the initial point to get a glimpse into the learner’s stage of learning.

6. It may be used in skill evaluation and objectivity in tests.

7. It proves very informative when a multidisciplinary situation is evolved, where individuals in the
course have different levels of academic background.

8. It helps in removing persistent or recurring learning difficulties of the students that are left
unresolved by the standard corrective prescriptions of formal evaluation.

9. Diagnostic evaluation determines the causes of persistent learning problems and to formulate a
plan for remedial action.

10. It is very useful for slow and gifted learners.

In all, diagnostic evaluation, is used to show a learner’s preparedness for a module of programme and
identifies for the learner and the teacher any strengths and potential gaps in knowledge, understanding and
skills, expected at the start of the programme or other possible problems. Infact, diagnostic evaluation is one
way to measure the effectiveness of the implemented programmes as well as the student’s academic
background. Such measurement may offer the school authorities guides for future course of action.

Ques 7:-Norm-Referenced Test AND Criterion referenced test

Introduction:- Revolutionary changes have taken place in the field of teaching learning process in the last 4
decades. So designing of tests should be such as to reflect the changes in what the individual has learned.
Again as an individual progresses through a programme of instruction, educators can understand what the
students knows and whether he knows enough to proceed further. CRT and NRT are used to measure the
attainment of the learner. The fundamental distinction between NRT and CRT is based on the manner in which
one interprets the results of the learners test performance. In NRT it interprets acc. to the performance of
others, but in CRT it depends on well defined class of knowledge, skills, attitude and the like.

Norm referenced test:- Norm referenced tests use relative standards. They are based on comparative
performance of the students within the group itself. These tests standards compare the performance of one
student with that of the other student in his own group.

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Norm prepared for this kind of tests tell where each student stands in comparison to other students. In
case of norm referenced tests we include in the test items of high, low and average difficulty so that the test
yields a normal distribution of scores. The test is so devised that equal number of individuals get high and low
scores while the largest no. get average scores.

Definitions:-

1. According to Gronlond,” NRT is designed to rank students in order of achievement from high to low,
so that decisions based on relative achievements can be made with greater confidence.”

2. Bormuth writes that a NRT is designed ”to measure the growth in students attainment and to
compare his level of attainment with the levels reached by other students and norm group.”

3. According to N.R. Gronlond – NRT is a “test designed to provide a measure of performance that is
interpretable in terms of an individuals relative standing in some known group.”

Characteristics

1. It is relatively easy to establish norms or standards.

2. Permits the least definition of instructional and testing objectives.

3. Generally requires a specified number of students to be classified in each grade or category.

4. Allows performance comparison based only on how high or low one group performed in relation
to another.

5. Allows judgments only in terms of comparing one student or group of students with another.

6. Allows inclusion of items which may not have been carefully examined and which may be
hastily and uncarefully written.

7. Its basic purpose is to measure student’s achievement in curriculum based skills.

8. It is prepared for a particular grade level.

9. It is administered after instruction.

10. It is used for forming homogeneous or heterogeneous class groups.

11. It classifies achievement into various categories.

12. It is generally expressed in terms of percentile ranks, and standard scores.

Advantages/ merits of NRT

1. Evaluating individual differences:-The main objective of the norm referenced evaluation is to

measure individual differences.

2. Useful for solution:-The norm referenced evaluation is often used for selection purposes. It is useful
in fixing ‘quota selection’.

3. Useful for classification and grading:-Norm referenced evaluation aims to classify and grade

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students in various categories. It is used to determine how much over all knowledge of some subjects a
particular student has achieved.

4. Knowledge of correct answers:-The task report from a norm referenced test is a count of the
number of test questions that are answered correctly.

5. Easy and difficult questions:-Norm referenced test is concerned with easy and difficult questions.

6. Wide diffusion of items:-The items in a norm referenced test would be diffused more widely across
the domain of learning. A large number of items (say 100 items) would involve a separate aspect of
achievement.

7. Interpretation by comparison:-The meaning of any particular score can be determined only by

comparing it to other scores achieved by students taking the test.

8. Statistical properties of items:-Items in a norm referenced test are selected with desired statistical
properties rather than representing some content domain.

9. Comparative decisions:-In norm referenced evaluation, measurements are used for making
comparative decisions among individuals.

10. Maximizing variability:-Norm referenced test is specifically constructed to maximize the variability of
test scores.

Limitations/ demerits of NRT

Following are the main limitations of NRT:-

1. Narrow scope:-Here only those items are included that deal with the important concepts or course
content.

2. Lack of congruency:- There is a lack of congruence between what the test measures and what is
stressed in a local curriculum.

3. Competition:- It promotes unhealthy competition and does not suit to low scoring students.

4. Not applicable on small sized classes:-It can’t be used when class size is maller than forty.

5. Grading:-Individual grade is determined not only by students achievement but also by achievement
of others.

6. Not suitable to all students:- Not all the student can pass the given subject or course.

A major shortcoming of NRT is that the students admitted to next higher class on the basis of scores
obtained on this test may not be competent enough to study courses of that class or grade. That is
exactly what is happening in our country.

Admissions to various professional courses, selections made for some jobs on the basis of entrance
tests and interviews etc creates problems.

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Conclusion:-NRT is a test designed to provide a measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of an

individuals relative standing in some known group. Norm referenced tests use relative standards. They are
based on comparative performance of the students within the group itself. It is prepared for a particular grade
level.

CRT;- As it name indicates the evaluation which are used upon some specific criteria is known criteria
referenced evaluation. Criteria referenced evaluation is designed to measure student performance against a
fixed set of predetermined criteria. Criterion related standards are absolute standards. They tells us where the
student must reach after having studied a unit, what and how much they must acquire. CRT is a test which
also provides information what a student can do and what he cannot do. To make its meaning very clear, we
have to focus on some definitions.

So after studying these we can say it is a test which uses norms that are based on pre determined
external criterion or some absolute standard. CRT’s were also referred to objective referenced or domain
referenced for example, the curriculum taught in a course, academic programme or content area.

Definitions:-

1. According to Gronlund, N.E:- CRT is a “test designed to provide a measure of performance that is
interpretable in terms of clearly defined and delimited domain of learning tasks.”

2. View of James Popham:- “A criterion referenced test is used to ascertain an individual status with
respect to a well defined behavior domain.”

3. View of Sampath and others:- “The test to assess whether the behavior has been modified in the
desired or expected direction is known as criterion test.”

Characteristics of criterion referenced test:-

Criterion referenced test is concerned with objectives of teaching and instruction where as norm referenced
test (achievement test) is concerned with content coverage. There are three major characteristics of a
criterion test:-

1. Appropriateness:-The criterion test must cover the terminal behavior of teaching or instruction. Each
item of the criterion should assess a specific objective. The criterion behaivour should represent the
total terminal behavior.

2. Effectiveness:-The items of the criterion test must have difficulty value and discriminative power.
The test should be reliable and valid.

3. Practicability:-The test can be administered easily and the scoring procedure should be simple. The
obtained data may be interpreted and may be made meaningful. It should be acceptable to teacher
and students.

Thus criterion test should be such which can measure desirable objectives, capable of

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accomplish measuring task i.e., should be reliable and valid and which can be administered
easily.

According to peter pipe, the following are the characteristics of a criterion test:-

1. Teaching points:-A criterion test tests almost all teaching points.

2. Not same examples:-It does not include the same examples and situations given in a
programme.

3. Not same question:-The type of questions are not the same as in the programme material.

4. Items:-The items in the criterion test need not be in the same order as they occur in the
programme.

5. Difficulty value:-The difficulty value of the criterion test depends on the instructor’s goal
regarding the level he wants the learners to attain.

The test should be administered to a representative group of students and the discriminative
power of each item should be analysed. The test items may have to be modified on the basis of
this analysis.

Advantages of criterion referenced evaluation:-

1. Effective measurement:-The main objective of criterion referenced evaluation is to measure the

effectiveness of a programme/instruction.

2. Deciding mastery of instructional material:-The purpose of criterion referenced evaluation is not to

classify and rank students. It is useful for deciding mastery of instructional material.

3. Specific information:-Criterion referenced evaluation provides specific information on individual

performance levels. It is used to determine which of certain specified objectives of instructions a
particular student has achieved.

4. Basic report:-The basic report of result from a criterion referenced test is a descriptive test of
objectives which are (or are not) attained.

5. Evaluating instruction:-The criterion referenced test is used to evaluate the effectiveness of

instruction. The test can be constructed to measure the specific instructional objectives.

6. Limited specific objectives:-The items in a criterion referenced test cluster around a limited number
of specific objectives.

7. Interpretation of scores:-The scores of an individual can be independently interpreted.

8. Emphasis on testing each specified objective:-The criterion referenced test construction

emphasizes to test each and every objective specified in content domain.

9. Evaluating specific performance:-In criterion referenced test the measurements are used to
evaluate student performance relative to specific performance levels.

Limitations:-According to chase following are the limitations of CRT:-

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CRT tells only whether a learner has reached proficiency in a task area or not but do not indicate how good or
poor is the learner’s level of performance.

1. No comparison:- it doesn’t allow for comparing the performance of students in a particular location
with national norms. CRT just meant only for a small fraction of educational achievements.

2. Subjective in nature:- the process of determining proficiency levels and passing scores on CRT can
be highly subjective or misleading.

3. Limited:- CRT are limited on the basis of some specific areas that are readily available.

4. Lack of validity:- CRT lack in validity as they are highly influenced by teacher’s own interest.

5. Effective only on heterogeneous group/ Not suitable for homogenous group:- CRT is used effectively
in a heterogeneous sample only. It’s not suitable for homogenous.

6. Time consuming:- it is time consuming and complex to develop.

7. Laborius:- More teachers are required in CRT. So it costa lot of money, time and efforts.

8. Requires Efficient leaders:- it needs effiecient leadership and collaboration and lack of leadership
can cause problems.

9. Barrires in curriculum development:- It may slow the process of curriculum change. If test are
constantly changed. It is difficult to curriculum developers to know what is working and what is not
working.

Conclusion:- Criterion referenced test is concerned with objectives of teaching and instruction where as norm
referenced test (achievement test) is concerned with content coverage. The main objective of criterion
referenced evaluation is to measure the effectiveness of a programme/instruction. criterion test should be
such which can measure desirable objectives, capable of accomplish measuring task i.e., should be reliable
and valid and which can be administered easily. CRT is used to measure the effectiveness of a programme/
instruction. It compares the learner with well defined performance criteria rather than comparing her/him with
other learners. But despite its flaws, CRT will still be important in special education because comparing scores
of students with special needs to average students will not achieve much in measuring the students’ current
level of performance.

Criterion referenced evaluation Norm referenced evaluation

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1. Objective:-The main objective of a

criterion referenced test is to measure the
effectiveness of a programme/instruction.

2. Purpose:-The purpose of criterion

referenced test is not to classify and rank
students. The test is useful for deciding
mastery of instructional material.

3. Kind of information:-Criterion referenced

test provides specific information on
individual performance levels on
objectives. It is used to determine which of
certain specified objectives of instruction
a particular student has achieved.

4. Basic report:-The basic report or result

from a criterion referenced test is a
descriptive list of objectives which are (or
are not) attained.

5. Use:-The criterion referenced test is

used to evaluate the effectiveness of
instruction. The test can be constructed to
measure the specific instructional
objectives.

6. Distribution of items:-The items in a

criterion referenced test cluster around a
limited number of specific objectives. For
example, a criterion referenced test might
focus on ten distinct objectives, using ten
items for each objective in order to
determine whether or not the student has
attained it. The result would be hundred
items criterion referenced test.

7. Interpretation of scores:-The scores of

an individual can be independently
interpreted.

8. Test construction:-Criterion referenced

test construction emphasizes to test each
and every objective specified in content
domain.

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Conclusion:- Norm referenced tests use relative standards. They are based on comparative performance of
the students within the group itself. These tests standards compare the performance of one student with that
of the other student in his own group. Criterion referenced test is a test which tells how much a student has
achieved when judged against this standard. A test using criterion-referenced standards provides information
about what a student can do and what he cannot do. Hence, it is a test which uses norms that are based on
pre determined external criterion or some absolute standard. It should be noted that norm-referenced tests
cannot measure the learning achievement or progress of an entire group of students, but only the relative
performance of individuals within a group. For this reason, criterion-referenced tests are used to measure
whole-group performance.

Ques8 :-QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE EVALUATION

( Note- Explain the meaning, definitions and characteristics of evaluation)

Introduction:-Evaluation may be defined as two kinds – Quantitative Evaluation and Qualitative Evaluation.
Quantitative Evaluation is an assessment process that answer the questions, “How much did we do? On the
other hand, qualitative evaluation is an assessment process that answers the questions, “How well did we
do?”

Quantitative Evaluation

Where quantitative data is use for evaluation it is called quantitative evaluation. In this type of evaluation, the
evaluation, the information acquired from various tests and assessment tests about the scholastic
performance of the child is expressed in the form of scores or numerical making. Also in the field of
psychomotor assessment of the child, his performance in skills in sports, physical education, arts and
painting, crafts, work experiences lab, and practical works in different subjects, is measured in quantitative
data. Evaluation made from this data or information is known as quantitative evaluation.

Characteristics:-
1. Large and wide:- Quantitative data of this type is large and wide because it includes the
measurement and assessment of the learning outcome of the student.
2. Used in cognitive nd psychomotor domains:- Quantitative data used in the cognitive and
psychomotor behavior domains of the student.
3. Data interpreted in the form of numerical scores:- In the effective behavioural domains of the
learning also the results derived through the use of psychological test and other test provide
quantitative information or data in theform of numerical scores.
4. Interpretations:- quantitative data is used for the interpretation and wevaluation of the quality
and nature of the child’s intelligent, aptitude, attitude, personality, adjustment etc.
5. Comparison:- Quantitative evaluation is helpful in intra-individual or inter-individual
comparisons.

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6. Used in every field:- Quantitative evaluation is used in psychomotor assessment of the child
his performance in skills, in sports, in physical education, arts and painting.
7. Scientific tools and measurement :-quantitative observations (evaluation)are made using
scientific tools and measurement.

Benefits/Advantages of quantitative evaluation:- Qualitative evaluation is usually expressed in the form of

scores or marks.This practice has many benefits or advantages as described below:
1. Helps in setting the relative position of an examinee:-qualitative evaluation helps in setting the
relative position of an examinee in the whole group .
2. Helps in taking useful decisions:-this practice (by converting the data into percentages )helps
in taking useful decisions like declaring the students result and providing division or assigning merit
positions and distinction etc.
3. Representing the performance:-this practice helps in converting and representing the
performance of the students into certain distinctive grade and categories ,declaring them as
excellent,good ,poor etc.
4. Statistical calculations :- It helps in making inter-individual or inter-individual
comparisons.Through this practice, the statistical calculations are done easily and it is easy to
understand and use.
5. Present stge of student:-It helps in setting the relative position of an examinee in the whole
group of the examinees.
6. Making useful decision:-This practice (by converting the data into percentages) helps in taking
useful decisions like declaring the student’s results and providing division or assigning merit positions
and distinctions etc.
7. Performance of the student:-This practice helps in converting and representing the
performance of the students into certain distinctive grades and categories, declaring them as
excellent, good, poor etc.Quantitative observational (Evaluation) are made using scientific tools and
measurements. The results can be measured or counted and any other person trying to quantitatively
assess the same situation end up with the same results.
In quantitative evaluation/assessment information or data about the learning outcomes or
performances of the learners is collected in their quantitative form. Quantitative data of this type is large and
wide. It includes the measurement and assessment of the learning outcomes of the students in their cognitive
and psychomotor behavior domains. In the effective behavior domains of the learning outcomes also the
results derived through the use of psychological tests and other such like tests, provide quantitative
information or data in the form of numerical scores. This quantitative information or data is used for the
interpretation and evaluation of the quality and nature of a child’s intelligent, aptitude, attitude, personality
adjustment etc. It is helpful in intra-individual or inter-individual comparisons.
Qualitative Evaluation The use of non-testing devices, such as observation, interview, performance based
assessment primarily provide qualitative data. This evaluation is called qualitative evaluation. Qualitative
observations (Evaluation) are defined in science as any observation make using the five senses. Because
people often reach different interpretations when using the five senses. Because people often reach
different interpretations when using only their sense, qualitative evaluation becomes harder to reproduce
with accuracy. Two individuals evaluating the same thing way end up with different evaluating the same
thing may end up with different or conflicting results.

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Advantages:-

1.More subjective: Qualitative evaluation is more subjective than quantitative evaluation. In qualitative
evaluation/assessment, information or data about the learning outcomes or performance of the students
is collected in qualitative form.

2.More effective:- Mostly, the assessment and evaluation of the learning outcomes of the learners is
effective in behavioural domain, involves the measures involving qualitative evaluation.

3.Flexible nature:Because of qualitative nature qualitative evaluation is not expressed or represented by

the use of grade, marks or numerical scores rather it presents in qualitative form which is beneficial for
learner.

4. Wide scope :Qualitative evaluation has wide scope as it is used in research and business. It may
involve value judgements and emotional responses.

Disadvantages:-
The main disadvantage of qualitative approaches is that their findings can not be extended to wider
populations with the same degree of certainty that quantitative analyses can. In quantitative research we
classify features, count them, and even construct more complex statistical models in an attempt to explain
what is observed. To ensure that certain statistical tests (such as chi-squared) provide reliable results, it is
essential that minimum frequencies are obtained - meaning that categories may have to be collapsed into one
another resulting in a loss of data richness.
Difference between qualitative and quantitative evaluation:-

Difference between qualitative and quantitative evaluation over the years, researchers have developed a
multitude of methods and tools to help gather and access data. Two of these methods involve evaluating
data either quantitatively or qualitatively. Considered opposites by some quantitative and qualitative
methods of evaluation are both beneficial when we are trying to understand a certain outcome or piece of
information.

1. Evaluation based on quantitative data or information is known as quantitative evaluation, which is

based on the data received form mostly non-testing devices and methods.

2. Qualitative evaluation can be verified by another person by using the same device, while this is not
true in the case of qualitative evaluation.

3. Qualitative evaluational is more subjective and emotional in nature than quantitative evaluation.Both
quantitative and qualitative evaluation methods have their benefits, though one is usually more
appropriate than the other in any given situation.

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4. Quantitative evaluation can help to remove human bias from a statistic, making it more of a reliable
fact than any piece of information gathered qualitatively.

5. Accurate quantitative evaluations can be relied upon as truth. Qualitative evaluations may also entail
truths, but these truths are harder to get at and evaluators may not always agree. Still qualitative
information is invaluable precisely because it involves human interaction and interpretation. Many
fields need this interpretation in order to decide how to move forward or to judge the value of past and
future sources of data.

Conclusion :-It has been observed that both qualitative and quantitative evaluations have their uses in a variety
of fields in science. Both can be important when we are assessing experimental results or deciding what kind
of hypothesis to come up with, though quantitative evaluation is sometimes more valuable to others in the
field. Quantitative and qualitative evaluations can also be used to assess business performance and goal-
setting. Other fields that commonly employ qualitative and quantitative evaluation methods include any of the
applied sciences, psychology, anthropology and sociology.

Unit II

Ques9:- Explain revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives?. How is it useful in assssment of
learning? or

Write in detail about Revised Bloom’s taxonomy of objectives?

Ans. Introduction:-

The educational objectives imply the change that we try to produce in the child. The educational objectives are
achieved with the help of teaching or learning objectives. The teaching objectives are achieved in terms of
change of behavior of learners. These are specific, direct and practical in nature, therefore, these are most
useful for teachers. The teaching objectives are related to learning outcomes or change of behavior of the
learners. This change in behavior fall into three distinct domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. Here
this will be discussed.

Domains of learning

Humans are lifelong learners. From birth onward they learn and assimilate what they just learned into what
they already know. Learning in the geosciences, like all learning, can be categorized, how we view ourselves
as learners and the skills we need to engage in the activities of geoscientists. Educationists have divided to
learning into following three domains:

1. Cognitive; mental skills (knowledge)

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2. Affective : growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)

3. Psychomotor: manual or physical skills.

Hence learning is everywhere. We can learn mental skills, develop our attitudes and acquire new
physical skills as we perform the activities of our daily living. These domains of learning can be
categorized as cognitive domain (knowledge), affective domain (attitudes), and psychomotor domain
(skills)

Cognitive Domain

This domain includes content knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This include the recall or
recognition of specific facts and concepts that serve developing intellectual abilities and skills.

Generally, cognitive domain is characterized by ‘thinking’ aspect of one’s behavior. Therefore, changes brought
about in performing activities like thinking, reasoning, imagining, analyzing, synthesizing, elaborating,
summarizing, explaining, illustrating etc. may fall in the cognitive domains of one’s learning. the learning
related to this domain of behavior usually results in the acquisition of intellectual competencies and academic
abilities. It also leads to one’s mental and intellectual development and harmonious adjustment with one’s self
and the environment.

Affective Domain

The affective domain includes feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations and attitudes.

Mostly the learning related to affective domain is expected to bring changes in one’s affective behavior, which
is characterized by ‘feeling’ aspect of one’s behavior. Therefore changes brought about by performing
activities like feeling happy and sad, cool and angry, expressing one’s emotions in a desired way, exhibiting
one’s preferences likes and dislikes, interests and attitudes, holding values and ideas etc., may fall in this
domain of learning. It result into the acquisition of social skills, emotional maturity, moral and character
development and makes an individual a good human being.

Psychomotor or Conative Domain

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, co-ordination and use of motor-skill areas.
Development of these skills require practice and is measured in terms of speed precision, distance,

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procedures or techniques in execution.

Mostly, the learning related to this domain is expected to bring changes in one’s conative behavior, which is
characterized by ‘doing’ aspect of our behavior. Therefore, changes brought about by performing activities like
walking, talking, smelling, knitting, dancing, touching, throwing, holding, seeing, hearing, watching etc, may full
in this domain of one’s learning. It results in the acquisition of necessary skills for the adequate physical and
motor development as well as seeking adjustment to one’s environment and ways of living.

These are three main domains of learning. however, some educationists have recommended following three
more domains of learning also.

1. Social domain: Team work, communication, leadership, etc.

2. Personal and social responsibility – Engagement in task or with others.

3. Health Related fitness:- Stages of physical activity engagement.

These all domains of learning stand for the different aspects or components of one’s behavior, in
which desired behavioural changes are planned through a system of education. In the school
situations, deliberate attempts are usually made for bringing desired behavioural changes in these
domains of learning for the realization of stipulated teaching – learning objectives.

Taxonomy of Educational and instructional Objectives

After preparing and making proper statements of instructional objectives, they can be analyzed fitting them
into various classes of behavior or objectives. The classification and analysis of objectives help the teachers
in selecting appropriate teaching strategies and formulating the objectives of teaching. Classification of
educational objectives also help:

1. To view them as part of the system.

2. To increase their usability by providing clarity about their interconnections.

3. To keep avoiding overlapping of similar objective in list.

Classification of instructional objectives:- A number of models of classification of objectives have been

developed. The most convincing of this has been the taxonomical model of educational objectives, developed
by B.S. Bloom and his associates (1956). Bloom was the editor of the first volume of “Taxonomy of
Educational objectives”, produced by an American committee of college and university Examiners.

Meaning of Taxonomy

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‘Taxonomy’ simple means a system of classification. According to Webster’s Dictionary, the term ‘taxonomy’
means ‘classification, specially of animals and plants, according to their natural relationship’. Infact, the word
‘taxonomy has been borrowed from Botany where it is used for a scheme of classification of plants and their
parts.

Taxonomy is a term derived from two Greek words – ‘taxis’, meaning arrangement and ‘names’,
meaning law. In this derivative sense ‘Taxonomy’ means ‘lawful or orderly arrangement’.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of instructional objectives

In 1956, B.S. Bloom headed a group of educational psychologists who development a classification of levels
of intellectual behavior important in learning. They produced a handbook – “The Taxonomy of educational
objectives; handbook (1956)”. It was intended only to focus on one of the three domains i.e. cognitive. But,
there was expectation that additional material would be generated for the other domains.

The second volume, “Hand book – II: Affective Domain” edited by Krathwohl was published in 1964.

There was no hand book III for the psychomotor domain, published by the committee as the
consensus was that they lacked the necessary experience to do authors like simpson, harrow (1972) and
dave (1975).

Here, all the three taxonomies concerning cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains will be given
in the condensed form.

Bases of Bloom’s Taxonomy

B.S. Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives has four bases.

1. Educational Base:- It means that Bloom developed his taxonomy in the field of education.

2. Logical Base:- It means that categorization of objectives is based on logic or reasoning.

3. Psychological Base:- It means that Bloom has considered the needs and capabilities of the individual i.e. the
child in this case.

4. Cumulative Base:- It means that the categories are hierarchical in nature. Each category of objectives is
based on and includes the preceding category categories.

This can be proved as follows:-

a. If a student does not know English and Punjabi, he cannot translate a passage of English into

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Punjabi, or to shorten lengthy passage.

b. If a student does not now about mass and volume, he cannot establish relationship between mass
and volume, to define density.

These two examples show that comprehension or understanding comes after recall

or recognition of the subject matter.

c. Further, if a student does not know and understand Archimedes’ principle, he cannot answer the
questions concerning it, “Why does a small needle of iron sink into water while a ship made up of iron
does not?”

This example shows the application of knowledge. From the above example, the conclusion can be safely
drawn that.

Knowledge Understanding Application

This also shows that objective classification by Bloom is cumulative in nature.

Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain

Cognitive domain is the most central in formal education. Cognitive objectives relate to the processing of
information by the students. These objectives specify what students will be able to

do intellectually as a result of instruction. Such outcomes of instructional range from recall/recognition of

facts of the complex process of evaluation. In this way, the cognitive domain includes those objectives which
deal with recall and recognition, and the development of various intellectual abilities and skills.

B.S. Bloom et. Al. presented Taxonomy of cognitive domain (1956) consisting of six broad categories of
cognitive learning, arranged in an order to increase complexity. For each of these broad categories cognitive
learning, the taxonomy identifies specific learning outcomes in behaviours terms, and each of these
educational objective may be evaluated.

REASONS FOR EMPLOYING BLOOM’S TAXONOMY

Bloom’s framework provided one of the first systematic and easy to understand classifications of thinking and
learning. Bloom’s taxonomy provides a clear and robust tool for guiding the development of teaching and
learning.

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Some of the reasons for employing bloom’s taxonomy includes:

● Accurately measuring student’s abilities requires an understanding of the different levels of

cognition that are critical for learning.

● It is important to establish intended learning outcomes in professor/student interactions so that

both parties understand the purpose of the interactions.

● Developing intended student learning outcomes according to bloom’s taxonomy helps students
understand what is expected of them.

● Using bloom’s taxonomy to develop intended student learning outcomes helps professors to plan
and deliver appropriate instruction.

● Developing intended student learning outcomes using bloom’s taxonomy helps faculty to design and
implement appropriate assessment tasks, measures, and instruments.

● Having intended student learning outcomes based on bloom’s taxonomy helps to ensure that
instruction and assessment are appropriately aligned with the intended outcomes.

Criticism and the need for revision of bloom’s taxonomy

The original taxonomy is still widely used by teachers, instructional designers, researchers, and assessment
writers. However a revised version of the taxonomy was published in 2001 to update the original and provide
more guidance for classroom teachers. The editors also addressed some common criticisms of the original:

● The hierarchy lacks internal consistency; this is the most frequent criticism. Some categories
overlap, and some skills – such as understanding – can be exercised at many cognitive levels.

● The taxonomy has not been validated by external evidence. Different raters often assign different
cognitive levels to the same items, and the hierarchical relationship of the cognitive levels has not
been proven.

● The taxonomy is too simplistic in the way it represents thinking and learning. Learning does not
always follow a step-by-step progression. Also, the categories at the top level of the hierarchy do not
adequately describe higher order thinking processes.

● The taxonomy is a framework, or set of loosely organized principles, rather than a theory of
instruction that can be used to predict how learners will behave.

● The term “lower level thinking skills” has led educators to devalue the foundational knowledge

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required for higher order thinking.

● The original taxonomy was based on the classroom practice and educational psychology of the
1950s.

The revised bloom’s taxonomy

In the 1990’s, lorin Anderson, a former student of bloom, along with davidkrathwohi, one of bloom’s original
partners, a group of cognitive psychologists, curriculum theorists and instructional researchers, and testing
and assessment specialists published a revision of bloom’s taxonomy in 2001 entitled ‘A taxonomy for
st
teaching, learning, and assessment’. The revision updates the taxonomy for the 21 century, and includes
significant changes in terminology and structure. In the revised framework, “actions words” or verbs, instead
of nouns, are used to label the six cognitive levels, three of the cognitive levels are renamed, and the top two
higher order cognitive levels are interchanged. The result is a more dynamic model for classifying the
intellectual processes used by learners in acquiring and using knowledge.

The revised taxonomy identifies the following new levels of cognitive learning (arranged from lower order to
higher order levels of learning):

● Remembering – retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long term memory.

● Understanding – constructing meaning from oral, written and graphic messages through
interpreting, exemplifying classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.

● Applying – using information in new ways; carrying out or using a procedure or process through
executing or implementing.

● Analyzing – breaking material into constituent parts; determining how the parts relate to one another
and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and attributing.

● Evaluating – making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and critiquing;
defending concepts and ideas.

● Creating – putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing elements
into a new pattern or structure through generating, planning, or producing.

Here is a comparison of the original and revised taxonomies:

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In the revised taxonomy, synthesis and evaluation are switched. Also, verbs are used in place of nouns to
imply the action one takes in each level.

Changes in the New Revised Taxonomy

Following changes are found by comparing Bloom’s and Anderson’s (Revised) cognitive Taxonomies.

1. The names of the six major categories were changed from Noun to
Verb forms.

2. Bloom’s Taxonomy reflects different forms of thinking, and because thinking is an active process,
verbs represented a more accurate representation of six categories.

3. Sub-categories of the six major categories were also replaced by verbs and some sub-categories
were reorganized and renamed.

4. The knowledge category was renamed. Knowledge is a product of thinking and was inappropriate to
describe the category of thinking. Therefore, it was replaced with the word ‘remembering’.

5. ‘Comprehension’ becomes ‘understanding’ and ‘synthesis’ was renamed ‘creating’ in order to better
reflect the nature of thinking skills described by each category.

Change in Emphasis:

1. More authentic tool for curriculum planning, instructional delivery and assessment.

2. Aimed at a broader audience.

3. Easily applied to all levels of teaching and learning.

4. The revision emphasizes and description of sub-categories.

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st
In this way, this revised taxonomy of cognitive objectives, given by Anderson et al reflects relevance to 21
century work. It reflects a more active form of thinking and is more accurate.

Conclusion:- It has been seen that the revised taxonomy of cognitive objectives given by Anderson reflects
st
relevance to 21 century work . It reflects a more active form of thinking and is more accurate . It also easily
apply to all levels of teaching and learning. Revised taxonomy is more authentic tool for curriculum planning,
instructional delievery and assessment.

Ques10:- Constructing table of specifications

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION AND WRITING DIFFERENT FORMS OF QUESTIONS

A table of specification (TOS) is a two way chart which describes the topics to be covered by a test and the
number of items or points which will be associated with each topic. Sometimes the types of items are
described, as well.

Test blueprint

A table of specification (TOS), sometimes called a test blueprint. It is table that helps teacher align objectives,
instruction and assessment. This strategy can be used for a variety of assessment methods but is most
commonly associated with construction traditional summative tests.

Preparation of TOS or Blue Print

There are several steps involved in the construction of achievement test. The first step in planning a test is to
identify the instructional objectives. Knowledge objective is considered to be the lowest level of learning,
whereas, understanding, application of knowledge are considered higher levels of learning.

The second step in planning a test is to make the “Design”. The Design specifies weightages to different
(a) instructional objectives, (b) types (or forms) of questions, (c) units and sub units of the course content, (d)
levels of difficulty. It also indicates about the options in the question paper. The design is termed as an
instrument which reflects major policy decisions of the examining agency or an individual.

Blue Print:- The third step is to prepare the “Blue Print”. It is at this stage that the paper setter decides as to
how many questions are to be set for different objectives and under which unit/topic, a particular questions is
to be set. Further he picks up various forms of questions.

Therefore, in the blue print, the paper setter decides how all the questions are to be distributed over
different objectives and content areas. The three dimensions of the blueprint consists of content areas in
horizontal rows, and objectives and forms of questions in vertical columns. Once the blueprint is prepared, the
paper setter can write/select the items and prepare the question paper.

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Meaning and definition of blue print

1. Dictionary meaning of the term ‘Blue print’ is “a detailed plan of action”. As above described, the test
blueprint is a action plan of the ‘design’ of the question paper.

2. A test blueprint, also known as test specifications, consists of a matrix, a chart, representing the
number of questions to be included in the test within each type and level of objectives.

3. A ready reference/an array of nature of questions of a question paper is called Blue print of the
question paper. A layout of nature of questions in respect of knowledge, understanding, application,
marks, topics, estimated difficulty level, etc, is called blue print of the question paper.

The blue print identify the objectives and skills that are to be tested and the relative weight on
the test given to each. The blueprint can help to ensure that desired coverage of topics and level of
objectives had been obtained. After the preparation of blueprint, the task of writing the test items can
be started.

Need and importance of blue print

1. To standardized the question paper.

2. To incorporate the aim of the test.

3. To incorporate the aims and objectives of the curriculum.

4. To incorporate the change in the methodology of teaching, if required.

5. To check the suitability of the text book and syllabus, in respect of aim and target.

6. To check the difficulty level of the question paper.

7. To incorporate the suitability of the questions to the standard of the examinees.

8. To check the suitability of the question paper to the subject/topic.

9. To synchronize the questions paper in consonance with time.

10. To define the scope and emphasis of the test.

11. To relate objective with the content.

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12. To analyze the question paper on following parameters: Reliability, validity; objectivity and
practicability.

Functions of blue print

1. Helps to achieve balance between instruction and assessment.

2. Helps to ensure that a test will sample all important content and process areas.

3. Reduces tendency to test “memory of facts” only.

4. Provides a structure for communicating with students before and after testing.

5. Provides a structure for analyzing, summarizing and reporting results.

Dimensions of the blue print

1. Weightage to the objectives (Learning Outcomes):- For a classroom test, all the relevant
instructional objectives should be taken into consideration and given due weightage in the test. But
generally, the teachers take objectives from cognitive domain, like – knowledge, understanding,
application and skill. Weightages to different objectives should be given on the basis of their relative
importance.

S.No. Objectives Percentage No. of

of Marks Questions

1 Knowledge 15 11

2 Understanding 30 19

3 Application 35 17

4 Skill (Reasoning, evaluation of information) 20 18

2. Weightage of content/subject:- Here, different areas (or units) of content, which are taught to
students during instruction need to be given due weightage, according to their relative importance.

S.No. Unit/Content/Subject Percentage No. of

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of Marks Questions

1 Unit-1 10 08

2 Unit-2 10 08

3 Unit-3 10 08

4 Unit-4 15 08

5 Unit-5 20 08

6 Unit-6 12 08

7 Unit-7 08 08

8 Unit-8 15 08

Total 100 65

3. Weightage to form of questions:- Generally, for classroom testing purposes, essay type, short
answer type and objective type items are used. Here due weightage to each form of questions should
be given on the basis of its suitability to test the learning outcomes and content.

S.No. Objectives Marks for Percentage No. of

each of Marks Questions
question

1 Essay type 6 18 03

2 Short answer type 3 30 10

3 Objective type 01 52 52

Total 100 65

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4. Weightage to difficulty level of questions:- Since, in a normal classroom, three types of students are
found, such as – above average, average and below average, the classroom test should include the
questions of different difficulty levels, such as – easy, average and difficult. Accordingly weightage to
each category of questions should be given.

S.No. Types of test items Percentage of Expected

Difficulty Levels

1 Easy 15

2 Average 70

3 Difficult 15

Total 100

A question may vary in difficulty level from individual to individual, as such, the approximation in
respect of each question will be made by the paper setter on the basis of general expectation from
the group as a whole

5. Weightage of expected time for each question

S.No. Form of questions Expected time for each question

1 Long answer type 45 Minutes On average, about

2 Short answer type 55 Minutes 2 mint.

3 Objective type 80 Minutes Per mark

6. Scheme of option:- There will be no option

Internal choice (either /or type) on a very selective basis.

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7. Weightage to Numerical = According to subject/topic

8. Weightage to higher order thinking skill (HOTS) = According to the subject and group of learners.

A model blue print

After providing weightages to different dimensions, a specimen of three dimensional blue print, along with the
weightage tables is given here.

A model of blue print

Subject : Math Class – VIII M.M. = 100

Time:- 3 Hours

Objectives Knowledge Understanding Application Skill Total

Content E SA O E SA O E SA O E SA O

Unit -1 - - 1(1) - 3(1) 1(1) - - 2(2) - - 3(3) 10(8)

Unit- 2 - - 1(1) - - 1(1) - 3(1) 2(2) - - 3(3) 10(8)

Unit- 3 - - 1(1) - - 1(1) - 3(1) 2(2) - - 3(3) 10(8)

Unit- 4 - - 2(2) 6(1) - 2(2) - 3(1) - - - 2(2) 15(8)

Unit-5 - 3(1) 1(1) - 3(1) 3(3) 6(1) - 1(1) - 3(1) - 20(9)

Unit-6 - - 1(1) - 3(1) 2(2) - 3(1) 1(1) - - 2(2) 12(8)

Unit-7 - - 1(1) - - 2(2) - - 2(2) - - 3(3) 08(8)

Unit-8 - 3(1) 1(1) - - 3(3) 6(1) - 1(1) - - 1(1) 15(8)

Total - 6(2) 9(9) 6(1) 9(3) 15(15) 12(2) 12(4) 11(11) - 3(1) 17(17) 100

M 15 30 35 20 100

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Q 11 19 17 18 65

N.B: Type, SA – Short Answer Type & O = objective type questions

M=Marks, Q = Number of Questions

Numbers written inside the brackets indicates the number of questions, and number outside the brackets
indicate percentage (Number) of marks.

Total number of marks = 100, Total Number of questions = 65

Advantages of blue print

Following are the important benefits of constructing a test blueprint:

1. To ensure content validity of the test.

2. To ensure the balance among topics and skills which are to be tested.

3. To provide guidelines for constructing questions.

4. To reproduce a similar test for different groups of students.

5. To make comparison with other tests.

6. To define, as clearly as possible, the scope and emphasis of the test.

7. To relate objectives to the content/topics.

8. To stress the importance in certain topics and level of cognitive skills to teachers, pupils and
test makers.

9. To be able to reproduce a test with similar content, cognitive and difficult levels in the future.

10. To maintain similar standards and levels of difficulties of the test over the time.

In all, a blue print provides assurance that the test will measure learning outcomes (objectives) and
course content in a balanced manner.

Conclusion:- A table of specification (TOS), sometimes called a test blueprint a is table that helps teacher
align objectives, instruction and assessment. It can be used for a variety of assessment methods but is most

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commonly associated with construction traditional summative tests. It helps to provide guidelines for
constructing questions and relate objectives to the content/topics.

Ques11:- What are the various forms/types of questions? How questioning can be used as a tool for
assessment of learning? Or

Explain the need and importance of questioning as a tool of assessment of learning?

Ans:- Meaning:- Questioning is a powerful device for assessment f learning . Through this device, teacher
transacts a lot of information about pupils’. It plays an indispensable part in teaching, learning and testing.
It is rightly said that the success and efficiency of teaching depends more on the skills with which the
questions are put on any other single circumstance, and the teacher who never questions, never teaches.

Definition:-

According to Parker, “Questioning is the key of all educative activities.”

According to Thring, ”Teaching means skillful questioning to force the mind to see, to arrange and to
act.”

According to Colvin, “No teacher of elementary or secondary subjects can succeed in his instruction
who has not fair mastery of art of questioning.”

Purpose of questioning:-

1. Diagnosing student difficulties: - Various types of questions as subjective and objective, oral or
written way be helpful in determining the academic problems of students.

2. Determining progress towards goals:- Various kinds of questions can be used in determining
progress towards goals. Specific weakness can be discovered , permitted appropriate remedial steps
to be taken.

3. Motivating students:- Student interest can be awakened and perpetuated through the effective use
of questions. Though questions are viewed as having good potential for motivation.

4. Clarifying and expanding concepts:- Once a student has formed a partial concept, the teacher way
further clarify the concept by posing questions that impel students reactions.

5. Encouraging appreciations and attitudes:- If the teacher wishes to help students think more
rationally about race relations, once of the more frequently use device for accomplishing this is a
thoughtful questions.

6. Directing thinking:- Sometimes the teacher want to redirect the thinking of the students, the way is
to pose a question that will turn their thinking in the direction in which he wishes them to go.

7. To provide individualized instructions:- There are different types of students in every class and it is
according to their mental abilities and the best way is to pose different types of questions for
different students.

8. Encouraging self evaluation:- Students tend to be receptive criticisms that come from with in. if the
teacher had experience and possess fact, he can pose questions that encourage self examinations.

9. Keeping the students alert and attentive:- When the students know that the teacher can ask
questions in between the teaching then they will remain alert and attentive to respond the topic.

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10. To revise the lesson:- When the teacher completes the topic then to revise the lesson, he can pose
some questions regarding the subject matter of the lesson.

11. Relating cause to effect:- The why question is typically used to relate cause and effect. Its prime
concern is to avoid the meaning less repetition of facts without a real understanding of their
relationship.

12. To develop expressions:- According to pragmatistic philosophy a teacher should opt. such devices,
which will enable the student to express their views in an effective manner. When the teacher will ask
question from the students, he is to answer, it in his own words and according to his own
understanding.

13. Promoting application:- Questions that calls for the application of known ideas are used to good
advantage in different subjects, “What specific steps must a foreign company follow in establishing
business in India?” A question in the economics class controls students with the necessity for
recombining facts in practical way.

14. Connecting different units of learning:- When the teacher wants to correlate the next unit with
previous one, he can do it with the help of asking questions from the previous unit and the last
questions from the next unit.

Characteristics of a good question;-

1. Question should be objective centred;-Instructional objectives are prescribed in the curriculum of

every subject. It is these objectives that become the focus of instruction. It is assumed that these
objectives are formulated, specified and stated properly in terms of learning competencies. Therefore
every question must be objective based or competency based.

2. It must be context and purpose specific;-Each question is framed in a particular context and setting.
It may be for use in a unit test, an annual test, a review exercise of a text book chapter, a selection
test, or for developing institutional question bank, as home assignment, a diagnostic test etc.

3. A question should ensure congruence between process and product responses:-When a question is
put to students it is expected that the intended response is generated. This is called the product
response. In objective questions the key is the product response. In the questions that demand free
or open ended responses, as in essay type or short answer questions, the product responses are their
answers – rather expected answers or acceptable answers.

4. It should generate responses at acceptable level of performance:-Every question must yield

responses that can be accepted in terms of its criterion. If one is interested in judging the students’
ability to differentiate, interpret, analyse or predict, the question should be based on that particular
ability so that the responses given by the students relate to that very ability.

5. It must be worded in proper language;- Proper wording of the question is very important in paper
pencil tests, but even good question framers sometimes make such mistakes that they cannot even
think of the vagaries in the product responses (answers) of the examinees in open ended questions.

6. It must yield appropriate indices of difficulty (facility level) and of discrimination:-Depending on the

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purpose and the group, a good question in a test should yield evidence to show that it was set at the
desired difficulty level as easy, average or difficult question for that class or groups of students. A
question should also yield evidence that it indicates that the question could discriminate between
students at different levels.

7. It should ensure maximum scoring objectivity:-In objective questions there is no problem of

objective scoring, because there are selection type of questions demanding only selection of correct
response out of the options given. In short answer questions it is the wording of the question that
matters. In essay type questions there is greater problem of subjective marking. The extent to which
we can control or minimize the subjective scoring in framing the question itself depends on how well
the framer of the question is able to word the question by using precise, appropriate, unambiguous
and appropriate language, in wording of the question so that.

8. It must ensure adequate coverage of specified content:-When a question is framed in terms of

objectives, content elements form the basis or medium. Therefore a question must reflect the
coverage of the content elements like facts (F), concepts © and principles (P) that constitute the
content or the subject matter. Idea is that the question must be based on pre decided content
elements covering one or more content elements.

9. Every question should be time and cost effective:-To have wider and more adequate coverage of a
content area within the same time limit (say 2-3 min. for a question), the question has to be framed
with full cognizance of the outcomes intended and the effectiveness in terms of usability.

10. It should evoke intended response;-Question should correspond exactly to these three attributes
represented in the hidden or constitutional face. When the question is framed to reflect these three
dimensions appropriately, it is sure to evoke the intended responses in terms of relevant
competencies, content elements and the form of questions. It is likely to yield valid evidence.

Ques12:-What do you mean by essay types questions? Give their merits and demrits? Essay type
questions (ETQ)

The essay type questions are still commonly used tools of assessment, despite the increasingly wider
applicability of the short answer and objective type questions. There are certain outcomes of learning like
organizing, summarizing, integrating ideas, reasoning and expressing in one’s own way, which cannot be
satisfactorily measured through other types of test items. The importance of essay tests lies in the
measurement of such learning outcomes.

Essay type questions require the student to create an explicit answer that the scorer can rate without
describing the basis of any rating scale or without slowing his own version of ideal answer. It gives full
freedom to the students to write any number of pages. The students are thus, obliged to write a detailed
descriptive type of essay in order to answer the question. Students are asked to describe, reproduce,

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state, evaluate, compare, comment, discuss, etc. certain topics specified in the questions paper.

C.V. Good states about essay type test – ‘The traditional’ type of examination in which the subject or examine
is asked to discuss, enumerate, compare, state, evaluate, analyse, summarize or criticize.

Merits of essay type test

Now a day’s schools and universities are using written examination to measure the achievements of the
students. In fact, written examination in the form of essay has become a necessity of the day. The merits of
educational system of essay type test are mentioned here:-

1. Essay to construct:-It is easy to frame the questions for essay type examination. These questions
have been structured on the basis of what, why, when and how.

Question:-What do you mean by evaluation? Prepare ten questions of general science for class VIII.

2. Freedom of expression:-Essay type examination provides us opportunities of expression of thought.

Student is free to express his views in shape of answer i.e.

Question:-‘If the teaching aid is not used in teaching civics, there is hindrance in concentration of the
students.’ Discuss.

Students may answer according their experience, concepts, thinking, reasoning and imagination.

3. Test of knowledge of the language:-Essay type test are help in evaluating the language, sentence,
vocabulary, punctuation and expression of the students.

4. Collection of ideas:-Essay type tests are helpful to individual in collecting the ideas and inputting
them in sequence.

5. Useful for all subjects:- Essay type tests are useful for all the subjects, science, humanities, social
sciences and many other need essay type tests to evaluate their students.

6. Development of imagination, reasoning and memory:-Essay type tests prove worthy in developing
thinking, reasoning, and imagination of the individual

7. Knowledge of progress:-Parents, teachers, educationists and social workers become acquainted

with the progress of the students.

8. Simple administration:-Essay type tests are very easy to administer. University and board of
education conduct this examination to evaluate thousands of students at a time.

Demerits of essay type tests

This is one of the most ancient forms of the written test. In it, the student has to compose essay type answer
to specific questions. Generally speaking the essay test measures the student’s memory and power of
reasoning, but it cannot be expected to test all the achievements of the student. In the twentieth century, many
and varied objectives have been raised against this form of testing. These are stated below:-

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i. Subjectivity:-The most outstanding defect of the essay type test is that the assessment of the
student’s answer is profoundly influenced by the teacher’s own ideas, mental level, attitude, etc.
In an experiment, Dr. Starch and Eliot for one single answer sheet pertaining to mathematics.
Examined successively by 188 teachers and it was found that the marks awarded varied from 28
to 92. If such vast differences can be found in the evaluation of a mathematics test, one can only
wonder what the variations will be in other subject.

ii. Lack of proper sampling:-In essay tests, questions are not based on every part of the syllabus.
Often the questions are split over only 50% of it and the parts left out are not subjected to any
evaluation at all. Students too, prepare for the test on the basis of speculation about the expected
questions. They secure apparent better success by this method. In question papers the examiner
offers 9 to 10 questions, requiring the student to answer only 5 of them.

iii. Emphasis on cramming:-Another very major drawback of the essay type test is that the entire
emphasis lies upon cramming that is learning by rote. As the time of the test comes near,
students cram the answers to a few questions, but this does not increase their knowledge to any
significant extent. As soon as the examination is over, they forget almost all that they had
crammed. During the entire year, the teacher, too aims at achieving the best result for his class.
Thus, the test which is only a means of achieving the aim of education becomes a worthless end
in itself.

iv. Time consuming:-The essay type test is very time consuming. In some states, examination of this
kind continue over months and during this prolonged period, students ruin their health by
cramming day and night. Students themselves do not like this form of testing because the
assessment is not at all objective. Besides, the essay type test is also uneconomical, time
consuming, since it necessitates considerable expenditure and time. Despite this, the results it
provides are not satisfactory.

v. Difficulty in evaluation:-In the essay type test, evaluation of assessment is time consuming as well
as difficult. For making the assessment, it is necessary for the teacher to read each answer,
which means consumption of both time and energy. The long time involved also means that the
teacher cannot maintain uniformity in his judgement, with the result that he does not award
identical marks for essentially similar answers.

vi. Lack of reliability:-The scores obtained in an essay type test are lacking in reliability. If students are
tested and retested and if the results obtained are studied for correlation, it will be found that
there is very little correlation. This clearly proves that this test is not reliable, though we express
great pride in its results.

CONCLUSION:-Despite various limitations, ETQ have come to stay in spite of their low validity and
reliability. It is neither possible nor desirable to dispense with essay type questions. In spite of
significant role they play in educational testing, steps taken to improve. If efforts are made to develop
question banks of ETQ and training courses are organised to imitate teachers, paper setters and
markers, the stigma of subjective marking, low scorer reliability and grading difficulties can be
washed away to a large extent. Well designed ETQ with a well structured scoring procedure could
enable the teachers to grade students’ responses more objectively, besides improving their validity
and reliability.

Ques13:- Give a detailed note on short answer type questions? Explain the principles of construction?

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Ans:-Preparation of short answer questions

A SAQ is a supply type of question, demanding a restricted response, which may vary from a single specific
word to an open ended paragraph covering a limited number of credit points carrying generally 1 to 4 or 5
marks, and requiring about 1 to 5 or 6 min. to attempt it. A paper setter therefore must remain cognizant of the
limits of SAQ while framing such questions.

Types of short answer questions:-

There are six basic types of short answer questions:-

1. Definition questions:- Simply the definition of a concept.

Example:- What is the demand curve?

Answer:- It is a curve that shows the quantity demanded of a particular good or service at many
different prices.

2. Explanation questions:- For these questions, explanation is given shy something is true or how
something works.

Example:- Why is the demand curve downward – sloping for most goods?

Answer:- Because as the price of a good falls, people tend to buy more of it. When the price is lower,
buying the good involves a smaller sacrifice in terms of other goods.

3. Example questions:- For these questions, there is needed to state one or more specific, real world
instance of some concept.

Example:- Give two examples of pairs of goods that are complements?

Answer:- Cameras and camera film. Peanut butter and jelly.

4. Relationship questions:- In these questions, statements are made how two or more things relate to
each other. Are they opposite? Are they are same things? How do they differ? Etc.

Example: What is the difference between demand and quantity demanded?

Answer:- Quantity demanded is the amount of a good consumers will buy at a specific price, whereas
demand shows the quantities demanded for many different prices.

5. Calculation questions:- In these questions, calculation is made of numerical answer.

6. Graphic questions:- For these questions, there is need to respond with a simple graph. It should be

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labeled- axes and curves. Unless the question specifically asks for an explanation, no explanation is
necessary.

Construction of short answer questions

For constructing or designing a good short answer question, following points should be kept in mind.

1. Design the S-A items which are appropriate assessment of the learning objective.

2. Content of S-A question should measure knowledge appropriate to the desired learning goal.

3. Ensure that there should be only one clearly corrected answer to each question.

4. The item should clearly specifies how the question should be answered.

5. Write the instructions clearly so as to specify the desired knowledge and specificity of response.

6. Questions should be explicit and precise.

7. For numerical answers, let the students know if they will receive marks for showing partial work
(process based) or only the results (product based). Also indicate the importance of the units.

8. Let the students know what your marking style is like.

9. Prepare a structured marking sheet, allocate marks or part marks for acceptable answers.

10. Express the questions with clear wordings and language which are appropriate to the student
population.

Advantages;-

SAQ of free response type can better be used when:

i. Freedom of response is to be provided instead of a fixed response.

ii. More than one credit point are to be tested, say 2 to 4 (not unlimited)

iii. Brief, precise and to the point answers are expected.

iv. Acceptable answers can be scored quite objectively

v. A functional and accurate marking scheme is desired

vi. More number of questions is to be included in the test for better sampling of content to increase
reliability.

vii. Each and every competency must be tested in a limited time.

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viii. Bluffing, redundant and superfluous responses are to be discouraged and

ix. A particular content area or element is neither amenable to essay type nor multiple choice items.

Thus we find that SAQ have indeed a great potentiality for use in a question paper. They can ensure more
validity and reliability of a test by adequate sampling.

Disadvantages:- Sometimes it become very difficult to classify a question into VSQ or SAQ, because
of the flexibility in the range of responses that vary from a single specific fixed response with no
flexibility Being on a continuum, both varieties can be termed short answer type. It is only for
convenience and practical reasons that this dichotomy of two types of questions, VSQ and SAQ, is
introduced. This would further ensure quality of each type of questions, and its advantage can be
taken off in consolidation of questions into a particular format leading to more than one section for
separate administration.

Conclusion:- Short answer questions have many advantages. They are relatively easy to construct and can be
constructed faster than multiple choice questions. There is no guess in answering these questions. They
provide students with more flexibility to explain their understanding and demonstrating creativity. But their
marking is a laborious task.

USES OF VSQ:- Very short answer type questions (VS-A)

These are the questions whose responses or answers are quite short in nature. They may be as short as
involving a word or two or more or one or two sentences at large.

Example:-

1. Name your state and its chief minister.

2. Give one example each for physical and chemical change.

These questions are constructing by following the same norms used for constructing short answer questions
as given above.

In accordance with the blueprint, stipulated number and types of VSQ are to be prepared. It is
assumed that while developing the blueprint care has been taken to insert fixed response (VSQ) questions
inappropriate columns and rows that suit best the content of the unit and the assessment objectives. VSQ are
more difficult to frame because they demand specificity of the response that must be fixed and objectively
scorable.

Such questions can be used when

i. Testing of specific technical terms, concepts, events, principles, formulae, laws etc. is required.

ii. Complete scoring objectivity is to be ensured.

iii. More questions are to be set to encompass more topics or content elements

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iv. More valid responses through supply type responses are preferred.

v. Multiple choice questions are to be combined with VSQ in one section of the question paper,
ensuring maximum objectivity in scoring

vi. Examinees are not well conversant with the multiple choice questions and

vii. Assessment objectives are not of higher order like application or analysis objective.

Types of very short questions

VSQ

i. Direct question

ii. Selection form

iii. Completion form

iv. Identification type

v. Analogy type

vi. Classification variety (odd man out)

Very short answer type questions (VS-A)

These are the questions whose responses or answers are quite short in nature. They may be as short as
involving a word or two or more or one or two sentences at large.

Example:-

1. Name your state and its chief minister.

2. Give one example each for physical and chemical change.

3. Which country has hosted common wealth games maximum number of time?

4. What two colours are mixed to create the colour purple?

5. On a clock, if the big hand is on 12 and the little hand is on 3, what time would it be?

These questions are constructing by following the same norms used for constructing short answer questions
as given above.

Conclusion:- Unless VSQ are used for testing the understanding of concepts, major ideas or a theme, there is
no use in including such questions in a question paper just to test merely recall of specifics, trivial details,
factual information, name, dates, events etc. because such questions would never evoke the exercise of
intended mental processes implied in assessment objective.

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Ques14:- Write about the merits and demerits of objective type questions?
th
Ans;-In the 19 century, educationists and psychologists sought for ways to overcome the obvious
shortcomings and limitations of the essay type of examination. Horace man was the first to construct an
objective test in 1845. Subsequent, in 1897, J.M. Rice constructed a test consisting of fifty words. This test
was given to1600 students of 20 schools in America. Though rice was violently criticized by psychologists as
well as educationists, he persisted with his efforts. Ultimately, rice’s tests influenced and impressed other
psychologists and they also began to develop objective tests. Starch and Thorndike achieve considerable
renown in this fields.

Meaning:-An objective question is one which is free from any subjective bias either from tester or the marker.

Characteristics of objective tests

In the present age, various type of objective tests are being used for the measurement of progress in almost
every sphere of activity and behavior. These objectives tests are found to possess the following
characteristics.

1. Objectivity:-Objective test is that which measure the objective, for which it is meant. The objective
test, by definition, is objective that is the assessment of the test remains immune to the influence or
impact of the examiner’s mental state, interest, attitude or even the handwriting of examine. The
answers to the questions are short and specific in fact, predetermined. Even if one objective test is
assessed by a number of different examiners, they will all arrive at the same assessment.

2. Utility;-The objective test proves useful in many different ways, for instance, on the basis of the
results of objective tests, it is possible to provide educational and vocational guidance to students
because the results are dependable. It is possible to make inferences regarding their future.

3. Comprehensibility:-In any objective test, all the topics or chapters taught in conformity to a given
syllabus are comprehended because there are questions on every topic. In this way, the examiner can
test the knowledge that the student has acquired of the whole syllabus, not merely a part of it.

4. Reliability:-The most noteworthy feature of objective tests is their reliability, which means uniformity
or similarity in the marks obtained at different times through the same test. For instance, if we give an
objective test in which a student secures 50 marks and if in a subsequent test a month later he
obtained 55 marks, we can conclude that our test is reliable. On the other hand, if in the second test
the candidate had obtained either 10 or 80 marks, the test would not have been reliable.

5. Validity:-As is the case with reliability, validity is also an essential feature of any form of test. In this
context, validity means that the test must evaluate or assess only that quality which the examiner
wishes to evaluate through that particular test.

6. Practicality:-Objective tests are very practical. The teacher has no difficulty in administering an
objective test. It also economises both time and money. Student also prefer this kind of test.

7. Convenience in scoring;-It is possible to evaluate the result of an objective test in a very short time
because the answers are short, specific and predetermined. Secondly, a key to the evaluation is
prepared beforehand, hence it aids evaluation, which can be done expeditiously.

8. Discrimination;- An objective test helps in the facile and quick identification of the differences

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between students, so that the brilliant students can quickly be separated from the feeble minded ones,
which makes it convincement to provide for their education separately. Having classified students in
this way, the teacher can arrange them in separate classes or groups and provide education
conforming to their abilities.

Model of objective type test construction

According to Stanley and Ross, there are four steps of constructing the objective type test; 1. Planning
2.Preparing 3.Trying out and 4.Evaluation.

1. Planning

2. Preparing test

3. Trying out of the

4. Evaluatio

Fig. Steps of construction of objective type test

First step planning:-This step includes the following activities.

1. Fixing up the objectives.

2. Writing objectives in behavior terms.

3. Task analysis and content analysis.

4. Determining the type, forms and items.

5. Preparation of table of specification.

6. Taking a decision about mechanical aspects, time number of items, size of letters and printing etc.

7. Evaluating the instructions.

Second step: Preparing test items;-In the second step, items are written. The table of specification provides a
guideline for this purpose. Generally two types of items are prepared for constructing an objective type test:
recognition and recall type items.

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a. Recognition type items;-The form of items is such that the student has to select the best or correct
answers. These may be of following forms:

1. True/false or write/wrong type or alternative response.

2. Multiple choice types.

3. Matching type

4. Classification type and

5. Analogy type.

b. Recall type items:- The recall type items require that student has to supply the correct answer for a
question. They are also known as short answer type questions. The recall type items are classified
into two categories:

1. Simple recall type and

2. Completion type

These items may be understood by studying their following aspects:-

i. Meaning and definition of the type of items.

ii.Examples of the form

iii. Formula of guessing

iv. Advantages and limitations and

v. Precautions

Third step: Trying out of test:-After writing the items, an initial draft of the test is prepared. The items are
improved and modified on the basis of individual and group tryout. The following activities are performed in
this step:

1. Pre tryout is done on small group of students to improve the language ambiguity and difficulty of the
items.

2. Proper tryout is done for item analysis.

a. Difficult values and discriminative powers are calculated for each item of the test.

b. Items are selected, rejected and modified on the basis of tryout.

c. Final form of a test is prepared. The items are arranged in difficulty order. The most easy item is
placed at first and most difficult at the last.

Fourth step: Evaluation: The final form of the test is evaluated in terms of various kinds of error measurement.
The final form of a test is administered on a large group of target population.

The objective type tests are reliable and valid. Therefore, they are used in constructing the

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criterion test for measuring the learning objectives. The forms of objective type items has
been described in the following paragraph.

Forms of objective type items

B. Recognition type A. Recall type

1. True/false 1. Simple recall

type
2. Multiple choice
ques. 2. Completion
type
3. Matching type
Forms of objective type items

As it has been mentioned above that objective type items are recall and recognition type, their meaning,
examples and advantages are given below:-

A. Recognition type items

They are also known as selection type items because item consists of possible answers. The
student has to select the best or correct answers. These are various type of items: some important
types have been discussed here.

1. Alternate response type of true/false type test

Definition:-An alternative type test is made of items each of which admits only two possible
responses. The usual form is the familiar true false test. Other similar forms are right wrong,
correct incorrect, yes or no type,

Advantages:-This type of item has the following advantages:-

i. Easy to construct

ii.Easy to administer

iii. A wide knowledge is tested

iv. Easy to score

Disadvantages:-The alternative response item has high probability of guessing correct

responses. The fifty per cent items are attempted correctly by guessing. The knowledge is tested
in bits. There is no freedom for the student to respond.

Suggestions for modifications:- While using this type of item, the following suggestions should
be observed:-

i. Guessing formula should be used.

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ii.There should be three alternatives rather than two, i.e., true, false, and not known.

iii. Arrangement of correct alternatives should be random; there should not be a regular
arrangement of correct responses.

iv. Item should be written in simple statement form.

v. The proper instruction should be provided.

Rules and precautions:-In writing such items, the following rules and precautions should be taken
in consideration:

i. Avoid ambiguous statements or long statement.

ii.Exact language or text books should not be used.

iii. Avoid trick statements and

iv. Avoid specific determiners.

2. Multiple choice type items

Definition:-A multiple choice test is made of items, each of which present more responses and
only one of which correct or definitely better than others. E.F. Lindquist asserts that it is definitely
superior than other types.

Advantages:-The following are the advantages of multiple choice items:-

1. This is mostly used for measuring cognitive objectives and it is based upon psychological principles.

2. The scope of guessing is minimum.

3. It is useful for assessing judgement and discrimination abilities.

4. The scoring is easy of multiple choice items.

5. The analysis of such item is also very easy.

Disadvantages:-The multiple choice items suffer from the following limitations.

1. It is difficult to prepare good type of multiple choice items.

2. There is a scope of guessing the correct response.

3. An item can be used for assessing one bit of information.

4. This type of item cannot be used for all content.

Rules and suggestions for writing the multiple choice items

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The following rules and suggestions should be taken in consideration for writing the multiple choice items:-

1. Item should be written in simple statement form.

2. Make all options responses grammatically consistent.

3. As a rule, use complete statement rather than incomplete statement.

4. Avoid using any clue for correct response.

5. Arrange the responses so that correct one should occur in a random order.

6. Make all responses plausible or homogenious.

7. At least four six solutions should be provided to one item.

8. Use the formula for guessing in scoring the answers.

9. Arrange item in groups, group together all items having the same number of choices.

10. The higher objectives can be measured by increasing the homogeneity of the solutions.

3. Matching type item

The matching type item is an improvement over the multiple choice items. It may be defined as;-

Definition;- A matching type test consists of two columns, each item of the first column is to be
paired with a word or phrase in the second column on some basis is suggested. In the simplest
form of matching test item, the number of responses is exactly the same as the number of
statements.

Advantages:-The matching exercise is particularly well adapted to test in who, what, and where types of
situations or for naming and identifying abilities: E.F. Lindquist

1. It is an economical item from time and construction point of view.

2. It is easy to construct and score.

3. It is easy and convenient form of exercise for measuring facts and dates, dates and person, events
and place, terms and definitions.

4. It is very useful for measuring knowledge objectives.

Limitations:-These items have the following limitations:-

1. There is a scope of guessing.

2. The analysis of such items is difficult.

3. It is not well adopted by the measurement of understanding as distinguished from memory.

4. When the equal numbers of items are in both the columns that last item can be attempted correctly
without knowing it.

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Rules and suggestions:-The following rules and suggestions should be considered while using and preparing
matching type of items:-

1. The homogenous type of material should be included in each matching exercise.

2. The each exercise should be checked carefully for unwarranted clues by indicate matching pairs.

3. The items in the responses column should not be arranged in a systematic order. The response
should be in random order.

4. The basis of matching should be clearly indicated.

5. There should be more words or phrases in the paired columns.

4. Classification type items

A classification type item consists of several words. Out of these words, one word does not belong
to that the group. The learner has to identify the word on the basis of his understanding.

Advantages:-

1. The classification type items are easy to construct, easy to score and easy to interpret.

2. This type of item is useful for measuring comprehension and discriminative abilities.

Limitations;-It has the following limitations:-

1. There is a scope for attempting item correctly by guessing.

2. These types of items cannot be used for all type of content and for all school subjects. It has very
limited scope.

5. The analogy type items

This type of item includes both selection and supply type of situations. This type of item consists
of two situations. The first situation is complete and another is incomplete. The second situation is
completed by a student on the basis of first situation.

Advantages:-

1. The analogy type items are easy to prepare and easy to score.

2. This type of items are used to measure the verbal reasoning ability of the students.

3. The analysis objectives are best measured by this type of items.

4. These items are included in both recall and recognition type items.

B. Recall type items

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These are also known as supply type of items, because student has to supply the response on the
basis of his memory. There are two categories: 1. Simple recall and 2. Completion type items. The
brief description of these items has been given here:-

1. Simple recall items

Definition:-The simple recall test is defined as one in which each item appears a direct question, a
stimulus word or phrase of specific direction. The response must be recalled or supplied by the pupil
from his experience rather than identification.

The simple recall test is different from essay type; primarily the basis of length of response is
required. It is sometimes called a short answer test.

Advantages:- The following are the major advantages of recall type of items:-

i.There is no scope for attempting question correctly by guessing.

ii. It is easy to prepare and score.

iii. These are valuable for measuring factual knowledge.

iv. These items are useful for evaluating the knowledge objectives.

Limitations:-The following are the limitations of recall type of items:-

i.The recall type items tend to measure highly factual information.

ii. The response of item mainly depends upon memory aspect.

iii. One item measures our bit of information.

Suggestions:-The following suggestions should be followed while using recall type of items:-

i.The item should be a direct question in the statement form.

ii. The response should be brief and well worded or single word.

iii. The question should be so written that it requires a specific response.

2. The completion type items

Definition:-The completion type test may be defined as a series of sentences in which certain
important word or phrase has been omitted and blank submitted to the pupils to fill it. A sentence may
contain one or more blanks. Each blank counts one point:

Advantages:- The completion type test has the following advantages;-

1. There is no scope for guessing the correct response.

2. This type of item is easy to construct and easy to score.

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3. It has a wide applicability as far as subject matter is concerned.

4. It depends upon understanding while recall type depends upon rote memory.

5. It measuring linguistic aptitude and language comprehension also.

Suggestions;-The following suggestions should be followed while using the completion type items:-

1. The indefinite statement should not be used.

2. The key words and phrases should be omitted.

3. The grammatically clues should be avoided.

4. The statement of item should be so written that it requires a single response.

Ques 15:-Situation – based questions

A situation based question is generally related to or based on a particular situation or even that is going on, in
the student’s environment. These questions are also called interview or behavioural questions by some
scholars. These questions are application oriented and stimulate the thinking and reasoning power of the
students.

These questions may be framed in a variety of formats like essay type, short answer type, VSA type or
objective type depending upon the demand of the situation and choice of the test developer. Here some
examples are given:-

1. What do you do if you disagree with your teacher?

2. A co-worker tells you in confidence that she plans to call in sick while actually taking a week’s
vacation. What would you do and why?

3. What would you do if you realized at deadline time that a report you wrote for your teacher was not
upto par?

Construction of situation based questions

Following points should be taken into consideration

1. Situation based questions should be related to the environment of the student.

2. These questions must be application oriented of a situation.

3. These should stimulate the thinking and reasoning powers of the students.

4. Situational interview questions are similar to behavioural questions but instead of asking you to relay

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on past experience and tell how you handled yourself in that situation, you are presented with a
hypothetical situation. So, here use hypothetical situation for constructing question.

5. Questions can be framed in any format.

6. An illustrating situation may also be given.

Ques16:- What are the steps involved in the construction of Achievement test ?

or

How achievement test can be used as a tool for assessment for learning?

Ans:- In our educational system, assessment in cognitive domain is generally done by achievement tests.
Teacher teach and help the learners to learn. The learning take takes place is assessed not only for the
learner’s benefit, but also for the teacher to evaluate his own work. At the end of a lesson or a group of
lessons, the teacher need to get feedback on what the learner has achieved as a result of the teachers’
efforts and also, indirectly to assess his own achievement as a teacher. This feedback comes with the help of
a tool, generally called achievement test.

Meaning and Definitions of Achievement tests; An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge.
The most common type of achievement test is a standardized test, developed to measure skills and
knowledge learned in a given grade level, usually through planned instruction, such as training instructor or
classroom teacher. So, any test that measures the attainments and accomplishment of an individual after a
period of training or learning, is called achievements test.

“The type of ability test that describes what a person has learned to do is called an achievement test.”
-Thorndike and Hagen

“Achievement test is a test designed to measure knowledge, understanding and skills in a specified subject or
a group of subjects.” ` -Freeman

Gronlund: “A systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has learned through instruction.”

According to Ebel, “An achievement test is one designed to measure student’s grasp to knowledge or his
proficiency in certain skills.”

“An achievement or proficiency tests”- says super, “is used to ascertain what and how much has been learnt
or how much has the task performed.”

The achievement tests can be categorized in two categories:

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1. General achievement tests

2. Diagnostic tests.

It is not proper to draw a hard and fast partition between these two types of test. General achievement tests,
as is clear from their names, measure achievement from any area of knowledge. These tests provide one
single score as an index of achievement for the one particular area. Diagnostic test indicates weakness or
strength from several areas.

Types of Achievement tests;-

In a school evaluation programmes , various forms of achievements tests are used to measure the extent of
learning of the pupils. So, it is necessary for the teacher to know how to construct an achievement test
efficiently.

Douglas and Holland has classified achievement tests as follows:-

Achievement test

Standardized test Teacher made test

Subjective test objective test

Oral Written Practical

Recall type Recognition type

Simple Recall Fill in the blanks

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Multiple choice True/False Matching Analogy Classification

Type type type type type

CONSTRUCTION OF ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

There are several steps involved in the construction of achievement tests. These are discussed here.

1. Planning the Test;- Objectives and Curriculum Analysis.

2. First Draft of the Test:- Item selection.

3. Trying –out the Test:- Administration, scoring, reliability, validity, item analysis.

4. Final Drafting:- Administration, application etc.

5. Standardization:- Norms, interpretation etc.

Step-I: Planning the Test

This step consists of the following sub-steps.

a. Determining objectives:- The first and the most important step in planning an achievement test is to
identify the instructional objectives. Each subject has a definite set of instructional objectives. In the
subjects of Science, Social sciences, and mathematics, the major objectives are categorized as
knowledge, understanding, application and skills, while in languages, the major objectives are
categorized as knowledge, comprehension and expression. Knowledge objective is considered to be
the lowest level of learning, whereas, understanding, application of knowledge in sciences or
behavioural sciences are considered higher level of learning.

Number of objectives should not be more than three or four. While preparing a mathematics
test, the number of objectives may be-

1. Capacity to solve mathematical problems

2. Capacity to reason.

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3. Knowledge of units.

These changes should be observer in day-to-day life.

b. Analysis of curriculum and source material:- After determining objectives, books and material
related to the topic on which the test has to be prepared, should be analyzed. In this task, chapter of
books, synopsis, class-notes, comments, questions papers of the past years, all may be helpful.

Beans, K.L, has suggested the following source material, which may be analyzed and used.

1. Text books and note books:- Great skills is required to use this source. Mechanical
reproduction of the words of the author should be avoided. Items of the test should be so
constructed that they may require originality, appropriate departures from the wording of the text
and sound judgments.

2. Through questions at the end of each chapter:- Generally textbooks are accompanied by
objective tests in supplementary work-book or manuals. These can be relied upon to some extent.

3. Lecture Notes:- These assimilate teacher’s own experience and outside readings, provide
another source for test questions.

4. Class discussion:- Class discussion in which the students as well as the teacher have
participated is also excellent source. But, controversial issues should be avoided.

5. Job analysis:- It is particularly helpful in finding items in aptitude tests.

6. Study of tests:- Study of various standardized tests will help in the construction of items for
new tests. General ideas about outlining, content and form can be obtained from studying the
best published tests.

Step-II: Preparing the First Draft (Construction of Test Items)

a. Item construction:- When the objectives of the test have been determined and curriculum and
source-material analyzed, construction of items is started.

Items may be of many kinds, such as multiple choice, true-false, alternative response form,
matching form, essay type, etc. Some general principles should, however be kept in mind, while
construction test items.

Every precaution has to be taken to ensure that the items are valid, appropriate and
unambiguous. Some suggestions are given here to ensure it.

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1. More than one type of items should be included in the preliminary draft, so that the test the test
may be interesting as well as representative.

2. The number of items in the preliminary draft should be more than that in the final draft.

3. Items belonging to one type should be at one place.

4. The items should be clearly phrased. Their content and form should determine the response.
Words like ‘never’, ‘always’, ‘positively’, ‘exclusively’ and the like should be avoided.

5. There should not be any sequence in responses. Responses should be in a chance order, so
that one response may not lead to another.

6. No item should be such that it could be replied by referring to any other item or a group of items.

7. No item should be so chosen that its answer is obvious by the phraseology or content.

8. Items may be put in an ascending order of difficulty. It means that simpler items should be in
the beginning and more difficult items in the end.

9. The wording of items should be such that the whole content determines the answer, and not a
part of it.

10. It is better if terms are not weighted. Each item should carry equal marks.

11. There should be more emphasis on learning rather than on memory or recall.

b. Arrangement of items:- A rough plan may be made after going through the list of traits or teaching
objectives being measured, which may be divided into groups and categories. For example:- one
category containing most easily measured aspects, another one containing items of information, the
third one having skill and performance items an so on, may be made.

The plan of arrangement of item may be any one of the following:-

1. Equal difficulty plan:- In a speed test, items of approximately equal difficulty are given. Number
of items is quite large and so every pupil is not expected to answer all the items in the given time.
In speed tests, all items of approximately equal difficult may be taken; no order to items is
necessary.

2. Increasing order of difficulty plan:- In a power test, items are arranged in-order of difficulty. They
are quite difficult and so score is given for the number of items answered correctly.

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In power test, items may be arranged in the increasing order of difficulty. The order may be
general or may prevail within each section or sub-test itself.

3. Spiral plan:- It is spirical in nature. If there are four general types of questions – vocabulary,
space perception, arithmetic reasoning and analogies – the spiral arrangement would be to give
one item of each type first at an easy level. These would be followed by four more- one
vocabulary, one space perception and so on. The difficulty would, thus, increase through several
levels before the end.

4. Logical grouping:- If divergent topics are necessary in one examination, logical grouping of
items by subject-matter would be the best, because haphazard arrangement of subject matter
and item form break all meaningful and helpful mental set and confuses the subject.

Step – III: Trying out the test

a. Administration:- After the preparation of the first draft, it is tried on a sample. The sample must have
poor, good as well as brilliant students.

1. Conditions of administration should be normal.

2. There should be proper invigilation and supervision.

3. Cheating of faking of response should be checked.

4. Time allowed should be generous. Time for the speed tests should be shorter than power tests.

5. There should be proper seating, ventilation and water arrangement.

6. Instructions should be clear and unambiguous.

b. Scoring:- Scoring procedure should be simple and rational. One point may be given for every correct
item. Answer keys may be prepared beforehand.

Scoring can be doing by stencils, carbons, punch-board method or by computer.

c. Item analysis:- Item analysis is a name given to a variety of statistical techniques designed to
analze individual items on a test after the test has been given to a group of examinees. Some item
analysis techniques are highly sophisticated and are useful only to individuals with specialized
training. Other techniques are simple to interpret and can be useful to the classroom teacher, both in
terms of improving the quality of test item and identifying instructional problems.

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1. Discrimination value:- After scoring, the percentage of examinees doing each items correctly, as
well as incorrectly is calculated. This will throw light on the discriminative value of an item..

The ‘discrimination’ of an item refers to its ability to distinguish between more and less knowledge
students. From the point of view of discriminatory power, all test items can be divided into items that
are either (i) positively discriminating (b) negatively discriminating, or (ii) non-discriminatory.

Discrimination index is defined as difference in proportion of students in the upper and lower group,
who answered an item correctly.

2. Difficulty value:- Another component of an item analysis is difficulty value. The difficulty of an item
refers to the proportion of students who answered the item correctly. .

Step- IV:- Final Drafting—Preparation of the Final Test

After scoring and item analysis of answer-books, the final test may be constructed. For it, items with good
discriminating value may be taken, and other items may be eliminated. Needed directions are given. Time is
decided on the basis of administration. Questions or items for practice may be devised.

After doing all this, a second administration of the test is done. Then average percentage may be
calculated. Standard deviation, range and quartile deviation of scores may also be calculated:

Reliability and validity may be calculated by using statistical techniques made for these terms.

Step V: - Standardization and Interpretation

Norms may be calculated. These are many like age norms, sex norms, grade norms, etc. Rural and urban
norms also are calculated. Average performance of various groups will help comparison of scores. For this
purpose of comparison, raw scores may be converted into derived scores, such as T-scores, Z-scores, Hull-
scores, Stanine Scores, etc.

The procedure adopted must be suitable for the test in question so that the interpretation of the test may be
easy

Difference between standardized and teacher made test

Standardized test Teacher made test

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1. Standardized tests are concerned with

the whole field of knowledge or ability
tested.

2. In standardized tests norms are given

for various groups of persons on age,
grade, rurality, urbanity, sex or other
basis.

3. Standardized tests are based on

uniform curriculum in many schools in
the particular or the whole nations.

4. In standardized tests use of sources

such as the opinion of judges, articles,
and general books is made.

5. Standardized tests are useful in

comparing achievement of individual
groups.

6. Standardized tests provide measure of

comparable performance from year to
year.

7. These are expert made tests.

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Important features of achievement test:-

1. Behavioural domains:- Its main purpose is to measure the modification of behavior brought
about by learning.

2. Modification of behavior:In achievement test should be given to knowledge , understanding,

application and skill according to behaviours to be measured.

3. Situational:- A good achievement test is tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level
and discriminating power.

4. Norms based:-It is accompanied by norms which are developed at various levels and on various
age groups.

5. Manual test:- It should have description of measured behavior.It includes a test manual for its
administering and scoring.

`PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Construction of an achievement test is a serious job for a teacher, it requires adequate planning beforehand.
Usually this work can be properly accomplished through the following steps:

1. Setting objectives: The first and the most important step is to make oneself clear about the
objectives for which one is going to frame the test. In all situations the objectives of the test should
be properly decided and defined in terms of specific behavior changes expected from the pupils as a
result of studying a particular unit or course of study.

2. Coverage of the syllabus or contents: The contents to be covered in the test are directly dependent
upon what has been taught by the teacher. The teacher should keep an outline of the learning
experiences given by him. Although no major unit or subtopic of what has been taught should be left,
yet it is not essential at all to ask for each and every thing discussed by the teacher in the class. In
other words, a reasonable coverage of various aspects of the learning experiences given to the
students should be the goal.

3. Decision about the types of items or questions: Decision about the types of questions to be set in
the test paper is also an essential aspect of its construction. As pointed out earlier, all the three forms
– essay type, short answer type and objective type – should find place in a good achievement test.

4. Decision about the time: The total time given to the students for giving responses to the items of
test should also be decided.

5. Preparation of the blueprint: This is the most crucial step in the planning of the test. Blue-print is a
sort of the design for the test paper in which we present a detailed question wise distribution of
marks over specific objectives, topics and forms of questions. Therefore, all the factors mentioned in
the above four steps, i.e. objectives to be tested, contents to be covered, types of questions to be
asked, and total time to be given, should be kept in mind while preparing the blueprint or design of the
test.

6. Item formats (organizing and arranging items or questions): Item or questions to be included in the
test require proper organization and arrangement. The following points may be helpful in this direction:

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Essay and objective items should be kept in two separate sections with separate time limit for
each. Short answer questions can be tagged on to either of these two sections according to
their nature.

Each section should have separate instructions or these should be common to both the
sections.

Items should be arranged in order of difficulty from easy to more difficult ones.

In objective type of items, it is advisable not to use too many different forms of items or
questions as it involves sheer waste of time for reading instructions. As far as possible,
multiple-choice items should be preferred as they are more reliable, valid and objective in
comparison to the other forms of items.

It is better to have 20 to 30% items in excess so that in final review after item analysis, the
excess item may be left out.

7. Try-out and item analysis: After planning, as suggested here, the test so prepared must be
administered in an appropriate sample of students for its try out and suggested task of item analysis.
Item analysis is mainly carried out for serving the following useful functions:

For finding out non-clarity, ambiguities, and mistakes.

For determining difficulty value of each item.

For determining discriminating value of each item.

With the help of such analysis we can modify or get rid of defective items carrying ambiguities, mistakes
and non-clarity as well as having too low discriminating and too high difficulty values.

8. Designing or preparing the final form of the test: As a result of try out and item analysis of the test,
the improper items can be deleted from the test. In addition, few items may be suitably modified or
even added for making the test more functionable. This final form should then be printed/photostated/
cyclostyled, as the situation demands, for the need evaluation of the students’ achievements.

9. Preparation of a scoring key: To ensure objectivity in scoring, it is advisable to have a predetermined

way of scoring. It is not only the objective type items that require an advance preparation of a scoring
key, By following the steps narrated here, a social studies teacher can manage to develop the needed
teacher made achievement test for evaluating the progress of his students at the end of the delivery
of his lesson or covering up of a specific unit or course during a session.

Functions and Uses of Achievement tests:-

1. To find at the beginning of the year where each students stands in the various academic areas.

2. Effectiveness of teaching-learning:- It helps the teachers in selecting the appropriate methodology

so that all the students got the maximum benefits.

3. Classification of Students:-The teacher can classify the brilliant and slow learners.

4. Promotion to Next Class:- To provide basis for promotion to the next class.

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5. The teacher is able to diagnose the strength and weakness of the students in various subjects.

6. To expose pupil’s difficulties which the teacher can help them to solve.

7. Motivation:-Students are motivated to work hard for removing their short comings.

8. These tests help to select students for the awards and scholarships.

9. Evaluation: It helps the teacher to evaluate whether his teaching is proper or not.

10. Vocational Guidance:- It helps in placement of students in various fields.

11. Tests help to determine the efficiency of one school with the other.

12. To evaluate, revise and improve the curriculum in the light of these results.

13. Test help to select talented or gifted students for special classes or courses.

14. Tests help to evaluate the extent to which the objectives of education are being achieved.

15. Tests help to classify school objectives.

CONCLUSION:- An achievement test is a test of developed skill or knowledge. The most common type of
achievement test is a standardized test, developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade
level, usually through planned instruction, such as training instructor or classroom teacher. These are used to
measure what student know about a certain subject.

Ques17:- What is a diagnostic test? What are its uses? How to prepare the diagnostic chart?

Construction and Use of Diagnostic Test, Preparation of Diagnostic Chart , Identification of difficulties and
Remedial Teaching:-

Introduction: Diagnostic testing stands for the testing and evaluation programme carried out for the diagnosis
of something. Just as a doctor diagnoses a patient to find the nature, type and extent of his disease before
prescribing medicine, a teacher applies Diagnostic test to diagnose the particular strength and weakness of
the student. Through this test, weakness and difficulties of students in the instructional material are
diagnosed. In Diagnostic Test both background and performance of the students are needed. Diagnostic Test
are qualitative not the qualitative.

Meaning of Diagnostic Testing:-

Diagnostic testing may be defined as a testing or evaluation programme carried out by a teacher for
diagnosing the nature and extent of the learning difficulties and behavioural problems of an individual or group
of students along with the inherent causes for chalking out suitable remedial programme aimed to help them
in getting rid of their difficulties and problems.

Characteristics of Diagnostic Test:

1. It finds out weakness or deficiency of a child in learning of content.

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2. It is qualitative not quantitative.

3. It is an effective tool for teacher that helps in planning and organizing remedial teaching.

4. It is a base to form tutorial groups so as help the poor students to develop their performance
removing their difficulties.

5. It arranges the items in learning sequence so as to help transfer of learning position.

6. It adopts objective type tests only.

7. It fully emphasizes on all learning and teaching points.

8. It Diagnostic test no scores is made for correct answers, only wrong responses are taken into view
in the sequence of contents.

It needs an expert or specialist to identify the causes for wrong answer.

Types of Diagnostic Test- Diagnostic tests are mainly classified into two classes:-

1. Educational Diagnostic Test.

2. Physical or clinical Diagnostic Tests.

Educational Diagnostic Tests are related to study matter or study material designed for specific
level or standard of education. These tests diagnose disorder of material according to level of class.

On the other hand, physical or clinical Diagnostic Tests are related to hearing, vision and other
things that causes hindrance in the course of a child’s learning. Below are given for ways to determine
or obtain dates for Diagnostic Tests-

●Case history or interview

●Clinical observation

●Informal testing, and,

●Formal standardized tests.

Purposes of diagnostic tests are:-

i. To study the nature of difficulties of the pupils in the subject matter.

ii. To find out whether the students are performing according to expectations or not.

iii. To analyze the difficulties of the pupils in a particular phase of the subject matter.

iv. To get reliable information concerning the weakness of the pupils and in order to overcome them by
concentrated and by remedial teaching.

Points to be kept in mind in constructing diagnostic tests:-

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i. The teacher should keep in mind the individual differences of the students in their studies.

ii. The test items should be put keeping in mind the varying abilities of the students.

iii. The maturity level, age, class etc. should be kept in mind.

iv. A pilot study of test is always helpful before giving a final shape to the diagnostic test.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIAGNOSTIC TEST AND ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Diagnostic test differs markedly from achievement test though every achievement test has some diagnostic
value and vice versa.

The main difference is in the way items are sampled. In an achievement test sampling of questions is not so
exhaustive to cover each and every learning point as the content is generally a large portion, where as in a
diagnostic test, each learning point has several items, each cluster of such items forming a subtest. The
diagnostic value of the test is obtained from the total score, which is the sum of the scores of these subsets.
The average of subject matter is more detailed, though based on a smaller area than an achievement test.

The difference in the scope of coverage of achievement tests and diagnostic tests is as follows:-

Achievement tests Diagnostic tests

1. Meant for average Meant for the below average

2. Aimed at valuating the achievement level Aimed at identifying difficulties and weaknesses.

3. Leads to grading and comparing with others Leads to remedial work.

4. Cover the whole unit learned

5. It is general type of test Concentrate on different areas.

It is a specific type of test.

Construction of diagnostic test

Diagnostic test may be either standardized or teacher made. But teacher made tests are economical and more
effective because each teacher can frame it according to the specific needs of students.

Following are the stages or steps of preparing of a diagnostic test.

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1. Planning.

2. Writing items

3. Assembling the test

4. Providing directions

5. Preparing the scoring key and marking scheme

6. Receiving the test

The details of the steps are given below:-

1. Planning:- The unit on which a diagnostic test is based, requires a detailed exhaustive content
analysis. It should be broken into learning points without omitting any point. The diagnostic procedure
should be based on the premises that mastery of the total process cannot be stronger than that of the
weakest link in the chain of related concepts and skills. So, every concept, skill of learning point of
the unit should be treated equal at the time of constructing the test.

All the learning point of the unit, have to be covered in an unbroken sequence. Each learning point
should have an adequate number of questions to help identity the area of weakness.

2. Writing item:- All the forms of questions viz. essay type, short answer and objective type, can be
used for testing different learning points. However, it appears for diagnostic purposes, short answer
questions, involving one or two steps are used widely.

The questions should be clubbed around the learning points, even when they area of the
different forms. The learning points should be arranged sequentially from simple to complex, which
ensures that students do not have to change their mental sets very frequently.

The questions should be written in simple and clear language. The scope of the expected
answer should be clear to the students.

3. Assembling the test:- Preparation of blueprint may altogether be avoided. No rigid time need to be
specified, though for administrative case, a time limit may be set.

4. Providing directions and preparing scoring key:- A set of instructions, clear and precise, is drafted. It
should also be provided with a scoring key and marking scheme.

5. Reviewing the test:- Before printing the test, it should be carefully edited and reviewed. This ensures

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that any inadvertent errors are eliminated.

Uses of diagnostic tests

The important used of diagnostic tests are given below:-

1. Item, units and skills which are understood by a majority of students can be located and teaching
can be adjusted to the situation.

2. Items, units and skills, which are not understood by a majority of pupils can be located and thereby
special emphasis in these aspects can be attempt.

3. The causes for the difficulty in certain items can be found out, for which remedial measures can be
taken.

4. Individual weakness can be found out which would serve as the baseline for individual correction
work and personal guidance.

5. Diagnostic test measure ‘real understanding’ as opposed to superficial mastery of subject areas
measured by achievement of pupils in subject area.

6. Diagnostic tests can assist the pupil in locating one’s weakness and so they can be corrected with
maximum ease and economy.

7. These tests can be made the basis of individual instruction. Differentiated teaching methods, ability
grouping, individual drill, differential assignments, etc can be attempted on the basis of the results of
diagnostic tests.

8. Diagnostic test may be used for prognosis. It helps to predict the future progress of a child. It helps
in providing guidance and counseling in that direction.

9. It provide teacher with information about students’ prior knowledge and misconceptions before
beginning a learning activity.

10. Effective diagnostic assessment improve learning and teaching.

11. Diagnostic tests are used as an inventory to find out how much the student knows about a particular
phase of the subject matter.

12. These tests are used to discover and analyze the difficulties of the students to provide specific
remedial measures to remove their difficulties.

13. These tests are useful for providing appropriate remedial instructions to individual students as per

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need.

14. These tests provide is reliable data about the abilities, interests and difficulties faced by students.

15. These tests are mainly used for discovering faults, difficulties of the students.

Limitations of diagnostic tests

Diagnostic tests have the following drawbacks:-

1. Narrow scope:- Diagnostic tests are narrow in scope and application, because it can be employed
only for diagnosing the weakness or learning difficulties of the students in a very small area of a
school subject.

2. Not useful for formative and summative evaluation function:- Like achievement tests, diagnostic
tests cannot be used for serving many useful formative and summative functions. These evaluation
functions include:

a. Providing feedback about the appropriateness of a teacher’s teaching or students learning.

b. Knowledge about the realization of teaching-learning objectives.

c. Appropriateness of the teaching methods, strategies and aid material used in teaching learning.

d. Knowledge about the suitability or on suitability of the provided learning experiences to the
students.

e. Knowledge of according division, grades, certificates or degrees to the students.

f.Making comparison of achievement among different students.

g. Preparing progress report, cumulative record card etc.

3. Difficult to construct the test:- It is very difficult to develop or construct the diagnostic test. Only a
specialist is able to prepare it. An imaginative, creative and research minded teacher can prepare it
well.

4. Very uncommon:- Diagnostic tests are not routine type of tests. They are prepared in special type of
situations. Very rarely some teacher is seen preparing this type of test.

5. Specific type of test:- Diagnostic test is a specific type of test. It is not general type of test as
achievement test. It is used only to diagnose the ills or drawbacks already present in the learner. It

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does not test whatever is taught to the student.

6. Big samples:- In diagnostic tests, each learning point has several items, each cluster of such items
forms a subtest. The diagnostic value of the test is obtained from the total score, which is the sum of
the scores of these sub tests. The coverage of subject matter is more detailed, though based on a
smaller area. Therefore, a diagnostic test requires a very careful analysis of the content and a
detailed study of the common errors made by the students. This point makes it difficult test as
compared to achievement test.

7. Provide no solution to the problem:- A diagnostic test is administered to ascertain the specific
deficits in term of skills and sub skills. Diagnostic test helps to identify problem areas, but does not
provide reason for the difficulties and prescribes no solution to overcome them.

8. Time consuming:- An important reason for the lack of success in educational diagnosis is that
affective diagnosis and remediation take a great deal more time than most teachers have or most
students would be willing to devote. So, it is a time consuming and long process. Very less teacher
dares to accomplish it.

Conclusion:-It has been seen that these tests are used to find out the causes of unsatisfactory achievement
and adjustment. After finding out the causes of weakness, it is duty of the teacher to remove them. The need
of diagnostic testing arises especially at the time when a particular student exhibits some or the other signs
and symptoms of his failure or difficulties with regard to the learning of the subject.

Ques18:- What do you mean by task? What are the various kinds of tasks?

(Note:- While writing short note on task give meaning of task. Various types and brief meaning of projects,
assignments and performances).

Ques:- What do you mean by projects? How projects are useful in assessment of learning?

Introduction :Task is an activity that needs to be accomplished within a defined period of time or by a
deadline.Various types of tasks in teaching includes projects, assignments, performances etc. A task can be
broken down into assignments which should also have a defined start and end date or a deadline for
completion. One or more assignments on a task puts the task under execution. Completion of all assignments
on a specific task normally renders the task completed.

Various kinds of tasks are 1. Projects, 2.Assignments, 3. Performances (described below)

Ans:- Introduction:- Project method of teaching was first propounded by John Dewey through his ideas and
views incorporated in the philosophy of pragmatism. This philosophy lays a clear emphasis on the practical or
utilitarian value by saying that the things or ideas which have some practical value or are useful to the learner
in some way must only be taught to the learner. Consequently the process of education must be
centredaround some useful or purposeful activities named as projects. We may know a lot about the nature
and meaning of the term ‘project’ with the help of the following definitions given by some eminent scholars:

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Meaning:-The project method is a result of John Dewey’s philosophy of education which is known as
pragmatism, or experimentation or instrumentation. It was developed and improved by Professor
William Kilpatrick, a follower of john Dewey. According to him, “Project is that activity which is
performed with complete attachment in a social atmosphere to achieve the goal.” Professor J. A.
Stevenson worked on it further and perfected it as a method of teaching. Now it is being followed in
the progressive schools all over the world.

Definitions:-

1. J.A. Stevenson (1952:85): “A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting.”

2. W.H. Kilpatrick (1921): “A project is whole hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social
environment.”

3. Ballard (1938): “A project is a bit of real life that has been imparted into the school.”

Conclusion of the definitions:-

From the above definitions we conclude that – a project as some spontaneous, interesting, self absorbing,
problem oriented and purposeful act which can be accomplished in a complete natural as well as social
settings.

Characteristics /Features

1. A project is a purposeful activity.

2. A project is a problematic act.

3. A project is a whole hearted activity.

4. A project is a voluntary act.

5. A project is a bit of real life introduced in school.

6. A project is a positive and concrete achievement.

7. A project is an activity in a natural setting.

8. A project is an activity in a social setting.

9. A project is an activity through which solutions of various problems are found.

Basic principles of projects:-

1. Principle of purpose:-A project always have a purpose. The project which doesn’t have any goal or
purpose is aimless and meaningless because it is not able to arouse the interest of the pupils.

2. Principles of utility:-Project should be useful and practical because it acts as a stimulus to motivate
the pupils.

3. Principles of activity:-Children love activity. Project should have a feature of physical and mental
activity which is generally not present in the traditional methods.

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4. Principle of reality:-A project is a bit of real life introduced in a school. There is no scope for teaching
superfluous things in the project method. So it should present real life situations to the children.

5. Principle of freedom:-There should be freedom at all stages in a project so that a child should get an
opportunity to express his abilities freely which helps in developing the personality of the child.

6. Principle of experience:-In project method child get the opportunity to get the first – hand
experience. In this he got ‘learning by experience’ which is permanent and everlasting.

7. Principle of laws of learning:-The project method is soundly based on the psychological principle,
namely, principles of readiness, exercise and effect evolved by thorndike, principle of learning by
doing, principle of self experience, principle of self learning and principle of motivated learning.

8. Principle of democratic procedure:-This is a child centered method. So here students are free to do
the activity in their own way. No one is superior or inferior. All are equal and tries to utilize all their
abilities and capabilities in their best way. Everything goes on in a democratic way.

Types of projects

1. Creation related projects:-When students create something e.g. aquarium, a soap, construction of
apparatus etc.

2. Consumer related projects:-Where the students may get an experience and enjoy e.g. agriculture,
horticulture etc.

3. Collection related projects:-Collection of different types of plant and animals, birds, herbs, shrubs,
etc from different places.

4. Problem related projects:-When the main purpose is to solve a problem involving the intellectual
process such as problems related to food and nutrition, determining the density of a liquid.

5. Drill type:-When the aim of acquiring efficiency in some activity e.g. skill in swimming, dancing etc.

6. Recognition related projects:-Classification of different flowers, fruits, seeds, roots, etc.

Project are also classified as

Simple Complex
projects projects

Simple project:-There is only one work to do like collection of herbs or shrubs.

Complex project:-There is more than one work to do like. Arranging a science fair, building up of school
museum etc.

Stages involved in a project

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1. Providing a situation

2. Choosing and announcing the topic

3. Planning

4. Execution

5. Evaluation

Let us discuss these steps one by one.

6. Recording

1. Providing a situation:-First of all, attempts are made to provide a situation for feeling the necessity of
choosing and working on a project. At times there are spontaneous upsurge of such situations while
at others teacher has to plan for the creation of such situations. Students may spot out a problem
while having discussion in the classroom, while working in a laboratory or engaging in extracurricular
activities, going in some excursions, or visiting some places of social or general interest.

2. Choosing and purposing:-After having confrontation with some genuine problem, students may be
persuaded to think about its possible solution by selecting some appropriate project. Once students
suggest many alternatives, they are persuaded to choose the most appropriate project subject to
availability of the resources in hand and derivation of maximum educational advantages out of it. The
objectives and purposes of choosing this project should then be made clear to all the students after
having useful discussions.

3. Planning of the project:-Every project, for its useful implementation, needs careful planning.
Therefore, all efforts should be made by students for chalking out a detailed strategy to carry out the
chosen project. Under the active guidance of the teacher, students should be made to hold lively
discussion, have consultation with suitable experts and utilize library and other resources for the
planning of their project. The duties and responsibilities, individually or collectively in the small groups,
should also be distributed among them at this stage and decision about the collection of finances,
etc. should also be taken to successfully carry out the project.

4. Execution of the project:-A project is a joint venture and hence its successful execution needs the
combined effort and joint responsibility on the part of all students related to it. What is planned at the
planning stage is thus made the subject of implementation at this execution stage. Every member of
the group works whole heartedly with the sole purpose of its successful execution. The difficulties, if
any, are solved by mutual cooperation under the guidance of an experienced teacher. Students may
get valuable opportunity for having theoretical understanding and practical application of many facts

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and ideas of the subjects of their curriculum.

5. Evaluation of the project:-Evaluation is a continuous process and for having evaluation of the project
work, efforts are made for review and assessment of the individual and group work of the students
from time to time. Discussions are held to have a free and frank exchange of ideas, and to carry out
self or group evaluation for improving the execution activities of the project or for seeking changes in
the planning and procedure in any aspect or dimension of the execution work. In the end, when the
project is fully executed, an overall assessment in terms of what is being done, achieved or not
achieved, and difficulties felt or lessons learned is made by holding useful discussion.

6. Recording of the project:-There should be truthful recording of the work and events related to each
step of the project. How the project was chosen, how it was planned and executed, what difficulties
were faced and what results have been achieved, should be adequately recorded for future reference
as well as improvement.

Advantages / uses / benefits / merits of projects

1. Psychologically sound:- Project method proves to be a psychologically sound method on the

following grounds:-

●The approach is child centred rather than being subjects centred.

●Students work on their self chosen project. It is related with their own problems. The goal and
purpose of working is very much clear to them and hence they are naturally motivated and
inclined to put their heart and soul.

●Reasonable freedom is provided to them for working in a social environment.

●The principles of learning like law of exercise and law of effect, factors of motivation, capturing
attention, etc. are all properly employed while working with the project method.

●The method provides enough opportunity for meeting the varying interests and abilities of the
students.

2. Practical and applied approach:-It is a practical and applied method of learning social studies. Here,
the activity of the child is given due importance by adopting the principle of ‘learning by doing’. The
project is chosen in such a way that it correlates with the real life situations in their natural settings
and is also helpful in solving the problems of the day to day life of the students. Therefore, what is
learned and gained in this method is quite practical and applicable to one’s life.

3. Provides integration of physical and mental activities:-While working on the project, students have to
work with their hands in doing manual labour and also apply their minds in planning and execution of
many tasks related to the project. Consequently, the project method provides good opportunity for the
coordination and integration of the body and mind and thus proves to be quite helpful in the balanced
development of the physical and mental abilities of the students.

4. Democratic method of teaching:-The project is chosen after due deliberations of the group and with
mutual agreement and understanding. The groups are led to work in full cooperation with one another
as the work and responsibilities are divided according to the plan chosen with freedom of thought and
action, and thus a democratic environment prevails throughout the working of this method.

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5. Development of social virtues:-By this method of teaching, the child is moulded according to social
needs. It also makes the child society conscious. The child works with full agreement of the group
and works for the group as well. The child learns his responsibility and sense of social cooperation
and thus imbibes many good virtues essential to lead a happy social life.

6. Clear and permanent knowledge:-The method of learning by this method is based on learning by
doing. The children remain very active throughout the execution of the project. As the knowledge is
gained directly through their efforts, it is retained in the memory for a long time and is also very clearly
understood from all angles.

7. Positive attitude towards manual work:-The pupil gets the habit of working with his own hands. They
learn the dignity of labour which is a very good habit and an essential trait for leading a social and
industrious life.

8. Teaching through correlation:-Project method proves to be an ideal method for providing teaching
through the principle of correlation. A project works as the centre of all the activities, both of non
academic and academic nature. As the work on the project goes on, students get opportunity to gain
theoretical as well as practical knowledge of the various curricular areas in a well integrated way. A
project itself represents some meaningful task from the real life situation. Students, therefore, get
proper opportunity to correlate the curricular experiences with their day to day life activities
surrounded with their own physical, social and cultural environments.

9. Scientific method of problem solving:-As Stevenson maintains, project method provides opportunity
to the students to find out the solution of their needs by getting them actually engaged in some
purposeful activity. Every student thus has a challenge before him to solve the problem by adopting a
suitable project. This makes them think and plan as well as proceed systematically for the execution
of their plan. Such exercise on their part ultimately helps them learn the scientific method of problem
solving and adopting scientific attitude in their way of dealing with actual life problems.

10. Reduces the load of homework and solves the problem of indiscipline:-project method helps in
getting rid of the problems like assignment of discipline in classroom. Project method provides
opportunity for students to fully absorb their physical and mental faculties with hardly any time and
energy left for making mischief. The work is too interesting and purposeful and it is carried out in a
democratic and social environment.

11. This is based upon the laws of leaning i.e.

a. Law of readiness:-The students are motivated and make their minds ready for acquiring
knowledge. They are now ready to participate in the execution of the project.

b. Law of exercise:-There is ‘learning by doing’ students practice the things which leaves
permanent impression on the mind of the students.

c. Law of effect:-There is freedom and democratic environment is there. Students get the first
hand experiences which gives him the feeling of pleasure and satisfaction.

12. Development of democratic way of life:-Children are free to think, plan, execute according to their
own needs. They learn to work in cooperation and as a team member to achieve the common goal.

13. Correlation of various subjects:-Subjects are not taught in isolation. There is no division of subjects

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into water tight compartments. It gives unity to the curriculum.

14. Training in scientific method:-It helps in developing the scientific and problem solving attitude in the
students. So cramming and rote memory is discouraged.

15. Dignity of labour:-This method emphasizes dignity and love for labour. They learn that there is
nobleness in working and doing things with their own hands.

16. Play way method:-This provides education to the students by play way method. There is no formal
class or instructions are given to students. So children learn the things in playful environment.

17. Problem of indiscipline can be solved:-As all the children are busy in various activities of their own
choice so there is no time for indiscipline or antisocial activity in the class.

18. Making pupils active:-This method is very beneficial for shy or slow learners. It helps to develop in
them the qualities of self initiative, self confidence, keenness and accuracy of observations,
development of interest towards the subject. So develop the constructive and creative thinking.

19. Economical:-It is economical because children learn the things without any strain.

Limitations/demerits /disadvantages

1. Systematic teaching is not possible:-In this method, the whole teaching is unorganized and
unsystematic. Teaching is haphazard and many important topics cannot be taught through this
method because of which many desirable knowledge is not given.

2. Much more expectations from teacher:-There is much more expectations from teacher. It demands
much more efficiency on the part of teacher. Teacher has to look at all the activities of the children.
He/she should remain active, alert and vigilant throughout the process which add too much strain on
the teachers.

3. Lack of competent teachers:-For the working of this method very competent teachers who are
active, alert, efficient and resourceful are required, which are generally not available.

4. Expensive method:-It is expensive for the students who will have to bear the expenses of excursion,
outdoor activities and purchase of material etc.

5. Upsetting of the time table:- Project upset the routine time table of the school because fixed time
table of the school ad projects cannot go together so for the organization of the project there is
upsetting of the time table of the school.

6. Non availability of text books:-Text books written for written for various projects are not available. So
the students don’t get the important information related to the activities.

7. Not suitable for smaller children:-This method is not useful for small children as they are too young
and inexperienced, for successful working of project mature students are needed.

8. Practically unsuitable:- There is so much practical difficulties in carrying out the project,
arrangement of material, suitable amount of funds, interest and through knowledge of the content by
the teacher are some of the practical problems which we normally feel during the project method.

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9. Coverage of syllabus:-This is time consuming method so it is very difficult for a teacher to over the
whole syllabus in a limited period by this method.

Inspite of all these limitations this method is quite useful and beneficial. It is used with some
modifications.

Conclusion:-In view of the merits and shortcomings listed above, one has to remain a little cautions in making
use of the project method. It is certain that it cannot be used as an exclusive method for teaching social
studies as it does not provide any systematic, formal and organized teaching. In a real sense, project method
works more as a method of utilizing or making use of learning or teaching of a particular curricular area.
Hence, project method should be used as a supplement for the application and utilization of the usual
classroom teaching of the subject social studies undertaken by any good method discussed in the present
chapter.

Ques19:- What do you mean by assignments? Explain the criteria of a good assignment? Or

Give the merits and demerits of assignments? Or

What points should be kept in mind while planning for an assignments?

Introduction :Task is an activity that needs to be accomplished within a defined period of time or by a
deadline.Various types of tasks in teaching includes projects, assignments, performances etc. A task can be
broken down into assignments which should also have a defined start and end date or a deadline for
completion. One or more assignments on a task puts the task under execution. Completion of all assignments
on a specific task normally renders the task completed.

Various kinds of tasks are 1. Projects, 2.Assignments, 3. Performances (described below)

Assignments:-

The whole of the course is divided into a number of connected parts to be covered in particular period of time.
Each part is called an assignment. The method is based upon the Dalton plan, originally devised by Miss Helen
Parkhust. This method was first started in Dalton high school, Massachusettes. It was claimed by her that
assignment method is a continuation of Dr. Montessori’s method.

Meaning:-The assignments are well planned and drawn up according to the age, interests, aptitudes and
intelligence of the students. The students work in the libraries and laboratories whenever required. The
teacher supervises from time to time and helps removing the difficulties. The students keep a record of the
work completed by him. Assignments method is important as it develops permanent understanding behavior.
Its goal is to provide contemplation to the students.

Definitions:-

According to Leonard Douglas, “Assignment can be long or short, easy or difficult, general, different etc. its
relation to the lesson or a portion there of is found throughout the year.”

Procedure or steps:-Each assignment consists of two parts:-

1. Preparation part:-The teacher assigned the topic to the students. Source of information, textbooks
and reference books are referred by the teachers. The students are required to go through the pages
of the text books and reference books and answer the questions. Questions should be unambiguous

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and should be uniformly distributed over all the portions read by the students. The students should be
asked to give a list of required apparatus. The teacher directs the students to read further more books
if the teacher thinks that the student’s answer are not up to the mark.

2. Laboratory part:- The students are provided with the detailed instruction about the laboratory work
such as fitting up of apparatus, method of recording the result, precautions to be taken, causes of
errors and also how to avoid them. Printed instruction sheet containing the assignment for a specified
period is handed over to the students about a week before their turn to the instructions. Students give
answer to the questions in a notebook after reading particular pages of the text or the referred
material. The completed note books are submitted to the teacher for examination.

The teacher also keeps a “Progress Record” with him in which he enters the progress of
every student. From just a glance at it, he can know who is good or bad and accordingly he can give
instructions and assign work. This helps the teacher to know where each student stands.

Specimen of progress chart is given below (Assignment method)

School_________ Class ___________ From _________To __________

No. Name of Class Test Assignments Term Exam. Remarks

Students Results Results

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 I II III

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11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Criteria of a good assignment

1. A good assignment is according to the age, interest, mental level and abilities of the students. An
assignment should be given from the topic covered under syllabus.

2. The no. of assignments given in a year keeping in mind the available time and total number of
working days in a year.

3. The assignment given to the students should arouse the curiosity of the students. It should be
challenging, so that mental abilities of the child should be develop. It is better if students select the
assignment according to their interest.

4. Teacher should give clear guidance and instruction to the students related to the availability of text
books and reference books in the library. For this, it is essential that libraries should be well equipped
with good text books and book bank facility is available for the students.

5. The questions given in the worksheets should be clear, concise and written in simple language.

Planning an assignment

A few points should kept in mind while planning for an assignment.

1. The number of assignment is determined by keeping in view the course to be covered and the time
available. A teacher should keep a calendar before him while chalking out a scheme of work. This will

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enable him to have an idea of the working days and holidays.

2. The choice of the text books should be very judicious as the success of the method depends to a
large extent on good and suitable text books. If the book is too difficult and beyond the
comprehension of the students they will not be able to do the preparatory part well.

3. The teacher will indicate in the assignment the portions, pages and paragraphs of a textbook that a
student’s has to read. At the same time it should draw attention to important principles, precautions,
diagrams, etc. Certain difficult words and passages of the textbook may be explained in simple words.
The teacher should also mention some library books and magazines for extra study. Only those books
should be suggested which have been read by the teachers himself and can be easily understood by
students of average caliber.

4. The questions asked should be such as:

a. Cover all portions read by the students.

b. Do not require lengthy answers.

c. Frequently require diagrams to be drawn.

d. Involve an acquaintance with the things and apparatus required for the laboratory work.

e. Are not ambiguous in nature.

5. Assignment should contain detailed instruction about the assignment. The instruction should be so
explicit that the teacher has not to repeat these in the class.

6. Necessary precautions to be observed, sources of error and how to avoid it, the method of recording
results, the number of observations to be taken etc. must be included in the assignment.

7. The apparatus required should be mentioned.

8. A reference should be made about the essential points of the diagrams in the text. If the diagram is
not up to the mark, the teacher may give his own diagrams in the assignment.

Merits/benefits/uses/advantages

1. Based on psychology:-This method is based on the psychological principles. More emphasis is on

‘learning by doing’. So doing the practical work and experiments in the laboratory by their hands, they
learn so many things.

2. Students learn at their own pace:-The students are encouraged to work at their own pace. The
brighter students and weaker students both learn the things without hindering the progress of each
other.

3. Progress chart:-It helps the teacher to show the progress of each and every student at a glance. It
gives an idea to the teacher about the performance of every student of the class.

4. Develops scientific attitude:-Assignment method develops the scientific attitude among the
students.

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5. Develops habit of reading books:-Students read numbers of good books which develops in the
student the habit of spending the time in library and reading the books.

6. Students become independent:-The students help themselves. No laboratory attendants are

generally available in school laboratories which make them independent and cooperation among the
students enhanced.

7. Evaluation of students:-Teacher can easily judge the pupil’s capabilities both in theory and practical.
So it is a good method of evaluating the students than any other system of examination.

8. Economical method:-This method is economical too as different students perform differently at a

time.

9. Healthy relation among teachers and students:-By this method a close relationship is developed
among the students and the teachers.

10. Constant guidance to students:-The teacher is the constant guide to the students. He doesn’t
interfere with the work of the students but help the students wherever necessary.

Demerits

1. Lack of appropriate text books:-Text books which are useful and give full knowledge are seldom
available.

2. Difficult to cover syllabus:-It is very difficult to cover the syllabus by this method only.

3. Expensive method:-It is experience in many terms that more time, energy and money is required for
this method.

4. Not suitable for all students:-All children are not benefitted by this method.

5. Extra work to teacher:-This method gives extra work to the teacher who is already over loaded and
has lost all enthusiasm to work more.

Conclusion:-An assignment is a course whichdivided into a number of connected parts to be covered in

particular period of time. The assignments are well planned and drawn up according to the age, interests,
aptitudes and intelligence of the students. It gives extra work to the teacher who is already over loaded and
has lost all enthusiasm to work more.

Ques20 :- What is a performance task? How will you evaluate a performance task?
Ans:-A performance task is any learning activity or assessment that asks students to perform to demonstrate
their knowledge, understanding and proficiency. Performance tasks yield a tangible product and/or
performance that serve as evidence of learning. Unlike a selected-response item (e.g., multiple-choice or
matching) that asks students to select from given alternatives, a performance task presents a situation that
calls for learners to apply their learning in context.

Performance tasks are routinely used in certain disciplines, such as visual and performing arts, physical
education, and career-technology where performance is the natural focus of instruction. However, such tasks
can (and should) be used in every subject area and at all grade levels.
Characteristics of Performance Tasks

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While any performance by a learner might be considered a performance task (e.g., drawing a picture), it is
useful to distinguish between the application of specific and discrete skills (e.g., dribbling a basketball) from
genuine performance in context (e.g., playing the game of basketball in which dribbling is one of many applied
skills). Thus, when I use the term performance tasks, I am referring to more complex and authentic
performances.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFORMANCE TASKS:-Here are seven general characteristics of performance tasks:

1. Performance tasks call for the application of knowledge and skills, not just recall or recognition:-In other
words, the learner must actually use their learning to perform. These tasks typically yield a
tangible product (e.g., graphic display, blog post) or performance (e.g., oral presentation,
debate) that serve as evidence of their understanding and proficiency.
2. Performance tasks are open-ended and typically do not yield a single, correct answer:-Unlike
selected- or brief constructed- response items that seek a “right” answer, performance tasks are
open-ended. Thus, there can be different responses to the task that still meet success criteria. These
tasks are also open in terms of process; i.e., there is typically not a single way of accomplishing the
task.
3. Performance tasks establish novel and authentic contexts for performance:-These tasks
present realistic conditions and constraints for students to navigate. For example, a mathematics
task would present students with a never-before-seen problem that cannot be solved by simply
“plugging in” numbers into a memorized algorithm. In an authentic task, students need to consider
goals, audience, obstacles, and options to achieve a successful product or performance. Authentic
tasks have a side benefit — they convey purpose and relevance to students, helping learners see a
reason for putting forth effort in preparing for them.
4. Performance tasks provide evidence of understanding via transfer:-Understanding is revealed
when students can transfer their learning to new and “messy” situations. Note that not all
performances require transfer. For example, playing a musical instrument by following the notes or
conducting a step-by-step science lab require minimal transfer. In contrast, rich performance tasks
are open-ended and call “higher-order thinking” and the thoughtful application of knowledge and skills
in context, rather than a scripted or formulaic performance.
5. Performance tasks are multi-faceted:- Unlike traditional test “items” that typically assess a
single skill or fact, performance tasks are more complex. They involve multiple steps and thus can be
used to assess several standards or outcomes.
6. Performance tasks can integrate two or more subjects as well as 21st century skills:-In the
wider world beyond the school, most issues and problems do not present themselves neatly within
subject area “silos.” While performance tasks can certainly be content-specific (e.g., mathematics,
science, social studies), they also provide a vehicle for integrating two or more subjects and/or
weaving in 21st century skills and Habits of Mind. One natural way of integrating subjects is to
include a reading, research, and/or communication component (e.g., writing, graphics, oral or
technology presentation) to tasks in content areas like social studies, science, health, business,
health/physical education. Such tasks encourage students to see meaningful learning as integrated,
rather than something that occurs in isolated subjects and segments.
7. Performances on open-ended tasks are evaluated with established criteria and rubric:-Since
these tasks do not yield a single answer, student products and performances should be judged
against appropriate criteria aligned to the goals being assessed. Clearly defined and aligned criteria
enable defensible, judgment-based evaluation. More detailed scoring rubrics, based on criteria, are
used to profile varying levels of understanding and proficiency.

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CONCLUSION: In sum, performance tasks can be used to engage students in meaningful learning. Since rich
performance tasks establish authentic contexts that reflect genuine applications of knowledge, students are
often motivated and engaged by such “real world” challenges. When used as assessments, performance
tasks enable teachers to gauge student understanding and proficiency with complex processes (e.g.,
research, problem solving, and writing), not just measure discrete knowledge. They are well suited to
integrating subject areas and linking content knowledge with the 21st Century Skills such as critical thinking,
creativity, collaboration, communication, and technology use. Moreover, performance-based assessment can
also elicit Habits of Mind, such as precision and perseverance.
Unit III

Ques21:- What do you mean by CCE? What are the problems faced by teaches in implementing CCE? Or

Explain the significance of comprehensive and continuous evaluation in improving learning?

Ans:- INTRODUCTION:-Our traditional, system of student examination and testing has many defects. It has
done more harm than good to our students. It has given rise to a number of maldominant and a burden on the
minds of the students.There is a need to make evaluation an integral part of the total teaching-learning
process and to make testing comprehensive and continuous by taking into consideration all the three domains
– cognitive, affective and psychomotor for the all-round development of the students in both scholastic and
non-scholastic areas. From this need, the concept of continuous and comprehensive evaluation is evolved.

Concept of continuous and comprehensive evaluation

The concept of the continuous and comprehensive evaluation was initiated based on the recommendations to
reform evaluation practices in school education by national curriculum for elementary and secondary
education – A framework (1988) afterwards it was adopted by the CBSE and authorities concerning school
education in media:-

The main concepts of continuous and comprehensive evaluation are as under:-

1. Objective based evaluation:- The main objective of education is the all round development of the
personality of child. So, the student evaluation should not be limited to the academic areas only.
Evaluation must be objectives based. It means that objectives of education must encompass the total
personality of the learner, i.e. both achievement in academic areas, and growth in personal and social
qualities, interests, attitudes and skills must be the objectives of education.

2. Comprehension evaluation:- In our traditional student evaluation procedure, the attention is mostly
focused on scholastic areas and the non-scholastic areas are neglected. As a result, the objective of
the all round development of the personality of the learner remains unfulfilled. It is possible by
introducing the concept of comprehensive evaluation which covers different aspects of a learner’s

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growth. These aspects include:-

a. Personal and social qualities – responsibility, co-operation, punctuality etc.

b. Interests – literacy, artistic, musical etc.

c. Health status – height, weight, cleanliness etc.

d. Desirable attitudes – democracy, national integration, secularism etc.

e. Proficiency in co-curricular activities both indoor and outdoor.

3. Continuous evaluation:- Continuous evaluation is a process of continuous attempts to assess

desirable change taking place in the student along the lines of educational objectives. In other word,
continuous evaluation, refers to procedures for collecting information about a learning system while it
is in progress.

Continuous evaluation makes it possible to obtain data regularly about the strengths and
weakness of the students. It provides feedback to students about their learning progress and to
identify and correct instructional problems as they arise.

Meaning and definition

CCE refers continuous and comprehensive evaluation, a system of school based assessment that covers all
the aspects of a student’s development. It was designed to reduce the student stress related to board exams
and to introduced a uniform and comprehensive pattern based learning.

Clearly, it attempts to shift emphasis from ‘testing’ to ‘holistic’ learning with an aim of creating young adults,
possessing appropriated skills and desirable qualities, in addition to academic excellence.

Main features

1. CCE emphasizes two fold objective – continuity in evaluation and assessment of broad based
learning.

2. Identifying learning progress of students at regular time intervals on small portions of content.

3. Employing a variety of remedial measures of teaching, based on learning needs and potential of
different students.

4. Desisting from using negative comments on the learner’s performance.

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5. Encouraging learning through employment of a variety of teaching aids and techniques.

Need of CCE

CCE was needed for the following reasons:-

1. To remove the defects of traditional system of evaluation:- CCE was needed to remove the defects
present in traditional system of evaluation in India. The old system of evaluation was confined mostly
to the scholastic area only. All the efforts were directed to this direction. In order to judge the whole
personality of the child, a new method of evaluation was required. CCE is an attempt for this purpose.

2. To make evaluation and integral part of the total teaching learning process:- There was a need to
make evaluation an integral part of the total teaching learning process and to make testing
comprehensive and continuous by taking into consideration all the three domains of learning. Hence
CCE was a necessity.

3. To meet the demands of various suggestions:- In order remove defects in traditional evaluation
systems, may commission and committees in India had given their recommendations to replace it
with any new and competent evaluation system. For example:-

a. The Kothari commission report 1966:- It had stated the, “the internal assessment or evaluation
conducted by schools is of greater significance and should be given increasing importance. It
should be comprehensive, evaluating all those aspects of students’ growth that are measured by
the external examination and also those personality traits, interests and attitudes which cannot
be assessed by it.”

b. National policy of education – 1986:- It had also stated that, “continuous and comprehensive
evaluation should incorporate both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of evaluation spread
over the total span of instructional time.”

c. The national curriculum framework – 2005 (NCF-2005):- It also proposed examination reforms.
In recommended that – ‘school base CCE system should be established, which can reduce
stress on children, make evaluation comprehensive and regular and produce learners with greater
skills and creative works.

Importance of CCE

The information of CCE system can be seen by following points.

1. A reform:- CCE is a reform in Indian System of Education which really hopes to bring a drastic

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changes in the all round development of a child. It reduces the burden of students to some extent and
provides a homely atmosphere for learning.

2. Reduces stress of students:- CCE helps in reducing stress of students by:

a. Identifying learning progress of students at regular time intervals on small portion of context

b. Employing a variety of remedial measures of teaching based on learning needs and potential of
different students.

c. Desisting from using negative comments on learner’s performance.

d. Recognizing and encouraging specific abilities of students who do not excel in academics but
perform well in other co-curricular areas.

e. Encouraging learning through employment of a variety of teaching aids and techniques.

f.Involving learners activity in the learning process.

3. Improves student’s performance:- CCE helps in improving students’ performance by identifying his
learning difficulties at regular time intervals, right from the beginning of the academic session and
employing suitable remedial measures for enhancing their learning performance.

4. All round development:- In CCE, due importance is given to both scholastic and non-scholastic
aspects of education. With CCE aiming at all round development of the child’s personality, it is
expected that a student will be able to take up competitive examinations in right earnest. Due to
acquisition of additional life skills along with academic attainment, students are expected to meet
different life situations with greater maturity.

5. Choice of subjects:- Scheme of CCE is expected to help the child make informed choice of subjects
in class XI based on his aptitude, interests, liking and academic performance. Hence CCE helps in
selections of better career, courses and subjects.

6. Effective teaching strategies:- It helps in employing better and effective teaching strategies for
teaching.

7. Identification:- CCE helps in the identification of weaknesses, strengths, needs, aptitudes, attitudes
and values of the students.

Advantages/purposes/functions of continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE)

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1. It helps in regular assessment to the extent and degree of student’s progress (ability and
achievement with reference to specific scholastic and non-scholastic areas)

2. It helps the teacher to organize effective teaching strategies.

3. It serves to diagnose weaknesses and permits the teacher to ascertain an individual pupil’s
strengths and weaknesses and his needs.

4. It provides immediate feedback to the teacher, who can then decide whether a particular unit or
concept needs re-teaching into the whole class or whether a few individuals are in need of remedial
instruction.

5. By CCE children can know their strengths and weaknesses. It provides the child a realistic self
picture of how he studies.

6. It motivates children to develop good study habits to correct errors and to direct their activities
towards the achievement of desired goals.

7. It helps an individual to determine the area of instruction, in which more emphasis is required.

8. CCE ascertains area of aptitude and interest. It helps in identifying changes in attitude, character
and value pattern.

9. It helps in making decisions for the future, regarding choice of subject courses and careers.

10. It provide information/report on the progress of students in scholastic and non-scholastic areas, and
thus helps in predicting the future success of the learners.

Hence, the continuous and comprehension evaluation helps in bringing awareness of the achievement to
child, teachers and parents from time to time. They can look into the probable cause of the fall in
achievement, if any, and may take remedial measures in time, to help the child overcome it at their own
level.

Criticism of CCE

Generally, following type of criticism is put against CCE:

1. CCE system is criticized for focusing more on projects and activities than actual learning.

2. Student’s load work has not actually gone down, because even though examination have been
reduced, stressed students wrestle with projects and oral tests all the year long.

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3. Students are required to participate in activities even if the syllabus is not covered.

4. Teachers and students who were accustomed to the older system of evaluation, faced difficulties
copying with the changes.

5. CCE is aimed at grooming students academically as well as shaping their attitudes, beliefs and
values. The potential for prejudice against minority groups or sectarian religious group is a great risk
in a system based on teacher – only assessment. Standardized test allow students whose grades
may be negatively influenced by teacher prejudice, to prove their capability outside the classroom.

6. Kindergarten through high school portfolio assessment may set students up for continued poor
performance. It becomes a permanent history for a child. Traditionally, students have started each
new school year without any predetermined expectations by teachers. This can be liberating for
students who wish to leave their poor performance behind and apply themselves a new. But in this
system, a teacher’s ability to read a student’s entire history may unintentionally establish expectations
of poor performance that prevents teachers from applying different methods of teaching subjects to
struggling students.

7. Despite the system aimed to lessen stress, the grading system may, infact cause more stress for
students. For example a student may feel more pressure to get a higher grade because the grade
margin is substantially larger than you would expect.

Hence, teachers are facing more problems in CCE system but they should get over all the above problems and
get a systematic solution to it. If they do not get solution, it is ultimately teachers who will suffer because it is
not a system followed by school or college, this system is run by whole education system, all over the world
and not only in India.

Problems faced by teachers in CCE

1. Large no. of students in class:-Most of the teachers find it difficult to execute CCE in large classes
as they are not able to give individual attention to students in such classes.

2. Lack of proper training:-Another constrain for the smooth execution of CCE is lack of appropriate
training among the school teachers.

3. Lack of seriousness amongst students:-There is lack of seriousness amongst the students

regarding CCE as they are aware of the fact that they will pass without making enough efforts in
academics.

4. Time consuming:-CCE is very time consuming task.

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5. Cost factor:-Many financial constraints are associated with it that does not suit the pocket of every
student.

6. Lack of adequate infrastructural facilities and teaching materials:-There is lack of adequate

infrastructural facilities and teaching materials that make execution of CCE a difficult task in the
classrooms.

7. Increased volume of work:-Teachers are overburdened with the increased volume of work that
affected their teaching effectiveness in the classroom.

8. More stress and disincentive to performance:-The grading system may actually lead to more stress
and disincentive to performance.

o
9. Open ended situation for admission process:-In addition to CBSE, 2 school certificates by state
o
boards and those governing the Indian certificate of 2 education are also conducting exams for
standard X and continue to follow the marks system and % of marks in each subject. Marks % and
percentile are not comparable. This leads to an open ended situation particularly for the standard XI
admission process and those seeking admission from CBSE to other boards. This issue is skill to be
resolved and a decision needs to be made regarding how it will be tackled.

Suggestions

1. Limited no. of students in class:-The no. of students in classes should be limited to 30-40.

2. Adequate training:-Proper training should be provided to teachers through in service programme.

3. Guidance and counseling:-Along with training proper guidance and counseling should be provided by
organizing seminars, conferences meetings, workshops in the concerned area.

4. Proper infrastructure:-Proper infrastructure facilities and teaching materials should be provided to

facilitate T.L.P.

5. Detachment of extra duties:-Teachers should be free of duties other than teaching as it puts
unnecessary burden on already busy teacher.

Conclusion:- Hence, CCE is needed to use evaluation as a quality control device to raise the standards of
performance. It determines social utility desirability or effectiveness of a programme and take appropriate
decisions about the learner, the process of learning and the learning environment.

Ques22:- What is process oriented assessment? Name some tools for this type of assessment?

Or

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Explain the meaning of process oriented tools?describe one tool used to measure this type of assessment?

Ans:- Meaning and construction of process-oriented tools.

It is important to assess student’s learning not only through their outputs or products, but also the processes
which the student’s underwent in order to arrive at these outputs or products.

Process-oriented assessment is a means of educational performance based assessment whereby students

are assessed on their power of reasoning and self-motivation. Process-oriented assessment, which might
involve self-assessment checklists or journals, gives students opportunity to evaluate their own learning and
set targets for improvement. Some toolls for process oriented assessment are:-

1. Observation schedule,

2. Check list

3. Rating scale,

4. Anecdotal record.

Q:- What is an observation schedule? Prepare an observation schedule on any topic taken for observation by
you? Also mention its advantages and disadvantages?

Observation schedule is the most common instrument of data collection. It contains a set of questions and
tables , logically related to a problem under study. Its main aim is to elicit responses form the respondents.
The content, response structure, the wording of questions, question sequence etc,, are the same for all
respondents.

Observation schedule differs from ‘questionnaire’ in the methods for which they are used for. While a
schedule is used as a tool for interviewing, the questionnaire is used for mailing.

MEANING:- Observation schedule is a method in which data in the field is collected with the help of
observation by observer.

Preparation (Construction) of Schedule

The process of construction: the process is not a matter of simply listing questions that come to researchers
mind. It is a rational process, involving much time, effort and thought. The process consists of the following
major steps:

1. Data Need Determination: As it is an instrument of gathering data for a specific study, its
construction should flow from the data required for the given study.

2. Preparation of ‘Dummy Tables’: the best way to ensure the requirement of information is to develop

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‘dummy’ tables, in which to display the data to be gathered.

3. Respondent’ level: There is a need of determining the level of the respondents. Following question
should be asked: who are our respondents? Are they persons with specialized knowledge relating to
the problem under study? Or are they lay people?

What is their level of knowledge relating to the problem under study? What is their level of knowledge
relating to the problem under study?

The choice of words and concepts depends upon the level of the respondent’s knowledge.

4. Decision about Method of Data Gathering: it is necessary to take decision about the method of data
gathering. Which communication mode is most appropriate-face-to-face interview or any other? The
choice of question structure depends largely upon the communication mode chosen.

5. Instrument Drafting: After determining the data required for study, first a broad outline of the
instrument may be drafted, listing the various broad categories of data. Second, the sequence of
these groups must be decide. Third, the questions to asked under each group heading must be
listed. All unceivable item relevant to the ‘data need’ should be compiled.

6. Evaluation of the Draft Instrument: Draft of the schedule prepared must be evaluated. In
consultation with other qualified persons, the researcher must rigorously examine each question in
the draft instrument.

7. Pre-testing:- The revised draft must be pre-tested, in order to identify the weaknesses of the
instrument and to make the required further revisions to rectified them.

8. Specifications:- After pre-tests, the procedures or instructions relating to its use must be specified.

9. Designing the format:- The format of the instrument should be suited to the needs of the research.
The instrument should be divided into different sections relating to the different aspects of the
problem.

Advantages of Observation Schedule

1. To study behavior and interaction:- Observation schedule is used in research, employing

observational methods to study behavior and interaction, in a structural and systematic fashion.

2. To minimize variations:- The whole purpose of the observation schedule is to minimize, possible
eliminate the variations that will arise from data based on individual perceptions of events and

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situations.

3. Direct Data Collection: it directly records what people do, as distinct from what they say, they do.

4. Systematic and Rigorous: The use of an observation schedule provides an answer to the problems
associated with the selection perception of observers and it appear to provide objective observations.
The schedule effectively eliminate any bias from the current emotions or personal background of the
observer.

5. Efficient : It provides a means for collecting substantial amount of data in a relatively short time.

6. Pre-coded data: It produces quantitative data which are pre-coded and ready for analysis.

7. Reliability: When properly prepared and established, it achieve high level of inter-observer reliability,
in the sense that two or more observers using in schedule will record very similar data.

8. Provides a Framework: Observations schedule’s aim is to provide a framework for observation which
all observers will use, and which will enable them to

(i) Alert to the same activities and be looking out for the same things.

(ii) Record data systematically and thoroughly.

(iii) Produce data which are consistent between observers, with two or more researchers, who
witness the same event recording the same data.

Disadvantages:

1. Observation schedule mainly focus on overt behavior, decodes what happen, but not why it happens.

2. Observer’s originality and initiative are lost to a great extent.

3. Variety in data collection is limited in scope.

4. It assumes that overt behavior can be measured, in terms of categories that are fairly straight
forward and unproblematic. This oversamples the process.

5. Observation schedules, by themselves tend to miss contextual information which has a bearing on
the behavior recorded. It means that it is not a holistic approach.

Conclusion:-In simple words observation schedule is a form on which observation or a phenomenon is

recorded.the items to be observed are determined with reference to nature and objectives of the
study. They are grouped into appropriate categories and lists in the schedule in order in which the
observer in which the observer would observe them.

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Ques 23:- What is a Check list/ Give an example with advantages and disadvantages of using this tool for
assessment?

Meaning:- The check list is an important tool in gathering facts for educational surveys such as – checking of
library, laboratory, games and other facilities, school buildings, text books, instructional materials etc. In check
list each item should serve a specific purpose.A check list is a simple device consisting of a prepared list of
items which are thought are prepared by the teachers, examiners, observers or researchers relevant to the
problem or behavior to be studied. Check list is used to record the presence or absence or frequently of
occurrence of the phenomenon.

Definition of checklist:-

In the words of Wrightstone, justman and robbins ,”Check list may be defined as a prepared list of items that
may relate to a person, procedure, institution, building or similar objects”.

These are sometimes used in the form of a questionnaire which are completed by the subjects rather than by
the observer himself in the form of responses. In the check list after each item some space is provided for the
subjects to indicate the presence or absence of the incident or item by checking ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or by putting
some other check mark. A check list draws the attention of the observer to relevant factors and enables him
to record the data quickly and systematically. Thus, the responses to the check list items are a matter of ‘fact’
not of ‘judgment’.

Construction

To construct any check list first of all the researcher should examine carefully the check lists which have
already been prepared and used by other researchers in various fields of educational research. He should then
concentrate upon the items on which he requires information for his investigation. The items thus finalized
may be arranged in a logical and psychological order. There are various ways of writing and arranging the items
in a check list.

In this regard kempfer (1960) has suggested four ways to write and arrange the items in a check list. Out
of these the researcher may make use of all or some of these to serve his purpose best.

Way I: This is the form in which the observer or respondent is asked to check all items put in a particular
situation.

Way II: In this form statements or questions with options ‘yes’ or ‘no’ are given and the subject is asked
either to encircle or to underline out of these two options given in reference to a particular item.

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Way III: In this form items are given in the form of positive statements and the subject is asked to put a
tick mark (√) against this item in the space provided on right side.

Way IV: In this form items are put in sentence form followed by four five words and the subject is
required to encircle or to underline the most appropriate word out of the given alternatives that suits best to the
item.

Example:- In checklists, for a particular itewm two option are given. These options may be “Yes’ or “No”,
‘Agree’ and ‘Disagree’ etc. The participant has to tick on any one of these options. Some examples of items of
checklist are as follows:-

1. I like to study in library Yes/No

2. Women have lower intelligence than men Yes/No

3. Participation in sports/games Yes/No

4. Co-operation with others Yes/No

Advantages of Check List

The main merits of check-lists are:

1. Easy to use/Administrator: Check lists are very easy to use and administer. No training is required
for using and administering check lists.

2. Time- Saving: Another important advantage of check-list is that it is time-saving process. It save a
lot of time.

3. Helpful in Knowing interests, Attitudes of the student: Check-lists are very useful in knowing the
interests and attitudes of the students.

4. Objective Method: Check-list is an objective method. There is no scope of any partiality in these
tests.

5. Knowledge about strengths and weaknesses: Check-lists are also very helpful in assessing the
strengths and weaknesses of the students.

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Disadvantages of Check-lists

1. Wrong Information: Sometimes, for getting good marks or for save of good impression, the
students give wrong information.

2. All Elements of Personality cannot be included: Another disadvantage of check lists is that
these cannot be used to assess all the elements of personality of the students.

3. No Test of Writing-Style/Handwriting: Check lists cannot be used for evaluating the handwriting
or writing style of the students.

4. Difficulty in Explanation: Another important demerit of the check list is that it is quite difficult to
explain its contents and responses.

5. Lack of Expert Teachers: There is lack of expert teachers who can construct and use check
lists.

6. Difficult to Construct: Check list are very difficult to construct. It requires a lot of time and
energy on the part of the teacher.

The major difference between check list and rating scale is that the check list requires the checking of
specific items rather than the judgment of the degree to which a characteristic or the behavior item is present.
Also, the items of the checklist should be phrased in such a way that they discriminative in quality. It will
increase validity of the check list. A preliminary try out of the check list may also prove helpful in making the
tool more objective.

Conclusion:-The check list is an important tool in gathering facts for educational surveys such as – checking
of library, laboratory, games and other facilities, school buildings, text books, instructional materials etc. In
check list each item should serve a specific purpose.

Ques 24:-What do you mean by Rating scale? Explain its types and also give its advantages and
disadvantages?

Or

Define rating scale? How these are used for assessing of the learners ?

Ans.. Introduction: - Rating scale is one of the tool of action research design. It is a technique to assess both
actual and remembered behavior. It is a sort of measure which is helpful in qualified judgement or
opinion of one person by another. This technique is used by parents, teachers, counselors, a board of
interviewers and judges.

Definitions of rating scale:-

According to John Best, “Rating scale is a scale that involves qualitative description of limited aspects of trait

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(feature) or a person.”

According to Carter.V.Good, “Rating scale is a scale with values for certain aspects of characteristics
illustrated by series of numbers, qualitative terms attributes and verbal description.

According to Ruth Strang, “Rating is an essence directed observation.”

So, from above definitions it becomes clear that rating is a technique in which we systematize the opinion
concerning a particular trait.

Characteristics:-

1. Describes numerical and qualitative aspects.

2. Qualitative description is made as continuum.

3. R.S. have two sides which are contradictory to each other.

4. R.S. are something concurrent.

5. Involves qualitative description of limited aspects of trait of a person.

Types of rating scale:- Rating scale are of various types. Some of them are as under:-

1. Numerical scale:- In this type of rating scale, numbers are assigned to each trait. It is a specific
category scale. These days such scale are used widely.

For eg.- if it is a seven point scale the number seven represents the maximum amount of the trait in
individual and number four represents the average amount.

Max. Avg. Min.

7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Numerical rating scale

2. Descriptive rating scale: - In it the rater puts a check or tick in the blank before the characteristics or
trait which is described in word or phrase. Following is an example of description rating:-

i. Does this student have initiative? ( )

ii.Does he show marked originality? ( )

3. Percentage rating scale: - In this scale the rater is asked to give percentage of the group that
possesses the trait on which the individual is rated. For eg. The rater may check one of the following
for rating the self confidence of an individual.

4. Rank order rating scale:- In rank order scale, the rater is required to place the rate being rated in rank
of order from high to low on the opinion in question. To make this method most effective, it is best to

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put each name on the separate card and let the rater sort them out. For eg. If we have to determine the
rank of honesty of a particular individual, our scale will be as under.

Honesty

Fully honest Normal Treacherous

More honest Less honest

than normal than normal

5. Graphic rating scale: - It is similar to the descriptive rating scale while the difference lies only in way
it is written. In such type of scale the rater places a tick on a continuous line before the characteristic
or trait that is described in word or phrase. It is also called ‘Behavioural statement scale’. It is of two
types:-

(i) Sense of social responsibility

Very high High Average Low Very low

(ii) Social attitude

Anti social Self Has no +ve Usually Strongly

centered attitude Considerate Altruistic

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to others

6. Standard rating scale:- This type of scale is of two types:-

i. Man to man rating scale:- In this scale an individual is asked to rate the rater by compairing him
to the person mentioned on the scale and assuming the rater his position. For eg. A,B,C,D,E
are the persons who have been already rated as very persistent. Every one not easily stops,
work quite steadily, somewhat changeable and gives up easily.

A B C D E

The use of this type of rating scale is very limited because of subjectivity element.

ii.Portrait matching rating scale:- This type of rating scale was developed by Hartshorne and may
(1929) for the study of character. Each statement was written on separate card.

This type of rating scale is in picture form. While using the portraits rater read a portrait and tell the name of all
the individual who match with the portrait. One person may be nominated for more than one portrait.

Advantages of Rating Scales:

1. Time-Saving Method: Rating scale method is time saving. For evaluation, the teacher has just to tick
on response.

2. Easy to use: Rating scales are very easy to use. No training is required for using them.

3. Helpful in preparing written report of the student: The rating scales are quite helpful in preparing
written report of the students.

4. Feedback for the teachers:- Rating scales can also be used effectively for providing feedback to the
teachers.

5. Motivational value:- Rating scales have motivational value also. The students as well as teachers
can be inspired through them.

6. Common frame of reference:- Through rating scales, the teacher has to evaluate all the students
with respect to a common frame of reference. This eliminates the chance of baseness on the part of
teacher.

7. Evaluation of broader range of elements of personality of the students:- Through the use of rating

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scales, a broader range of elements of the personality of the students can be evaluated.

8. Helpful in finding the needs and requirements:- Rating scales are also very useful in finding out the
needs and requirements of the students, teachers and school system.

9.Helpful in improvement:- Rating scale can be very helpful for bringing about improvements in the
education system

Disadvantages / errors in rating scale:-

1. Scale lack reliability.

2. It is very difficult to assess some aspects such as inferiority complex, self dependence etc.

3. Halo error is also possible eg. Rating on the basis of previous experience.

4. They are subjective in nature.

5. There is limited social contract between the rater and the rate.

6. There is human unwillingness to take proper pains in constructing the rating scale.

7. Error of central tendency.

8. If the traits are wrongly interpreted, there is possibility of logical error all the time.

Suggestions for improving errors of rating scale:-

1. Knowledge of “Halo Effect” makes the rater alert and conscious.

2. Several raters should be employed to increase the reliability of any rating scale.

3. Selection of raters should be done carefully eg. They should be experienced, trained and intelligent.

4. Use of scale should be preceded by a period of training and practice in its use.

5. Rater should observe the trait in different situations.

6. Direction of using the rating scale should be clear and comprehensive.

7. In rating scale cards, some space should be provides for the rater to write some supplementary
notes.

8. Judgment should be made independent without consulting others.

Ques 25:- What is an anecdotal record? Give its advantages and disadvantages?

An anecdotal record is a kind of diary of incidents noted down soon after they occur to define it technically: In
anecdotal records, the description of any specific incident of the individual is given. The
observation is made incidentally with any systematic preparation by the evaluator. As no formal
arrangements are made for such an evaluation, this evaluation technique is also call informal
observation technique. The information collected during a specific condition or incident about a
person, reveals the true nature of that person. There is no need of any previous planning in this
type of evaluation.

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According to Traxler, “ This record, as the name implies involves setting down an anecdote
concerning some aspect of pupil’s behavior which seems significant of the observers. Definitions:-

● According to Rathslovis, “ An anecdotal record is a report of significant episode in the life of a

student.”

Features / Characteristics of Anecdotal Record:

The main features of anecdotal record are as follows:

1. It is an informal report.

2. It is a short and brief report.

3. Only factual information is recorded in it.

4. It is description of behavior.

5. It includes those aspects of student behavior which are important in the observer’s/ teacher’s view.

6. Only one incident is recorded at one time.

7. It is a continuous and cumulative record.

8. It is a verbal description of the behavior of the student in a particular situation.

9. It is recorded in specific conditions/environment.

10. Only spontaneous incidents are recorded in these records.

Steps in anecdotal record:-

1. First step:- Seeking the co-operation from the pupils.

2. Second step:- Write the description.

3. Third step:- A performa which has four columns:- date, place, incident or episode and comments.

4. Fourth step:- If anecdotal record discontinues, teacher may use certain symbols so that he may
recall that incident after looking at those symbols.

5. Fifth step:- A well suited place is searched out for recording the anecdotal record of the pupil.

6. Sixth step:- Summarization of anecdotal records. This summarization should be done once a month.

Qualities of a good anecdotal record:-

a) A good anecdotal record should be objective

b) It should present a complete view of the persons or incident.

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c) An anecdotal record should present the information regarding the background of a person or a pupil.

d) The events included in a anecdotal record be in a proper sequence.

e) A good anecdotal record should include the events only.

Precautions:-

a) The incident should be recorded immediately minimum time be allowed to pass, otherwise, with
passage of the time, memory will fade away and shall fill the details with conjuctures.

b) The interpretation should be kept apart from the actual report.

c) Only desirable description should be recorded.

Advantages of Anecdotal Record:

1. Reliable: One of the main advantages of anecdotal records is that these are very reliable source
of information and evaluation.

2. Brief: These are brief and therefore easy to handle and conduct.

3. Record of Real Personality of the Students: In anecdotal records the real incidents form
students life are collected. Therefore, it is a record of real personality of the students.

4. Knowledge about School-Problems: Through anecdotal records the teacher can know and
assess the problems of the school,

5. Knowledge about the problems of the students: Anecdotal records are also very helpful in
finding out the problems of the students.

6. Confidential Record: Anecdotal record is a confidential record. It is not accessible to everyone.

7. Helpful in Solving Student’s Problems: Anecdotal records can be used feectively for solving the
problems of the students.

Disadvantages/Demerits of Anecdotal Records:

1. Subjective Method: Anecdotal records are a subjective method of evaluation. It is not objective in
nature.

2. Time Consuming: Another important limitation of anecdotal records is that it requires a lot of time to
prepare them.

3. Disinterest on the part of teachers: due to their lengthy and time consuming procedure, these tests

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are quite unpopular among the teachers.

4. Lack of Expert Teachers: Anecdotal records requires expertise on the part of teacher. But there is
lack of such competent teachers.

5. Difficulty in Explanation: Yet another limitation of anecdotal records is that these records,
sometimes, cannot explain the behavior of students.

Conclusion:- In anecdotal records, the description of any specific incident of the individual is given. The
information collected during a specific condition or incident about a person, reveals the true nature
of that person. There is no need of any previous planning in this type of evaluation. There is no
need of any previous planning in this type of evaluation.

Ques 26:- What is group dynamics? Discuss in detail its nature & process alongwith educational implications/
importance.

Ans: Introduction: One of the developments in the modern psychology is the study of the psychology of the
group or group behavior. The group helps the persons in the satisfaction of their fundamental needs and in
achieving the sense of accomplishment. The group may transform the original nature of person to human
nature. Expression of instincts and emotions, formation of sentiments, habits, attitudes, values, ambitions,
character and the development of personality of the individual is influenced by the interaction with other
individuals and with groups. In order to make the learning process more effective and to develop good
personalities, the teacher should know the psychology of the group. Group have an attribute that “change can
affect its structure, objectives and activities if need be”. If a change takes place in favour of one aspect, it
also affects other aspects. The changes occurring in a group are called by the name of “Dynamics.”

Concept of Group Dynamics:

The study of group processes is called group dynamics in social psychology. It is relatively a new
concept in a socio-psychological field. It is defined as the study of group organization & group behavior
concerned with the flow of human energy through the interaction of group members.

Group Dynamics began, as an identifiable field of inquiry, in the United States toward the end of the
1930s. It was Kurt Lewin, an American Psychologist, who worked scientifically and further popularized the
term “Group Dynamics” around 1930. He also established the Centre for Research on Group Dynamics in 1945
with a view to understand dynamics of group and made investigations in the field of group goals, group
decisions, group cohesiveness, group productivity, group interaction, group standards or norms, group
aspirations, group functions, etc.

Etymological Meaning:

Having being derived from Greek Language, the term “Group Dynamics” consists of two words and:

Group + Dynamics
means means

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Collection of people Force

Thus “Group Dynamics” refers to the forces operating in a group.

Meaning of Group Dynamics:

“Group Dynamics” implies an interactive psychological relationship in which group members develop
a common perception based on shared feelings and emotions. In simple words, Group dynamics is the study
of forces exerted by the group on the individual or by the individual on the group. It is also concerned with the
study of techniques and procedures for affecting the structure of behavior of a social group. Thus, in group
dynamics, changes are brought in the behavior pattern of its members.

Definitions of Group Dynamics

1. According to K. Crutchfield &Balachy- “Group dynamics implies changes that take place within groups.”

2. According to S. L. Yelon& G. W. Weinstein- “A group consists of people who are working together &
interacting with each other in pursuit of some common goal.”

3. According to Good’s Dictionary- Group Dynamics implies “an interactive psychological relationship in
which members of a group develop a common perception based on shared feelings and emotions. Such
inter-stimulative relationships may be described by the term group dynamics.”

4. According to Otto Klineberg-“It is not easy to define or delimit the important area of group dynamics. From
one point of view it represents a field of inquiry, a series of inter-related problems; from another it
includes a set of techniques; from a third, a theory of the nature of groups and of interaction within
groups.”

Nature of Group Dynamics:- Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioural pattern of a group .
it concerns how groups are formed, what is their structure and which processes are followed in their
functioning. In a organizational setting, the term group are very common and the study of groups and
group dynamics is an important area of study.

There are various approaches for the nature of group dynamics

1. Field Theory:- This approach was developed by Kurt Lewin. He used the term ‘field’ to describe all
the forces that determine behavior of people, to what he called their ;life space’. He made the
point that motivational forces in the field are the key issue in that behavior, is a function of the
field or life space.

2. Interaction Theory:- This approach sees aa a sysem of interacting individuals. The greatest

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influence in this area has been Bales,who developed a methodology for analyzing individual verbal
contributions to group. These contributions are then categorized and related to behavior and
personality. Bales contends that face to face interactions takes place in all groups and that
these interactions are similar in any group situation and may be relevant in answering problems
relating in values and ethics.

3. Systems Theory:- Acc. To Rice there ae two types of systems- Living systems and physical
systems. Living systems are able to maintain their existence by exchanging material with their
environment. It has to inport, convert and export material in ordert live. By contrast closed
physical systems are self sufficient and have no need of importing or exporting. In terms of
group dynamics Rice said that individual may be seen as an open living sysyem as he can only
exist through processes of exchange with his environment. Many people use system system
theory to describe organizations, groups and individuals.

4. Sociometric Orientation :- This approach is primarily concerned with the inter-personal choices that
binf groups of people together. It originated with Moreno.

5. Psycho-analytic Theory:- This theory was first applied to groups by S. Freud and then advanced by
others. The main concepts dealt with include identification, anxiety,defense mechanisms and
the unconsciousness. This work mianly involves theries, concepts rather than experimentation
and the ideas have permeated much of the work done around group dynamics.

6. Cognitive theory:- Cognitive theory is a human behavior theory applied to groups. It is said to be less
a theory more a point of view that concenterates on the way in which information is received and
integrated by individuals and how this influences behavior.

7. The Empiricist: Statistical Orientation: This approach attempts to discover group concepts from
various statistical procedures. The orientation is successfully demonstrated in the work of
Belbin, who has used it to construct effective management teams.

Process of Group Dynamics:

Group development is a dynamic process. Most groups are in a continual state of change. There is strong
evidence that groups pass through a standard sequences of four stages which are as follows:

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1. Forming: This is when a group comes together for the first time. The teacher can help by facilitating
introductions, using ice-breaking tasks, and explaining the tasks and purpose of the group.

2. Storming:This stage is when the group is actively trying to carry out a task and there may be conflict
between one or more group members as the group sorts itself out and becomes more functional. The
teacher can help by clarifying and reflecting ideas, smoothing over and moderating conflicts and
acting as a go-between between members.

3. Norming:The group begins to share ideas, thoughts and beliefs, and to develop shared norms (group
rules). The teacher can help by clarifying ideas and ground rules, encouraging more reticent people to
participate and moving the group towards its purpose.

4. Performing: This is when the group focuses on the activity and starts to work together as a team to
perform the set tasks. The teacher’s role is to keep the group focused and to encourage and facilitate
as necessary.

Factors in Group Dynamics:

Group Goals

Individual Goals Competitive Spirit

Group Belongingness
Communication within the Factors in Group
group and also outside the Dynamics
group

Democratic climate in the

group
Size of the Group

Group Cohesiveness Satisfaction of Needs Degree of Participation and

loyalty

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IMPORTANCE IN LEARNING OR EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF GROUP DYNAMICS:

Group Dynamics, an educational method, aims to promote democratic activities. Every member of the group
takes active part in the activities of the group. It is for this reason that total work done by a group is more than
the sum of work done by them individually. With its nature, functioning and utilization the mechanism of group
dynamics can prove a valuable asset and boon in the field of learning and education:

1. Promotes ‘give and take’ among members: When we think alone we tend to accept our own thoughts. On
the other hand when we express our own thoughts before a group, we have to give reasons for the way we
think. With the help of this type of experience we come to know those thoughts and feelings of a member
about which we did not know earlier. We learn to think by paying more attention to facts and aims. It may
not appear to be good in the beginning but such exchange or give and take is good for the welfare of the
group.

2. Brings more harmony in ties: When the members of a group develop familiarity and come closer, the
feelings of enmity decrease and may even come to an end. Not only this, their place is taken up by new
feelings of respect for others and other members reciprocate the same. In this way group dynamics
teaches us to solve with the help of others, the problem the group is facing. More work is accomplished
through cooperative learning in a group than done individually. This is the major contribution of the proper
handling of the mechanism of group dynamics in a learning process whether organized in a formal
situation, project work or other off-campus activities.

3. Helps in achievement of teaching-learning objectives: By the study of group dynamics, parents, teachers
and counselors become able to guide and lead the children in a better way in all the group situations of
learning and behaving. On one hand, group dynamics makes them cautious to keep proper consideration
of the individual differences and specific abilities of the students and on the other hand it makes them
utilize the technique of group dynamics for making the children work in the group despite wide variations
and differences in abilities and learning potentials for the ultimate realization of the individual as well as
group learning objectives.

4. Helps in proper organization and functioning of variety of groups responsible for learning: It helps in
proper organization and functioning of variety of formal and informal groups responsible for learningand
education of the children like school, classroom, laboratory, workshop, excursion, or field trips etc. In its all
forms group dynamics answers all questions relating to the forces that affect the group; role & influence
of the leader; pressures that bring psychological unity; strategies to encourage creativity & heightened
productivity; conditions that change structure of group from democratic to autocratic; influence of group

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structure &behaviour on the size or objectives of the group etc. In this way group dynamics attempts to
present a body of information and knowledge and thus aims to make educational groups serve better
ends and to bring dynamic changes in them in order to attain their legitimate goals related to better
learning and education to the students.

5. Leads to development of behaviour as a whole: The educational groups- formal or informal, with the
support of appropriate techniques of group dynamics, may play their effective role in helping the students
in the realization of the aims and objectives related to bring desirable behavioural changes in cognitive,
conative and affective domains of the behaviour. Thus apart from the development of academic skills and
acquisition of academic success, group dynamics technique are capable to offer the best means
available for the development of social skills essential for democratic living, better social understanding
and preparing the individual members of the group for democratic citizenship.

Conclusion: In brief, Group dynamics is a field o enquiry dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of
groups, the laws of their development, and their interrelations with individuals, other groups and larger
institutions. And specifically in the field of education, knowledge, skills and attitudes formed through the
mechanism of group dynamics among the learners, parents, teachers, educational administrators and
counselors are certainly going to effect the process of learning, direction and education of the children in
a better way in the benefit of the individual learners as well as the class and school as a social group.

Ques27:- Explain the meaning of sociometric techniques. What are the characteristics nad need of
sociometric techniques?

INTRODUCTION: In order to understand the status of the individual, it is important to note that one of the most
significant parts of his world is inhabited by his peers and his functioning may be influenced by their
thinking. To study an individual, therefore, it becomes necessary to see him the way he is seen by his
fellow pupils. One of the major techniques for such study is the Sociometry. Sociometry technique was
devised by Moreno and adapted by Jenning for study the group structure.

LITERAL MEANING OFSOCIOMETRY

SOCIOMETRY- The word ‘sociometry’ is derived from the two Latin words-

Sociometry

Sociousmetrum

(means social) (means measure)

Consequently, as a word meaning, it stands for a way or approach of measuring the degree of social ability or
relatedness among people.

MEANING OF SOCIOMETRY

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Sociometry is a technique which informs about the relationships among the members of a group. It gives
information regarding the preferences of the members of the group for each other.

DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOMETRY

● According to J.B. West- “Sociometry is a technique for describing social relationships that exists
between individuals in a group.”

● According to Andrew & Willey- “A sociogram is a graphic drawing using certain symbols and marks to
indicate the pattern of social acceptance and rejection among members of a social group.”

● According to Brofenbrenner- “Sociometry is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social
status, structure and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection between
individual in groups.”

In the light of above definitions we can say that Sociometry is the measurement of interpersonal relationships
prevailing among the members of a group. Sociometric devices, such as the sociogram, attempt to
discover the patterns of choice and rejection among the individual making up the group.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOMETRY

1. Sociometry is technique for describing social relationship.

2. Sociometry is used to understand the status of the individual.

3. It is a graphic drawing using certain symbols and marks.

4. It indicates the pattern of social acceptance and rejection among members of social group.

5. It tells information regarding the preference of the members of the group.

6. It is the method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status.

7. It tells the social acceptance and rejection among members of social group.

8. It shows the pattern of how individuals associate with each other.

9. It is used for students and peer groups.

It is used to generate imported data on social relationship in such groups. Pg. No 127-128

NEED, EDUCATIONAL IMPORTANCE & ADVANTAGES OF SOCIOMETRY:

1. To understand students’ relationship in classroom: - Many of the ways of appraising of an individual are
related to self-disclosures by the person or rating by the superiors.Sociometry is a method in which peers
rate each other. This type of data is needed to understand the relationships of students in the classroom.

2. For identifying leaders: It is a method which discloses which students are popular. They can be utilized as
leaders in school government and management.

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3. For identifying isolates or neglects: We need to know whether there are any students who are isolated or
neglected by others in the class so that they can be integrated with the rest of the students.

4. For forming compatible groups: It can help in the formation of compatible groups for project work, co-
curricular activities etc.

5. Teachers find sociometry very useful in finding out those students whose relationships with the peers are
not satisfactory.

6. For better school adjustment: It can lead to better school adjustments which may prevent students
dropping out of school.

7. For identification of students:Sociometry helps in discovering the patterns of choice and rejection,
attraction and repulsion among the individuals making up the group.

8. For Appraisal of the student: It facilities the appraisal of the social adjustment of the individuals within
the group, the classroom management of these individuals, and screening of them for individual
counseling or other remedial work in the area of social skills.

9. It helps in identifying :-

i. Leaders i.e., those individuals who are recognized by the others as the ones to whom they would turn
for leadership and assistance.

ii. Isolates i.e., those individuals who are not selected by other members of the group as friends or
leaders.

iii. Mutual choices i.e., those individuals who may not be integrated into the group but who depend upon
each other.

iv. Cliques i.e., those individuals who are isolated from the group but not from each other.

v. Rejectees i.e., those individuals who are rejected by certain members of the group. (they can be
identified if negative questions are asked on the questionnaire.)

10. It helps us to have an idea of group at a glance.

11. It helps us to form appropriate groups of students for carrying out various activities and projects.

12. Teachers find sociometry very useful in finding out those students whose relationships with peer are not
satisfactory.

13. It can lead to better school adjustments which may prevent students dropping out of school.

14. It can help students in developing habits and skills of social living.

It helps us to understand the characteristics of an individual who is liked or disliked by the group. It also
assists us in knowing the qualities of leadership as being appreciated by a particular group.

Limitations of Socio-metric Techniques:

In spite of having the above merits these techniques are criticized in the following grounds:

1. A data of socio-metric tests seem so different from other kind of data.

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2. The rating of one person by other is an old practice.

3. The investigator find it difficult to think of socio-metric measurement of individuals.

4. There are certain traits or qualities that are very difficult to measure and if at all they are measured
through observations or other tools, the measurement may not be accurate and free from subjectivity.

5. Some people question the validity of the technique, saying that it does not measure anything useful.

Overall, socio-metric techniques are useful at finding out about interpersonal relationships in
population, despite having slight reliability issues as they use a self reporting design, they have given
us some rich and insightful data and made some useful advancements to society.

CONCLUSION:

Sociometry provides us valuable sociometric techniques for the assessment of the nature of the existing
relationships, liking and disliking between and among the members of a social group on the basis of studying
the social choice and interpersonal attractiveness. In fact sociometry provides us appropriate tools for
understanding the structure and functioning of a social group. Such assistance provided by sociometry can
prove useful to us in a variety of ways like in the school classroom, laboratory, guidance and counseling, group
training and therapeutic situations.

Ques28: What is social group? Discuss in detail its nature alongwith educational implications/importance.

Ans: Introduction: One of the developments in the modern psychology is the study of the psychology of the
group or group behavior. The group helps the persons in the satisfaction of their fundamental needs and in
achieving the sense of accomplishment. The group may transform the original nature of person to human
nature. Expression of instincts and emotions, formation of sentiments, habits, attitudes, values, ambitions,
character and the development of personality of the individual is influenced by the interaction with other
individuals and with groups. In order to make the learning process more effective and to develop good
personalities, the teacher should know the psychology of the group.

Meaning of Group/ Social Group:

In an ordinary sense, a Group is said to be a collection or aggregate of two or more objects or persons.
In otherwords togetherness of two or more persons is called group.

But from the socio-psychological angle mere collection of people does not form a group.A group, therefore,
may be defined as the collection or aggregate of two or more interdependent individuals who usually feel, think
and act together and have a sort of belongingness or we-feeling.

Definitions

• MacIver’s view, “By group we mean any collection of human beings who are brought into social relations
with one another.”

• View of Bogardus, “A Social Group may be thought of a number of persons, two or more, who have some
common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate

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in similar activities”.

• View of James Drever, “Social Group is a collection of individual feelings and acting in some degree as a
unit.”

• According to Sherif and Sherif- “Group is a ‘Social Units of interacting personalities who think, feel and
act together and who have some common aims, interests, stimulations, emotions and loyalties.”

• According to Kelley and Thibant- “A collection of individuals becomes a group as the members accept a
common task, become interdependent in its performance and interact with one another to promote it
accomplishments.”

• According to Cattel (Encyclopedia of Educational Research) - “A group is a collection of organisms in

which the existence of their relationship is necessary to the satisfaction of certain individual needs of
each and again as a set of people who satisfy their needs consciously and unconsciously.”

On the basis of above definitions following characteristics of Social Group have been deduced:

1. Psychological Relationship: The members of psychological group merge their individualities and begin to
feel, think and act together at least for a particular moment as a particular place. For example, when the
people say, we teachers, we labourers etc., it means that they are the members of a group and share
psychological unity.

2. Interdependence or Mutual Obligation: The members of the group have relations to one another that
make them interdependent to some significant degree and each member contributes in various amounts
to the group processes whatever positive quality he possesses. In simple words, ties of mutual obligation
bind the members of the group with each other. It is though these ties of mutual obligation that the
members of the group are strengthened. For example, in the family, parents love their children and children
obey the orders of their parents. So each member in the family treats their members as his own, and
inspite of certain differences that there may be between their attitudes and tendencies, they share
common ideals and values.

3. Sense of Oneness: A sort of belongingness or we-feeling is essential for the formation of a

psychological group. The members treat each other as their own. They develop sense of accommodation,
sense of devotion, sense of loyalty, sense of suggestion, imitation, sympathy etc.

4. Common Goals, ideas and values: The members of a group must have a common aim or objectives so
that all their activities may be goal oriented. It possesses a set of values or norms of its own that
regulates the behavior of individual members to seek common goal or purpose. The motivational base, no
doubt differs from group to group depending upon its ultimate goal.

5. Interaction and Democratic Set up: A group is characterized by the interaction of its members in such a
way that such person is changed by his group membership and each would be likely to undergo a change
as a result of changes in his group.

6. Unity: the group has conscious as well as conscious unity as its members interact or communicate
directly or indirectly that develops love, sympathy and cooperation with each other for various common
purposes.

7. Control of the Group: It indicates the group in terms of power to attain its aims and objectives. It should

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be hierarchical in nature. Power should be well defined and vested in the highest authority of the group.

8. Similarity of Behavior: As the goals, interests and values of a group are common, the behaviour of the
members tends to be similar. A social group is not merely a collection of persons, but it is a continuation
of their behaviour.

Importance or Educational Implications of Social Group:

There are various groups and the aim of each is to modify the ideas, values, modification of instinctive
behaviour, habit and attitudes of the children in view of the development of personality harmoniously:

1. To improve the behaviour of group members: In a group or classroom group the students or group
members come into contact with each other and acquire appropriate type of knowledge or education. And
thus helps in the formation of healthy sentiments, good habits, positive attitudes and strong character and
improves their behaviour.

2. To develop mental processes: Some sort of exchange of thought goes on in the social group or
classroom group through which intellectual activities like reasoning, memory, judgement, decision,
thinking and imagination develop.

3. To develop the feeling of self-sacrifice: The students in a social group or classroom group remain in
close contact with each other. Therefore, so much love, goodwill and sympathy develop in them that in the
time of need they do not hesitate to sacrifice their interests for the sake of others.

4. To prepare for future Social Life: The members of social group or children in a classroom group live
together for pretty long time and try to adjust their thoughts, habits, viewpoints to others. Such a type of
experience prepares them for future social life.

5. To develop qualities of leadership: The members in a social; group or classroom groups plan and
organize a no. of activities or co-curricular activities. Thus qualities of leadership are developed in them by
means of planning, organizing, executing and completing these activities.

6. To develop sympathy for members: Being interdependent upon each other, the members/students of a
social group/classroom group, begin to sympathize with each other as a member of the group/class i.e. a
proper psychological group and usually feel, think and act together.

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7. To acquire more knowledge: In a group/classroom group, the members/students learn the habits of
imitation and competition and get an inspiration to acquire more knowledge and understanding.

To develop the feeling of cooperation: The controlling authority/teacher encourages all the members of a
group/social group to work together and thus a feeling of co-operation is developed in them. Page no. 128-132

STEPS FOR FORMATION OF GROUPS:

Well functioning groups do not just form out of the blue. It takes time for a group to develop to a point where it
can be effective and where all members feel connected to it. There are some specific steps or stages,
passing through which a well developed group is formed.

Formation of a Group

Group is the aggregation of two or more interacting individuals who work for common goals, develop a shared
attitude and are aware that they are a part of a group and perceive themselves as such.

Groups tend to develop in stages/steps. As with many things, the progress of a group is not always neat and
tidy. Sometimes groups will regress to an earlier stage if there is a major change, if a group member leaves or
another is added or for various other reasons.

Steps/stages for formation of groups

Group are a common arrangement in today’s business environments. Any administrator or manager who works
with or supervises group should be familiar with how they develop over time.

The best known scheme for a group development was advanced by Bruce tuckman in 1965. Initially, he
identified four steps/stages of group development, which included the stages of forming, storming, norming
and performing. A fifth stage was latter added by Tuckman about ten years later, which is called adjouring.

It is believed that these stages or steps are universal to all teams despite the group’s members, purpose, goal,
culture, location, demographics and so on. The five steps/stages will be discussed here.

1. Stage/step-1 Forming (Orientation):- This is first step of the group formation. Here group members
are learning what to do, how the group will operate, what is expected and what is acceptable. It is the
initial stage marked by uncertainty and confusion. The structure of the group is uncertain and
unpredictable. Leadership cannot be implemented effectively.

Characteristics of the Stage

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a. Group members look to the leader for direction.

b. Members have a desire for acceptance by the group and fitting in.

c. Members are sizing each other up.

d. Checking out personalities and talents of other members.

e. Members focus their discussion on the task at hand, not worrying about relationships.

f.Feeling going through members, include insecurity, nervousness. They are asking themselves “Do I
belong”, “Will be accepted by the group”?

2. Step/Stage-2 Storming (Power Struggle):- At this stage members joggle for influence and positions.
They try to be collective but encounter differences on issues such as group structure, agenda, work
allocation etc. There may be arguments for finalizing a group structure.

Characteristics of the stage

a. This stage is characterized by tension, competition and conflict among group members.

b. Questions arise about who is responsible for what and what the rules are.

c. Some members may remain silent while others attempt to dominate.

d. Some members question authority and competency of the group leader.

e. The group leader has to raise the conflict issue and deal with it.

3. Step/Stage-3 Norming (Co-operation and Integration):- At this stage, group members recognize the
need for mutuality and interdependence. They negotiate their differences and arrive at workable
approaches, upholding the interests of the group. Ultimately they come out with the established
norms for the group.

Characteristics of the stage

a. Leadership is shared and cliques dissolved.

b. Conflicts are resolved and there is a stronger sense of belonging to the group.

c. Creativity is high.

d. People know where they fit in and what is expected of them.

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4. Step/Stage-4 Performing (Synergy):- After reaching a consensus on group norms, members start
working together to achieve the intended goals. The first three steps lay the foundation for
performance. Team work forms the very essence of the group. The assigned work is completed with
devotion and perservance.

Characteristics of the stage

a. Now the group is in high gear and highly productive. The need for group approval is past.

b. Group members can now focus on the task and care for other members of the group.

c. Group identity is complete, group morale is high, and group loyalty is intense.

5. Step/Stage-5 Adjourning (Closure):- This represents the end of the group. In this case, the mission is
accomplished and it is time to disband the group or have a new composition. All the stages start over
again.

Characteristics of the stage

a. The stage occur when the tasks are completed and there no longer is a need for the group to
exist.

b. This stage includes recognition for participation (awards) and an opportunity for group
members to say good bye (closure)

c. With the dissolving the group, new leaders are needed to take on the new tasks, so a new
group forms.

Conclusion:- Group is an aggregation of two or more interactive individuals who work gor common goals
develop a shared attitude and are aware that they a part of a group and perceive themselves as much.

Ques29:- Explain the Criteria for assessing group tasks?

Group tasks or work can help to develop following specific skills:-

1. Team work skills (skills in working within team dynamics; leadership skills)

2. Analytical and cognitive skills. (questioning, critical interpretation; evaluating the work of others)

3. Collaborative skills which include conflict management and revolution, accepting intellectual
criticism, flexibility, negotiation and compromise, and

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4. Organizational and time management skills.

Group work may reduce the work load involved in assessing, grading and providing feedback to students.

Dimensions of assessing group tasks

There are three basic dimensions to assessment of group work. These are:-

1. Student’s demonstrated abilities of working effectively as a team member (Process)

2. Student’s demonstrated knowledge and application of skills of successful task completion

(process) and

3. The quality of the output or product of the group assessment task (product).

Groups can produce tangible products such as posters, models, formal reports and electronic or other
forms of media product. They can also submit records of meetings, planning sheets and other monitoring
documents etc.

The assessment plan for any unit must be designed to assess student’s achievement of the unit learning
outcomes. Assessment can be conducted by external assessors (experts in the field), teacher, groups of
peer, through self assessment or by some combination of these. The advantage of a combination of
assessors is that it allows multiple perspectives of the work to be fridged and it reduces the chance of
bias that might be inherent in a single form of assessment.

Group tasks assessment criteria

Students should know the assessment criteria specified for the assessment of their tasks. They should know
what outcomes they will be expected to demonstrate and how the evidence of the work need to be
documented. Where students are to collaboratively decide the criteria, this process should occur at the
beginning and all students then receive a written copy of the agreed criteria.

Marking models:- Four marking models may be used for awarding marks/credits to an individual student
working in a group.

Model-1:- All students get the same mark or grade regardless of individual effort, contribution or ability.

Model-2:- Students get a proportion of their marks according to individual effort, contribution to the process or
tasks.

There are two ways of determining the marks for individual contribution to a task:-

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a. Each group gets a mark, determined by the quality of the product, to share or distribute among
themselves, or

b. Each group is given a pre-determined mark, irrespective of the quality of the product to distribute
among themselves.

In the first case, for example, if a group of four students prepare and finish a task and get 24/30 marks for it.
They, therefore get 96 marks (=24x4) to distribute among themselves for individual contribution to the process.
Some students get more than 24 marks and other less. Specified criteria and a distribution algorithm are
needed.

In the second case, for example, if five students are given 100 marks for a task, to distribute according to the
individual contribution to the task process. Thus, some students will get more than 20 marks and some less.
Specified criteria and a distribution algorithm are needed.

Model-3:- Students get a proportion of their marks according to individual contribution to the product.

This method depends upon the roles or tasks allocated to the students in a product. If teams are working
effectively, they will make use of the diverse skills and abilities of the members to maximize the quality of
their product.

For example, a group of three students prepares an educational website. One student has the role of website
designer/manager, another is the instructional designer and the third research the content for the site. Each
student has criteria for the quality of their aspect of the completed website, and is required to explain or justify
their contribution.

Suppose, website is awarded 18/20 for web design, 15/20 for instructional design and 17/20 for content. Thus
the students get 18, 15 and 17 marks respectively.

Model-4:- Students get a proportion of their marks according to their individual knowledge about the process or
the product.

This criteria may be made a tool for group work assessment for individual participant. Evidence of an
individual student’s knowledge can take the form of reflective journals, purposeful portfolios, global or
itemized criterion-based reports or working reports. It can also be tested by written or verbal questioning etc.

For example, a group of six students undertakes a six week research project. They will produce a final report.
To ascertain the contribution and learning of each member of the group, the students are required to submit a
research diary recording their progress, relevant diagrams, printouts and findings at weekly intervals
throughout the six weeks. In addition, there is a question in the exam that asks them briefly describe the

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process and their product. They are to explain how their research method could have been improved.

They all get marks according to knowledge about process and product. Any model, described above can be
used by teacher as criteria for assessing an individual contribution in a group.

Conclusion

In nutshell, a social group is not mere collection of people rather it is a social unit consisting of a number of
individuals interdependent upon each other and tied with mutual obligation who stand in role and status
relationship to one another and share common goal, common task, common values & norms and degree of
give & take. Moreover common purpose, we-feeling and sort of belongingness provide them socio-
psychological binding to think, act and feel together for the benefit and welfare of the group.

National Research Council

Ques30:-What are social skills? Describe some criteria (approaches) used for assessing social skils in
collaborative and co-operative learning situations?
COLLABORATIVE TEACHING/ CO-TEACHING AS A CLASSROOM PRACTICE IN INCLUSION

Ans:- The practice of placing children of diverse abilities, from the learning and physically disabled to the
gifted in the same classroom, has become the expected norm all over the globe. The idea of LRE, or Least
Restrictive Environment, is the legal underpinning of inclusion. Least Restrictive Environment lays out the
expectation that children will receive appropriate instruction in their neighborhood school in a general
education classroom. The challenges of providing the whole range of appropriate instruction are daunting.
Inclusive classrooms require the collaboration of a wide range of professional, including regular education
teachers, special education teachers, physical and occupational therapists, social workers, speech
therapists, teachers’ aides and other professional. So it is helpful in establishing significant working
relationship between professionals, students with professional and so on.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF COLLABORATION:

Collaboration is a style of interaction professionals use to undertake shared responsibilities. Collaboration

refers to HOW professionals interact.

One of the earliest definitions for collaboration by Friend & Cook is as follows,

“Collaboration is a style for direct interaction between at least two parties voluntarily engaged in shared
decision-making as they work toward a common goal.”

The term inclusion is often associated with collaboration. Inclusion is a philosophy or set of beliefs
based on the idea that “everyone belongs, is accepted, supports, and is supported by his or her peers and
other members of the school community in the course of having their educational needs
met.” (Stainback&Stainback, 1990). IDEA makes it imperative that the students with disabilities, no matter
what their level of functioning, access the general curriculum to the maximum extent possible. Inclusion is
driven by the needs of the student. Collaboration is driven by the needs of the teachers.

PURPOSE OF COLLABORATIVE TEACHING

Collaborative teaching can take many forms; each school should choose the mode of collaborationwhich best
suits learner needs. Some purposes are:

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• Joint planning – teaching teams collaborate in planning and evaluating lessons or units of work for whole
class. Teachers jointly plan instruction, but each may deliver it to half the class or small groups. This
model requires joint planning time.
• Small group work – teaching teams plan a brief activity for a small group. One team member works with
the small group while the other takes responsibility for the whole class.
• Parallel teaching – the class is divided into groups with specific needs. Each member of the team takes
responsibility for one group, using the same topic.
• Support teaching – one team member assists targeted learners with normal classroom activities while
the other teaches the whole class.
• Team teaching – the teaching team share responsibility for planning, teaching, assessing and evaluating
mainstream programs. They jointly plan curriculum content, lesson methodology and classroom
organization.
● Evaluation- All forms of collaborative teaching should include assessment of learner performance/
learning outcomes as well as evaluation of the unit of work/lesson sequence.

KEY COMPONENTS OF COLLABORATIVE TEACHING

There are several key components to success in a collaborative teaching:
● Flexibility: A teacher may feel they are flexible, until they have to yield decision making in the classroom to
another adult.
● Good Communication: Good communication involves not only speaking clearly but also listening
carefully.
● Trust between both the teachers for successful functioning.
● Sufficient Time or extra time must be built in the working schedule specifically schedule collaboration
time into in-service days for proper planning.
● Shared planning strategies: Both be sure and committed to that time and to the process of planning
together on strategies to undertake while teaching.
● Clarity about the use of space: Mutual cooperation must be there while using the space in classroom and
be a source of comfort for each other.
● Classroom Routines are essential for successful classroom management. Be sure you are both on the
same page with routines.
● Classroom Discipline must be honest and exemplary both for each other and for the students also.
● Teaching model: Some successful co-teachers alternate leading the class. Some split the class into
more than one group. Some alternate approaches. This should be negotiated before you start.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLLABORATIVE INTERACTIONS

● Least Restrictive Environment/Mainstreaming/Inclusion/Integration emphasizes on three components-

Physical integration, Social integration and Instructional integration. Collaborative/Co-teaching provides all
three and is the most common service delivery used in inclusive schools.
● Involves two or more professionals who jointly handle Heterogeneous group of students and share
delivery of instruction which occurs in a shared physical space. Participation may vary based on needs of
the students.
● Parity-In collaboration teaching each participant’s contribution is equally valued and participants have
equal power in decision making.
● Voluntary-Collaborative relationships are most successful when they are entered into freely and exist by
choice.
● Mutual Goals-Collaboration occurs in response to a goal, problem, or need that is jointly shared by the
participants. These goals must be agreed upon by all participants.

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● Shared Responsibility-Participants share responsibilities and in the decision making it entails. One
teacher works with a small group of students to pre-teach, re-teach, supplement, or enrich instruction,
while the other teacher instructs the large group.
● Shared Accountability-Participants have equal accountability for the outcome of their endeavors.
● Shared Resources-Participants in a collaborative endeavor share materials and human resources.

BENEFITS OF COLLABORATIVE INTERACTIONS/TEACHING

Educators and researchers have often described inclusion as “a great idea done badly”. This thought has
sparked volumes of conflicting research and case studies on inclusive programs. What is evident is that
inclusive programs that utilize effective collaborative practices do produce positive results. Some of the
benefits of these practices are:
● All students benefit from the expertise of numerous individuals.
● Collaborative teams share leadership and responsibilities.
● Students and teachers learn from each other and problem solve together
● Instruction is geared to match students at all levels of achievement.
● Instruction is active, creative, and collaborative among members in the classroom.
● Activities are designed to facilitate participation by all students in the classroom.
● The classroom teacher, special education teacher, related services staff, and families assume shared
ownership for educating all students.
● Students are evaluated by individually appropriate standards.

CONCLUSION: It can be said that for collaboration to be successful, teachers must learn how to communicate
clearly and effectively, how to share teaching responsibilities, and how to resolve conflicts in teaching styles
and approaches. For teams to work collaboratively and productively, they must – establish trust; develop
common beliefs and attitudes; empower team members to make decisions; learn to manage meetings
effectively; and become skilled in providing feedback about team functioning. Each of these skills can be
learned (and taught), and each is essential for creating successful partnerships.

COOPERATIVE LEARNING

Cooperative learning as the name suggests stands for a process or learning strategy in which students are
provided with the opportunity to learn themselves in a group in cooperative way. They share all the information
among themselves and help each other in gaining required knowledge, understanding and application of one
or the other aspect of the content material or course units in their syllabus.

Cooperative learning instructional approaches provide opportunities for a learner to interact with other learners
in the class, and thus this approach maximizes learner’s intrinsic interest in learning. It cater to the needs of
the learners having different mental abilities by organizing the activities of the students to work together in
small groups so that students learn to maximize their and other’s learning while working in the groups.

In an inclusive classroom, cooperative group must have a sense of individual accountability that means that
all students need to know the material for the whole group to be successful, whether a student is exceptional
or normal.

DEFINITIONS:

● According to Foyle and Lynan - “Cooperative learning as a teaching strategy involving children’s
participation in small group learning activities that promote positive interaction.”

● According to Slavin – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work together in

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groups, “to master material initially presented by the learner.”

● According to Woolfolk – “Cooperative learning as an arrangement in which students work in mixed ability
groups and are rewarded on the basis of the success of the groups.”

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND FEATURES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

1. Cooperative Learning believes in making the teaching learning process Learner centered rather than
teacher centered.

2. It advocates constructive ideology for the better teaching learning outcomes by encouraging the students
to formulate their own knowledge, ideas and strategies and ways of understanding the content material.

3. It believes in redefining the role of the teacher as distinct from a lecturer or expert of the subject matter.
The teacher’s role is that of a guide and facilitator who helps the students in learning cooperatively.

4. It advocates interactive teaching learning environment instead of mere lecturing and demonstration on
part of teacher. Here the responsibility for learning is shifted to the students.

5. It emphasizes social learning by assuming that learning takes place better in a social situation and group
environment rather than in isolation.

6. It assumes that children better in a non-competitive anxiety free environment, than in a competitive,
stressful environment available in traditional classrooms.

7. It believes in group efforts and cooperation among the learners in place of individual efforts and
competition.

8. Children learn better in cooperative way from one another on account of their interdependence, equality,
rapport.

9. It believes that the students’ achievements and performance may be evaluated better in terms of group
achievement in the less threatening group situations.

10. It believes that students learn best when they are totally involved in the learning process by cooperating
with each other for attaining their best.

11. It advocates two necessary elements: group goals and individual accountability should be used together
for the evaluation of group achievements in Cooperative Learning.

ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

The Cooperative Learning as a healthy, efficient and effective classroom practice in inclusive set up
comprises of following essential elements:

(i) Team formation: Cooperative learning groups should be heterogeneous in gender, race, economic status,
and ability in order to take advantage of the benefits associated with group diversity. So it emphasizes to
• Start with pairs because they are simpler to manage;
• Facilitate enhanced communication, maximum participation and more possibility for practicing
social skills; and
• Enable transition effortlessly into larger groups.

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(ii) Positive interdependence / Group goals occurs when each group member learns to depend on the rest of
the group as they all work together to complete a task. This is one of the key reasons that cooperative
learning works well in an inclusive classroom This refers to
• Clearly define roles of group members;
• Ensure that all group members participate so that everybody can contribute to learning process; and
• Make everybody feels valued, even those who need to develop their interpersonal skills.
(iii) Individual accountability because individual student learning is a desired result of cooperative learning. It
is essential that individual students demonstrate what they have learned as a result of participating in
cooperative activities.
(iv) Face to face promotive interaction is characterized by individual’s providing each other with efficient and
effective help and assistance and exchanging needed resources for mutual benefits. It emphasizes on
• Teachers need to verbalize, model and reinforce the social skills needed to achieve a goal; and
• Listen Provide feedback Resolve conflict Encourage others Take turns Express
enjoyment in success.
(v) Group processing: The purpose of group processing is to clarify the effectiveness of the members in
contributing to the cooperative and collaborative efforts to achieve one’s goals. It refers to
• The time allotted, after a learning task, to discuss whether members are achieving goals and
maintaining successful working relationships;
• Students can express themselves;
• Teacher can provide relevant and specific feedback; and
• Helps ensure accountability.

TYPES OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING (CL)

FORMAL CL INFORMAL CL

ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

Following responsibilities are assumed for a teacher:

1. Curriculum Modification: Most teachers who teach in an inclusive classroom modify their curricula to
meet the needs of their special education students. Curriculum modifications can include the provision of
an audio-taped text, shortened assignments and summarized chapters of the textbook as well as tools
such as graphic presentations and color-coded chapters to enhance a student's level of comprehension.

2. Communication:
● It is important for inclusion teachers to advocate the needs of their special education students by
ensuring that resources such as peer tutoring, instructional assistants, team teaching and staff
development opportunities are available along with consistent policies that assess the individual student's
progress.
● Teachers also should communicate regularly with the principal to make sure that she is aware of the
specific learning needs of the special education students and the academic resources that are necessary
for them to experience success in the inclusive classroom setting.

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3. Classroom Environment: According to the views and perspectives of teachers, successful inclusion
classrooms are those that are taught by teachers and school personnel who believe in the academic
potential of their special needs children. It is also important for teachers to create a safe classroom
environment that allows special-needs children to learn alongside their peers while experiencing positive
socialization.
4. Managing Behaviour
● Although inclusive classrooms can promote positive peer interactions for special education students,
behavioral issues can arise that may require a different disciplinary approach than that used with
mainstream students.
● Teachers may need to consider a developmentally appropriate method for managing the behavior of their
special-needs students. Common approaches often include a system that allows a student to self-
regulate and manage his own behavior, coupled with a reward system that reinforces the student's
positive behaviors.

5. Professional Development
● Many inclusion teachers attend in-service training or professional development sessions to hone their
skills in curriculum modification, instructional techniques and collaborative teaching strategies that allow
special education teachers, specialists and mainstream teachers to team teach.
6. General Role of Teacher is summed up as follows:
● Planning lessons, activities and evaluation tool & techniques

● Grouping the students

● Physical placement of the students in group

● Presenting and explaining the tasks to the students

● Monitoring group activities and intervening when necessary.

● Helping student with social skills

● Evaluating the students

BENEFITS/ UTILITY/ EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING IN INCLUSION:

i. Cooperative learning can change students’ views about learning: It helps them to move from seeing
learning as individual memorization of facts to seeing it as a collective construction of understanding. By
encouraging students to explore and discuss their understandings, cooperative learning helps them
develop a deep understanding of course content.
ii. It makes students responsible for their learning: It encourages students to think about their learning
processes, identify the limitations of their knowledge and learn to seek. It is particularly suited to large
problem-solving tasks and projects in which there is more work to be carried out than one person can
reasonably be expected to do in the available time.
iii. Makes students independent learners: Cooperation teaches students to be less reliant on the teacher
and more reliant on their own ability to think, to seek information from other sources and to learn from
other students. Thus it makes the teaching learning process learner-centered rather than teacher-
centered.

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iv. Students remain involved in teaching learning process: When compared with lecture and discussion
activities, cooperative learning can lead to students being frustrated less often, getting confused less
often, feeling more intellectually challenged, feeling more actively involved in learning and looking forward
to class more often .

v. Cooperative learning emphasizes democratic thought and practice as a desirable way for people to
interact. Therefore, the students get opportunities for deeper understanding and insight into the subject
matter as a result of discussion and practice.

vi. Cooperative learning ensures that all students are socially integrated into networks of positive peer
relationships. This can lead to reductions in antisocial behaviour such as bullying. Hence, the students
learn better in cooperative environment which keeps them away from anxiety and competition.

vii. Develops a sense of Cooperation and Compassion among learners for each other: It helps in developing
higher order thinking skills, critical thinking and oral communication skills. When students work
cooperatively, their language becomes more inclusive and assistive toward one another, behavioural
problems are reduced, and they become more involved in one another’s learning and achievement.

viii. Achievement: Cooperative learning as compared with individualistic and competitive learning increases
the academic achievement and social acceptance of students with disabilities. Minority students can
make consistently favourable achievements in cooperative classes. It helps the weaker students in
improving their performance when grouped with high achieving learners.

ix. Helps in developing various skills: It helps the students in learning various tasks like manipulation,
demonstrative skills, initiation, social skills, leadership skills etc. Cooperative learning for students with
moderate and severe disabilities is also positive with greater academic gains comparable to competitive
and individualistic situations, greater interpersonal attraction, and higher levels of socially interactive
behaviours. .

x. Social skill development: Cooperative learning provides an ideal context for social skill development. It is
through interpersonal interactions that students observe, perform, and receive feedback on social
behaviours, which makes cooperative learning particularly beneficial for students with learning and
behaviour problems.

xi. Selecting challenging, multilevel tasks that promote learning and growth at different levels is a key to
success in cooperative learning and inclusive education. Cooperative tasks provide opportunities for all
students to work at their own levels while still pursuing a common goal.

xii. Caters to individual differences: It provides opportunities for learners to see that their individual
differences in abilities, backgrounds, cultures and experiences are valued and respected, and can be
accommodated in learning tasks and contexts. It helps students to learn respect for one another’s
strength and limitations and to accept these differences. This is very important in culturally diverse
classrooms and in classrooms that include students with disabilities. Hence, it boosts the self-esteem
and self-confidence of the learners.

CONCLUSION:

Thus there are a number of hurdles, fears and resentment standing in the way of introducing Cooperative

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Learning in the educational system. However all these resentments and fears are baseless. It promotes
students better learning and makes students’ active and self confident. It promotes positive interdependence,
individual accountability, equal participation and simultaneous interaction. Thus by creating a community that
is cooperative and inclusive, children’s acceptance and success in general classroom environment will be
greatly enhanced. So it provides generous support for learning, connecting and caring to all teachers and all
students and therefore, it should be promoted to achieve social and educational effectiveness of the learners

Ques31:- Define Portfolio Assessment? Discuss its scope and uses?

Meaning of portfolio:-
A student portfolio is a systematic collection of student work and related material that depicts a student's
activities, accomplishments, and achievements in one or more school subjects. The collection should include
evidence of student reflection and self-evaluation, guidelines for selecting the portfolio contents, and criteria
for judging the quality of the work. The goal is to help students assemble portfolios that illustrate their talents,
represent their writing capabilities, and tell their stories of school achievement

Two Types of Portfolios:

s portfolio
t portfolio
Process and product portfolios represent the two major types of portfolios. A process
portfolio documents the stages of learning and provides a progressive record of student growth. A product
portfolio demonstrates mastery of a learning task or a set of learning objectives and contains only the best
work... Teachers use process portfolios to help students identify learning goals, document progress over time,
and demonstrate learning mastery... In general, teachers prefer to use process portfolios because they are
ideal for documenting the stages that students go through as they learn and progress.

Meaning and definition of portfolio assessment

Portfolio assessment is the systematic, longitudinal collection of student work created in response to
specific, known instructional objectives, and evaluated in relation to the same criteria. In simple words,
portfolio assessment is a comprehensive purposeful collection of student’s performance.

Stiggin (1994) has defined Portfolio as “collection of student work that demonstrate achievement or
improvement.”

According to Butler (2006): “A portfolio is a collection of evidence that is gathered together to show a person’s
learning journey over time and demonstrate their abilities.”

Assessment of the student is done by measuring his works as well as the portfolio as a whole against
specified criteria, which match the objectives toward a specific purpose. Portfolio creation is the responsibility
of the learner, with teacher guidance and support and often with the involvement of peers and parents.

At its best, portfolio assessment demands the following:

1. Clarity of goals.

2. Explicit criteria for evaluation.

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3. Work samples tied to those goals

4. Student participation in selection of entries.

5. Teacher and student involvement in the assessment process, and

6. Self reflections that demonstrate student’s metacognitive ability, that is, their understanding of what
worked for them in the learning process, what did not and why.

These elements enhance the learning experience and the self understanding of the student as learner.

Traditional Vs portfolio assessment

The differences between these two type of assessment is given under:

Traditional assessment Portfolio assessment

1. Measures student’s ability at one time. Measure student’s ability over time.

2. Done by teacher alone, student often Done by teacher and student.

unaware of criteria.

3. Conducted outside instruction. Embedded in instruction.

4. Does not give student responsibility. Student learns how to take responsibility.

5. Does not include the teacher’s knowledge Allows for expression of teacher’s knowledge of
of student as a learner. student as learner.

6. Does not capture the range of student’s Captures many facets of language learning
language ability. performance.

Scope of portfolio assessment

The scope of portfolio assessment can be discussed under following points:-

1. Assessment of the learner:-

a. Portfolio assessment gives a profile of learner abilities in terms of depth, breadth and growth. It

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involves in the assessment of these abilities.

b. It extends itself to the assessment of a variety of skills, not normally testable in a single setting
for traditional testing.

2. Self-awareness:- Portfolio assessment covers the development of awareness of learner’s learning.

3. Social skills:- Development and assessment of social skills developed in learners also come under
the scope of portfolio assessment.

4. Programme assessment:- While portfolio assessment has predominantly used in educational

setting to document the progress and achievements of individual children, it has the potential to be a
valuable tool for programme assessment as well.

Portfolio assessment extend beyond test scores to include substantive descriptions or examples of
what the student is doing and experiencing.

5. Community evaluation:- Many programmes do keep such albums or scrap books and use them
informally as a means of conveying their pride in the programme, but most do not consider using them
in systematic way as part of their formal programme evaluation.

However, the concepts and philosophy behind portfolios assessment can apply to community
evaluation, where it can provide windows into community practices, procedures and outcomes, better
than more traditional measures.

6. Different types of portfolios:- The scope can be depicted by from the various types of portfolios.

a. Documentation portfolio:- It shows the collection of work over time, showing growth and
improvement of the student concerned.

b. Process portfolio:- It contain the evidences required to prove the learning outcomes in the given
time. It integrates reflection and higher order cognitive activities.

c. Showcase portfolio:- Only shows the best of the students’ output and products.

d. Evaluation portfolio:- Its basic purpose is to exhibit a series of evaluations over a course and
the learning or accomplishments of the student in regard to previously determined criteria or goal.
This type of portfolio documents tests, observations, records or other assessment artifacts
required for successful completion of the course.

Steps in the portfolio assessment process

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According to ven (2005), following steps can be taken for the portfolio assessment:

Step-1:- The teacher and the student should clearly identify the portfolio contents, which are samples of
student work, reflections, teacher observations and conference records.

Step-2:- The teacher should develop evaluation procedures for keeping track of the portfolio contents and for
grading the portfolio.

Step-3:- The teacher should plan for holding portfolio conferences, which are formal and informal meetings in
which students review their work and discuss their progress. Because they encourage reflective teaching and
learning, these conferences are an essential part of the portfolio assessment process.

Uses of portfolio assessment

1. Useful assessment tool:- Portfolio assessment is a useful tool of assessment, because it allow
faculty to analyse an entire scope of student work in a timely fashion. Collecting student work over
time gives schools a unique opportunity to assess a student’s progression in acquiring variety of
learning objectives.

2. Educational benefits:- Portfolio assessment is closely linked to instruction, which has two
educational benefits:

a. Linking assessment to instruction means that you are sure that you are measuring what you
have target.

b. It reveals any weaknesses in instruction practice.

3. Fully incorporated in instruction:- Portfolio assessment is by nature incorporated fully into

instruction. There is no time lost on assessment. Assessment is a true learning experience and not
external to the learning process.

4. Students involvement:- Student assessment portfolios promote positive student involvement. As

students create their portfolios, they are actively involved in and reflecting on their own learning.

a. Increased meta cognition has a positive impact on the learner’s self confidence.

b. Facilitate student use of learning strategies.

c. Increase the student’s ability to assess and revise work.

d. Students motivate to continue studying for better results.

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5. Knowledge of learner:- It offer the teacher and student an indepth knowledge of the student as a
learner. This means that the teacher can individualize instruction for the student. Weak areas can be
strengthened and areas of mastery built upon.

Learners are involved in this process of tracking their learning and take control of their learning.

6. Involvement of parents:- Using assessment portfolios gives the teacher opportunities to involve
parents in their children’s study. Parental involvement is an important factor in educational success.

7. Way of demonstrating skills:- Portfolio assessments provide an authentic way of demonstrating

skills and accomplishments.

Portfolio assessment is most useful for evaluating programmes that have flexible or individualized
goals or outcomes. It provides information that gives meaningful insight into behavior and related
changes. It also provides a tool that ensures communication and accountability to a range of
audiences.

But, portfolio assessment is not as useful for evaluating programmes that have concrete, uniform
goals or purposes. It is also not useful for comparing participants or programmes in a quantitative
standardized way while it can include some standardized test scores along with other kinds of
‘evidences’, but this is not the main purposes of this.

Advantages of portfolio assessment

1. Provides flexibility in measuring how students accomplish their learning goals.

2. Portfolio assessment matches assessment to teaching.

3. It gives a profile of learner’s abilities in terms of depth, breadth and growth.

4. It is a tool for assessing a variety of skills not normally testable in a single setting for traditional
testing.

5. It develops awareness of own learning by the students.

6. It caters to individuals in a heterogeneous class.

7. Portfolio assessment develops social skills. Students interact with other students in the
development of their own portfolio.

8. Portfolio assessment promotes independent and active learning.

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9. It can improve motivation for learning and thus achievement.

10. It provides opportunity for student teacher dialogue.

11. Promotes student self evaluation, reflection and critical thinking.

12. Enables teachers and students to share the responsibility for setting learning goals and for
evaluating progress toward meeting those goals.

13. Portfolio assessment facilitates co-operative learning activities including peer evaluation and
tutoring, co-operative learning groups and peer conferencing.

14. It enables measurement of multiple dimensions of student progress by including different types of
data and materials.

15. Portfolio assessment provides a process for structuring learning in stages.

Disadvantages of portfolio assessment

Portfolio assessment has following disadvantages and limitations:-

1. It require extra time to plan an assessment system and conduct the assessment.

2. Gathering all the necessary data and work sample can make portfolios bulky and heavy, which is
difficult to manage.

3. Scoring portfolios involve the extensive use of subjective evaluation procedures such as rating
scales and professional judgment and this limits reliability of the process.

4. Developing a systematic and deliberate management system is difficult, but this step is necessary
in order to make portfolio more than a random collection of student work.

5. Scheduling individual portfolio conferences is difficult and the length of each conference may
interfere with other instructional activities of the school.

Development and assessing of portfolio

According to kingore (1993): Portfolio is a systematic collection of student work selected to provide
information about students’ attitude and motivation, level of development and growth over time. It is
purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts and achievements in one or more
areas.

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Developing a portfolio involves the following steps:-

1. Planning:- Portfolios take a lot of planning to set a very clear purpose before introducing portfolios to
the students and parents for it, it is crucial to prepare thoroughly and spend a lot of time with students
introducing portfolios. Next steps are given here:-

a. The first step is having students collect everything they do in a folder.

b. Give them portfolio days, on which students work on their portfolio by revising, adding self
assessment and rotating and organizing.

c. Give one specific day to the students and provide a written plan of action and a goal. They will
continue their work.

d. While the students are working on their portfolios, the teacher should work with individual
students and give them mini-lessons to answer their difficulties and questions.

2. Portfolio content:- The purpose for the portfolio will drive the selection of contest process. Different
samples of student work is selected for different purposes. Selection of samples also differ
depending on the purpose. For example, for an evaluation portfolio, the teacher might decide which
sample need to be included to evaluate student progress. Similarly, a show case portfolio might be
designed to include significant input from the student on which samples best highlight achievement
and progress, or the teacher might primarily make these decisions.

3. Reflection or evaluation of sample work:- Many educators who work with portfolio consider the
reflection component, the most critical element of a good portfolio. Such selecting samples of
workers described above can produce meaningful stories about students only. There is need to reflect
upon the quality and growth of the work. It is because, the portfolio is something that is done by the
student, not to the student. It is something done for the students.

The students needs to be directly involved in each phase of the portfolio development to learn the
most from it and the reflection phase holds the most promise for promoting student growth.

4. Conferencing on student work and processes:- It is providing valuable information about the
student’s thinking and progress and provide student with meaningful feedback. The type of the
conference may be Teacher student, teacher small group or student-student.

Construction of (student) portfolio process

It includes the following points:-

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1. Identify the areas of skills that the student is to develop.

2. From these skills areas, develop specific learning outcomes for the student to achieve.

3. Identify performance indicators that establish that the student has achieved their learning outcomes
and indicate the evidence that the student need to collect.

4. Collect evidence that demonstrate the student has met the performance indicators.

5. Organize this evidence in a portfolio so assessors can easily understand how the evidence relates
to each performance indicator.

Items that might be included in the portfolio:-

Photographs of projects, artistic creations, reports classroom tests, work samples, self recording graphs,
error and miscue analysis summaries, computer generated products, awards and honours, audio and video
recordings; student, family and, teacher observations and interviews.

Ques:- Explain the meaning of Rubric? Give its characteristics?

Or

How rubrics are developed? Present the various steps for its development?

Meaning and definition

Merrian Webster dictionary lists the meaning of rubric as, “an authoritative rule.” And “a guide listing specific
criteria for grading or scoring projects or tests.” Thus rubric means a rule or guide.

Technically, a rubric is an explicit set of criteria used for assessing a particular type of work or performance
and provides more details than a single grade or mark. Rubrics, therefore help to make grade more objectively.

According to Andrade (2005): “A rubric is any set of criteria that describe the varying degrees of excellence or
levels of development in an activity, process or product.” It is a scoring tool that explicitly represents the
performance expectations for an assignment or piece of work.

In education terminology, rubric means “a scoring guide used to evaluate the quality of student’s constructed
responses”- according to popham james (1997).

Rubric usually contain evaluative criteria, quality definitions for those criteria at particular levels of
achievement and a scoring strategy.

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They are often presented in table format and can be used by teachers when marking and by students when
planning their work.

Characteristics or rubrics

1. A rubric is an evaluation tool that describes quality of work on a gamut (range) from excellent to poor.

2. Rubrics can be both: Assessment for learning and assessment of learning.

3. A rubric is a flexible tool that can be used to measure student learning related specifically to a
department’s objectives. Because rubric provide descriptions of each score level, it is easier for
different faculty to use a rubric to grade consistently across students.

4. It allows us to directly evaluate performance on programme level student learning outcome.

5. It is general enough that it can be used for different assignments.

6. There are three main types of rubrics:

a. Analytic:- Evaluate the end product or performance.

b. Developmental:- Designed for students or teacher to determine progress towards a goal.

c. Holistic:- Focus is on students demonstrating achievement and does not provide specific
feedback.

Development of rubrics

Rubrics take time to develop since one has to:

1. Identify the criteria or categories of performance.

2. Determine how many levels of performance will be characterized and

3. Determine clearly the different levels of performance for each category.

1. Category of performance:- The categories or criteria of performance are usually given in the rows of
work or performance to be of high quality.

For example, developing a rubric for a ‘case study write up’ might include the following categories of
performance:

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Category

Problem identification and issues

Response or strategy

Recommendations

Writing quality

Format

2. Levels of performance:- Once the categories or criteria are identified (rows), one must then decide
on how many levels of performance will be described (columns).

The level of performance should be designed to differentiate among the range of truly
outstanding and truly inadequate work. To indicate each level of performance, one could simply
identify scores, such as 0,1,2,3,or 4. In order to justify the score given, the key features of each level
should be given.

In the example above, the first four categories address the content of a case study write up.
The last two categories address writing mechanics and organization, both of which support the
ultimate usability of the case study. Both, the content of the case study and how it is written and
oganised, constitute the purpose of learning task. However, different levels may occur across the
task.

Defining these different levels should be based on the specific characteristics that
distinguish excellent from deficient performance.

While developing a rubric, teacher should decide what constitutes a grade or point reward for
each level of performance.

Additional tips for rubric development and use

1. Rubrics can be used to track student performance across time (e.g. across the semester, across an
academic programme)

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2. Rubric should be shared with students. Make sure students understand the categories and the
expected levels of performance that represent high quality.

3. When developing rubrics for specific tasks or assignments, include categories or criteria that reflect
the specific knowledge or knowledge applications required for successful completion of the task or
assignments.

4. Obtain student feedback to continue to improve the rubric categories, the ranger or levels of
performance, and the descriptions of each level.

5. Consider including criteria in the rubric that reflect important aspects of the process needed to
successfully complete the task of assignment.

For example, if critical evaluation of the literature is necessary in order to complete a task or assignment,
add a criterion that reflects the extent to which students could perform that critical evaluation.

Steps for developing a rubric

Following steps to be taken for it:-

Step-1:- Clearly define the assignment

a. What is the student expected to produce?

b. What are the common expectations across instructions?

Step-2:- Consider what student learning outcomes will be assessed.

a. Often with a culminating project, students are expected to demonstrate several of the department/
programme outcomes.

b. For example, for a senior seminar paper, outcomes related to writing and critical thinking may be
assessed as well as more discipline specific outcomes.

Step-3:- Determine the key criteria that you are interested in. for example, for the senior seminar paper, what
writing aspects of writing will be assessed?

a. Coherence

b. Organization

c. Mechanics

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Step-4:- Clearly define those key criteria

a. What do you mean by organization?

b. What does organized writing look like?

Step-5:- Establish clear and detailed descriptions for each performance level for each criteria.

a. Determine what the different levels of performance look like within each criteria.

b. Use sample papers of high, mid or low performers to help

c. It is usually easiest to begin by describing the highest level of performance.

d. Using specific language for the descriptions of performance levels increases the chances that
multiple faculty members will apply the rubric in a similar manner.

Step-6:- Try out the rubric on a few students with several rates to see if the rubric works and gets consistent
scoring from multiple rates.

Advantages of scoring rubrics

1. Rubrics help to measure highest order skills or evaluate complex tasks.

2. It helps in clarity vague, fuzzy goals.

3. It helps students self improve.

4. It helps the students to understand their expectations.

5. Rubrics make scoring easier and faster.

6. Rubrics make scoring more accurate, unbiased and consistent.

7. It reduces arguments with students.

8. It improves feedback to faculty and staff.

9. Rubrics can inspire better student performance.

Teachers and students play important roles in the portfolio development process

Teacher as designer – The design of the portfolio task is usually determined by the teacher using curriculum
objectives, or is specified by an external examining body. The design is influenced by what the portfolio will be

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used for – to showcase best work, or to show growth over time. The design of a portfolio of a portfolio task
also relates to the type of evidence required to fulfill overall curricular objectives. The portfolio may contribute
part of the mark for final assessment, or the total mark for a course/subject, or it may be used exclusively for
developmental purposes with no involvement of marks. Guidelines may be given in relation to the number of
pieces of work (compulsory as well as optional), and how the evidence may be organized.

Teacher as monitor – The ultimate responsibility for maintaining the integrity of the portfolio development
process rests with the teacher. Measures should be put in place to ensure that work placed in the collection is
relevant to the portfolio objectives, and that each piece of work selected is authentic, that is, it represents the
efforts of the student or group of students concerned.

Teacher as assessor – In order to have fair assessment of the portfolio, the teacher must ensure that there is
articulation among the objectives, the portfolio tasks, and the scoring procedures. The teacher must therefore
prepare a scoring guide or rubric along with the guidelines for developing the portfolio so that everyone –
teacher, students and parents – shares a common understanding of expectations.

Student as developer – The portfolio is the creation of the developer, even though the design and guidelines
are provided. The final selection of entries and their organization are left to the developer (student) and
articulate with the purpose as stated by the developer. As the developer, the student must constantly reflect on
the evidence in order to identify significant growth points.

UNIT 4

Descriptive statistic
Ques;- Explain the various types of central tendency with examples?

Ans..Introduction:

A large hump of statistical figures generally, create confusion in mind and make it difficult to grasp out
any useful information. It is as such, becomes essential to present the collected data in some condensed
form so as to make them understandable, comparable and worthy of scientific treatment. For this purpose a
central value, which represents the whole mass of data is worked out. The value is called ‘Central Tendency’
or ‘Central Value’ or an ‘Average’.

According to Simpson and kafka, “A measure of central tendency or central typical value around
which other figures congregate.”

According to croxton and cowden, “An average value is a single value within the range of the data that
is used to represent –all of the values in the series. Since an avg. is somewhere within the range of the data. It
is sometimes called a measure of central value.”

Essentials or characteristics of a good average or central tendency:-

According to Prof. Yule and Kendall, “An average should possess the following properties:-

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1. Rigidly defined:- If the observer or investigator is biased or doesn’t have a definite value, the avg.
would be affected. Therefore, the avg. should be rigidly defined i.e. the avg. would be definite and
stable.

2. Based on all observations or items:- There are some avg. which don’t take into account all the
observations of a group, so they are not regarded suitable. A good measure should take into account
all observations of a group.

3. Easy to calculate and follow:- The good avg. should not be too mathematical and its calculation
should not be too difficult.

4. Capable of further algebraic treatment:- A good avg. should be amenable to further algebraic
treatment.

5. Not affected by variations of sampling:- The difference in the values of the avg. for different
samples is called fluctuations of sampling. The avg. values is sometimes more or less. If fluctuations
of sampling is less, then the avg. will be better.

6. Affected by extreme items;- In avg. each and every item should affect the value of the avg. No item
should affect the average unduly.

Kinds/Types of statistical average/central tendency: - The various measures of C.T. may be grouped in the
following manner:-

Types of Avg.

Mathematical Positional

Airthematic Geometric Harmonic Median Mode Partition

Mean Mean Mean Value

AirthematicMean(A.M)

It is simply an avg. of all items in a series. It is the simplest measure of central tendency. The airthematic
mean of a series is simply called mean.

According to H.Secrist, “ The A.M. is the amount secured by dividing the sum of value of the items in a
series by their numbers.”

Formula:-Airthematic mean is generally denoted or written us (X). It may be expressed in the form of the
following formula:-

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X = X1+X2+X3+……………..Xn = ∑ X

N N

Where X1,X2,X3,Xn are the values of different items in the series.

N= Total no. of items

∑= This sign is called sigma. It refers to the sum total of the values of different items in the series .

Methods of calculating mean:-

A. In case of individual series Direct, Short cut, step deviation method

B. In case of discrete series

C. In case of continuous series

Properties of Mean

1. The sum of deviations of the items from A.M. is always zero i.e.

∑d=(X-A)=0.

2. The sum of squared deviations of the items from A.M. is minimum.

3. If each item of a series is increased, decreased, multiplied or divided by some constant then A.M.
also increases, decreases, multiplied or divided by the same constant.

4. The product of the A.M. and the no. of items on which mean is based is equal to the sum of all given
items.

5. If each item of the original series is replaced by the actual mean, then the sum of theses
substitution will be equal to the sum of the individual items.

6. The A.M. is not affected by any change in origin. This means that for any value of the assumed
mean the value of the arithematic mean remains the same.

Advantages /Merits of arithematic mean:-

1. Simplicity:- It is very simple to understand, use, calculate and the most simplest measure of C.T.

2. Certainity:- It is a certain value and has no scope for essential values.

3. Based on all items:- It is based on all items in a series. It is a representative value of the different
items. It is affected by the value of each and every item in the series.

4. Algebraic treatment:- It is useful for algebraic treatment. It is extensively used in statistical analysis.

5. Stability:- It is a stable measure. It does not fluctuate much related or repeated samples are taken
from one and the same series.

6. Basis of comparison:- Being stable and certain, it can be easily used for comparison as it is the
center of gravity balancing the values on either side of it.

7. Accuracy test:- It is defined by a rigid formula (mathematical formula) whosoever uses the formula,
gets the same and accurate result.

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8. Calculated value:- It is a calculated value and is not based on position in the series.

Demerits of arithematic mean:-

1. Effect of extreme value:- The main defect of arithematic mean is that it gets distorted by
extreme values of the series. Therefore, it is not always on accurate measure.

2. Absurd result:- It sometimes provide absurd and laughable results. For e.g.:- The avg. number of
students per class is 24.5 then it is an absurd result, as students cannot be half or in fraction.

3. Unsuitability:- It is not suitable measure in case of percentage or proportionate values.

4. No graphical presentation:- The value of A.M. cannot be determined graphically.

5. Non- existent figure:- Sometimes the A.M. can be a figure which does not exist in the series at
all i.e. a fictitious average. Eg. The avgis 2,3 and 7.

X =2+3+7 =4 which does not exist in the series.

6. Misleading conclusions:- It sometimes provides misleading conclusions and results.

7. Not a good measure, always:- The A.M. is useful and effective only if the distribution is normal.
But in case of U-shaped distribution, the mean is not useful. Thus it is not a good measure,
always.

8. Not useful in qualitative analysis:- The arithematic mean cannot be used for qualitative analysis
as qualitative attributes like beauty, honesty etc. are not measurable in terms of numbers.

Median

Median is a centrally located value of a series such that half of the values (or items) of the series are
above it and the other half below it. Mid value is thus called median.

According to Connor, “ The median is that value of the variable which divides the group into two equal
parts, one part comprising all values greater than the median value and the other part comprising all the values
smaller than the median value.”

According to Secrist,” Median of a series is the value of the item actual or estimated, when a series is
arranged in order of magnitude which divides the distribution into two parts.”

Formula: For finding the value of median in the given series, first of all series should be arranged in ascending
or in descending order and then the following formula should be used:-
th th
Median = size of (n+1) item or M= size of (n+1)

2 2

Where M= median

N= no. of items

Merits or advantages of median

1. Simplicity:- it is very simple measure of C.T. In the case of simple statistical series, just a glance at

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the data is enough to locate the median value.

2. Free from the effect of extreme values:- Unlike arithmetic mean, median value is not distorted by the
extreme values of the series.

3. Certainty:- Median value is always a certain specific value in the series. It can be located by
inspection in many cases.

4. Real value:- Median value is a real value and is a better representative value of the series compared
to arithmetic average, the value of which may not exist in the series at all.

5. Graphic presentation:- Besides algebraic approach, the median value can be estimated also through
the graphic presentation of data.

6. Possible even when data is incomplete:- Median can be estimated even in the case of certain
incomplete series. It is enough if one knows the number of items and the middle item of the series.

Demerits of Median

1. Lack of representation character:- Median fails to be a representative measure in case of such

series the different values of which are wide apart from each other.

2. Unrealistic:- When the median is located somewhere between the two middle values, its remains
only an approximate measure, not a precise value.

3. Lack of algebraic treatment:- Arithmetic mean is capable of further algebraic treatment, but median
is not. For example, we cannot find out the total values of the items, if we know their number and
median. It is easily known through arithmetic mean.

4. Class intervals are not uniformally distributed:- Median, in continuous series, has to be computed
through interpolation. It is assumed that in class interval, frequencies are uniformally spread, but
actually it, may not be true.

5. Affected by fluctuations:- Median is more affected by fluctuations of sampling than the arithmetic
average.

6. Not easy to arrange order:- To put items in the ascending or descending order, sometimes, is not
easy in case of very large data.

Mode: - Mode is another important measure of C.T. of statistical series. It is the value which occurs most
frequently in the series, that is , modal value has the highest frequency in the series.

Meaning: - The term ‘mode’ is derived from the French word, ‘La made’ which means fashion or the most
popular phenomenon.

According to Zizek, “Mode is the value occurring most frequently in a series of items and around which the
other items are distributed most densely.”

According to A.M. Tuttle, “ Mode is the value which has the greatest frequency or density in its immediate
neighbourhood.”

According to Croxton and Cowden, “ The mode of a distribution is the value at the point around which the items
tend to be the most heavily concentrated. It may be regarded as the most typical of a series of values.”

Formula:- It is denoted by ‘Z’

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Z =L1 + f1-f0 XC

2f1-f0-f2

Where Z=mode

L1= lower limit of the modal class

F1= frequency of the modal class

F0= frequency of the class preceding the modal class

F2= frequency of the class succeeding

C= class interval

Second formula:-

Mode= 3Median-2 Mean

Z= 3M-2 X

Merits of Mode:-

1. Simple and popular: - Mode is very simple measure of C.T. Sometimes, just a glance at the series is
enough to locate the modal value.

2. Less effect of marginal values: - Mode is determined only by the value with highest frequencies.
Therefore it is less affected by marginal values.

3. Graphic determination: - Mode is that value which occurs most frequently in the series. Therefore, it
is the best representative value of the series.

4. No need of knowing all the items or frequencies: - In mode it is enough to know one value or item
with highest frequency in the distribution.

Demerits of Mode:-

1. Uncertain and vague: - It is one of the most uncertain and vague measure of C.T.

2. Not capable of algebraic treatment: - Unlike mean, mode is not capable of further algebraic
treatment.

3. Difficult to compute: - The mode is difficult to calculate in case of items having identical
frequencies. Therefore modal class becomes too difficult to locate.

4. Complex procedure of grouping: - Calculation of mode involves cumbersome procedure of grouping

the data. If the extent of grouping changes there will be a change in the modal value.

5. Ignores extreme marginal frequencies: - Mode sometimes ignores the marginal frequencies thus it
is not a representative value of all the items in a series.

Difference between Mode, Median and Mean?

Sr. No Mode Median Mean

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1 It is the most frequent value in the It is the value of the middle point It is the value in a given
distribution; it is the point of of the array, such that half the aggregate which would obtain
greatest density. items are above and half below it. if all the values were equal.

2 The value of the mode is The value of the media is fixed by The sum of deviations on
established by the predominant its position in the array and either side of the mean are
frequency, not by the value in the doesn’t reflect the individual value. equal; hence, the algebraic
distribution. sum of the deviation is equal
to zero.

3 It is the most probable value, The aggregate distance between It reflects the magnitude of
hence the most typical. the median point and all the value every value.
in the array is less than from any
other point.

4 A distribution may have 2 or more Each array has one and only one An array has one and only one
modes. On the other hand, there is median. mean.
no mode in a rectangular
distribution.

5 The mode does not reflect the It cannot be manipulated Means may be manipulated
degree of modality. algebraically; medians of algebraically; means of
subgroups cannot be weighted subgroups may be combined
and combined. when properly weighted.

6 It cannot be manipulated It is stable in that grouping It may be calculated even

algebraically, modes of subgroups procedures do not affect it when individual values are
cannot be combined. appreciably. unknown, provided the sum
of the values and the sample
size and are known.

7 It is unstable that it is influenced Value must be ordered, and may Values need not be ordered or
by grouping procedures. be grouped, for computation. grouped for this calculation.

8 Values must be ordered and group It can be compute when ends are It cannot be calculated from a
for its computation. open. frequency table when ends
are open.

9 It can be calculated when table It is not applicable to qualitative It is stable in that grouping
ends are open. data. procedures do not seriously
affect it.

Mean

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Methods of calculating simple arithmetic mean

We know, there are three types of statistical series:-

1. Individual series

2. Discrete series and

3. Frequency distribution

Arithmetic mean may be calculated with respect to these series using different methods as discussed below:

Calculation of simple arithmetic mean

In case of individual series

In the case of individual series, arithmetic mean may be calculated by two methods:

1. Direct method

Following steps are involved in this method;

i.Add up values of all the items of a series (∑X);

ii. Find out total number of items in the series (N); and

iii. Divide the total of value of all the items (∑X) with the number of items (N). thus,

Illustration

Pocket allowance of 10 students is Rs. 15, 20, 30, 22, 25, 18, 40, 50, 55, and 65. Find out the average pocket
allowance.

Solution

Pocket Allowance (Rs.)

(X)

15

20

30

22

25

18

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40

50

55

65

Average pocket allowance of the 10 students = Rs. 34

2. Short cut method

This method is used when the size of items is very large.

The use of shortcut method involves the following steps:-

i.Before finding an actual average, some value in the series is taken as ‘assumed average’. Assumed
average should preferably be the middle items of the series. It facilitates the calculation of
deviation from the assumed average.

ii. Assumed average is generally taken by dividing by 2, the total of maximum and minimum values
of the items. It is always a complete number. In statistics, assumed average is often denotes
as ‘A’.

iii. Deviations of different values from the assumed average are found and each deviation is
written against the concerned value in the series. Thus,

d (deviation) = X-A

Where, X is the actual value in the series and A is the assumed average. If value of the item
(X) is less than the assumed average (A), then‘d’ or X-A would be negative. Thus, in the earlier
st
illustration, if A is 40, ‘d’ corresponding to 1 value in the series (15) would be, 15 – 40 = (-) 25.
th
Likewise corresponding to 8 value in the series (50) it would be, 50-40 = (+) 10.

While noting down the deviation against a particular item, sign of the deviation (+) or (-) must
th
also be specified. Thus, ‘d’ of the first value would be written as, -25 and of the 8 value as,
+10.

iv. Find the sum/total of all deviations. Add up positive deviations and negative deviations
separately; and then find out the difference. If the sum of negative deviations is more than
that of positive deviations then net sum of all the deviations will be negative and vice versa.

v. Divide the net sum of the deviations by the number of items in the series. If the dividend is
positive (+) then it gets added to A, the assumed average. And, if the dividend is negative (-),
then it gets subtracted from A, the assumed average. The value, thus, obtained would be the
actual average of the series.

Formula

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(Here, = Arithmetic mean; A = Assumed average; ∑d = Net sum of the deviations of the different values
from the assumed average; and N = Number of items in the series)

Illustration

Following is the pocket allowance of 10 students. Find out arithmetic mean using short cut method.

Pocket Allowance (Rs.) 15 20 30 22 25 18 40 50 55 65

(Assumed Average, A = 40)

No. of Students Pocket Allowance (Rs.) Deviation from the Assumed Average (d=x-A), (A= 40)
(X)

1 15 15-40 = -25

2 20 20-40 = -20

3 30 30-40 = -10

4 22 22-40 = -18 -110

5 25 25-40= -15

6 18 18-40= -22

7 40 (A) 40-40=0

8 50 50-40=+10

9 55 55-40 = +15 +50

10 65 65-40 = +25

N= 10 ∑d = -110+50 = -60

The sum of ‘+’ deviations = +50

The sum of ‘-‘ deviations = -110

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The net sum of deviations, ∑d = -110 +50 = -60

Dividing the aggregate of deviations (∑d) by the number of items (N), = = -6

Substituting this value of in the following formula

We have,

= 40 + (-) 6
= 40 – 6 = 34

Arithmetic mean = Rs. 34

Learning by doing

1. Following is the monthly income of eight families in a locality.

Monthly income (Rs.): 70, 10, 500, 75, 13, 250, 8, 42

CalculationFind
of simple arithmetic mean
out arithmetic meanin discrete
using series
directormethod
frequencyand
arrayshort cut method.

In discrete series, there are frequencies corresponding to different items in the series. There are three
methods of calculating mean of the discrete series.

That discrete series (also called frequency array) do not have class intervals. An item in the series does not
assume any range of values but each item has corresponding frequency.

1. Direct method

2. Short cut method

3. Step deviations method

1. Direct method

Direct method of calculating mean of the discrete series involves the following steps:-

i.Values of the various items in the series are indicating by X, and their frequencies by ‘f’;

ii. Each item is multiplied by its frequency to get ‘fX’. These multiples are added to get ∑fX. That is,

∑fX = f1X1+ f2X2 + ….. + fnXn

iii. Frequencies are added up to get ∑f. That is,

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∑f = f1+ f2 + f3+ ….. + fn

iv. ∑fX is divided by ∑f to obtain the mean,

Formula

Illustration

Following is the weekly wage earnings of 19 workers:

Wages (Rs.) 10 20 30 40 50

No. of Workers 4 5 3 2 5

Calculate arithmetic mean using direct method.

Solution

Wages (Rs.) No. of Workers of Frequency Multiple of the Value of X and

Frequency
(X) (f)
(fX)

10 4 4x10=40

20 5 5x20=100

30 3 3x30=90

40 2 2x40=80

50 5 5x50=250

∑f=19 ∑fX=560

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Mean wage earnings of 19 workers = Rs. 29.47

2. Short cut method

Short cut method of estimating mean of the discrete frequency series uses the following formula;

Formula

Steps

i. Before calculating the actual average of the series, some value which lies in the middle of the series
is taken as assumed average. This may be indicated by ‘A’. In the earlier example, assumed
average may be taken as 50.

ii. Deviation of each value of different items in the series is calculated from the assumed average. The
deviation is noted against the concerned item of the series. The deviation may be positive (+) or
negative (-). Accordingly, the (+) or (-) sign is to be noted against each deviation. If the deviation is
zero, no sign needs to be specified.

iii. Find the multiple of ‘d’ and its corresponding ‘f’, that is, ‘fd’. Add up, separately, the positive (+) and
negative (-) values of all ‘fd’. Find out the difference between the two to get ‘∑fd’.

iv. Add up all frequencies, to get ∑f.

v.

Divide ∑fd by ∑f that is , .

If the value of is positive, it gets added to the assumed average. If this value is negative, it gets
subtracted from the assumed average. The result would be the actual average of the series.

Illustration

Following are the wages of 19 workers.

Wages (Rs.) 10 20 30 40 50

No. of Workers 4 5 3 2 5

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Calculate arithmetic mean using short cut method.

Solution

Wages (Rs.) No. of Workers of Deviation Multiple of Deviation and Frequency

Frequency
(X) (d=X-A) (fd)
(f)
(A= 30)

10 4 10-30 = -20 4 x (-20) = -80

20 5 20-30 = -10 5 x (-10) = -50

30 3 30-30=0 3x0=0

40 2 40-30 = 10 2 x 10 = 20

50 5 50-30=20 5 x 20 = 100

∑f=19 ∑fd= -130 + 120 = -10

= 30 – 0.53 = 29.47

Arithmetic mean = Rs. 29.47

3. Step deviation method

This method is a variant of short cut method. It is adopted when deviations from the assumed mean have
some common factor. In the above example, all the deviations (d) can be divided by 10 which is a common
factor in this case. The common factor may be indicated by ‘C’. The deviation (d) when divided by the
common factor C is called step deviation. This may be indicated by d’.

Steps

i. Step deviation d’ is obtained by dividing the deviation (of the actual value from the assumed
average) by the common factor.

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(Here, d’ = step deviation, C = Common factor; d = Deviation; X = Value of the item; and A =
Assumed average)

ii. Each step deviation is multiplied with its frequency to get fd’. Sum Total of the fd’ is obtained to get
∑fd’.

iii. ∑fd’ is divided by ∑f, and then multiplied by the common factor ‘C’. The resultant value is added to A
to get the actual average of the series. Thus,

Formula

Illustration

Wage rate of 19 workers is given below:

Wages (Rs.) 10 20 30 40 50

No. of Workers 4 5 3 2 5

Calculate arithmetic mean using step deviation method

Solution

Wages (Rs.) No. of Workers of Deviation Step deviation Multiple of Step

Frequency deviation and
(X) (d=X-A) frequency (fd’)
(f)
(A= 30)

(C=10)

10 4 10-30 = -20 4 x (-2) = -8

20 5 20-30 = -10 5 x (-1) = -5

30(A) 3 30-30=0 5x0=0

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40 2 40-30 = 10 2 x 1 =2

50 5 50-30=20 5 x 2 = 10

∑f=19 ∑fd’ = -1

A = 30, C = 10 and = = -0.053

Putting these values in the formula

= 30-0.53 = 29.47

Arithmetic Mean = 29.17

Learning by doing

1. Calculate arithmetic mean of the following series:-

Take 15 as assumed average and use short cut method

Size 20 1 1 17 16 15 14 13 12 11
9 8

Calculation of simple arithmetic mean in case of frequency distribution

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In case of a frequency distribution, items are classified into different class intervals like 5-10, 10-15 etc. Each
class interval has its frequency. There are three methods of calculating mean in frequency distribution.

1. Direct method

2. Short cut method

3. Step deviation method

1. Direct method

This method involves the following steps

i.The mid values of the class intervals are calculated. These may be indicated by ‘m’. To find the mid
value of class intervals, the lower and upper limits of that class are added and then divided by
‘2’. Thus, mid value of the class 10-20 would be determined as:

(Here, m = Mid value; l1 = Lower limit of the class; l2 = Upper limit of the class)

ii. Mid values are multiplied by their corresponding frequencies. The multiples ‘fm’ are added up to
get ∑fm.

iii. ∑fm is divided by ∑f. The resultant value would be the mean value.

Formula

Illustration

The following table shows marks in English secured by students of class X in your school in their
examination. Calculate mean marks using direct method.

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No. of Students 20 24 40 36 20

Solution

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Marks Mid Value No. of students Multiple of Mid

or frequency (f) value and
frequency (fm)

0-10 20 20 x 5 = 100

10-20 24 24 x 15 = 360

20-30 40 40 x 25 = 1000

30-40 36 36 x 35 = 1260

40-50 20 20 x 45 = 900

∑f = 140 ∑fm = 3620

Central Tendency – Arithmetic Mean

=
Mean Marks = 25.86

2. Short cut method

This method involves the following steps:-

i.Mid values of the classes are determined, and indicated by ‘m’.

ii. Deviations of the mid values from the assumed average (A) are determined and indicated by ‘d’.
If negative, these deviations are written as –d, and if positive, these are written as +d.

iii. Deviations (d) are multiplied by the frequencies (f) to get ‘fd’. These are then added up to get
∑fd.

iv. ∑fd is divided by ∑f. The dividend is added to the assumed average. The resultant value would
be the mean value.

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Formula

Illustration

The following table shows marks secured by th students of a class in an examination in English.

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No. of Students 20 24 40 36 20

Calculate mean marks using short cut method

Solution

(Assumed Average, A= 25)

Marks Mid Value No. of students Deviation (d=m-A) Multiple of Mid

or frequency (f) value and
(A= 25) frequency (fm)

0-10 20 5-25 = -20 20 x -20 = -400

10-20 24 15-25 = -10 24 x -10 = -240

20-30 40 25-25 = 0 40 x 0 = 0

30-40 36 35-25 = 10 36 x 10 = 360

40-50 20 45-25 = 20 20 x 20 = +400

∑f = 140 ∑fd = 120

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= 25+0.86 = 25.86

Mean Marks = 25.86

3. Step deviation method

Step deviation method is a very useful method of calculating mean value in the case of frequency distribution.
It involves the following steps:-

i. Find out mid values of the class intervals, indicated by ‘m’.

ii. Find out deviations of the mid values from some assumed average. That is,

d= m - A

iii.
Find out step deviations by dividing the deviations with some common factor (C) that is, d’ =
iv. Multiply step deviations (d’) with the corresponding frequencies (f). Add up all the multiples to get
∑fd’.

v. Divide ∑fd’ by ∑f and then multiply it by C. The resultant value is added to A to get the mean value.
Thus,

Formula

Illustration

The following table shows marks obtained by the students of a class in their test in English.

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No. of Students 20 24 40 36 20

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Calculate arithmetic mean using step deviation method

Solution

(Assumed Average, A= 25)

Marks Mid Value No. of Deviation (d=m- Step deviation Multiple of step
students or A) (d’) deviation and
frequency (f) frequency (fd’)
(A= 25)

(C=10)

0-10 5 20 -20 -2 -40

10-20 15 24 -10 -1 -24

20-30 25 40 0 0 0

30-40 35 36 10 1 36

40-50 45 20 20 2 40

∑f = 140 ∑fd’= 12

Mean,
= 25+0.086 x 10

= 25+0.86 = 25.86

Arithmetic Mean = 25.86 Marks

Learning by doing

1. Find out the mean of the following distribution

180
Items 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

Frequency 2 5 7 13 21 16 8 3
181

Median

Calculation of median for different types of statistical series

1. Individual series and the median

Calculation of median in individual series involves the following steps:-

i.Arrange all the values of different items of a series in the ascending or descending order.

ii.

Add up the number of items, indicated by N. Find out the median item as th item. That
is,

M = size of th item
(Here, M = Median; N = Number of items.)

iii. If N of series happens to be an odd number, that is, not divisible by 2, it is easier to find out
median with the help of the above formula. For example, if the series is 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, then

rd
Median will be = 3 item.
4 5 6 7 8

Media

1 2 3 4 5

rd
Median = size of th = 3 item = 6
iv.

If N of series happens to be an even number, will come in fractions. Thus, if the

series is
th
4,10,12, and 18 then the would not be a complete number, but it would be
like 2.5 value. In such cases, median value would be the arithmetic mean of the two middle
th
values of the series. Thus, median value or the size of 2.5 item would be located as under:

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Median =

When N of the series is an even number, median is estimated using the following
formula.

Illustration

The following series show marks in economics of 11 students of class XI. Find the median marks.

Marks 17 32 35 33 15 21 41 32 11 10 20

Ascending order Descending Order

S.No. Marks S.No. Marks

1 10 1 41

2 11 2 35

3 15 3 33

4 17 4 32

5 20 5 32

6(M) 21 6(M) 21

7 32 7 20

8 32 8 17

9 33 9 15

10 35 10 11

11 41 11 10

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N= 11 N= 11

M = size of th item

= size of th item
th
= size of 6 item = 21

Median = 21
Learning by doing

1. Marks of 15 students in their economics paper are:-

6, 9, 10, 12, 18, 19, 23, 23, 24, 28, 37, 48, 49, 53, 60

Find the median marks

(Ans:- M = 23 marks)
2. Discrete series or frequency array and the median
2. Height of seven students is measured in cm as.
Calculation of median in case of discrete series or frequency array involves the following steps:
140, 142,
i.Arrange 144,
the data 145,
into 147, 149,
ascending 151.
(or descending) order.

ii. Convert the simple frequencies of a series into cumulative frequencies.

iii.

Determine the th item of the series, N being equal to ∑f.

iv.

Find the median value corresponding to the th item.

Illustration

Find the median of the following series:-

Size 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Frequency 2 3 8 10 12 16 10 8 6

Solution

Estimation of the Median

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Size Frequency Cumulative frequency

2 2 2

3 3 2+3=5

4 8 5+8=13

5 10 13+10=23

6 12 23+12=35

7 16 35+16=51(M)

8 10 51+10=61

9 8 61+8=69

10 6 69+6=75

N=75

Median or M = Size of th item

= Size of th item
th
= Size of 38 item
th st
It shows that median value corresponds to the 38 item in the series. This item appears first of all in 51
st
cumulative frequency of the series. Therefore, median shall be the value corresponding to the 51
cumulative frequency, which is 7.

Median = 7
Learning by doing

1. Find out median of the following series:

Size 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

Frequency 14 18 33 30 20 15 13 7

3. Frequency distribution series and the median

Calculation of median in a continuous series involves the following steps:

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i.The data are arranged in ascending or descending orders of their class interval.

ii. The frequencies are then converted into cumulative frequencies.

iii. Median class of the series is identified. It corresponds to that cumulative frequency which

includes the th item.

iv. The following formula is applied to determine the actual median value.

Formula

M = l1+ xi
(Here, l1 = Lower limit of the median class; c.f. = Cumulative frequency of the class preceding the median
class; f = frequency of the median class; I = size of the median class interval.)

Illustration

Find out median value of the following distribution:

Wage Rate (Rs.) 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

No. of workers 22 38 46 35 20

Solution

Wage Rate (Rs.) Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency

0-10 22 22

10-20 38 60(c.f)

(l1) 20-30 46(f) 106

30-40 35 141

40-50 20 161

∑f=N=161

M = Size of th item; N = ∑f = 161

th
M = Size of th item = Size of 80.5 item

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80.5 item lies in 106the cumulative frequency. The class interval corresponding to this cumulative
frequency is 20-30, which, therefore, is the median class interval. That is, the value of the median must lie
within the range of 20-30. The following formula is applied to identify the exact value of the median.

M = l1+ xi

= 20 + x 10 = 20 + x 10

= 20 + x 10 = 20+4.46 = 24.46
Median = Rs. 24.46

Learning by doing

1. Find out median of the following series:

Items 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80 80-90

Frequency 5 10 16 18 12 10 8

(Ans. M = 54.7)

2. Find out median marks of the following marks distribution for 100 students

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

4. Inclusive series and the median

Illustration

Calculate median of the following data

Marks 46-50 41-45 36-40 31-35 26-30 21-25 16-20 11-15

No. of Students 5 11 22 35 26 13 10 7

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Solution

This is an inclusive series given in the descending order. It should first be converted into an exclusive
series and placed in the ascending order, as in the following table:

Conversion into Exclusive series Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency

10.5-15.5 7 7

15.5-20.5 10 17

20.5-25.5 13 30

25.5-30.5 26 56 (c.f.)

(l1)30.5-35.5 35(f) 91

35.5-40.5 22 113

40.5-45.5 11 124

45.5-50.5 5 129

N= 129

Median, M = size of th item; N = ∑f=129

th
= size of th item = size of 64.5 item
th st
64.5 item lies in 91 cumulative frequency of the series. The corresponding class interval, 30.5-35.5,
would therefore, be the median class interval.

Using the formula,

M = l1+ xi

= 30.5 + x5

= 30.5 + x 5 = 30.5 + x5
= 30.5 + 1.2 = 31.7

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Median = 31.7 marks

5. Median of the series with unequal class intervals

Illustration

Calculate median of the following distribution of data

Class Interval 0-5 5-10 10-20 20-30 30-50 50-70 70-100

No. of Students 12 15 25 40 42 14 8

Solution

In such distribution, no specific treatment of the data is needed. Median can be calculated straight away
as in the case of other frequency distribution.

Estimation of the median

Class interval Frequency (f) Cumulative frequency

0-5 12 12

5-10 15 27

10-20 25 52 (c.f.)

(l1) 20-30 40 (f) 92

30-50 42 134

50-70 14 148

70-100 8 156

N=156

M = Size of th item; N = 156

th
= Size of th item = size of 78 item
This lies in 92th cumulative frequency and the corresponding median class is 20-30.

l1 = 20; c.f. = 52, f = 40 and I = 10

Substituting the values in the formula, we have

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M = l1+ xi

= 20 + x 10

= 20 + x 10 = 20 + x 10
= 20+6.5 = 26.5

Median = 26.5

Mode (Z)

Z = 3M-2
Formula

Z = 3M-2

(Here, Z= Mode; M = Median; and = Mean)

Here, it may be noted that in the case of normal distributions, or symmetrical distributions, mean, median and
mode coincide with each other. Thus, this formula is most useful in this case. However, in asymmetrical
distribution the formula may also be used for the calculation of mode.

Illustration

Calculate mode of a series, the mean and median values of which are 16cm and 20 cm respectively.

Solution

Mode = 3Median – 2 Mean

Or, Z = 3M-2

Here, M = 20 cm, = 16 cm
Z = 3 x 20 – 2 x 16

= 60-32

= 28

Thus, Mode (Z) = 28cm.

Find out the value of Mode

X f m fm

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0-10 4 5 20

10-20 4 15 60

20-30 2 25 50

30-40 4 35 140

40-50 6 45 270

X f c.f.

0-10 4 4

10-20 4 8

20-30 2 10 (c.f)

30-40 4 14

40-50 6 20

20

M= = = 10 lies in 20-30

M = l1+ xi

= 20 + x 10

= 20 +
= 20 + 10 = 30

Z = 3M-2

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= 3(30) – 2(27)

= 90-54

Z= 36

Learning by doing

1. Calculate mode of the following series

Class 30-59 60-89 90-11 120-149 150-179 180-209 210-239

interval 9

Frequency 4 7 12 15 18 6 5
Ques:- Measures of Variability

What is dispersion or variability?

In the last two chapters, we studied averages or measures of central tendency. Average indicates
representative value of the series around which other values of the series around which other values of the
series tend to converge. So that average represents the series as a whole. One may now be keen to know how
far the various values of the series tend to disperse from each other, or from their average. This brings us to
set another important branch of statistical methods, viz. measures of dispersion. Only when we study
dispersion along with average of a series that we can have comprehensive information about the nature and
composition of a statistical series. Let us take an illustration to understand the point better. The following data
relates to wages paid to 5 workers in three factories, A, B, and C.

Factory A Factory B Factory C

400 350 50

400 380 75

400 400 400

400 420 725

400 450 750

In all the three factories the arithmetic mean and median is same, i.e. 400. But in factory A, there is no variation
between the average wage and the wages paid to the different labourers. In factory ‘B’, there is a small
variation between average wage and wages paid to the different workers. But in factory C, there is large
variation in the average wage and the wages paid to different workers. The minimum wage is Rs. 50 and
maximum wage is Rs. 750. It shows that mean and median do not provide complete information about the
composition and character of a series. In order to get a comprehensive picture of the series, we should study
measures of dispersion as well.

● According to Dr. Bowley, “Dispersion is the measure of the variation of the items.”

● In the words of Spregel, “The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average value

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is called the variation in dispersion of the data.”

Following are some specific objectives related to the measurement of dispersion:-

1. To know the variation of different values of the items from the average value of a series.

2. To know about the composition of a series or the dispersal of values on either sides of the central
tendency.

3. To know the range of values (i.e., difference between the highest and the lowest value).

4. To compare the disparity between two or more series in order to find out the degree of variation.

5. To know whether the central tendency truly represents the series or not.

Absolute and relative of dispersion or variability

There are two measures of dispersion as discussed under:-

1. Absolute measure

When dispersion of the series is expressed in terms of the original unit of the series, it is called
absolute measure of dispersion. Thus, dispersion of price series would be expressed in terms of
rupees; dispersion of weight series would be expressed in terms of kilograms; and so on. For
example, if one states that the average wage of a group of the workers is Rs. 100 and dispersion of
the wage is Rs. 10, one is referring to absolute dispersion. Absolute measure of dispersion is used
when only one set of statistical distribution is under consideration. It cannot be used when
comparison is involved across two or more sets of statistical series with different units of
measurement 9like ‘rupee’ in one case and ‘kilogram’ in the other).

2. Relative measure

The relative measure of dispersion expresses the variability of data in terms of some relative value or
percentage. Thus, it one states that 26 percent of the people in India are below poverty line, one is
referring to the relative variability of data. In such case, absolute variability is divided by the mean
value of the series or percentage of the absolute variability is determined. This measure of dispersion
is used when one studies two or more series simultaneously. Relative measure of dispersion is
known as coefficient of dispersion.

Methods of measuring dispersion

Following are the methods of absolute and relative measures of dispersion.

Absolute Measure Relative Measure

Range Coefficient of range

Quartile deviation; inter quartile range Coefficient of quartile deviation

Mean deviation Coefficient of mean deviation

Standard deviation Coefficient of standard deviation,

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Coefficient of variation

Lorenz curve

Range

It is the simplest method of measuring dispersion of data. Range is the difference between the highest value
and the lowest value in a series.

Thus:

Formula

R= H-L

Here, R = Range; H = Highest value in the series;

L= Lowest value in the series

To illustrate, pocket expenses of 5 students are reported to the Rs. 20, Rs. 30, Rs. 40, Rs. 50 and Rs. 100 per
month. The highest value (H) in this series is Rs. 100 and the lowest value (L) is Rs. 20. Accordingly,

R=H– L

R = Rs. 100 – Rs. 20 = Rs. 80

Thus, R = Rs. 80

Coefficient of range

Range is an absolute measure of dispersion. As such it cannot be used for comparisons. To make it
comparable we find its coefficient. It is the ration between (i) the difference between the highest and lowest
values of the series and (ii) the sum of the lowest and highest values of the series. It is calculated as under:-

Formula

Coefficient of range, CR =
(Here, CR = Coefficient of range; H = Highest value in the series; L= Lowest value in the series)

Thus of the given illustration,

Coefficient of range, (CR) =

Calculation of range and coefficient of range for different types of statistical series

Let us understand through different illustrations how range and its coefficient are calculated for different
types of statistical series.

1. Individual series and range

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In the individual series, range is calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest value of
the series.

Illustration

Monthly wages of workers of a factory are stated below. Find out the range and the coefficient of
range.

Wages (Rs.) 50 60 80 90 200 225 250 300 340 360 400 415 425 450 500

Solution

Range ( R ) = H – L

Here, H = 500; L = 50

Thus, R = 500 – 50 = 450

Coefficient of range (CR) = =

Range = 150

Coefficient of range = 0.82

Learning by Doing

1. 5 students obtained following marks in statistics:

20, 35, 25, 30, 15

Find out range and coefficient of range (Ans:- R = 20, CR = 0.4)

2. Discrete frequency series or frequency array and range

As in the case of individual series, range of the discrete series is determined as the difference
between the highest value and the lowest value of the series. Frequency of the series is not taken into
account.

Illustration

Calculate range and coefficient of range of the following series.

Size 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18

Frequency 1 13 24 14 15 13 16 20

Solution

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Here, H = 18; L = 10

Range ( R ) = H – L = 18 – 10 = 8

Coefficient of range (CR) =

Range = 8

Coefficient of range = 0.29

Learning by Doing

1. Calculate range and the coefficient of range of the following series

Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

No.
3.
of 15 18 25
Frequency distribution series and range
30 16 10 9
students
The following two methods are used to find out the range of the frequency distribution series.

Method I:-

Mid-values of the class intervals are found. Difference between the highest and the lowest and mid-
values would be the range of the series. Frequencies of the distribution are not taken into account.

Illustration

Find out range and the coefficient of range of the following series.

Size 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30

Frequency 4 9 15 30 40

Solution

Size Mid- value Frequency

5-10 7.5 4

10-15 12.5 9

15-20 17.5 15

20-25 22.5 30

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25-30 27.5 40

Range ( R) = H – L = 27.5 – 7.5 = 20

Coefficient of range (CR) =

Range = 20

Coefficient of range = 0.57

Method II:-

According to this method, we find the difference between lower limit of the first class interval and upper limit
of the last class interval in the series. Difference between these values would be the range of the series. That
is,

Formula

R = Upper limit of the last class interval – Lower limit of the first class interval

Illustration

Find out the range and the coefficient of range of the following series:-

Marks 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

No. of Students 8 12 20 7 3

Solution

This is an inclusive series. For the estimation of range, this must be converted into exclusive series, as below:-

Marks No. of Students

19.5-29.5 8

29.5-39.5 12

39.5-49.5 20

49.5-59.5 7

59.5-69.5 3

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L = 19.5; H = 69.5

Range ( R) = 69.5-19.5 = 50

Coefficient of range (CR) =

Range = 50

Coefficient of range = 0.562

Learning by Doing

1. Marks obtained by 100 students of a class are given below. Find out range and
coefficient of range of the marks.

Marks 10-2 20-3 30-4 40-5 50-6 60-7 70-8 80-90 90-10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

No. of 4 10 16 22 20 18 8 2 5
students

Merits and demerits of range

Merits

1. Simple:- It is a very simple measure of the dispersion of the series. It is simple to calculate as well
as understand.

2. Wide application:- Range is widely used in statistical series relating to quality control in production.
Control charts are prepared on the basis of range. If the quality of goods produced is within the range
prescribed in the charts then the production process is said to be under control, otherwise not.
Likewise range is a commonly used measure of dispersion in case of changes in interest rates,
exchange rates and share prices.

Demerits

1. Unstable:- It is an unstable measure of dispersion. It depends upon the extreme values of the series.
Any change in the extreme values or a change in the sample immediately affects the range of the
series.

2. Not based on all values:- The calculation of range is not based on all the values of a series. It does
not give importance to other values other than the extreme ones.

3. No knowledge of the formation of the series:- Range gives no precise knowledge about the
formation of series.

4. Irrelevant for open ended frequency distribution:- Range cannot be calculated in case of open ended
frequency distributions. It just becomes irrelevant.

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Quartile deviation

Inter quartile range and quartile deviation (QD) and their coefficient

Inter quartile range

Difference between third quartile (Q3) and first quartile (Q1) of a series, is called inter quartile range.

Formula

Inter quartile range = Q3 -Q1

Quartile deviation

Quartile deviation is half of the inter quartile range

Formula

Quartile deviation=
It is also called semi inter quartile range.

Coefficient of quartile deviation

Coefficient of quartile deviation is calculated using the following formula:-

Formula

Coefficient of QD =

Coefficient of Quartile Deviation =

Calculation of quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation for different types of statistical series

Through different illustrations, let us understand how quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation are
calculated for different statistical series.

1. Individual series and quartile deviation

In order to calculate quartile deviation in case of individual series, we first find out the values of third
quartile and first quartile using the following equations:-

Q1 = Size of th item

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Quartile deviation (QD) and the coefficient of QD are then calculated using the following formulae:-

Formula

Coefficient of
Illustration

Find out the quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation of the following series:-

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Marks 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Solution

Q1= Size of th item = Size of th item

rd
= size of 3 item = 20 marks

Q3= Size of 3 th item = Size of 3 th item

th
= size of 9 item = 50 marks

Quartile deviation (QD) = = = 15

Coefficient of quartile deviation = =

QD = 15, coefficient of QD = 0.43

Illustration

The following table shows monthly wages of 10 workers:

Monthly Wages (Rs.) 120 150 170 180 181 187 190 192 200 210

Calculate first, third quartiles and quartile deviation

Solution

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Calculation of the partition values

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Monthly 120 150 170 180 181 187 190 192 200 210
Wages (Rs.)

Q1= Size of th item = Size of th item

= size of 2.75 the item

nd rd nd
= size of 2 item + (size of 3 item – size of 2 item)

= Rs. 150 + (170-150)

Q1=Rs. 165

th
Q3= Size of 3 th item = Size of8.25 item

th th th
= size of 8 item + (size of 9 item – size of 8 item)

Q3= Rs. 192 + (200-192) = Rs. 194

QD = =

Learning by Doing

1. Estimate quartile deviation and the coefficient of quartile deviation of the

following data.

8, 9, 11, 13, 17, 20, 21, 23, 25, 27

Show the QD is the average of the difference between two quartiles.

(Ans:- QD = 6, Coefficient of QD = 0.353)

2. Find out quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation of the following
series:-
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2. Discrete series or frequency array and quartile deviation

In a discrete series, a quartile deviation is calculated by converting simple frequencies of series into
cumulative frequencies. It is illustrated as below.

Illustration

The following data shows daily wages of 199 workers of a factory. Find out quartile deviation and the
coefficient of quartile deviation.

Wages (Rs.) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

No. of 2 8 20 35 42 20 28 26 16 2
Workers

Solution

The above series is first converted into a cumulative frequency distribution series.

Wages (Rs.) Frequency (f) Cumulative Frequency

10 2 2

20 8 10

30 20 30

(Q1)40 35 65

50 42 107

60 20 127

(Q3)70 28 155

80 26 181

90 16 197

100 2 199

N= 199

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Q1= Size of th item

th
= size of th item = size of 50 item
th th th
50 item lies in 65 cumulative frequency of the series. Wage corresponding to 65 cumulative frequency is Rs.
40 which therefore is first quartile of the wage distribution. Likewise,

Q3= Size of 3 th item

th
= size of 3 th item = size of 150 item
th th th
150 item falls in 155 cumulative frequency of the series. Wage corresponding to 155 cumulative frequency
is Rs. 70 which therefore is the third quartile of the series.

Quartile Deviation (QD) =

Coefficient of QD=

Learning by Doing

1. Find out quartile deviation and the coefficient of quartile deviation of the
following data:-

3. Age
Frequency 20 series and30
distribution 40
quartile deviation 50 60 70 80

Following illustration should explain the calculation of quartile deviation in frequency distribution
Member
series: 3 61 132 153 140 51 3
Illustration

Find out quartile deviation of the following series:

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Age (Years) 0-20 20-40 40-60 60-80 80-100

Solution

Age (Years) No. of Persons (f) Cumulative Frequency

0-20 4 4

20-40 10 14

40-60 15 29

60-80 20 49

80-100 11 60

Q1= Size of th item= size of th item

th
= size of 15 item
th th
15 item lies in group 40-60 and falls within 29 cumulative frequency of the series.

Q1= l1 + Xi
(Here, l1 = Lower limit of the class interval; N = Sum total of the frequencies; c.f. = Cumulative frequency of the
class preceding the first quartile class; f = frequency of the quartile class; i = Class interval.)

Thus, Q1= 40 + x20 = 40 + x20

= 40 + x20
= 40 + 1.33 = 41.33

Likewise,

Q3= Size of 3 th item

= size of 3 th item

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th
= size of 45 item
th th
45 item falls within 49 cumulative frequency of the series. Thus,

Thus,

Q1= l1 + Xi

= 60 + x20 = 60 + x20

= 60 + x20= 60 + 16 = 76
Having known the values of Q1 and Q3, quartile deviation (QD) is found as,

QD =

And,

Coefficient of QD =
Thus,

QD= 17.34, and coefficient of QD = 0.30

Learning by Doing

1. Given the following data, find out quartile deviation and the coefficient of quartile
deviation:

Wages (Rs.) 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30

No. of Workers 4 6 3 8 12 7

Ans:- QD = 6.87, Coefficient of QD = 0.4)

2. Find out quartile deviation and coefficient of quartile deviation from the following
data:-

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Merits and demerits of quartile deviation

Merits

1. Simple:- It is very simple to calculate and understand.

2. Less effect of extreme values:- Quartile deviation is less affected by extreme values of the series.

Demerits

1. Not based on values:- The calculation of quartile deviation is not based on all values of the series. It
is therefore, less representative.

2. Formation/series not known:- This method does not show complete formation of the series.

3. Instability:- The calculation of quartile deviation is significantly influenced by change in simple of the
population. Accordingly, it suffers from instability.

AVERAGE DEVIATION OR MEAN DEVIATION

As already pointed out, the two measures of dispersion discussed earlier viz., range and
quartile deviation are not based on all the observations, and also they do not exhibit any
scatter of the observations from an average. Mean deviation or average deviation
overcomes both these drawbacks. As the name suggests, this measure of dispersion is
obtained by taking the average (mean) of the deviation of the given values from a
measure of central tendency.

In the words of Edward W. Minimum, “The average deviation is the mean of the distance
between each score and the mean of the set of scores.”

According to Walker, “The mean deviation of a frequency distribution is the mean of the
absolute values of deviations from some measure of central position.”

Thus, average deviation or AD = ∑|X-M| or ∑|d|

N N

where, ∑= Sum total of

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X= Score

M= Mean

N= Total number of scores, and

d = Deviation of score from the mean

Computation of Average Deviation (Ungrouped Data)

Illustration :- Calculate mean deviation from the following data:

Scores:- 18, 20, 23, 36, 38, 48, 63, 68, 73

Solution: Computation of AD

Scores Deviation from Mean Without Sign

D = X-M |d|

18 -25 25

20 -23 23

23 -20 20

36 -7 7

38 -5 5

48 5 5

63 20 20

68 25 25

73 30 30

∑X= 387 ∑|d| = 160

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Mean = ∑X

Here, ∑X = 387 and N = 9

Mean = 387/9 = 43

AD = ∑|d|

Here ∑|d| = 160

So AD = 160/9 = 17.78

Hence, Average Deviation is 17.78

Computation of Average Deviation (Grouped Data)

Illustration:- Calculate average deviation from the following distribution.

C.I. 140-144 145-149 150-154 155-159 160-164 165-169 170-174

Frequenc 3 3 4 10 5 3 2
y

Solution: Computation of AD

C.I X (f) fx d |d| f|d|

170-174 172 2 344 15.33 15.33 30.66

165-169 167 3 501 10.33 10.33 30.90

160-164 162 5 510 5.33 5.33 26.65

155-159 157 10 1570 0.33 0.33 33

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150-154 152 4 608 -4067 4067 18.68

145-149 147 3 441 -9.67 9.67 29.01

140-144 142 3 426 -14.67 14.67 44.01

N= 30 ∑fX = 4700 ∑f|d| =

183.3

Mean = ∑fX / N = 4700/ 30 = 156.67

AD = ∑f|d| / N

Where,

∑= Sum total of

f = Frequency of the class interval

|d| = Absolute value of deviation = (1 X – M1)

AD = 183.3 / 30 = 6.11

Hence, average deviation of the above distribution is 6.11

Merits of Average Deviation

1. It is one of the simple measures of dispersion.

2. It is simple to understand and easy to compute.

3. It is based on all observations.

4. It is less affected by value of extreme items.

Demerits of Average Deviation

1. It ignores ± signs, which is not correct from mathematical point of view.

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2. It is not used in statistical conclusion.

3. It is not used in further algebraic treatment.

4. It is not an accurate method when it is calculated from mode.

5. It cannot be computed for distribution with open end class.

Standard deviation

Standard deviation is a most satisfactory scientific method of dispersion. Accordingly, it is a widely used
method in statistical analysis.

This was first used by Karl Pearson. This is sometimes called a ‘Root Mean Square Deviation’. This is
generally denoted by (sigma) of the Greek language. Standard Deviation is the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of deviations of the items from their mean value.

Standard deviation has two main features:-

(i) The value of its deviation is taken from arithmetic mean.

(ii) Plus and minus signs of the deviations taken from the mean are not ignored.

In fact, signs of the deviations become redundant once the deviations are squared. Finally, square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviation is calculated. It is this square root which is called standard
deviation. This is always in positive value.

In the words of Spiegel, “The standard deviation is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of all
deviations. Deviations being measured from arithmetic mean of the items.”

Coefficient of standard deviation

This is a relative measure of the dispersion of series. It is generally used whenever variation in different series
is compared. Coefficient of standard deviation is estimated by dividing the value of standard deviation by the
mean of the series. Thus,

Coefficient of standard deviation=

Calculation of standard deviation

1. Individual series and standard deviation

Following are the methods of calculating standard deviation in case of individual series:

i.Direct method

ii. Shortcut method

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i.Direct method

Direct method of calculating standard deviation is most useful when mean value is in whole
number. This method involves the following steps:

1. First of all, mean value of the concerned series is determined. That is, we find out as, =

2. Deviation of each item from is determined. That is, we find the values of x as, x = X-
3.
Each value of the deviation is squared. The sum total of the square of the deviations is
2
obtained. That is, we find out ∑x

4.

2
∑x is divided by the number of items (N) in the series. Square root of will be the

standard deviation. That is, we calculate the value of . Thus, following is the
formula for the calculation of standard deviation:

Formula

SD or σ= =
2
(Here, σ = Standard deviation; ∑x = Sum total of the squares of deviations; = Mean value; X- = Deviation
from mean value; N = Number of items.)

Illustration

Following are the marks obtained by 10 students of a class. Calculate standard deviation and coefficient of
standard deviation.

Marks 12 8 17 13 15 9 18 11 6 1

Solution

Calculation of standard deviation using direct method

S.No. Marks (X) Square of Deviation

Deviation (x = X- )
2 2
=11 x = (X- )

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1 12 12-11 =1 1

2 8 8-11 = -3 9

3 17 17-11= 6 36

4 13 13-11 = 2 4

5 15 15-11= 4 16

6 9 9-11 = -2 4

7 18 18-11 = 7 49

8 11 11-11 = 0 0

9 6 6- 11 = -5 25

10 1 1-11 =-10 100

2
N= 10 ∑X = 110 ∑x=0 ∑x = 244

= =

Coefficient of SD =
SD = 4.94 marks, coefficient of SD = 0.45

ii. Shortcut method

Short cut method of calculating standard deviation involves the following steps:

a. We take any value of the series as assumed average, generally written as A.

b. Deviation of all the items are obtained from the assumed average. Sum total of these
deviations is obtained as ∑(X-A) or ∑dx.
2 2
Also, we square up the deviations and obtain their sum total as (X-A) or ∑dx .

c. The following formula is applied to calculate the value of standard deviation.

Formula

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Illustration

Find out standard deviation, given the following data:

8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26

Solution

S.No. Size (X) Deviation from Assumed Square of Deviation

Average 2
(dx )
(dx = S-A)

A = 20

1 8 8-20 = -12 144

2 10 10-20 = -10 100

3 12 12-20 = -8 64

4 14 14-20 = -6 36

5 16 16-20 = -4 16

6 18 18-20 = -2 4

7 20(A) 20-20 = 0 0

8 22 22-20 = +2 4

9 24 24-20 = +4 16

10 26 26-20 = +6 36

2
N= 10 ∑dx= -30 ∑dx = 420

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= = 5.74
Standard Deviation = 5.74

2. Discrete series or frequency array and standard deviation

There are two methods of calculating standard deviation in discrete series:

i.Direct method

This method involves the following steps;

a. We find determine mean value of the series as

b. Deviations of various items are obtained from the mean value as

c. 2
Squares of deviation are obtained as x

d. Squared deviations are multiplied by their corresponding frequencies, and their sum total is
2
obtained as ∑fx .

e. The following formula is applied to calculate the value of standard deviation.

Formula

or
Illustration

Find out the standard deviation of the following data, using direct method:

Size 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Frequency 1 2 3 5 3 2 1

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Solution
2
Size Frequency (f) Multiple of size Deviation from Square of fx
2
(X) and frequency Deviation (x )
Mean (x=X- )
(fX)
= 10

4 1 4 -6 36 36

6 2 12 -4 16 32

8 3 24 -2 4 12

10 5 50 0 0 0

12 3 36 +2 4 12

14 2 28 +4 16 32

16 1 16 +6 36 36

2
N=17 ∑fX = 170 ∑ fx = 160

X=

= =
Standard deviation (σ) = 3.07

ii. Short cut method.

This method involves the following steps;

a. We take any value of the series as assumed average, written as A. Generally, the value of the
item with the highest frequency is taken as assumed average.

b. Deviations of different items from assumed average are obtained as d = (X-A).

c. Deviations are multiplied by their corresponding frequencies and then sum total is obtained as
∑fd. Also, deviations are squared and multiplied by the corresponding frequencies to
2
obtain ∑fd .

d. The following formula is applied to calculate the value of standard deviation:

Formula

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Illustration

Find out standard deviation of the following data:-

Size 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Frequency 5 10 15 20 15 10 10 15

Solution

Calculation of standard deviation (σ) in discrete series (Short cut method)

2
Size Frequency Deviation from Square of Multiple Deviation fdx
2
(X) (f) Assumed Deviation (dx ) and the
Average (dx=X-A) Corresponding
Frequency (fdx)
A= 5

1 5 -4 16 -20 80

2 10 -3 9 -30 90

3 15 -2 4 -30 60

4 20 -1 1 -20 20

5 15 0 0 0 0

6 10 +1 1 +10 10

7 10 +2 4 +20 45

8 15 +3 9 +45 135

2
∑f = 100 ∑fdx = -25 ∑ fdx = 435

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= =
Learning byDeviation
Standard Doing (σ) = 2.07

1. Find out standard deviation of the savings of the following 10 persons:

Persons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Savings 114 108 100 98 101 109 117 119 121 126
(Rs.)

3. Frequency distribution series and standard deviation

Three methods are available for the calculation of standard deviation in case of frequency distribution
series:

i.Direct method

ii. Short cut method

iii. Step deviation method

i.Direct method

This method involves the following steps:

1.
First, mean of the series ( ) is determined.
2.
Deviations of various mid-values are taken from the mean value, x = m - (Here, mid value is
m)
2 2
3. Deviations are squared (x ) and then multiplied by their corresponding frequencies to get ∑fx .

4. Following formula is used to calculate the value of standard deviation:

Formula

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=
Illustration

Given the following series, calculate standard deviation by direct method:

Size 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12

Frequency 2 4 6 4 2 6

Solution
2
Size Mid- Frequency (f) Multiple of Mid Deviation from Square of fdx
2
(X) value value and Mean Value (x=m- Deviation (x )
(m) frequency (fm)
)

= 6.5

0-2 1 2 2 -5.5 30.25 60.50

2-4 3 4 12 -3.5 12.25 49.00

4-6 5 6 30 -1.5 2.25 13.50

6-8 7 4 28 +0.5 0.25 1.00

8-10 9 2 18 +2.5 6.25 12.50

10-12 11 6 66 +4.5 20.25 121.50

2
N = 24 ∑fm = 156 ∑ fx = 258

=
Standard Deviation (σ) = 3.28

ii. Short cut method

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This method is the same as used in case of discrete series. The only difference is that
whereas in discrete series, deviations are obtained of the actual values of the series, in case
of frequency distribution series deviations are obtained of the mid values of the class
intervals. In both the cases, deviations are taken from the mean value of the series. Thus,

Formula

SD or
Illustration

Using short cut method, calculate standard deviation of the following series:

Size 0-2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10 10-12

Frequency 2 4 6 4 2 6

Solution
2
Size Mid- Frequency (f) Deviation from Multiple Deviation fdx
(X) value Assumed Average and the
(m) Corresponding
(dx=m-A) Frequency (fdx)
A= 5

0-2 1 2 -4 -8 32

2-4 3 4 -2 -8 16

4-6 5 6 0 0 0

6-8 7 4 +2 +8 16

8-10 9 2 +4 +8 32

10-12 11 6 +6 +36 216

2
N = 24 ∑fdx = 36 ∑ fdx = 312

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219

=
Standard Deviation = 3.28

iii. Step deviation method

This is the most popular method of calculating standard deviation in case of frequency distribution
series. It involves the following steps:

1. Take any value as assumed average, A.

2. Find out mid-values of the class intervals. Take deviations of the mid values from A, expressed
as ‘dx’.

3.

Divide the deviations by their common factor to get expressed as dx’.

4. Multiply dx’ with the corresponding frequencies and find their sum total as ∑fdx’. Also take
2 2
squares of (dx’ ), and multiply them by the corresponding frequencies to get ∑fdx’ .

5. Calculate the value of standard deviation, using the following formula:

Formula

XC
Illustration

Using step deviation method, calculate standard deviation of the following series:

Marks 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

No. of 5 10 20 40 30 20 10 4
students

Solution

Frequency distribution series and standard deviation

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(Step deviation method)

2
Marks(X) Mid- Frequency (f) Deviation from fdx’ Fdx’
value Assumed Average
(m) dx’ =
(dx=m-A)
C= 10
A= 35

0-10 5 5 -30 -3 -15 45

10-20 15 10 -20 -2 -20 40

20-30 25 20 -10 -1 -20 20

30-40 35 (A) 40 0 0 0 0

40-50 45 30 +10 +1 +30 30

50-60 55 20 +20 +2 +40 80

60-70 65 10 +30 +3 +30 90

70-80 75 4 +40 +4 +16 64

2
N = 139 ∑fdx’ = 61 ∑ fdx’ = 369

XC

X 10

=
Standard Deviation (σ) = 15.69

Illustration

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XC

X 20 (Here, C = 20)

σ=
Standard Deviation (σ) = 31.52

Learning by Doing

1. Calculate standard deviation of the following series:

Size 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40

Frequency 2 5 7 13 21 16 8 3

Merits and demerits of Standard Deviation

Merits

1. Based on all values:- The calculation of standard deviation is based on all the values of a series. It
does not ignore any value. Accordingly, it is a comprehensive measure of dispersion.

2. Certain measure:- Standard deviation is a clear and certain measure of dispersion. Therefore, it can
be used in all situations.

3. Little effect of a change in sample: Change in sample causes little effect on standard deviation.
This is because deviation is based on all the values of a sample.

4. Algebraic Treatment:- Standard deviation is capable of further algebraic treatment.

Demerits

1. Difficult:- It is difficult to calculate and make use of standard deviation as a measure of dispersion.

2. More importance to extreme value:- In the calculation of standard deviation, extreme values tend to
get greater importance.

PERCENTAGE/PERCENTILE

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Meaning of the term percentile

A percentile is the inverse of a PR whereas the PR of a particular score point is the percentage of scores
falling below this point in the ordered series of scores, the value of this point itself is his percentile
corresponding to this percentile rank. Thus, P90 is the point on the score scale below which 90 percent of the
th
scores fall. The PR of this point is 90, but the particular value of this point itself is the 90 percentile.

Definition

The Xth percentile of a given score distribution is the point on the score scale below which x percent of the
scores fall.

Special percentile points

Name Symbol Percentile

First Decile D1 P10

Second Decile D2 P20

Third decile D3 P30

Fourth decile D4 P40

Fifth decile D5 P50

Sixth decile D6 P60

Seventh decile D7 P70

Eighth decile D8 P80

Ninth decile D9 P90

First (lower) quartile Q1 P25

Second (middle) quartile Q2= D5= Mdn. P50

Third (upper) quartile Q3 P75

Median Mdn. = Q2= D5 P50

1. Individual series

Calculation of P70 from following data:-

S.No. X

1 120

2 150

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3 170

4 180

5 181

6 187

7 190

8 192

9 200

10 210

th
P70 = size of = size of item
= size of 7.7 item
th th th
= size of 7 item + o.7 (size of 8 item-7 item)

= 190 + 0.7 [192-190]

= 190 +0.7 [2]

= 190 + 1.4

P70 = 191.4

2. Continuous series

X f c.f.

0-10 4 4

10-20 6 10

20-30 20 30

30-40 10 40

40-50 7 47

50-60 5 50

th
P40= size of item

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th
=size of item
th
= size of 20 item

P40lies in the class 20-30

P40= 4 + xi

= 20 +

= 20 + x 10

= 20 + x 10

= 20 +
P40 = 20 + 5 = 25

P40= 25

Example

Calculate the value of P75, P80

Scores F c.f. rcf

50-54 2 50 100

45-49 5 48 96

40-44 7 43 86

35-39 8 36 72

30-34 9 28 56

25-29 4 19 38

20-24 5 15 30

15-19 4 10 20

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10-14 3 6 12

5-9 3 3 6

P75= L + xi
Where

L = Lower limit of that C.I. in which percentile lies.

F = Cumulative frequency of the previous class of percentile class.

f = frequency of the percentile class.

I = class interval

37.5 lies in the interval 40-44

P75= 39.5 + x5

= 39.5 + x5
39.5 + 1.07 = 40.57
th
80 percentile i.e. P80

P80 = L + xi

40 lies in the interval 40-44

P80 = 39.5 + x5

= 39.5 + x5
= 39.5 + 2.86 = 42.36

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Graphical Representation of Data

The graphical presentation means presenting the dte in graphic form.graphic

presentation helps us to understand the data in a frtequency distribution. It catches the
eyes and holds rthe attention which other statiscal evidences fail to attract. There are
different methods to depict frequency distribution in graphic form. Some of important
methods are

1. Histogram

2. Frequency Curves

i. Frequency polygon

ii. Cumulative frequency curve

iii. Cumulative percentage curve or ogive

iv. Pie diagram

HISTOGRAM
Meaning: -A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data.
It is an estimate of the probability distribution of a continuous variable(quantitative variable)
and was first introduced by Karl Pearson.

In the words of Garret ,”In histogram, the scores are assumed to be spread uniformly
over the entire interval. Within each interval of a histogram the frequency is shown by a
rectangle the bse of which is the length of the interval and the height of which is the
number of scores within the interval.l”

A histogram is essentially a bar graph of a frequency distribution.

Example :Prepare a Histogram and Frequency Polygon of the following data:

Steps for Preparing Histogram:

1.Taking scores: Take the score in the form of actual class limits a 19.5-24.5,
24.5-29.5,29.5-34.5 etc.

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2. Taking extra intervals: take two intervals (classes)on below and other above the
given grouped intervals or classes (with zero frequncy).
3. X-AXIS and Y-AXIS : Draw x-axis and y-axis.
4. Suitable scale:- determine suitable scale so that oy and ax may have the ratio
about 2:3.
5. Plotting class- intervals and frequencies: Plot class-intervals on –axis and
frequencies on y-axis. In plotting the points, start from the lowest
limit of the lowest class interval and plot all the class-intervals.
The lower limit of the lowest interval (one of the extra interval)
should be taken t the intersection point of x-axis and y-axis.
6. Putting a mark:- count the frequency on y-axis and put a mark at the height at
which the frequency in that class interval lies.
7. Completing the rectangle:- complete the rectangle by drawing a straight line
from the upper limit of the class-interval upto the same height.
8. Joining the points:- join the points in a horizontal line.
9. Representing each class or interval by a separate rectangle:- represent each
class or interval with its specific frequency by a separate
frequency by a separate rectangle.
Scale: On x-axis 5 scores = 5 small squares = .5”
On y-axis 1 frequency = 3 small squares = .3”

Insert diagram

10. Selecting appropriate units of representation : take proper care to select the
appropriate units of representation along the x-axis and y-axis.
Both x-axis as wel as y-axi should be neither too short nor too
long. According to garret, a good general rule for this purpose is
“to select x and y units which will make the height of the figure
approximately 75% of its width.” The ratio of height to width may
vary from 60 to 80%.

BAR DIAGRAM OR BAR GRAPH

If the variable is discrete, then a histogram cannot be constructed as the classes are not comparable in terms
of magnitude. However, a simple graphical presentation, quite similar to histogram, know as bar graph, may be
constructed. In a particular town, total number of schools is 24 and the management wise distribution of
schools is as shown, in Table.

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Management No. of Schools

Government 4

Local Body 8

Private Aided 10

Private Unaided 2

Total = 24

The bar graph is shown in the following figure:-

For a discrete variable the unit of measure on the horizontal axis is not important. Neither are the classes
related to each other. So the bars are equally spaced and are of equal width on the horizontal axis. However,
the heights of the bars are proportionate to the respective frequencies. Bar graphs are frequently used for
pictorial presentation of discrete data. If two variables are used simultaneously, even then bar graphs may be
quite effective. For example, if along with the total number of schools (management wise) the number of boys
schools, girls schools and co-educational schools are also to be indicated then this can be done on the same
graph paper by using the different colours, each indicating the sex wise category. For each management there
will be 4 bars having different colours indicating different categories.

Frequency polygon

A frequency polygon is a line graph of frequency distribution. It is simpler than its

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histogram counterpart. It sketches an outline of the data pattern more clearly. We can
get a frequency polygon from a histogram, if the mid points of the upper base of the
rectangles are connected by straight lines.

Frequency polygon can also be constructed directly from a given frequency distribution.
For this, two additional intervals or classes, one above and the other below the given
intervals are added. Then, the mid points of all the classes or intervals are calculated.

Like histogram, the frequencies are represented on the vertical axis (OY) and the class
intervals on the horizontal axis (OX).

Considering the mid points of all class intervals (including two additional intervals), we
have to plot the dots for the frequency polygon. Care should be taken to select the
appropriate units of representation in case of both X-axis and Y-axis. Both the X-axis
and Y-axis should not be too short or too long. The height (Y-axis) of the figure should
be roughly 3/5 to ¾ or 60% to 75% of the total width i.e. X-axis.

The above procedure will become more explicit by the following illustration.

Illustration:- Represent the following data by means of frequency polygon.

Table – Frequency Polygon of the distribution

Class Interval Exact Limits Mid Point Frequency (F)

*150-154 149.5-154.5 152 0

145-149 144.5-149.5 147 1

140-144 139.5-144.5 142 2

135-139 134.5-139.5 137 6

130-134 129.5-134.5 132 8

125-129 124.5-129.5 127 13

120-124 119.5-124.5 122 9

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115-119 114.5-119.5 117 6

110-114 109.5-114.5 112 3

105-109 104.5-109.5 107 2

*100-104 99.5-104.5 102 0

N= 50

*Two additional class intervals.

Frequency polygon of the frequency distribution of Table

Ogive or cumulative percentage curve;

The term ‘ogive’ is taken from architecture, “where it refers to a diagonal rib of a vault, or
to a pointed arch. An ogive portrays a distribution on a “less than” or on “more basis”.
This type of curve differs from the cumulative frequency in that frequencies are
expressed as cumulative percents of N on the y-axis instead of as cumulative
frequencies.

Steps for preparing ogive;-

1. Change the series into exclusive or exact form if it is inclusive one.

2. Accumulate the column of cumulative frequencies progressively from the

bottom of the distribution.

3. Find out cumulative percent frequencies for each cumulative frequency by using
the formula:
Cf
X 100 (C f stands for cumulative frequency)
N

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4. Draw x-axis and y-axis.

5. Determine suitable scale.

6. Plot class interval on x-axis at their exact upper limits.

7. Plot cumulative percent frequencies on y-axis carefully at the exact upper limits
of the class intervals.

8. Join all the points with the help of the scale.

Example:- Prepare an ogive from the following data:-

Class-Interval F (Frequency) Cf (Cumulative C percent f

frequency) (cumulative
% frequency)

60-65 1 50 50/50x100=1
00
55-60 3 49
49/50x100=9
50-55 4 46
8
45-50 6 42
46/50x100=9
40-45 5 36 2

35-40 10 31 42/50x100=8
4
30-35 8 21
36/50x100=7
25-30 5 13
2
20-25 4 8
31/50x100=6
15-20 3 4 2

10-15 1 1 21/50x100=4
2

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13/50x100=2
6

8/50x100=16

4/50x100=8

1/50x100=2

Pie Diagrams:-

Pie diagrams are also called circle graphs or angular diagrams or subdivided circular
diagrams. In this form of graphical representation, the data is represented through the
sections or portions of a circle. The name pie diagram is given to a circle diagram
because in determining the circumference of a circle we have to take into consideration

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a quantity known as ‘pie’ (written as π). The pie diagram is useful when one wishes to
picture proportions of the total in a striking way. Number of degrees may be measured
off by ‘eye’ or more accurately with a protractor.

Method of construction:-

The surface area of a circle is known to cover 2π or 360 degrees. The data to be
represented through a circle diagram may therefore be presented through 360 degrees,
o
parts or sections of a circle. The total frequencies or value is equated to 360 and then
the angles corresponding to component parts are calculated (or the component parts
are expressed as percentages of the total and then multiplied by 360/100 or 3.6). After
determining these angles, the required sectors in the circle are drawn.

In simple words, it should be remembered that in pie diagrams we take the total of items
o
and each item is given its proportionate angle taking the total as 360 . In this case we
may have to compare in terms of totals also, if data belongs to two cases.

Examples;-

Example 1. Use the following data to present through pie diagrams

Class VI VII VIII IX X

No. of
168 200 132 100 120
Students

Solution:- We add all the items and then taking ratio of each, we divide 360 into these
o
ratios. As total angle around a line in a circle is 360 .

Class No. of students Ratio or Size of Angle

o
VI 168 168/720x360= 84
o
VII 200 200/720x360= 100

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o
VIII 132 132/720x360= 66
o
IX 100 100/720x360= 50
o
X 120 120/720x360= 60

Take circle of any radius. In this circle, draw these angles one after the other. The area
shown under different shades speaks of a relative number of students in different
classes.

Example 2:- Draw a pie diagram to represent the distribution of a certain blood group ‘O’
among Gypsies, Indians, and hungarians.

Frequencies

Blood group Gypsies Indians Hungarians Total

‘O’ 343 313 344 1000

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Solution:-

Race Frequencies Angle

o
Gypsies 343 343/1000x360=123.48
o
Indians 313 313/1000x360=112.68
o
Hungarians 344 344/1000x360=123.84

Ques_ What is the meaning of NPC? Explain its features/ characteristics in detail?

Meaning of Normal Probability Curve (NPC)

The normal probability curve is defined as bell shaped curve showing a particular
distribution frequency over the values of a random variable. It is also called Gaussian
curve.

NPC is the frequency polygon of any normal distribution. It is an ideal symmetrical

frequency curve and is supposed to be based on the data of population.

Normal probability curve is bell shaped curve and a graph representing a distribution of
scores.

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Hence NPC is the bell shaped curve obtained for a distribution having maximum
frequency near the central values of distribution and the frequency gradually tapering
off symmetrically on both the sides.

Properties/ Characteristics of Normal Probability curve

The properties/characteristics of NPC are given here.

1. The normal probability curve is symmetrical. The NPC is symmetrical about the
ordinate of the central point of the curve. It implies that the size, shape and slope
of the curve on one side of the curve is identical to that of the other.

In other words, the left and right values to the middle central point are mirror
images as shown in this figure:

2. Unimodal. Since there is only one point in the curve which has maximum
frequency, therefore, the normal probability curve is unimodal. It means that it
has one mode. All the three central tendencies – mean, median and mode
coincide in it and are equal.

3. The maximum ordinate occurs at the centre. The maximum height of the
ordinate always occurs at the central point of the curve, that is, at the mid-point.

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4. Asymptotic to the X-Axis. The NPC approaches the horizontal axis

asymptotically. It means that the curve continues to decrease in height on both
ends away from the middle point, but it never touches the horizontal axis. Its
ends extend from Minus Infinity (- ∞) to plus infinity (+∞) as shown below.

5. The height of the curve declines symmetrically. In the NPC, the height declines
symmetrically in either direction from the maximum point. We get equal halves
on both sides from the central point.

6. The points of influx occur at point +1 standard deviation (± 1 ). The normal

curve changes its direction from convex to concave at a point recognized as
point of influx. If we draw the perpendiculars from these two points of influx of
the curve on horizontal axis, these two will touch the axis at a distance one
Standard Deviation unit above and below the mean (± 1σ).

7. The total percentage of area of the NPC within two points of influxation is Fixed
– Approximately 68.26% area of the curve falls within the limits of ± standard
deviation unit from the mean as shown in the figure below:

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8. The total area under NPC may be considered 100 percent probability. The total
area under the normal curve may be considered to approach 100 percent
probability. The area between mean and any point deviation given in term of σ –
distance is always the same, as shown in the figure given below. The percentage
area of these distances is known.

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239

9. The normal curve is bilaterial. The 50% area of the curve lies to the left side of
the maximum central ordinate and 50% lies to the right side. Hence the curve is
bilateral.

10. As the curve does not touch the baseline, the mean is used as the starting point
for working with normal curve.

11. To find the deviation from the point of departure i.e. mean, standard deviation of
the distribution is used as a unit of measurement.

12. The curve extends on both sides – 3 sigma distance on the left to +3 sigma
distance on the right.

13. The total area under the curve is equal to 1.

14. It is completely determined its mean and standard deviation.

15. The NPC is a mathematical model in behavioural sciences.

The curve is used as a measurement scale. The measurement unit of this scale is ±σ
(The unit standard deviation)

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Divergence in normality (The non-normal distribution)

In the normal curve model, the mean, the median and the mode, all coincide and
there is perfect balance between the right and left values of the occurs. But
sometimes divergence occurs. Generally two types of divergence occur in the normal
curve.

1. Skewness, and

2. Kurtosis

1. Skewness. A distribution is said to be skewed, if the point of centre of gravity is

located on one side of the distribution i.e. away from the centre of the scale of
measurement.

In the skewed distribution, the mean and medium fall at different points in the
distribution and the balance is shifted to one side or the other to left or right. In
the normal distribution, the mean equals the median exactly and there is no
skewness.

There are two types of skewedness – negative skewness and positive skewness.
A distribution is said to be negatively skewed if the scores are concentrated at the
higher end of the measuring scale and it is said to be positively skewed if the
scores are concentrated at the lower end of the measurement scale.

2. Kurtosis. The term kurtosis refers to the divergence in the height of the curve,
especially in the peakedness.

It is of two types: Lepto Kurtosis and platy kurtosis.

A distribution of flatter peak than the normal one is known as platy-kurtosis

distribution, and

A distribution which is more peaked than the normal is known as lepto kurtosis
distribution.

In case of normal distribution, the value of kurtosis is 0.263.

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Ques;- What do you mean by Grading system? Explain its types/methods and uses?

Ans;- Grading system calls for providing letter grades to the students for their educational achievements
instead of declaring them passed or failed or assigning numerical marks on a 100 point scale. It is preferred to
the old system of percentage marking on account of the following reasons.
1. It is simple to assign grading than the exact numerical marking involving no biases and
subjectivity.
2. Examiners do differ in their marking on account of the subjectivity and standard of their
marking. Grading reduces the subjectivity and unreliability on the part of the examiners.
st nd rd
3. In the old system, there is a provision of pass-fail or assigning divisions 1 , 2 or 3 for a certain
percentage of marks obtained by the students. Grading makes it more wider by providing
more graded categories. There is a practice in the old system of bunching the marks at the
end for declaring pass or assigning particular divisions. Grading system helps in removing
this evil.
4. Usually different subjects have different ranging marks, and combination of such
heterogeneous scores as an aggregate or total marks for pass-fail or division is quite
unsound and inaccurate from statistical as well as mathematical angles. Grading system
provides good alternative for removing this defect.
5. Grading system provides scaling of the evaluation on a uniform basis for the better comparison
and combination of the evaluation outcomes in the different subjects and by the different
examiners.
Methods of Grading: - Generally two types of letter grades are assigned, one is to assign A,B,C,D, or E and the
other consists of assigning O,A,B,C,D representing outstanding, very good, good, poor or very poor level of
performances. For assigning such letter grades generally two methods known as absolute grading method
and relative grading method are employed.
1. Absolute Grading method: - In such grading method a pre- determined level or standard is fixed
for assigning letter grades. It can be carried out in two ways.
i. A pre-established percentage scores required for a given grade is fixed. In other words, we fix
different ranges of percentage marks for assigning them grade letters like given below:

Grade Scores percentage

O 80% and above
A 70-79%
B 60-69%
C 50-59%
D less than 50%
ii. The other form of the absolute grading is known as criterion referenced grading. Here the criterion
performance standard is fixed by the teacher or authorities in advance in the light of the difficulty
level of the test and the standard or quality of learning performance needed from the learners. In
other words, the decision is taken well before examining or testing the students that what
performance (in terms of the changes in their behaviour) will help them to earn various letter
grades. The performance level and the letter grades can be represented as below:

Grade performance level. (In relation to the achievement of pre-determined objectives)

O Outstanding (Excellent)
A Above average (very good)
B average (good)
C below average (poor)
D inadequate (very poor)
Relative grade method. (In this method grades are provided on the basis of the comparative or relative
positions (ranks) of the students in their class or group). In usual practice, relative grading follows the ‘normal
curve’ distribution of marks over a population of students follows the distribution pattern of a normal curve.
The area under the normal curve may be statistically divided into equal segments helping us to mark the

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percentage of cases falling in each segment.

This further helps us to take the decision as given below:

Grade Percentage of cases for being assigned the given grade

O top 7% of a class or group
A top middle 24% of a class or group
B middle 38% of a class group
C bottom middle 24% of a class or group
D bottom 7% of a class or group
The decision about the top 7% , the next 24%, middle 38% and so on may be taken on the basis of numeral
scores earned or performance level shown by the students on any evaluation measure. The students roll
numbers may then be arranged in descending order on the basis of their numerical scores or performance
ratings. Top 7% are then assigned grade O, next 24% grade A, next 38% grade B and so on.

Ques32:- Role of feedback to stake holders (students, teachers and parents)

Introduction:-Feedback is one of the necessary ingredients of any educational system. Without proper
feedback, any person can’t evaluate the effectiveness of teaching learning process and the performance of
students as well as teachers. All decisions are taken on the basis of feedback reflected in terms of students’
performance on the intended outcomes which form the basis of assessment.

Meaning:-Feedback is normally something which happens as a result of some learning oriented action.
Feedback may be provided after the event, during the event or both. However, feedback can be provided even
in the absence of any learning action, and may even cause a learning event to take place thereafter.

Definitions:-

1. According to Schramm (1959) points out each is constantly communicating back to the other. The
return process is called ‘feedback’ and plays an important part in communication because it tells both
the source and the services, how their messages are being interpreted.

2. According to Berlo (1960):- “If a communication source decodes the message that he encodes, if
the message is put back to his system, we have feedback.”

Conclusion of the definitions:-To conclude, feedback is a process which results in self administered positive
reinforcement of an activity. It is a source of instability in a system, which if not checked, may lead in ‘runaway
fashion’ to a breakdown of that system.

Characteristics of feedback

● Feedback mechanism provides loop to each component of the teaching learning process.

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● Feedback is a formative process.

● Feedback can fusel constructive reflection by the learner.

● Feedback may be positive or negative.

● Feedback can be given at any level of instruction.

● It maintains the stability and equilibrium of a communication system (i.e. teaching learning process)

● Feedback helps to identify the strengths and weaknesses of learners, teachers as well as
administration and educational system.

● Feedback given to parents by the teachers about their ward/child helps them to understand their
child better and help them to reduce difficulties (if any) faced by their children’s.

● Feedback helps to improve teaching and learning process.

Role of feedback for students

Feedback is a formative process which gives pupil’s information about how they are doing and whether they
are on the right track when learning something. This motivates them to make an effort and to continue. Role of
feedback for students can be summarized in following points:-

● Effective learning:-Feedback contributes to learning when it is noticed.

● Encouragement and motivation:- A sequence in which feedback is sandwiched between praise, i.e.
praise – constructive feedback praise, is designed to provide encouragement and motivation, along
with information to help the pupil improve the activity or behavior.

● Refinement/refining the activity or behavior:-A pupil is more likely to behave appropriately if feedback
is used in conjunction with praise.

● Improvement of learning:- Feedback contributes even more to learning when the learner reflects on
the lessons for next time.

● Constructive reflection:- Feedback can fuel constructive reflection by the learner.

● Acquire and hone the skills:- Feedback provides opportunities for leaders/students in school to
acquire and hone the skills (for e.g. reading, writing, reciting the poem, problem solving etc.)

● Improve the quality of education:- Feedback helps to improve the quality of education.

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● Self imposed discipline:- Feedback helps the learner to develop the habit of self discipline and
appropriate behavior.

● Improves academic development:- Feedback plays important role in improving academic

development of students/learners.

● Feedback helps the child in inculcating positive attitude towards learning.

Role of feedback for teachers/importance of quality feedback of teachers

Introduction:-The work of John Hattie and others has amply demonstrated that one of the most significant
factors contributing to learning and improvement for students is quality feedback from the teacher. The same
is true for the teacher as a learner quality feedback from supervisors about instruction methods, classroom
management, student management/engagement, questioning techniques, and so on has a key role to play in
teacher development and improvement.

● Judging the efficacy of the instructional objectives:- When the results are analysed in terms of
instructional objectives and in terms of specific learning outcomes i.e. competencies, it is possible to
form the basis for addition, deletion or modification of certain outcomes depending upon student’s
performance in a given subject for a class.

● Improving the prescribed syllabus:- Analysis of evidences would reveal inadequacies in terms of
difficulty level of certain topics, under emphasis of certain areas or misplacement of concepts
requiring further investigation regarding review of existing syllabus.

● Fostering the feeling of self esteem

● Promoting students learning:- Analysis of performance on various concepts reflect direction for
further improvement in view of existing level of students performance and that helps to motivate for
further learning and development of positive self concept.

● For improving instruction:- Students performance on tests indicates instructional impact on

students performance and that helps to motivate further learning strategies in respect of unit of
learning strategies and form the basis for improving instruction.

● For providing guidance:- Results indicate success or failure on the basis of which future
performance of students can be predicted on the basis of poor performance and identification of
weaknesses in various areas and subjects guidance can be provided for selecting right courses,
besides providing individualized instruction and enrich programmes.

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● For promoting research:- Problems like choice of questions, use of different forms of questions and
allotment of marks can be solved through undertaking action (classroom) research and using the
data for improving instruction and students learning. This is the last step of feedback.

● Screening of the child :-Feedback helps the teacher in identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
the students.

● Arranging workshops/ remedial teaching

Role of feedback to parents

●Assisting the child in learning :-Feedback helps the parents in assisting their child in learning.

●Taking active participation in developing individual educational plan (IEP) for their child:- Feedback
plays important role for parents in taking active participation in developing individual educational plan.

●Non-comparative attitude amongst siblings:-Feedback develops the non comparative attitude

amongst parents.

●Child’s progress and activities:- Parents come to know about their child’s progress and the types of
activities conducted for them by the school/institution.

●Get the knowledge and understanding of the school’s philosophy and programmes

●Stress free environment at home:-Feedback about the child by the teachers creates positivity the
parents and thus helps to create a stress free environment at home.

●Inculcates positive attitude towards learning:- Feedback develops the positive attitude of parents
towards the learning activities/process of their child.

●Determining the strengths and needs of the child:- Feedback helps the parents in determining the
strengths and needs of their ward/child.

●Preparing their children for meeting the societal expectations of their perspective roles.

●Fostering feeling of self esteem in child:-Feedback plays a key role in fostering the feeling of self
esteem in the child by the parents.

●Feedback helps the parents to accept the limitations of their child.

●Selection of career:-Feedback helps the parents to assist and support schooling, career selection
and preparation.

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●Educational assists the parents in their educational and vocational responsibility.

Accept the limitations of their child:-Feedback helps the parents to accept the limitations of their child.

Conclusion:- Feedback is an essential part of education and training programmes. It helps learners to
maximize their potential at different stages of training, raises their awareness of strengths and areas of
improvement and identify actions to be taken to improve performance.In this way feedback is a form of
response focused on helping someone to meet a goal- to understand something more fully, to perform more
effectively. It is information about how we are doing in our efforts to reach a goal.

Reporting Students Performance

Ques33:- Progress report

A progress report is an assessment that takes place during a project or process, that
conveys details such as, what sub-goals have been accomplished; what resources have
been expended; what problems have been encountered, and whether the project or
process is expected to be completed on time and within budget. Progress reports are
used by management to determine whether changes are necessary to an ongoing effort.

Students progress report

In the field of education, it is known as student progress report. The students progress
report summarized a student’s performance in the selected term and all previous terms
in all subject. The report can be generated for a single student or multiple students.
Students must have valid or growth test events to be included in the report.

The purpose of this type of progress report is to discuss with the parents about their
child progress in school.

The progress report should give a general picture of how a student is doing as well as
adequacy of his learning progress. The report should indicate the student’s strengths
and weaknesses in learning, his interests and changing pattern of attitudes, values and
personal social development.

Purpose of progress report

The primary purposes of progress report are:-

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1. To communicate student growth to parents and the broader community.

2. To provide feedback to students for self education.

3. To document student progress and the effectiveness of instructional

programmes.

Format of progress report

Many types of format of progress report are used by different schools. An example is
given below:-

Student Progress Report

Student _________________ course or Class__________________ Teacher _____________

Reporting Period___________________________

(A) Student engagement

(I) commitment Emerging Developing Established

1. Attendan ● Sometime ● Consistent ● Always

ce and on time ly in time on time.
punctualit
● Sometimes ● Consistent ● Always
y
attends ly attends attend
class.
● Generally on
time

● Generally
attends class

2. Preparati ● Rarely ready ● Generally ● Consisten

on for to learn ready to tly ready to
Class learn learn
● Rarely

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3. In-class brings material ● Generally ● Consisten

time on brings all tly brings
● Sometimes
task, work the all material
ready to learns
ethnic and material required.
participati ● Sometimes required.
on. Shows brings
a material.
willingnes
s to
question,
to discuss
and take
risk.

4. Implemen ● Rarely ● Generally ● Consisten

ts plans strives to strive to tly
for improve improve completes
improvem all work
● Sometimes
ent
strives to
improve

(II) Attitude Emerging Developing Established

1. Respect ● Rarely ● Generally ● Consistently

respectful respectful respectful

● Sometime
s respectful

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2. Co- ● Rarely ● Generally ● Consistently

operation cooperative cooperative
cooperativ
● Sometime
e
s
cooperative

3. Motivation ● Attends ● Extrinsic; ● Intrinsic;

due to at school learning for
consequenc for the learning sake.
es for non marks
school
attendance

4. Demonstra ● Rarely ● Generally ● Consistently

tes an show shows shows
interest in interest in interest in interest in
learning learning learning learning.

● Sometime
s shows
interest in
learning

5. Persistenc ● Rarely ● Generally ● Consistently

e and pesetas perseveres
resiliently when faced perseveres when faced
with a when with a
challenges faced with challenges.
a
● Sometime
challenge.
s
perseveres

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(B) Academics

(III) Academics Not Yet Occasionally Frequently Consistently

1. Meets ● Rarely ● Sometimes ● Generally ● Con

academics meets meets meets siste
outcomes deadlines deadlines deadlines ntly
meet
s
deadl
iness

2. Quality ● Little care ● Some care ● General care ● Gre

and pride is and pride is and pride in at
taken in taken in taken in work care
work work submitted for and
submitted submitted evaluation pride
for for is
evaluation evaluation. taken
in
work
subm
itted
for
evalu
ation

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3. Demonstrat ● Rarely ● Sometimes ● Generally ● con

es siste
understandin ntly
g of key
concepts

4. Applies ● Rarely ● Sometimes ● Generally ● Con

knowledge applies applies applies siste
and knowledge ntly
understandin and appli
g to new understandin es
concepts g to new
concepts.

The relevant status is given to the student by marking (√) on the comment.

Use of Progress Reports

At present, the schools are placing a great emphasis on the report of educational
progress and marks obtained in various scholastic and non scholastic activities. It is
one of the major bases for crucial decisions about the educational and vocational
destiny of the students. The results of evaluation are of great use to students, parents,
teachers and administrators in various ways for making educational and vocational
decisions for students.

1. To Students. The progress report shows the result of continuous evaluation of

all the scholastic and non scholastic areas. It becomes the basis for motivation
to students for learning. It helps in improving study habits and correction of
errors.

2. To teachers. Reports of evaluation are useful to teachers in identifying the

topics/units difficult for most of the students and planning teaching strategies

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accordingly. Counselors use the present and past progress reports, along with other
information, to help students in developing increased self understanding and to
make more realistic educational and vocational career selection.

3. To parents. A progress report presenting a clear picture about the progress of a

student in various learning activities, is quite a valuable source of information for
parents in taking decisions about their child’s future educational and vocational
career. On the basis of results of evaluation reported in the progress report, the
parents estimate the probability of success of their child and decide whether to
continue or discontinue his studies, and also about selection of educational or
vocational career.

4. To administration. A progressive report serve a number of administrative. It is

used for ranking, grading, awarding division, determining promotion to higher
class in same school and to other educational institutions. Every school and
college has limited facilities; they cannot have their own tests. They use marks as
the basis for admission to higher study and as indication of student’s progress
after admission.

Ques34:- CUMULATIVE RECORDS

CRC Meaning, Definition, Types or design, Contents, features Advantages, problems in maintenance,
Specimen.

Meaning of Cumulative Record card:- Our improvement of educational evaluation was the introduction of the
cumulative record cards in the school on the recommendation of the secondary Education Commission made
in 1953. The other name of cumulative Record Card is the cumulative Record form. It contains the history of
the child from the day he enters the primary class till he leaves the school. It is an account of child’s history in
the school. Giving the Indian touch, the cumulative Record card can be easily compared to the ‘JanamPatri’ of
the child. From this we know about the past & from his dependence predictions can be made about the future
also. There will be only one Cumulative Record from one child though many other types of records and
progress reports can be maintained about him.

Definition of Cumulative Card:-

● According to Allen, “The Cumulative Record is a record of information concerned with appraisal of
the individual pupil, kept on a card and in one place”.

● According to Jones, “A cumulative record is a permanent record of a student which is kept up to date
by the school. It is his educational history with information about his school achievements,
attendance, health tests scores and similar pertinent data”.

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● In the words of wright stone, “ The Cumulative Record is a method for recording, filling & using
information essential for the guidance of the students. It represents a cumulative individual inventory
of the educational mental, Physical, Social and emotional development of each pupil”.

● In nutshell we can say that-

1. Cumulative record includes all types of information related to the pupil.

2. Definate information related to the pupul is included in the cumulative record.

3. Cumulative record provides objectives information about the pupils

4. Cumulative record is the complete picture of the child his abilities, drawback and achievements etc.

Types or Forms of Cumulative Records Cards:-

The cumulative record can be maintained in the following form.

1. Single card.

2. Folder type card

3. Cumulative folder type.

1. Single Card:- It has one card only. It’s both sides can be used for writing the information. Such
cards can accommodate much information. Its size is 9’’ x 11’’.

2. Folder Type Card:- These are of various types. Their size ranges 4’x6’ to the full form. Colored
forms make the sorting of the form convenient.

3. Cumulative folder type: It is a folder facts are written in the boxes on the both sides of the
folder. There is also a provision for written additional information. There are many pages in it.

Contents of a Cumulative Record:-

1. Public Introduction or Identifying data:- Identifying data like name, age, sex, birth date of the
child.

2. Social Economic Background of Pupil: The total information of social Economic background of
the child. All information about the parents of the child, their education, profession, siblings,
annual income etc.

3. Health Data: The data relating to the physical & mental position of the pupil are collected

4. Presence: How many a days a pupil attend the school in a year. Courses of being absent.

5. Psychological data: Psychological Data like intelligence, interest aptitudes, emotional & social
adjustments and other personality traits.

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6. Educational Data: School maks, school attendance, participation & achievements in various co-
curricular activities like games & sports etc.

7. Vocational Data: Vocational ambitions of the students.

8. Personality Traits:i.e- Data regarding honesty, punctuality, obedience, corporation, intellectual

abilities etc.

9. The personnel opinion of the councilor, teacher or head of the institutes.

● Features of cumulative Record card:

1. Objectivity & Validity:- It should be free from bias, prejudice, misunderstanding or subjectivity.

2. Accuracy & Validity:- The information entered in the record card should be as accurate as
possible. It should be authentic and valid. It is better to write any information then give wrong
information.

3. Continuity:- It should have continues and cumulative record of the pupil’s gaps in information
within the limited space available. Unnecessary details should be avoided.

4. Economy:- It should carry maximum possible, information within the limited space available.
Unnecessary details should be avoided.

5. Usability:- The information should be so recorded that it may easily be used & interpreted
whenever required.

6. Recency: Any piece of information should be recorded as soon as it is obtained, to minimize

loss due to forgetfulness.

7. Comprehensiveness: It must have a clear picture both horizontally the information recorded
must be complete & Clear.

8. Accessibility: The record should be accessible to the teachers as well as to the headmasters &
counselor.

9. Co-operated Venture: All the teacher should have co-operated in the preparation of the of a
pupil, otherwise the record will remain incomplete or narrow.

10. Evaluation:- It should be re-evaluated periodically or annually so as to know how far does it
serve the purpose.

11. Uniformity:- There should be uniformity in basic patterns of record forms throughout the state.
But in order to accommodate the local conditions, minor variations & modifications should be
allowed.

Advantages of cumulative Record cards:-

1. Knowledge of Pupil:- It helps the teacher to know the pupil i.e his abilities, interests, aptitudes,
achievements in academic & Non-academic field, emotional & social qualities. It makes head master
familiar with students progress his abilities weakness & problems.

2. Migration Cases:- At the time of migration of the students cumulative record card helps that school
authorities to know about the pupil and to facilitate his adjustment to the new environment.

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3. Selection & Promotion:- It is helpful in the selection, classification & promotion of pupils for various
Jobs in school & later life.

4. Location & diagnosis:- It helps in locating and educating the gifted & the backward students. They
also help in diagnosing and treated the mala adjusted pupils.

5. Link between teachers & Parents:- The teachers find it convenient to write letters or detailed reports
to the parents on the basis of these records.

6. Preparing Certificates:- Cumulative record card progressful for writing character or games certificate.

7. Improving methods of teaching: It is helpful in improving the methods of teaching according to the
needs of the pupils.

8. Providing educational & vocational Guidance:- It provides educational vocational & Psychological
data about the pupuils. All such types of data provide base for educational & vocational guidance.

9. Useful for new teacher:- Cumulative record card helps the teacher in knowing about the
development level, needs, problems, potentialities and achievements of the pupils.

10. Useful for Evaluation: It provides data for objective evaluation & thus the evils of.

11. Useful for the employer:- It is also useful for the employer seeking to know the interests, aptitudes 7
other capabilities of the employer.

12. Helpful in Self-Understanding:- It is also essential for the students because it ensures that the
school is interested in him as an individual. This can also serve as a tool from &through which he can
understood himself better & this is in a portion to take decisions for himself.

Problems in the maintenance & Use of Cumulative Cards:

1. Who should maintain the records:- It should be kept either by the activity teacher or by the class
teacher.

(a) Firstly the teachers incharges of various subjects should evaluate the pupils achievements
from time to time, to record the same & to pass it to the class-teacher.

(b) Class-teacher:- It is the duty of the class teacher to maintain cumulative record of all the
students in the class. He should be responsible for getting the necessary entries made by the
subject teacher or class teacher. The responsibility of class teacher is greater as he will not
ensure correct & up to date entries but also out as liasian between the pupil & parent & between
the pupil & the parent between the pupil & subject matter.

2. Where to keep cumulative record Cards:- It should be kept by the class teacher in his safe
custody . But these should be easily accessible to other teachers for making entries But these
records should be kept confidential. Hence It is better to keep records in the staff room & in the
headmaster room.

3. When to fill up cumulative record Cards:- Record of written work may be kept by the teacher &
entries made fortnightly and monthly other entries may be made at the time of particular event or
test. It is desired that each teacher should have a small note-book to record his observations at the
time of incidence about the particular pupil. As a rule other teachers should not record the entries on
the card itself. They should pass on the entries to the class teacher, too many hands may spoil the
neatness and the beauty of the card.

4. How to check maintain of the Cumulative record:- It is another problem. It is a function of head

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of the institution to check whether the entries are being made regularly or not. He may check the
entries after four months & ensure that the records are kept accurate &upto date. He may assign this
work to his colleges but must sign the records himself. The checkers should see that no false
entries are made of there is no tempering with the entries. The head of the institutions should
arrange to sent progress reports to parents.

5. What should be the design of records: There are 3 types of designs of cumulative record cards
are available? 1. Folder type 2. File Type 3. Envelope type the authorities should make their own
selection of the design.

6. Problem of new admissions & migrations:- The cumulative record card should move with the
student in case of his transfer from one school to another. It has to form part of transfer certificate.
When the pupil migrates to another school. It should go with the pupil from class to class & school &
school.

7. Problem of teacher in discharging the function:- Teacher should be helped in discharging the
functions by the followers.

(i) Training: Teacher should be trained in the maintenance of cumulative record cards the
secondary Education Commission suggest that state Departments of Education should
provide such training in the training colleges for teachers.

(ii) Model forms: The state authorities should get prepared model form of records for the school.

(iii) Adequate Time:- Adequate Time should be given to the teachers to fill up the cumulative record
cards, otherwise they will nil up these cards mechanically the work of the filling up the cards
may be done by the teachers on the last working day of the months there may not be any
teaching work on that day.

(iv) Provision for Safe Custody:- Adequate provision should be made the safe custody of the
cumulative record card.

(v) Adequate inspection:- The supervisor should input the maintanence of the cumulative record
cards at the time of the annual inspection of the school.

SPECIMEN OF CUMULATIVE RECORD

Name _________________ School _________________

Class __________________ Section ________________

1. General Information:-

Sex __________________ Date of Birth ______________________

Religion ______________ Birth Place _______________________

Guardian’s Address

2. Environmental Information:

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Name of the Father _______________________ Education _________________

Occupation _____________________________

Name of the Mother______________________ Education _________________

Occupation _____________________________ No. of children _____________

Position of Child _________________________

Type of community in which the

Pupil has lived before (Joining

the school village, town or city)

Occupation of Parents _____________________

3. Educational institutions Attended:-

S. No. Name Place Joined Left Head

4. Psychological Data:-

Intelligence I.Q-
Interest
Specific Ability

5. Achievement Data:-

S. No. Subject Max. Marks Marks Obtained

1 English
2 Hindi
3 Maths
4 S. Studies
5 Gen-Science
6 Sanskrit

Pass ____________________ Fail ________________________ Promoted ________________

Detained ________________ Portion in the class/ Section _______________________________
Scholarship __________________________
Attendance __________________________

Class Teacher’s Remarks, if any

6. Emotional Data
Persistence A B C D E
Confidence
Initiative
Industry

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Sociability
Resourcefulness
Leadership

Interest in :- Humanities Science

Commerce
Arts
Agriculture
Technical

7. Health Condition:-

Height __________________________ Weight __________________

Physical Handicapped if any _________________
Any serious disease suffered from ____________________

8. Co-Curricular Activities:-
1. Athletics ________________________ 3. Games _____________________
2. Dramatics _______________________ 4. Music ______________________
5. Dance __________________________ 6. Drawing & Painting ____________

Library Activities Excursion

Hobbies ___________________________

Sign of the counselor Principal

8. Who should maintain the records:- It should be kept either by the activity teacher or by the class
teacher.

(c) Firstly the teachers incharges of various subjects should evaluate the pupils achievements
from time to time, to record the same & to pass it to the class-teacher.

(d) Class-teacher:- It is the duty of the class teacher to maintain cumulative record of all the
students in the class. He should be responsible for getting the necessary entries made by the
subject teacher or class teacher. The responsibility of class teacher is greater as he will not
ensure correct & up to date entries but also out as liasian between the pupil & parent & between
the pupil & the parent between the pupil & subject matter.

9. Where to keep cumulative record Cards:- It should be kept by the class teacher in his safe
custody . But these should be easily accessible to other teachers for making entries But these
records should be kept confidential. Hence It is better to keep records in the staff room & in the
headmaster room.

10. When to fill up cumulative record Cards:- Record of written work may be kept by the teacher &
entries made fortnightly and monthly other entries may be made at the time of particular event or

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test. It is desired that each teacher should have a small note-book to record his observations at the
time of incidence about the particular pupil. As a rule other teachers should not record the entries on
the card itself. They should pass on the entries to the class teacher, too many hands may spoil the
neatness and the beauty of the card.

11. How to check maintain of the Cumulative record:- It is another problem. It is a function of head
of the institution to check whether the entries are being made regularly or not. He may check the
entries after four months & ensure that the records are kept accurate &upto date. He may assign this
work to his colleges but must sign the records himself. The checkers should see that no false
entries are made of there is no tempering with the entries. The head of the institutions should
arrange to sent progress reports to parents.

12. What should be the design of records: There are 3 types of designs of cumulative record cards
are available? 1. Folder type 2. File Type 3. Envelope type the authorities should make their own
selection of the design.

13. Problem of new admissions & migrations:- The cumulative record card should move with the
student in case of his transfer from one school to another. It has to form part of transfer certificate.
When the pupil migrates to another school. It should go with the pupil from class to class & school &
school.

14. Problem of teacher in discharging the function:- Teacher should be helped in discharging the
functions by the followers.

(vi) Training: Teacher should be trained in the maintenance of cumulative record cards the
secondary Education Commission suggest that state Departments of Education should
provide such training in the training colleges for teachers.

(vii) Model forms: The state authorities should get prepared model form of records for the school.

(viii) Adequate Time:- Adequate Time should be given to the teachers to fill up the cumulative record
cards, otherwise they will nil up these cards mechanically the work of the filling up the cards
may be done by the teachers on the last working day of the months there may not be any
teaching work on that day.

(ix) Provision for Safe Custody:- Adequate provision should be made the safe custody of the
cumulative record card.

(x) Adequate inspection:- The supervisor should input the maintenance of the cumulative record
cards at the time of the annual inspection of the school.

Conclusion:- The secondary Education Commission feels that with training and certain amount of practice &
with an occasional check-up by the need of the institute & by the inspectors, the teachers will be able to
discharge their duties to the satisfaction of all. It should be noted that in his responsibility, the average Indian
teacher does not yield to any teacher does to any teacher in any other country. What he needs is clear
direction, encouragement & sympathy.

Ques35:-What do you mean by a Learner profile? How does a learner profile helps a teacher in ?or

Explain the steps in development of a learners profile? or

Explain the role of learner profile in assessment of learning?

Meaning and introduction:-A profile is a brief written description that provides information about someone or
something.A concise biographical sketch.A set of data often in graphic form portraying the significant

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features of something.A graph representing the extent to which an individual exhibits traits or abilities as
determined by tests or ratings.
Learner profiles can help school staff build relationships with students and understand things from their
perspective. This can inform planning, classroom layout, timetabling and supports to enable students to
participate and contribute in all classroom learning.

It can take the form of a formal document or process, or can simply be a series of conversation with students
it:

● Can include information about a student’s skills, strengths, interests

● Can highlight potential barriers to learning.

● Make recommendations about what is needed to support learning.

This information sits alongside assessment data.

Learner profiles can help school staff build relationships with students and understand things from their
perspective. This can inform planning, classroom layout, timetabling and supports to enable students to
participate and contribute in all classroom learning.

Purpose of a learner profile

Learner profiles can be created for a variety of purposes. The purpose is agreed between the student, parents
and the teacher. This will inform the discussion, questions and information provided by learners and their
families.

It’s useful to develop a profile of all of your students and to use this as the basis of a class profile. Learner
profiles can help school staff build relationships with students and understand things from their perspective.
This can inform planning, classroom layout, timetabling and supports to enable students to participate and
contribute in all classroom learning.

Uses of learner profile:-

Generally in our schools the academic achievements of the pupils is reported by progress
report having marks or grades but this is rather unsatisfactory way of communicating to him the significance
of this evidence for his own use and for other users. Profile has a lot of uses inspite of other means, these are
as follows:-

Benefits for students:- A learner profile gives students an opportunity to :-

● Express who they are.

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● Address assumptions people may have about them or their disability

● Express their aspirations and passions

● Have a say in what goes on for them at school and in their learning. Students in letting their teachers
and others get to know and understand their interests and strengths.

● Students in letting their teachers and others get to know and understand their interests and
strengths.

Learning profiles are created by the student, often with the support of those that know them best. Through
creating a learner profile, students develop a deeper understanding of who they are as learners –
reflecting on what motivates and challenges them when learning. It also creates an opportunity for self-
advocacy; identifying the tools, learning materials and presentation options that will optimize their learning
experiences.

Benefits for all teachers: A learner profile will assist teachers to

● Build a relationship with students

● Recognize and remove potential barriers to learning at the outset

● Design learning environments and opportunities that build on student interests and experiences to
maximize engagement

● Select curriculum materials and content that students will be able to access

● Offer a range of options for demonstrating thinking and learning that will work well for students.

● Support positive transitions to new environments.

● Teachers in knowing about students and building effective relationships with them

● Teachers in understanding what works for students and what tools, technologies, differentiations or
adaptations might be needed.

● Teachers in developing an inclusive classroom learning programme.

Alongside assessment data, a learner profile supports teachers in knowing about the learner, providing
information from the student’s perspective.

Conclusion:-A learners profile provides the complete information about a student to the teacher and helps
them in understanding the learners strengths and weaknesses.Profiles can help school staff build

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relationships with students and understand things from their perspective. This can inform planning, classroom
layout, timetabling and supports to enable students to participate and contribute in all classroom learning.

Portfolio: Already mentioned in unit 3

ALL THE BEST!!!

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