This lecture discusses prisons and prison life. 1st, we'll start with prisons.

Prisons serve multiple

purposes within the criminal justice system, each reflecting societal goals for addressing
criminal behavior. Among the primary objectives of prisons are punishment, deterrence,
retribution, and incapacitation. Punishment is at the core of incarceration, depriving individuals
of their freedom as a consequence of their actions.

This is closely tied to retribution, which seeks to ensure that offenders are held accountable and
justice is served for the harm that they've caused. The term aims to discourage both the
incarcerated individual and others in society from committing crimes by demonstrating the
consequences of unlawful behaviors. Finally, incapacitation protects society by removing
offenders who pose a threat, effectively preventing further harm while they are confined. Beyond
these goals, the main concern of prison is security. This involves safeguarding not only the
society by keeping offenders away from the public, but also ensuring the safety of correctional
staff and other inmates within the facility.

For correctional officers, maintaining control and minimizing threats are critical aspects of their
job role. For inmates, security means creating an environment where they are protected from
harm, including victimization by other inmates or staff, and balancing these concerns while
addressing broader objectives like rehabilitation and reintegration into society following release.
Ultimately, the effectiveness of prisons hinges on the ability to fulfill these goals while upholding
safety, fairness, and humane treatment for all that are involved within the correctional system.
From the 19 eighties through 19 nineties, the US experienced, a prison construction boom
driven rapidly by increasing incarceration rates beginning in the late 19 seventies. This growth
continued in an accelerated pace until 2010, but the total state prison population showing a
slight decline from 2,009 through 2012.

However, the federal prison system has continued to expand even as state prison populations
have begun to stabilize. This surge in prison construction can't only be attributed to general
population growth, but also to changes in sentencing laws and policies during the tough on
crime era. Currently, there are 1664 prisons in the US, and the country spends about
$66,000,000,000 each year on these facilities as well as for jails. The average annual cost per
inmate is around $46,000. However, we see that there's great variation across states.

Here in Wisconsin, the average, average annual cost is, about $37,000 or about a $106 a day.
Typically, prisons are located in rural areas, which raise several concerns. From an economic
perspective, while rural communities may initially benefit from prison related jobs, these facilities
often bring challenges such as overreliance on a single industry and underprepared
infrastructure to handle the needs of the prisons. So they don't necessarily have the
infrastructure needed for health care and education, or even housing for staff. Additionally, the
rural location creates barriers for families of inmates who may face significant travel burdens to
visit their loved ones, leading to weakened family connections and reduced support networks,
both of which are critical for successful reintegration, following incarceration.
Additionally, placing prisons in rural areas often exacerbates the cultural divide between
predominantly urban origin inmates and rural staff, which can lead to tensions and
misunderstandings that impact both security and rehabilitation efforts. So, ultimately, while rural
prison locations may seem, cost effective, they create a logistical and social as well as cultural
challenge, that needs to be addressed to assure effectiveness and fairness of the correctional
system. The United States currently has approximately 1,600,000 individuals in prison, a
number that has been steadily increasing since the 19 seventies. Although there was a slight
decrease in the prison population between 2,011 and 2021, recent trends show a 2% increase
since 2021, indicating a renewed rise in incarceration rates. The impact of incarceration is
particularly stark among black men, with 1 in 10 black men who age between 25 29 currently
serving prison terms.

Over a lifetime, 5.1% of all people in the US will experience confinement in prison. However, this
statistic is not distributed equally across demographics. For men, the lifetime likelihood of
imprisonment rates is 9%, while for black individuals, it's significantly higher at 16%. These
disparities highlight systemic issues within the criminal justice system, including disproportionate
sentencing practices and structural inequalities, which may result in higher incarceration rates
for both groups. These statistics underscore the critical need for ongoing conversations about
criminal justice reform as the social and economic consequences of mass incarceration affect
not just individuals, but also in families and entire communities.

The United States incarcerates more people per capita than any other nation with approximately
1,900,000 people confined nationwide. This chart breaks down the incarceration population into
several categories, highlighting where people are being held and for what offenses. There's
about 1,070,000 individuals that are held in state prisons primarily for violent offenses. Property
offenses account for about a 139,000 and drug related offenses account for about a 134,000
individuals. We also see 550,000 individuals confined in local jails.

Remarkably, 448,000 of those people have not been convicted yet, underscoring the significant
role pretrial detention plays in jail populations. There's about 208,000 individuals that are
housed in federal facilities with a significant portion incarcerated for drug offenses. In terms of
other facilities, about 46,000 individuals are in immigration detention. And although smaller
populations, there are about 7,000 in territorial prisons, about a 1,000 in military prisons, and
about 2,000 in Indian country jails. In terms of youth, there's about 25,000 youth that are
incarcerated primarily for offenses like property crimes and public order violations.

25,000 individuals are involuntarily committed, often after mental health treatment. So here we
see a large portion of individuals in local jails are, not yet convicted, highlighting systemic issues
with bail and pretrial detention practices. Violent offenses dominate the state prison population
where federal facilities hold more individuals, for drug related crimes. Despite the vast scale of
incarceration, this chart really underscores the complexity of the US correctional system and its
focus on both punitive and preventative detention measures. As of 2023, the US continues to
exhibit significant racial and gender disparities within its incarceration system.
So men constitute the majority of those who are incarcerated, while women represent a smaller
segment. And the incarceration for, rate for women has been increasing, though, with notable
racial disparities. When we consider incarceration rates by disparities. When we consider
incarceration rates by race, we see that black individuals are incarcerated at a rates, a rate
that's approximately 6 times higher than that of white individuals, and this is across the country.
Every state reports higher incarceration rates for black residents compared to white residents.

In terms of federal prisons, about 39% of those incarcerated in federal prisons, identify as black
and about 57, 58 percent identify as white. In terms of age, black men aged between 25-29
experience the highest incarceration rates among all demographics. And this again shows the
systemic issues and disparities across the US correctional system. Classification systems play a
critical role in the effective management of prisons today. These systems are used to categorize
the general prison population based on risk level and to assign individuals to specific units, such
as disciplinary segregation, protective custody, mental health units, or medical health units.

In the past, classifications relied on a narrow scheme focused on a single variable. However,
modern approaches now utilize predictive tools that create comprehensive profiles for each
prisoner. These tools consider a range of factors, including conviction offense, custody level and
age, gang affiliation and general motivation level, mental and physical health status, whether the
individual has a history of substance misuse or trauma, as well as academic and vocational
education work experiences and life skills needs. The National Institute of Corrections or the
NIC's, custody determination model is one such framework, and it offers prison administrators
strategic tools to ensure the least restrictive classifications while maintaining safety and fairness.
These tools are designed to treat prisoners equitably, providing a safeguard against bias or
inconsistent treatment.

Classification systems also help prison administers develop and manage treatment programs
that are tailored to the population's needs. It helps with the identification of good candidates for
therapeutic communities or programs, as well as appropriate work opportunities for vocational
programs or different types of monitoring for at risk or gang populations. These classifications
are also used to determine a security level. So what type of facility an individual is going to
serve their incarceration at? Minimum security, prisons are the least restrictive and least
regimented type of prison.

And so here, there's a lot more freedom of movement and freedom in exercising, choices in
daily life. Sometimes these are things like prison farms. People might have work release
programs. They're able to access more types of different, programs or therapy. And we see that
they're kind of in this dorm setting.

So instead of housing everyone maybe together, there's rooms with, more privacy. And this is
preferable for inmates as it reduces the likelihood that the person will be harmed by prison
experiences or by the other inmate. So it's a more stable, type of environment. Inmates want to
go to a minimum security prison. It's a lot plushier than some of the more, regimented and
higher level prisons.
Medium security prisons are more restrictive than minimum security prisons with a strong
emphasis on controlling inmates. These prisons aim to balance inmate freedom with tighter
security measures. Inmates face more restrictions on movement, and they often are required to
be at designated locations at specific times, where head counts might be taken. These facilities
are commonly built with dormitories that house multiple inmates. Sometimes there are bunk
beds.

There's usually some lockers or areas to store personal belongings. Some facilities also do
include single cells for certain types of inmates. At night, dormitories are locked and security
officers conduct routine patrol to ensure order and to prevent escape. So while the supervision
of inmate movement inside dormitories is relatively minimal during the day, the external security
of these facilities is much more robust. So the perimeters are typically double fenced with
regular, patrols being conducted by correctional officers to prevent escape.

And so making sure everybody stays in. Many, medium security prisons provide a structured
environment while still allowing limited privileges and interactions among inmates. And this
design reflects the need to control behavior and maintain safety while offering inmates some
degree of autonomy within the confines of their environment. The next level is maximum
security prisons, which have a primary emphasis on security and control. These prisons are
specifically designed to house inmates who pose a high security risk, such as those convicted of
violent crimes or individuals with a history of escape attempts.

These types of prisons, you're gonna see more of cell block placement. So the cell blocks in
maximum security facilities are typically located near the center of the prison, and this design
minimizes the opportunity for inmates to approach the outer perimeters, and it allows for a
tighter control of movement. Inmate movement here is highly restricted, and any transfers within
the facility are closely supervised by security personnel. The the restrictive environment of
maximum security prisons reflects the need to And the restrictive environment of maximum
security prisons reflects the need to prioritize safety and security over inmate autonomy. These
facilities are built to ensure the high risk inmates remain securely combined, reducing the
likelihood of incidents that could endanger staff, other inmates, and reducing the likelihood of
incidents that could endanger staff, other inmates, or the greater public.

Supermax prisons are the most restrictive and controlled facilities in the US correction system.
And these facilities are designed to house the worst of the worst. They represent the extreme
end of incarceration. However, defining who qualifies as the worst remains highly subjective,
leading to significant concerns about their use. So the concept of Supermax facilities dates back
to iconic institutions like Alcatraz or USP Marion, which was in Illinois, and introduced the
Marion model of extreme security and isolation.

Supermax facilities were largely created as part of the Getoff on crime movement to manage the
most dangerous and disruptive inmates. Some Supermax units use stand alone facilities, while
others have wings within existing prisons. Inmates at Supermax facilities are typically held in
solitary confinement, also known as the SHU, so a special housing unit. Inside the SHU,
inmates are confined to their cells for at least 23 hours a day. There's only 1 inmate per cell.

All meals are eaten in the cell. When the individual leaves the cell, they're cuffed and leg
shackled and escorted usually by, like, 2 or 3 offer officers. And sometimes tactical teams are
present for, whenever the inmate leaves the cell. So movement is nearly nonexistent for most
inmates who are incarcerated within Supermax facilities. There's a lot of controversy and some
challenges that surround Supermaxes though.

So Supermax facilities vary widely in their features, their architecture, their rules, making it
difficult to quantify how many exist or how they even function. And placement in super max
housing, it's an administrative decision, not governed by specific laws or policies leading to
significant variation in practices without much legal oversight. Also, nonviolent offenders and
individuals with mental health issues are often placed in supermax units. And this really raises
some ethical concerns about the suitability, of these individuals in such high levels of isolation.
Furthermore, there's civil rights challenges when it comes to supermax and shoes.

So there's a difficulty of managing disruptive inmates is then compounded by meeting basic civil
right requirements. So these environments are so restrictive, and so isolating, that it's there's
this back and forth whether civil rights requirements are being met, but how to handle these
individuals to maintain safety and security. So there are, several supermax across, the US. So,
the ADX Florence, it's often referred to as the Alcatraz and the Rockies. We'll talk about that in a
moment.

There is one in Texas. Pelican Bay was in California. Pelican Bay was a facility infamously
known for housing gang leaders and isolation. Supermax prisons were not created by
legislation, but rather by administrative solutions for these threats. Pelican Bay was shut down.

I urge you to look at Pelican Bay and and see the many civil rights, violations that took place
there. But so in short, nobody is sentenced to a supermax prison. Supermax prisons are used
for individuals if you think of it kinda like detention. So if somebody misbehaves, if they keep
escaping, if they serve a large threat to either the guards or their inmates, they might be held in
a secured housing unit or in a supermax portion of a prison. So this is the layout of USP
Florence, which is an ADMAX, also known as ADX Florence.

And it's the 1st federal supermax prison in the US. It was built in 1994. It's often referred to
again as the Alcatraz of the Rockies. So ADX was designed to house inmates who, again, were
considered to be the worst of the worst. So the prison holds over 400 inmates who pose the
highest security risks, including those who are extremely violent, are high escape risks.

They've escaped before or have been pretty successful in escaping, or those who are leaders of
gangs or other criminal organizations that are really well connected. And, for this reason, they
don't want them, being in general populations of other prisons. They need to be kind of pulled
aside for security reasons. When we look at the cell, we can see everything in the cells made of
concrete, including the bed, the desk, the stool. All of this creating escape tools.

The cells have really small windows, positioned to prevent inmates from seeing other inmates or
any other meaningful view of the outside world. Again, inmates eat all their meals alone in their
in their cell, which reinforces total isolation. All visits are no con no contact, which means that
visitors and inmates are either separated by glass partition or it's done over a screen.
Recreation is conducted alone, typically in small enclosed spaces, further isolating individuals.
So here we can see, these are the doors.

The windows are placed so that they can't see anybody else. Food comes in through this slot on
the bottom. If an individual leaves, their hands are gonna come out here, they're gonna get
coughed, and then they will leave. It is located again in the Rocky Mountains. So there is not,
really anything going on around it.

So if somebody escapes, they either need to have somebody there, right away or it's going to
be quite a distance before they reach any other civilization. In this bottom right corner is their rec
area, which completely looks inhumane. It looks like a cage for an animal, But it is basically a
giant cage. It opens up from their room, so they don't have to be transported outside and down
these halls. So it opens up from their room.

They go in these cages, and this is their rec space or outdoor time, in which they are out there 1
at a time. So there is, again, complete isolation, no talking between people who are
incarcerated. So Supermax facilities have long been the subject of debate due to their extreme
conditions, which many argue amount to cruel and unusual punishment. While these prisons are
designed to house the most dangerous and disruptive inmates, the human cost of their methods
has raised serious ethical and legal concerns. Here, research has shown that prolonged and
extreme isolation in Supermax facilities take significant tolls on cognitive and emotional health,
often leading to depression, anxiety, and even psychosis.

These effects aren't limited to inmates. So staffs working in these environments are also
impacted by the high stress conditions, which can attribute to burnout and mental health issues.
The use of Supermac housing extends beyond the worst of the worst as it can also be used as
a punitive sanction for even low level offenders. It can be used for protective isolation, and other
people who just need to be removed for short periods of time. Supermax facilities have faced
court challenges over the legality of their practices, particularly concerning due process rights
and release planning.

Inmates often let clear pathways out of super max housing, further exacerbating the sense of
hopelessness that they feel while incarcerated. In a court case, a US Supreme Court case, Riz,
Ruiz versus Johnson challenged the inhumane conditions in Texas prisons, highlighting the
mental health tool of supermax confinement. Wilkinson versus Austin focused on due process
rights for inmates placed in supermax housing, leading to, some reforms in terms of the
classification processes. And then Madrid versus Gomez raised issues about the psychological
harm caused by solitary confinement in Pelican Bay, which really emphasized this
disproportionate impact on mentally ill, individuals with mental illness. So while Supermax
facilities are intended to ensure security and prevent violence, they often are seen as crossing
the line into pointless suffering.

And this really raises important questions like, are the conditions of Supermax facilities
necessary for safety, or do they violate 8th Amendment or fundamental human rights? So again,
we see this balancing act where security and humane treatment remain kind of this pulling
challenge we see in the correctional system. And in terms of classifying and how it's going to be
handled, system. And in terms of classifying and housing, different types of inmates and
especially those with special needs and challenges, in terms of security threat. Turning to
federal prisons.

So before the late 1800, there were no dedicated federal prisons within the US. Offenders
convicted of federal crimes were housed in state prisons or local jails, which often led to
overcrowding and inconsistencies in treatment. Recognizing the need for separate federal
systems, congress passed the 3 penitentiary act of 1891. This act authorized the construction
and operation of 3 federal prisons, marking the end of or sorry, marking the beginning of the
federal prison system. These facilities included Leavenworth, which is in Kansas, McNeil Island,
which is in Washington, and then a facility in Atlanta, Georgia.

The first federal prison of towards recognizing the unique needs of female offenders and
addressing the lack of dedicated facilities for women within the federal system. The
establishment of federal prisons marked an important step in creating a structured and
consistent system for housing individuals convicted of federal crimes. Today, the federal system
continues to evolve, balancing security efforts to address inmate rehabilitation and reform. The
Federal Bureau of Prisons or BOP was established in 19 thirties to manage and regulate the
federal prisons, creating a centralized system to address the growing number of individuals
convicted of federal crimes. Over the years, BOP has expanded significantly to accommodate
the evolving needs of the federal correctional system.

So in the 19 eighties, we saw a dramatic rise in the federal prison population due to mandatory
minimums, tougher crime laws for drug offenses, that fell under the war on drugs, and also three
strikes. So BOP was created. So BOP operate BOP operates a 113 facilities, of which a 104
confinement facilities, and these are designed to house inmates securely while meeting federal
correctional standards. The system is managed through central office that's in Washington, DC,
and then they also have 6 regional offices to oversee, operations nationwide. There's about
33,000 staff members who work for Bob, including correctional officers, administrators, and
treatment specialists.

And these people all work together to ensure the functioning of the federal correctional system.
The BOB continues to play a critical role in managing the federal correction system today and
works at balancing security, rehabilitation, and public safety, especially in this era of changing
policies and priorities in terms of correction, corrections in its goals. So federal prisons differ
significantly from state prisons in terms of demographics of inmates and the nature of their
offenses. So when we look at offense type, we see that about half are, incarcerated for drugs
within federal prisons. And this is likely due to federal policies like the war on drugs, but also,
because of the nature of drug trafficking.

So when drugs cross state lines, this now can be charged as a federal issue because it doesn't
fall within the jurisdiction of one state. We also see that the vast majority of those incarcerated in
federal prisons are male, And there's only one female only facility in the US, the one in
Alderson, West Virginia. So we do see, again, a higher percentage of males in federal prisons.
About 60% are white and about 37% identify as black. We also see that those in federal prisons
are a bit older with the average age being 36 years.

Additionally, about a quarter, are non US citizens, which highlights that, many people who are
incarcerated, are those who, are being detained and then incarcerated for immigration laws, and
also tied into bringing drugs or other items over into the U. S. Border. But again, these these
demographics, although some are similar where we have a higher percentage of males, we do
see differences. So more, more males in terms of the proportion of the population in federal
prisons than in states.

And we also see that people are a bit older. Next, let's talk about life on the inside. Life in prison
is shaped by a subculture that reflects shared values, behaviors, and norms across correctional
facilities in the United States. This prison subculture is deeply ingrained and influences how
inmates interact with one another and adapt to their environments. The prison subculture is
characterized by a set of values and behaviors that are consistent across US prisons.

These include things like loyalty to other inmates, distrust of guards or authority, and a strict
adherence to informal codes of conduct. Inmates often adopt behaviors and attitudes that will
help them, navigate the social hierarchy and avoid conflicts. This subculture provides structure
in a highly controlled environment, but can also reinforce criminal thinking and behaviors.
Prisonization refers to the process by which newly incarcerated individuals come to accept
prison life and the broader criminal values of the inmate subculture. This process begins as
inmates observe and adapt to the norms of prison life, often learning to follow unwritten rules,
such as avoiding cooperation with prison staff, form alliances or gangs for protection and
survival, or accepting the hierarchical structure of inmate populations.

While prisonization helps inmates adapt to the realities of incarceration, it can also hinder
rehabilitation by normalizing criminal behavior and making, reintegration into society more
difficult. And this really highlights the importance of addressing subculture dynamics to support
positive behavioral change among inmates. The values and behaviors that shape prison
subculture can be understood through 2 distinct models, the deprivation model and the
importation model. These models explain how the prison environment and individual
characteristics contribute to the development of inmate values and norms. 1st is the deprivation
model, and this model suggests that prison values are formed as a response to the hardships of
incarceration.
Here, inmates develop a unique subculture as a way to cope with the deprivations of prison life.
And these include things like loss of freedom and autonomy, restricted access to goods and
services, separation from family and friends and society, being in the constant threat of violence
or feeling exploited. These shared experience create solidarity among inmates reinforcing
behaviors and norms that help them survive in a harsh and restricted environment. On the other
hand is the importation model. And this model suggests that prison values and behaviors are
imported into the prison from the existing world.

So here, inmates bring their preexisting values, norms, and experiences into the prison
environment, which shapes how they interact with one another. Here, factors, included in this
model are things like socioeconomic background. So inmates from disadvantaged communities
may bring street culture, gang affiliations into prison. Criminal history. Repeat offenders often
introduce established criminal norms to the prison population or things like personal
characteristics.

So age, race, cultural background influence, etcetera. And these things can also, help
individuals adapt and contribute to the subculture. So here, both models help explain the
development of prison subcultures. The deprivation model highlights how the harsh conditions
of incarceration shape inmate behavior, while the importation model emphasizes the influence
of inmates' backgrounds. So let's talk a little bit more about deprivation and the effects.

So prisons are often environments characterized by deprivation, degradation, and danger, which
can all have significant effects on individuals confined within prisons. So while the prison
environment and practices vary, most share common elements that expose inmates to hurt
conditions, shaping their experiences and their behaviors. So deprivation effects include things
like the loss of freedom, which is the most fundamental deprivation, this loss of autonomy.
Inmates must adhere to strict schedules and rules, leaving little to no personal agency in their
daily lives. Additionally, they're isolated from society.

And this separation from family, friends, and the community connections exacerbates feelings of
loneliness and alienation. Furthermore, there's limited access to basic goods and services, such
as quality food, clothing, and healthcare, which creates an environment of scarcity and material
deprivation. The prison environment often involves dehumanizing practices, such as strip
searches, overcrowding, lack of privacy, etcetera, which contribute to feelings of humiliation and
degradation. Another effect is danger and violence. So inmates are frequently exposed to the
threat of violence from other inmates or in some cases, unfortunately, correctional staff.

And this constant risk heightens stress and anxiety. So not all prisons are identical in their
environment and practices. Some institutions offer more rehabilitated programs and humane
conditions, while others emphasize strict control and punishment. However, even in less
restrictive facilities, the core deprivations of prison life still persist, leaving inmates to adapt to an
environment that can often feel hostile and degrading. These deprivations have profound effects
on inmate health, behavior, and their ability to reintegrate into society after release.
So you must understand these challenges, in order to be able to address the systemic issues
within the correctional system and promote this more humane, treatment of individuals
incarcerated there and effective practices to, hopefully, attempt to decrease recidivism once
these individuals are released. Sociologist, Gresham Sykes identified the 5 pains of
imprisonment, which capture the core deprivation inmates experience during incarceration. So,
these pains are universal across prison systems and profoundly shape the inmate experience,
contributing to the development of the prison subculture and inmate behaviors. The first, again,
is deprivation of autonomy. So inmates lose their ability to make independence decisions about
their lives.

Their daily routines, movements, even basic choices, like what they wanna eat or what they
wanna wear, are dictated by the institution, fostering feelings of helplessness and dependency.
The second is deprivation of goods and services. So access to material goods and services,
such as quality food, clothing, and personal items is severely restricted. And this scarcity often
leads to stress and competition among inmates and creates opportunity for contraband trade
within the prison. 3rd is deprivation of, liberty.

So incarceration isolates inmates from their family, their friends, and their larger communities,
cutting them off from these meaningful social connections. The loss of freedom is the
fundamental punishment of imprisonment, but it also creates things of loneliness and alienation.
4th is the deprivation of heterosexual relationships. So inmates are denied intimate relationships
and physical contact with their partners, which can lead to frustration and affect their emotional
well-being. This deprivation highlights the broader isolation of prison life where opportunities for
meaningful personal relationships are minimal.

And 5th is deprivation of security. So prisons can be violent in unpredictable environments.

Inmates often feel unsafe due to the threat of harm, from other inmates or even in some cases,
the correctional staff. And this constant fear heightens anxiety and stress and further
compounds the challenges already being faced by incarceration. So these 5 deprivations aren't
just challenges that inmates endure.

They also have profound implications on their mental health and their behavior and their ability
to reintegrate. And so we need to take a step back and think about how we can, address some
of these deprivations. The prison code as described by Sykes and Messenger is an unwritten
set of rules that govern inmate behavior and reflects the values of prison subculture. These
rules are critical for navigating the social dynamics of prison and maintaining order among
inmates. Violating these code, codes often leads to social isolation or retaliation.

So the first item in the the prison code is don't interfere with the interests of others. And this is
the most important, rule. So never rat on a con or cooperate with prison staff against fellow
inmates. So snitching is one of the most, despised actions, within the inmates subculture. 2nd is
don't lose your head.
So inmates are expected to play cool and avoid emotional outbursts or unnecessary conflicts.
So the focus on staying composed and doing your time quietly is of concern here. The third is
don't exploit inmates. So exploiting others like stealing or lying or breaking promises is strictly
frowned upon. Mutual respect among inmates is a core value for maintaining trust within the
group.

4th is don't whine, be a man. So complaining about prison conditions or showing vulnerability is
considered to be weak. Inmates are expected to endure the harsh realities of prison life and do
so without complaining. Lastly is don't be a sucker. And this means don't trust the guards or
staff.

So inmates who are taught to view authority figures with suspicion and avoid cooperation. And
this really reinforces an us versus them mentality that defines the inmate staff dynamic in a lot of
prisons. So this prison code serves as a survival mechanism, providing inmates with a sense of
structure and belonging in a chaotic and restrictive environment. However, it also reinforces
criminal values and the divide between inmates and correctional staff, which complicates efforts
to foster rehabilitation and trust within the prison system. So although the code focuses on male
inmates, and much of the research and literature focuses on males, there are women in prison.

And we have seen an increase in women in prison, across the recent years. So women face a
unique set of challenges that differ significantly from those experienced by men. So while
incarcerated, women make up a smaller portion of the overall prison population and their
specific needs might go unmet due to the system's historical design for men. One of these
issues is, parental responsibilities. So 80% of incarceration or incarcerated women are mothers.

And of those, 85% are the primary caregivers for their child prior to their current incarceration.
So 4 out of 5 women, right, are mothers. And of those 4, 85% are the primary caregivers. So the
separation from their children creates emotional stress for both the the woman and their children
and their families and can lead to feelings of guilt and or anxiety, depression, etcetera. Also,
many women really struggle to maintain relationships with their prison due to the lack of family
friendly policies and correctional facilities, the distance to prisons, their child's caregiver trying to
move the child on in their life, etcetera.

And so this really come, creates feelings of depression and anxiety among, mothers who are
incarcerated. So prison systems are geared towards men. They were designed with male
inmates in mind, failing to address unique medical, emotional and rehabilitative needs of
women. So So programs for education, vocational training, and healthcare are often inadequate
or unavailable for, females who are incarcerated. Additionally, women in prison frequently face
unmet healthcare needs, particularly related to pregnancy, reproductive significant proportion of
incarcerated women have experienced trauma, domestic violence, and or sexual abuse abuse,
which often gets left untreated within the prison system.

Upon release, women face barriers in reuniting with their children and their overall families.
They also face problems with securing housing and finding employment due to the
stigmatization and limited support systems available to them. So the need of women in prison
does call for a gender responsive policy and approach that addresses the roles of caregivers,
provide trauma informed care and support rehabilitation and reintegration. So ensure ensuring
these services is really critical for breaking the cycle of incarceration and promoting better
outcomes for women as well as for their families. Overall, today, prisons face a range of
pressing issues related to health care and the challenging demographics of the incarcerated
population.

These challenges not only impact the well-being of inmates, but also strain the resources and
operations of correctional facilities. Nearly 2% of incarcerated individuals are living with HIV or
AIDS with rates in some prisons reaching as high as 6%. Legal precedent does pro, prohibit
segregation of inmates based on health status as separate is not equal under the law. So this
requires correctional facilities to integrate health care services while ensure, ensuring fairness
and equity to inmates. Age related deaths have been declining due to advances in medical
treatment, but managing chronic health conditions remains a significant challenge for prison
systems.

Also, there's a graying of American prisons reflecting the aging of the overall population and
longer sentences imposed during the tough on crime era and the phasing out of rule. So, older
inmates often have unique needs, such as increased healthcare demands for chronic conditions
like diabetes, heart disease, and mobility issues. Facilities often face the lack of infrastructure or
staff to address aging related challenges. Also in the general population, so those who aren't
incarcerated, we consider elderly to be, around 65. However, for those who are incarcerated, it's
much younger.

People say it's between 4555. Most are gonna say about 50. Because of the chronic stress and
poor conditions these individuals are living in, they age at a at a faster rate. So the medical,
medical care available isn't as great. They don't have, the same type of specialist doctors.

And so we see this increasing number of people who are incarcerated that do need special
needs. And these needs are also expensive. So the rising cost of caring for geriatric offenders
really raises questions about the effectiveness of long term incarcerations for older populations.
In terms of mental health, about half of the incarcerated population has been found to
experience mental health issues that are either preexisting or they develop during incarceration.
So prisons are often ill equipped to provide adequate medical care, leaving many inmates
without the treatment that they need.

The lack in mental health resource, contributes to worsening conditions, higher rates of
disciplinary actions, and then also challenges with reintegration after release. Continuing this,
discussion of mental health, incarceration affects individuals not just physically, but also
psychologically. Prison environment is a highly controlled and restrictive setting, which
profoundly impacts inmates' mental and emotional well-being. And these effects can persist
even long after they're released, making reintegration into society a significant challenge. So we
see dependence on institutional structure and contingencies.
So inmates become reliant on the rigid structure and rules of prison life, which dictates every
aspect of their daily routine. And this dependence can really hinder their ability to make
independent decisions or to function in less structured environments once they're released. 2nd
is hypervigilant, interpersonal distrust, and suspicion. The constant need to navigate potential
threats within The constant need to navigate potential threats within the prison environment
fosters this hypervigilance and mistrust of others, including both inmates and staff. And the
heightened state of alertness often carries over into life outside the prison, complicating
relationships and social interactions once released.

3rd is social withdraw and isolation. So, inmates often withdraw socially as a coping mechanism
to avoid conflict or danger. And over time, this isolation can erode their ability to form or
maintain meaningful connections with one another, both during their term of incarceration and
once they are released. Lastly is diminished self worth. So the dehumanizing aspects of
incarceration, such as loss of autonomy and harsh treatment, contribute to decline in self
esteem.

Inmates may internalize feelings of shame, inadequacy, and hopelessness, which can further
impede rehabilitation and reintegration. So these psychological effects really underscore the
challenges faced by incarcerated individuals and highlight the need for correctional systems to
prioritize mental health care, rehabilitation programs, and post release support. Addressing
these issues is essential for reducing recidivism as well as for promoting successful
reintegration into society. Next, let's shift gears and talk about some prison programs. So prison
programs play a vital role in the correctional system by addressing the needs of inmates and
contributing to the overall safety and effectiveness of prisons.

These programs are designed not only to rehabilitate offenders, but to also create a structured
and productive environment within the institution. Key reasons for having prison programs, are
wide reaching. And the first is it is used as a rehabilitation tool for offenders. So prison programs
aim to help inmates develop skills and behaviors necessary for successful reintegration into
society. Programs such as education, vocational training, substance misuse counseling, and
therapy address the root causes of criminal behavior and provide tools for change in the future.

2nd is parole board consideration. So participation in prison programs is often seen as a critical
factor by parole boards when evaluating an inmate's readiness for release. Engaging in these
programs demonstrates a commitment to self improvement and rehabilitation that is likely to be
seen as a benefit or a are 3rd, it keeps inmates busy. So programs reduce idleness, which can
lead to boredom, frustration, and behavioral, issues among inmates. By keeping inmates
occupied, programs contribute to a safer prison environment with fewer incidents of violence or
unrest.

And 4th, it's an incentive for good behavior. So access to certain programs can serve as a
reward for maintaining good behavior. Here, inmates who participate in programs are often
more motivated to follow rules and engage positively with the staff and peers. One type of of
program is education programs. And these are a cornerstone of rehabilitative efforts in
correctional facilities.

So most states offer GED or adult education programs, and approximately half of all prisons
provide vocational training aimed at preparing inmates for employment post release. While
these programs offer many benefits, they also face challenges in implementation. 1st is learning
deficits and special needs. So many inmates have learning disabilities, developmental delays,
or special needs, which makes it difficult for them to fully benefit from standard educational
programs. 2nd is a limited design for underachievers.

So programs are often not tailored to those who significantly, fell behind in their educational
achievement prior to coming to prison. So this leaves a gap, in ability to deliver this educational
service to those who need it the most. 3rd, or next, I guess we're gonna talk about some of
these benefits of educational programs. So we do see that it reduces recidivism. So studies
show that education programs are highly effective in reducing recidivism.

So programs like colleges in prison and reentry education provide inmates with the skills and
credentials needed for future employment, which is seen to reduce the likelihood of reoffending.
It's also cost effective. So correctional education is not just effective, it's also cost cost efficient.
So for every 1,000,000 spent on correctional education, 600 crimes are prevented compared to
350 crimes have been prevented with the same investment in incarceration. Lastly, it promotes
good behavior.

So participation in education programs is linked to improved morale among inmates and serves
as an incentive for good behavior within the prison environment. Another program are work
programs. And work programs are a significant component of prison life with approximately 2
thirds of inmates in state facilities assigned to work roles. These programs serve multiple
purposes, including keeping inmates busy, teaching valuable skills and contributing to the
operations of the facility. Jobs that are commonly assigned to inmates vary, but some we see
our food service workers.

So prepping meals for inmates and staff. We see plumbers and painters and groundskeepers.
So there's a whole bunch of different jobs and these can lead to important job skills being
developed for once they're released. In terms of compensation, inmates receive minimal pay for
their labor. So for example, in Wisconsin, inmates earn about 9¢ per hour, which highlights a
significant economic disparity of prison labor.

So while work programs offer inmates opportunity to develop skills and pass the time
productively, They also raise some ethical questions about the low rages, and the potential
exploitation of inmate labor. Prison industries play a vital role in the correctional system
functioning as a state owned business that provide work opportunities for inmates while
generating revenue for the state. So these industries focus on manufacturing goods and
services that are then sold or leave the prison. So it's not things like taking care of the grounds
at the prison, creating meals, for those who are incarcerated and staff. Instead, this is creating
goods, that the the prison then sends out.

So these jobs, include a whole bunch of bunch of different things. So agriculture and food, so
producing crops or preparing food for state use. There are garments and textiles, so
manufacturing uniforms or clothing or other sorts of textiles. Textiles. Some places there's
regular maintenance and assembly, producing license plates, repairing vehicles.

There's furniture and wood shop, paper products and printing, janitorial supplies, electronic
products. Recently we've been seeing, data entry and telemarketing. And so these jobs are a
wide range. And in the industry is the products created are also a wide range. So wages for
prison industry jobs are low, but they're higher, than other prison works.

So in Wisconsin, those in prison industries earn about 79¢ an hour. So while this is higher than
standard, prison labor, it remains far below minimum wages, again, raising ethical concerns,
about inmate compensation. When we look at the federal system, UNICOR, also known as the
Federal Prison Industries, FPI, plays a significant role in providing work opportunities for
inmates. So participation is often mandatory for federal inmates who are medically able to work.
Ensuring that a proportion of the population contributes to the operation of the system while
developing job skills.

So approximately 16% of inmates who, are in federal prisons are employed through FPI. And
jobs range from manufacturing products to providing services similar to state prisons. Again,
they are compensated lowly. Inmates are generally paid between 23¢ and a dollar 15 an hour,
for their labor. The high end is higher than state wages, but still far below minimum wage
standards.

I f IFRP, inmate financial responsibility program is important here. So federal inmates are
required to make payments from their earnings under the IFRP. And these payments are used
to satisfy court order fines, victim restitution child support, and other legal financial obligations.
So this program ensures that inmates contribute financially to their responsibilities even when
they're incarcerated. So again, UNICOR, everyone, medically able to do so.

Of those, about 16% work in federal prison industries. So creating these, different products that
go out, everybody else is going to work towards the operations of the prison. And the wages are
a bit higher, but still beg the questions of ethical considerations and labor taking place within
prisons. Prison labor is a highly debated topic with both significant benefits and notable
concerns. On the positive side, work programs provide inmates with opportunities to develop
skills and adjust to structured environment in prison life, which can ease the transaction back
into society upon release.

Research has shown that participating in prison labor can reduce recidivism as inmates gain
work experience and skills that improve their chances of securing employment. Those who
engage in these programs are also more likely to earn higher wages after release, which
supports successful reintegration. Additionally, prison labor is successful reintegration.
Additionally, prison labor is cost effective as it provides a low cost workforce that can help
reduce operational expenses for the prison system or even generate revenue for the state.
However, prison labor is not without its issues.

One of the major concerns is the lack of regulation, which creates the potential for abuse and
exploitation. Inmates are often paid far below minimum wage, which raises ethical questions
about fairness and equity. Many work programs also focus on outdated or less desirable jobs,
providing training for obsolete equipment that fails to prepare inmates for modern industries.
Furthermore, even with the skills they do acquire, many inmates face legal or social barriers for
employment upon release, particularly in professions requiring licensing or background checks.
This combination of low pay, limited skill building, and post release challenges highlights the
need for reforms and how prison labor is managed.

Lastly, we're gonna talk about prison victimization. Victimization in prison is a pervasive
issue with inmates often experiencing harm in various forms. The most common type of
victimization in correctional facilities include physical assaults, property, so like theft and sexual
victimization. Each of these present unique challenges for maintaining safety and order within
the prison environment. In terms of physical victimization, studies estimate that between
20-70% of inmates experience some sort of physical assault during their incarceration.

This is widely varied, and it's really difficult to get statistics on victimization of those who are
incarcerated. So we see this huge range, 20 to 70%. Physical victimization includes things like
fights, attacks, intimidation, often stemming from conflicts over gang affiliations, debt, or just
simple power dynamics. Additionally, inmates frequently import having their personal property
stolen. And this type of victimization creates tension within the prison community and often
leads to conflict or retaliation.

Next is sexual victimization. So persuasion is the most commonly report, reported pressure
tactic used in instances of sexual victimization for both male and female inmates. And so here,
inmates are often talked into compliance rather than overtly forced. So research indicates
there's no significant gender differences in the use of tactics like threats to withdraw love,
bribery, or blackmail. However, men do report higher rates of threats of harm and actual harm
during the incident and instances involving the use of weapons.

Coercion with the person, within the prison setting often results in what researchers refer to as
consensual homosexuality. So an agreement to engage in sexual acts under duress or for
protection, which blurs the lines between consent and victimization. Sexual activity in prison is a
complex and controversial topic. By law, all sexual activity in prison, whether consensual or
forced, is strictly prohibited. However, such activity does occur and it plays a significant role in
the dynamics of prison life.

So while much of the focus on prison sexual activity highlights forced interactions, not all sexual
activity is coerced. Some inmates engage in truly consensual, consensual homosexual
interactions, often forming long term relationships that provide emotional support and help them
cope with the loss of personal connections outside of prison. So according to the deprivation
model that we have previously talked about, one of the pains of my imprisonment is the loss of
heterosexual relationships and physical intimacy. So forming these long term sexual
relationships within prison can help inmates deal with the emotional strain of losing everything
upon incarceration. Much like the pseudo family units, that female prisoners often develop.

So in the pseudo family units, they create kind of like a familial hierarchy with parents and kids
and grandparents and aunts and uncles and all of this to create a fake family as a coping
mechanism and to kind of combat these feelings of isolation. Male inmates do face, added
challenges though, as being if they identify as openly gay, whether self identified or not. And this
places them at a heightened risk of victimization. So, this creates a hidden, precarious dynamic
for many inmates engaged in these relationships. In terms of staff, sexual relationships between
staffs and inmates are also strictly prohibited as they are considered a serious breach of ethics
and security.

So staff member barriers caught engaging in sexual activity with inmates face criminal charges
reflecting the severity of this misconduct. There are many different myths and misconceptions
about sexual victimization in prison which can obscure the true nature and impact of this issue.
These myths perpetuate harmful stereotypes and make it really difficult to address and prevent
victimization effectively. So a common assumption is that men are not effectively. So a common
assumption is that men are not capable of being victims of sexual assault.

Until recently, the FBI's definition of rape exclusively used the feminine program, pronoun,
reinforcing this misconception. So in some states such as Georgia, men cannot legally be
classified as victims of rape, only of sodomy. And this belief diminishes the true impact of male
rape and places blame on the victim and discourages survivors from coming forward. In reality,
male inmates have a higher rate of victimization than female inmates. And this makes the denial
of male victimization particularly harmful and highlights the need for awareness and support.

Myth number 2 is that male inmates who engage in sexual activity are not heterosexual. So
many assume that men who engage in sexual activity with their men in prison must identify as
either gay or bisexual or not homosexual. In reality, the majority of men who engage in sexual
activity with other men while incarcerated self identify as heterosexual. And this behavior is
often tied to the deprivation of heterosexual relationships, part of Sykes' pains of imprisonment.
The third is that rape is about sex.

Another myth, it it just it focuses on that rape is driven by sexual desire. In reality, rape is really
about sex. It is about the power and dominance associated with the act. And so in prison, within
the prison context, rape is often used as a way to assert control, punishment, or humiliate
another person, making it a tool of oppression rather than desire. And lastly, victims deserve it
because they're in prison.
And this is not true. There's this widespread belief that, being victimized is an inherent part of
incarceration and that inmates deserve this treatment. So prison is meant to be the punishment
itself. The loss of liberty, no one deserves to be victimized. It's important to remember that not
all individuals in prison are guilty of their accused crimes.

Many have been exonerated through DNA or new evidence, meaning innocent people are also
at risk of harm. But even so, nobody deserves to be victimized, even if they are incarcerated. So
these myths perpetuate harmful beliefs about prison victimization, hindering prevention efforts,
and minimizing the experiences of survivors. By challenging these misconceptions, we can work
towards a more humane and equitable correction system that prioritizes the safety and dignity of
the inmates for which they serve. 2 key milestones in addressing sexual violence in prison are
the supreme court decision in Farmer versus Brennan 1994 and the passage of the Prison
Rape Elimination Act, or PREA, which was brought forth in 2003.

Farmer versus Brennan was a landmark case that involved Dee Farmer, who was a
transgendered woman, was incarcerated in a male prison at USP Terre Haute in Indiana. After
being raped and beaten by fellow inmates, Farmer contracted HIV and filed a lawsuit arguing
that prison officials failed to protect her despite her vulnerability to sexual violence. Here, the
Supreme Court ruled that deliberate indifference to a substantial risk of sexual assault violates
the 8th amendment. So the right against cruel and unusual punishment. This decision
established that it is the responsibility of prison officials to protect inmates from harm, that they
can be held liable for failing to act on, these known risks of sexual violence.

PREA, again, came about in 2003 and created a zero tolerance policy for sexual assault and all
US correctional facilities, mandating systemic changes to address this, pervasive issue. So
PREA, collects data. It requires a collection of national data on sexual violence in prisons to
increase transparency and to provide better insights into the prevalence of incidents. There is a
significant gap between self reported incidents of sexual violence and official reports as many
inmates are reluctant to report victimization due to fear of retaliation or to report victimization
due to fear of retaliation or distrust of correctional staff. PREA mandates annual surveys and
research on the prevalence and effects of sexual violence in local, state, and federal prisons as
well as public hearings on the operations of facilities with the highest and lowest rates of
reported incidents.

So both Farmer versus Brennan and Priya underscore the importance of holding prison systems
accountable for inmate safety. While these measures represent progress, challenges such as
underreporting and implementation, disparity still, remain. So continued efforts are needed to
ensure that prisons provide a safe and humane environment for all individuals regardless of
their vulnerabilities. So based on the data provided by PREA, we see that among state and
federal prison inmates, about 2%, which is about 29,300 prisoners reported incidents, involving
another inmate of sexual violence and about 2.4%, so 34,100 inmates reported incident
incidents involving staff and point 4 about 55100 prisoners reported victimization by both
inmates and staff. And I want to point that these numbers are likely to be underestimated, due to
the significant underreporting by inmates that's driven by fear and shame and distrust of prison
officials.

Certain factors increase the likelihood of victimization within the prison environment. Some of
these things are demographics. So white inmates are more likely to be victimized compared to
inmates of other races or ethnicities. Those who are under 30, so the younger inmates, are also
at a greater risk and often targeted due to perceived vulnerability or inexperience within the
correctional system. Things like affiliations, are also important.

So inmates who are not gang affiliated like the social protection and support, of networks of
gangs that can be provided while incarcerated. Also, things like violating the quote of silence.
So reporting misconduct makes inmates targets for retaliation from other inmates. Sexual
orientation and gender expression are also tied to victimization. Here we see that homosexual
or bisexual inmates are disproportionately targeted often due to stigma or perceived
vulnerability.

And those who are effeminate or less masculine and appearance or behaviors are also at higher
physically weak are often more likely to be victimized as they're perceived as unable to defend
themselves. And individuals with a history of mental illness, developmental delays, or previous
experiences of sexual assault are also more susceptible to further victimization due to their
perceived ability or inability to advocate for themselves. Prison victimization has significant
consequences consequences for inmates affecting their physical health, emotional well-being,
and their behavior. These impacts not only shape their prison experience, but can also extend
beyond incarceration affecting public health and community safety. The first is injury.

Male The first is injury. Male victims are more likely than female victims to receive threats of
harm, experience physical injury, or have weapons used against them during an incident. The
use of physical force is often employed to control male victims and is a way for aggressors to
demonstrate superiority and dominance within the prison culture. Next is health. So sexual
victimization places both victims and perpetrators at risk of contracting diseases, particularly if
these go untreated.

These health risks extend to the community as untreated infections or trauma can have long
term implications upon inmates releases. Male victims are less likely to seek medical treatment
unless these injuries are severe, exacerbating these health risks. Next are emotional and
psychological consequences. Victims often experience suicidal thoughts, Emotional impacts
such as shame and embarrassment can hinder their ability to seek support or disclose their
experiences. We also see behavioral consequences.

We also see behavioral consequences. So victims may avoid areas of the prison where they
feel vulnerable, which can limit their participation in work, educational programs, or recreation.
They might also fear revictimization or experience heightened paranoia, which may lead
inmates to act out resulting in disciplinary issues. Further, they can become an aggressor. So
some victims adopt aggressive behaviors as a way to protect themselves and prevent future
victimization, perpetuating the cycle of violence.

Reporting victimization in prisons is uniquely challenging due to the environmental dynamics

and social structure within correctional facilities. Several barriers discourage victims from
coming forward, leaving many incidents underreported and unaddressed. Again, there's these
kind of gray areas in terms of the definition of victimization. So not all individuals define sexual
activity or assault in the same way, which can affect whether they recognize their experiences
victimization. To address this, federal guidelines and research explicitly define terms like force
and attempted victimization.

Aiming to clarify what constitutes sexual victimization. However, victims may still fail to identify
their experience as falling within these definitions. Next is staff attitudes. So victims often face
additional hardships after reporting such as being placed in segregation or protective custody,
which, can discourage many from coming forward. Correctional staff attitudes significantly
influence reporting rates.

So staff who hold biases such as believing that inmates deserve victimization may be less
inclined to take reports seriously or follow PREA guidelines. Many inmates perceive staff as
insensitive or unwilling to help further discouraging disclosure. 3rd is the inmate subculture. So
the prison subculture operates under the rule of no snitching. So reporting victimization often
means naming the perpetrator, which can lead to the victim being seen as a snitch, which is one
of the most reprehensible acts in prison.

So the fear of this social, isolation or retaliation from other inmates may drive many victims to
suffer in silence rather than report these incidents. 4th is fear of retaliation. So kind of an
offshoot of the previous. So victims often fear retaliation from their assailants or from other
inmates, and reporting can increase the perception of weakness, making victims more
vulnerable for future, victimization. Lastly is shame and stigma, And these play significant role
particularly for male victims who are often reluctant to identify, themselves as being victimized
due to societal expectations of masculinity.

So studies like those from the NCVS reveal that while males may describe incidents of
victimization, they might be unwilling to label their experiences as a victimization. Reducing
victimization in prison requires a combination of policy changes, structural adjustments, and
cultural shifts within correctional facilities. By addressing the root causes of victimization and
promoting a safer environment, we can work towards creating a more secure and humane
correctional system. Some ideas of how to reduce, victimization are creating or using conjugal
visits. So allowing these might help address the deprivation of intimate relationships, which is
one of the pains of imprisonment we've talked about.

And these visits can reduce, tensions within the prison environment by providing an outlet for
emotional or physical connection, which may in turn reduce aggression and coercive behavior.
That said, there are concerns about pregnancies resulting from these visits in which women
might be pregnant during incarceration and then have the baby removed from them or the child
being raised without support if the individual is incarcerated. Another idea is encouraging
maintenance of outside relationships. So programs that facilitate stronger connections to family
and friends can improve, improve inmates' mental health and emotional stability, making them
less vulnerable to victimization. Maintaining these relationships might also aid in the
rehabilitation and success of reintegration into society after release, which reduces the overall
strain on the correctional environment.

Another idea is increasing the number of female correctional officers. So research has shown
that female officers tend to adopt a more collaborative and less authoritarian approach. This can
foster a more respectful and controlled prison environment, particularly in addressing issues of
sexual victimization. Lastly, volunteers bring outside perspectives and services into correctional
facilities offering programs such as education, counseling and mentorship. They're also another
set of eyes.

So if there are cases of staff on inmate victimization, they provide a third party, an outside
source to kinda see what's going on. So volunteer presence can provide positive isolation, and
create opportunities for inmates to engage in constructive activities reducing the likelihood of
conflict or victimization. Before moving on to the next subunit, please make sure that you
complete all the readings and then reach out to me if any questions and lastly, take quiz 13.
Thank you so much, and I hope you have a great rest of your day.