1848 REVOLUTION-

INTRO - The Revolutions of 1848 in Europe arose in response to the rigid authoratarian system established by
Vienna settlement(1815) which failed to adapt the changes of the 19th century Spanning from France through
the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire, and Italy, 1848 revolutions sought similar goals, including the
establishment of constitutional democratic republics, legal equality, and the end of privilege. National
unification was also a key factor, especially in Italy, Germany, and parts of the Austrian Empire. Despite shairing
a common ideological background, the revolutions were largely fragmented and lacked central coordination.
However Peter Stearns emphasized that "1848 was about the dissatisfaction of many with the previleges of the
few " underscoring the collective anger at social and economic inequality.

Roger Price, in The Revolutions of 1848, views the uprisings as rooted in economic hardship, social inequality,
and the growing influence of liberalism and socialism. He argues that while these revolutions failed in achieving
their goals, they exposed the vulnerabilities of traditional regimes and highlighted tensions between elites and
the rising middle and working classes. Price sees them as significant for revealing the demand for political and
social change, despite their ultimate suppression by conservative forces.

Jonathan Sperber, in The European Revolutions, 1848-1851 , interprets the revolutions as part of Europe’s
transition to modernity. He focuses on the clash between feudal structures and industrial capitalism,
emphasizing the role of class dynamics and nationalism. Sperber argues that the differing goals of the middle
and working classes undermined the revolutions, making them less about immediate success and more about
shaping the long-term direction of European society.

‘SPRINGTIME OF THE PEOPLES’

Eric Hobsbawm refers to the events of 1848 as the ‘springtime of the peoples’.

According to Roger Price, by 1848 the material for an explosion across central and Western Europe was ready –
the slightest event could have triggered the fall of any of the governments of the ‘revolutionary zone’. The
triggering event, as it happened, was the repression in Paris in February 1848 to demand greater political
representation. The following months were a time of great hope and optimistic confusion. While the
revolutions were largely concentrated in the cities, the most remarkable thing was the extent of popular
participation.

Despite his Marxist inclinations, Hobsbawm rightly describes the events of 1848 as the creation of the workers,
petty bourgeoisie and the labouring poor. Despite popular support (or perhaps because of it) the revolutions of
1848 were remarkably short-lived and were defeated everywhere by September 1848. The revolutions were all
too brief and failed to achieve much. Thus the initial victories of the 1848 revolution were very short lived. To
say that these revolutions were the ‘spring times of the people’ would therefore not be an entirely valid point.
The revolutionaries were unsuccessful in creating new regimes; and the old authorities returned to power
within a year or two. European states had become even stronger after the Revolutions of 1848.

COURSE –

There were many large revolutions throughout Europe, of which almost all of them failed. The revolutions
began in capital cities and urban centers-the hub of economic growth and political change and subsequently
moved on to other towns and rural areas.

France

The revolutions first began in France, where people demanded universal suffrage. On February 22, Prime
Minister Guizot banned a national campaign for electoral reform in Paris, leading to protests and scattered
violence. The next day, the National Guard refused to disperse the protesters, signaling their support for
reforms. Under pressure, King Louis-Philippe dismissed Guizot, but tensions escalated when troops fired on
demonstrators, enraging the public and sparking mass uprisings. The king abdicated, and the Second Republic
was established, with a Provisional Government taking charge. The February Revolution in France inspired
similar movements in other European countries.
Germany

In Germany, Discontent was widespread and the February revolution in France spread rapidly into the German
states. In Berlin, demonstrators agitated for liberal political demands and in favour of German nationalism.
After the spread of protests the King, Frederick IV introduced a more liberal cabinet and agreed to the
establishment of a constitutional monarchy. However as in Paris, the shooting of civilians by troops drove the
situation out of control. The revolution in the German states had not only shaken Berlin and other capital cities
but had reached the countryside as well.

Austria

In Austria, growing nationalism among groups like the Czechs and Hungarians, along with demands for
reform, created a crisis. Inspired by events in France, Austrians sought constitutional reforms, peasant
emancipation, administrative efficiency, and a representative United Diet. On March 13, protests erupted in
Vienna, with demonstrators calling for change. Days of unrest followed, forcing Emperor Ferdinand I to accept
the resignation of Metternich, the symbol of the Old Order. Fearing an attack by revolutionary workers and
students, the emperor fled Vienna.

Italy

In Italy, revolutions erupted against Austrian rule in Lombardy and Venetia and conservative regimes in other
states, including the Papal States. On March 18, a revolt began in Milan, where 10,000 people petitioned for
liberal reforms. After five days of intense street fighting, poorly armed revolutionaries forced Austrian
commander Joseph Radetzky to withdraw his troops to fortified positions. The revolts pushed leaders to adopt
constitutions and reforms demanded by the revolutionaries.

CAUSES (roger price and Jonathan Sperber )- The causes of revolution in 1848 are complex and multifaceted,
involving both long-standing background factors and immediate triggers. Roger Price distinguishes between
background factors, which refer to the long-term conditions that set the stage for revolution, and the
precipitants, or immediate events that directly triggered revolutionary action. He notes that, for most politically
active individuals, the memory of the French Revolution of 1789 acted as a deterrent against revolutionary
action. It was only when political authority began to collapse under the weight of economic and social crises
that revolution became possible.

The most significant factor in the revolutions of 1848 was the confluence of a severe economic crisis and
political difficulties. The economic downturn, which began in 1845, intensified existing social tensions, leading
to greater urgency in demands for liberal reforms. Governments, unable to address issues like poverty, law and
order, and basic political freedoms, faced growing discontent. As a result, what began as dissatisfaction with
existing political systems quickly evolved into demands for revolutionary change.

ECONOMIC CRISIS - The economic crisis of 1845–47 was a critical factor leading to the 1848 European
revolutions. This period was marked by a series of interrelated economic problems, including poor harvests, a
trade downturn, and a financial panic. The crisis, however, was not a one-off event but part of a broader
economic decline that spanned over fifteen years, from the early 1840s to the second half of the decade.
Within this larger framework, the years 1845–47 were particularly difficult due to the combination of several
crises.

Economic Crisis of 1845-47

1.The Harsh Harvests

The first key issue was the series of poor harvests, which began in the early 1840s and worsened over time.
These crop failures led to food shortages, especially in regions that depended on potatoes and other staple
crops. The potato blight in 1845, which wiped out a significant portion of the crop, was especially devastating
in northern Europe. Potatoes had become a major food source for the poor, and their failure created
widespread famine. In areas such as the southern Rhineland and southern Italy, people faced extreme hunger,
with some even resorting to eating the carcasses of dead animals. A particularly severe hot and dry summer in
1846 worsened the situation by causing the worst grain harvest in nearly 30 years. By 1847, the prices of basic
foodstuffs, including bread and potatoes, skyrocketed, doubling the cost from just a few years earlier.

2.Famine and Riots

These food shortages led to public unrest. In 1847, bread and potato riots occurred across Europe, with crowds
of hungry peasants attacking food merchants and forcing the sale of food at lower prices. Notably, the "potato
uprising" in 1847 april Berlin saw mobs attacking potato dealers. Over 400 food riots were reported in France
during 1846 and 1847, and 164 in the German states alone in 1847. As the situation became increasingly dire,
governments struggled to maintain order. The riots, which were often spontaneous and violent, were a
reflection of the growing dissatisfaction with the state of affairs. The impact of the crisis was most acutely felt
by the unskilled and propertyless classes, who were already suffering from the negative effects of urbanization
and industrialization.

3.Measures to Combat Famine

Despite the growing unrest, Europe did not experience a total famine, largely due to swift and organized action
by municipalities and state authorities. Soup kitchens were set up, and the export of food was prohibited.
Tariffs on food imports were lifted, and grain was imported from Russia and North America to help alleviate the
crisis. These measures were successful in mitigating the worst effects of famine, unlike in Ireland, where the
British government, adhering to free-market principles, failed to take any significant action. This laissez-faire
attitude led to a devastating famine in Ireland, where over a million people died. This contrast highlighted the
differences in how governments responded to the crisis, and it also demonstrated the harsh consequences of
neglecting the welfare of the population.

4.The Financial Crisis and Trade Downturn

Alongside the agricultural crisis, Europe was also experiencing a financial crisis. The high food prices of 1845–
47 left many families with little to spend on manufactured goods or services. This decline in demand for non-
essential goods, combined with the cyclical downturn of the business cycle, led to a sharp recession beginning
in 1847. The first wave of railroad construction, which required vast amounts of capital, further strained the
financial system, leading to widespread bankruptcies. A significant factor in the financial crisis was the credit
crunch. Many businesses had taken out loans to cover the rising costs of food, and when the prices of
essentials were at their peak, they found themselves unable to meet their financial obligations. This resulted in
a wave of bankruptcies, with businesses suspending payments and dragging their creditors into the crisis in a
chain reaction of debt. The collapse of financial institutions created further instability, as the poor organization
of the financial system made it difficult for businesses to secure the credit they needed to survive.

5.Political Consequences of the Economic Crisis

The economic difficulties of 1845–47 created a widespread sense of frustration and disillusionment with the
existing political system. The gap between the rich and poor widened, and many working-class individuals
found themselves in debt or unemployed. In large cities and manufacturing regions, unemployment was
especially severe, and crowds of the unemployed were a common sight. These economic hardships became a
backdrop for political movements that sought change and reform. The financial crisis was not merely an
isolated economic problem; it was also deeply intertwined with the political instability of the time.
Governments that failed to address the needs of the people contributed to the growing unrest. Although the
immediate cause of the 1848 revolutions was not just the economic downturn, the severe hardships of the
1845–47 period acted as an aggravating factor, pushing the population toward rebellion.

6.A Crisis of Transition

The economic difficulties of the 1840s must also be understood in the context of a broader economic
transformation. The period from 1845 to 1847 was part of a larger shift toward expanded industrial production
and a more market-oriented agriculture. This transition, while ultimately leading to economic growth and
expansion, created significant short-term hardship. The poor harvests, combined with the financial instability
and high food prices, exposed the fragility of the existing economic system. The people, unaware of the long-
term economic expansion that would eventually follow, were desperate for immediate relief. They were willing
to take extreme measures, including violent uprisings, to improve their conditions.

7.Social and Political Consequences

The economic crisis had profound social and political implications. The food shortages and financial instability
led to significant social unrest, as many people felt that the government was either unwilling or incapable of
addressing their problems. The resulting discontent fueled the revolutionary movements of 1848, which swept
across Europe. The revolutions were not solely the result of poor harvests and food shortages, but these
economic hardships played a key role in creating the conditions for revolt. As historian Ferdinand Freiligrath
aptly put it, the "first shot" of the revolution was fired in response to economic hardship.

The 1848 revolutions were not simply food riots; they were part of a broader movement for political change.
The demands for political reform and social justice were fueled by the economic struggles of the preceding
years. The failure of governments to address the economic crisis contributed significantly to the political
mobilization that characterized the revolutions. As people saw their conditions worsening, they increasingly
turned to radical solutions, which included the overthrow of monarchies and the establishment of more
democratic systems.

POLITICAL CRISIS - Between 1845 and 1848, Europe faced a combination of economic difficulties, political
challenges, and rising public dissatisfaction with existing governments. These issues eventually sparked
revolutionary movements across the continent.

1.Economic Crisis (1845–48)

The economic crisis of 1845–48 was a major factor behind the political unrest that followed. During these
years, Europe experienced crop failures, especially in Ireland and Germany, leading to food shortages and
famine. This caused great suffering for the lower classes, resulting in widespread anger towards the ruling
elites. The economic troubles were made worse by rising unemployment, high food prices, and a growing
divide between the rich and poor. These hardships made people more eager for political and social reforms.

2.Growth of Political Opposition

As economic difficulties increased, political opposition to existing governments grew stronger across Europe.
The "party of movement," which wanted constitutional and political reforms, became more active. In many
European countries, opposition groups pushed harder for change, both legally and illegally. Political
organizations spread, and new campaigns were launched to challenge monarchies and autocratic regimes. In
Prussia and Austria, opposition groups presented petitions to their monarchs, calling for reforms like the
creation of legislative bodies with real power. The Hungarian opposition made the best use of these political
platforms, preparing for the 1847 elections. Although the publication of their political platform was banned, it
circulated secretly, showing the growing strength of the opposition. This effort led to the election of many
opposition members, although divisions between moderates and radicals made their efforts less effective at
first.

3.The French Opposition and the Banquet Campaign

In France, the opposition suffered setbacks in the 1846 elections but shifted its strategy. In 1847, they launched
a nationwide banquet campaign calling for political reform, especially expanding voting rights. Radical leader
Alexandre Ledru-Rollin became a vocal supporter of universal suffrage. The banquet campaign showed that
political life in France was intensifying and that more people were pushing for change. Despite growing support
for the campaign, the French government ignored the calls for reform. Alexis de Tocqueville, a moderate
liberal, warned that failure to expand voting rights could lead to revolution, but his warning went unheard. This
moment would prove to be prophetic in the months that followed.

4.Political Movements in Southern Germany and Italy

Similar political movements were growing in southern Germany and Italy. In these regions, opposition groups
combined election campaigns with protests like banquets, festivals, and conferences. In southern Germany,
representatives from different small states came together to create a common political platform. In Italy, the
lack of parliamentary institutions meant the opposition had to take a more indirect approach. In 1846, the
Grand Duke of Tuscany allowed the formation of a popular militia called the Guardia Civica. This led to parades
and festivals in cities like Florence, which became a way to demand Italian independence and freedom from
Austrian rule. In Piedmont, liberals pushed for constitutional reforms and a stronger stance against Austria. In
1847, the Congress of Italian Scientists in Venice became a symbol of resistance to Austrian control. By early
1848, Italy was filled with demands for independence. In Milan, a boycott of Austrian tobacco led to protests
and clashes with Austrian soldiers, symbolizing rising tensions and nationalism.

Government Responses

Most European governments resisted making reforms despite the pressure. In the Papal States and Prussia,
moderate liberals tried to work with rulers to achieve national unity and constitutional government, but
monarchs rejected their efforts. Pope Pius IX, initially popular with Italian liberals for his reforms, refused to
grant a constitution or compromise, insisting on Papal sovereignty. This alienated many liberals and deepened
the divide between conservatives and liberals. In Prussia, King Friedrich Wilhelm IV convened provincial diets in
1847 to discuss financial issues. When liberals proposed reforms in return for financial support, the king
rejected their demands, refusing to create a constitution, saying it would come "between God and the
country." This refusal led to the dissolution of the Diet, worsening the political deadlock and increasing
tensions, setting the stage for revolution.

6.The Swiss Civil War and the Prelude to Revolution

The Swiss Civil War in 1847, although it seemed like a small conflict, was seen as a sign of the larger changes to
come in Europe. The war, between radical Protestant cantons and conservative Catholic ones, ended with a
victory for the left-wing cantons. This event was seen as proof that radical change was possible and that the
existing authorities were not strong enough to suppress it.

Conclusion: The Revolution of 1848

By the end of 1847, Europe was on the edge of revolution. The economic crisis, political mobilization, and
refusal of governments to make reforms created an atmosphere of widespread discontent.

CAUSES OF THE FAILURE –

 The immediate aftermath of the revolution entailed the problem of establishing the
membership and authority of the new governments and to define constitutional
settlements. In France the provincial government which had emerged was divided socially,
politically and personally. The men lacked governmental experience and opposed the monarchy
because they wanted to bring forth social reform measures. However they did not want to alter
the existing social system significantly. The situations were similar in Austria and the German
states.
 While analyzing the reasons for the subsequent failure of the revolutions of 1848, historians
have often posed a crucial question as to why the revolutions of 1848 had a different outcome
from those of 1789 or 1917. The answer given by the historians for the failures of the revolutions
of 1848 is that the revolutionaries weren’t revolutionary enough. They lacked the enthusiasm
displayed by their Jacobin predecessors and Bolshevik successors.
 Sometimes it is also attributed to personal failures of revolutionary leaders who made tall
claims but weren’t daring enough to carry out required actions and/or bloodshed.
 In Marxist understanding, the failure of Revolutions 1848 is attributed to specific social and
economic developments. The revolution led to renewed economic crisis. In each of the states
affected by the revolution, there was a move towards avoidance of violence. There was political
 factionalism where prominent families sought to take advantage of a fluid political situation in
order to secure administrative office to increase their influence. There was widespread disorder
and protest by peasants and workers alike. This was even more than the chaos during the
revolution. As a result, the new liberal administrations frequently were forced to employ the
existing state apparatus to restore order.
 According to them, the revolutionaries of 1848 weren’t successful in mobilizing popular support.
The middle class revolutionaries were scared of the extent to which the masses might have gone.
As a result, the middle class revolutionaries only made half-hearted efforts and were willing to
make compromises with the pre-1848 authorities.
 However Sperber points out that there weren’t really great points of differences between the
situations that prevailed during the revolutions of 1789 and 1848 respectively. He also argues
that the rise of a working class doesn’t adequately explain the failure on the part of
revolutionaries to mobilize masses. He elaborates this argument further by pointing out that in
mid 19th century southern and eastern Europe there was no industrialization or labour force;
even central and western Europe, it wasn’t the labour force but largely the craftsmen who had led
the rebellions.
 In comparison to the powerful and loyal military support that the rulers possessed, the
revolutionaries were rendered weak by the deficiencies seen in tactical leadership. The
counter revolution was thus successful in suppressing the revolutions of 1848.
 The development of politics of nationalism in 1848 had its own implications. Sperber throws
light on the fact that these revolutionary nationalisms clashed with each other. And rather than
radicalizing the revolution, it weakened them.
 The high hopes of the revolutionaries of 1848 were shattered because of the different aims and
a split between liberals and radicals. The conservatives and Moderates stressed the need to
restore social order. But the Radicals insisted that the state should intervene in the economy and
that it should recognize the right to work.
 Thus there was a lack of consensus amongst the revolutionaries. This enabled the success of
the counter revolution in the Habsburg monarchy, the German and the Italian States. Less skilled
workers generally lacked a strong sense of commitment and showed little interest in the
democratic or socialist ideas. For them, what mattered the most was economic security. And it
was the programme of radicals that appealed the most to the workers and lower middle class. But
overall, it was the conservatives who garnered the support of the majority of population. The
conservative propaganda presented the radicals as engaging in nothing but murder and looting
and plotting to destroy the society. The conservatives and the established elites were advocating
the need for peace and social order-the prerequisites to economic recovery. This appealed to the
middle class; they were frightened by the radicalist propaganda which they saw as a threat to
their property.
 Price suggests that it was the combination of this increase in the influence of the conservatives
along with the existence of the strong military support that the counter revolutionaries had that
led to their success. And this translated to the ultimate defeat of the revolutionaries.

COUNTER REVOLUTION/ IMPACT OF REVOLUTIONS ON THE POLITICS OF EUROPE –

The old social elites in Europe had soon recovered from the disasters of the Revolutions of 1848. The
revolutions generated resistance almost immediately from the political and social forces. The counter-
revolutions carried out by the rulers with the aid of the nobles left parliaments and assemblies with little
or no effective powers. The demands that were made included universal male suffrage, freedom of press,
constitutional governments and larger participation of the public in administrative affairs. Even though
some of them were fulfilled, most of these concessions were withdrawn sooner or later.

One has to bear in mind that the accomplishment of the revolutionaries in terms of setting up
constitutional governments didn’t last long. While the kingdoms of Prussia and Piedmont-Savoy retained
their constitutional form of government, the Two Sicilies, the Papal States and the Austrian Empire had
gone back to absolutist rule. More or less, the ultimate success of the counter revolution throughout
Europe was aided by the mixed aims of the revolutionaries.

France – In France, the political crisis intensified as the provisional government faced competing
demands. On 15th May, an attempt by the political clubs to dissolve the Assembly and declare a social
republic of the people failed. After days of tension, the Assembly finally declared on June 23rd that the
National Workshops would be closed in three days. Workers aged 17-25 were given the option of
enlisting in the army, and others were promised public works in the provinces. The workers associations
protested vigorously and rose up in rebellion. For three days the June Days raged in the workers’ quarters
of central and eastern Paris. General Louis Cavaignac put down the uprising with brutality. Thus the
process of counter revolution began with repression of the June insurrection after which the Assembly
immediately passed legislation to curb popular political movements. The new republican constitution
instituted elections in November 1848. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of the great Napoleon
Bonaparte became the President of the second republic.

Germany – In the German states, liberals and radicals gradually split as conservative forces gathered
momentum. The spread of democratic clubs and workers’ associations was evidence of widespread
politicization and mobilization of support for the left. Frederick Wilhelm’s refusal to recognize the
Imperial Constitution prepared by the Frankfurt assembly led to widespread protests organized by
popular political societies. The only chance for the constitution to survive was to convince the King of
Prussia to become king of a unified Germany. Before the Prussian parliament could approve the
constitution, the king dissolved it and declared a state of emergency. The Frankfurt parliament which
embodied the hopes of German liberals and nationalists ended in abject failure.

Austria –The confusion of competing national claims and rivalries within the monarchy eased the task of
counter revolution within the Austrian Empire. The aristocratic army commanders like Windischgratz,
Schwarzenberg, Radetzky and Jelacic played a crucial role in the restoration of the imperial authority.
When workers rose up in arms to protest against the shutting down of the national workshops (which
had been established to provide work to unemployed), Ferdinand sent the bourgeois National Guard to
crush the uprising. The establishment of the ‘Bach system’- a system of bureaucratic surveillance, spying
and repression- helped in rooting out the political opposition.

As far as the impact of these revolutions on the politics of Europe is concerned, as J. Merriman points out,
European states had become even stronger after the Revolutions of 1848. Counter revolutions carried out
by the various states had succeeded in crushing the rebellions. However, even though the state machinery
of repression was kept well oiled, certain concessions were made as well.

SIGNIFICANCE/LEGACY OF THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 – Although the Revolutions 1848 ultimately

failed, they left crucial political legacies.

 It has been pointed out by scholars that these revolutions inaugurated the trend of mass politics.
While most of the goals of the revolutionaries were centered around the demands of the middle
class or the bourgeoisie, popular demands for universal male suffrage and rights for women were
made as well.
 This period witnessed the formation of different political groups - the moderates, radicals and
the conservatives. The counter-revolution had ensured the suppression of committed
republicans, nationalists and socialists. Most of them were exiled to different places. Thousands
of Frenchmen were exiled to Algeria, while German and Italian political exiles emigrated to
America.
 The revolutions of 1848 marked the first time workers put forward organized demands for
political rights.
 There was a substantial growth in tension between the various ethnic groups inhabiting Central
and Eastern Europe. There was an increased hostility towards the Austrians in Italy and greater
 Austro-Prussian rivalry for influence in Germany. In this context, it can be said that the
revolutions of 1848 form the backdrop against which the sentiments of Nationalism had
emerged. Thus, Nationalism, although far less intense during the course of the revolutions of
1848, was a development which gained growing importance in the German and Italian States.
 Roger Price asserts that the wars of the second half of the 19 th century were themselves a legacy
of 1848.
 The most significant legacy of the revolutions of 1848 was the end of the ancien regime. The
abolition of serfdom, feudal system and other seigneurial institutions relieved the peasantry from
their obligations towards lords.
 Lastly, as an outcome of these revolutions, there was a stimulation of the political awareness of
the general masses. More number of people were now beginning to see the relevance of politics
to their daily lives. There was an explosion of political participation and different ways of
organization- elections, petitions, demonstrations, public meetings and newspapers- all played a
very significant role in the due course of the revolutions. In these respects, the diverse
institutions and policies which the modern state follows in varying combinations too is a legacy
left behind by the revolutions of 1848.

In conclusion, it can be said that even though the victories of the revolutions of 1848 were short lived
(since they were suppressed by the state-led counter-revolutions), they were significant accomplishments
in their own right. The revolutions of 1848 opened up a new chapter in the history of modern Europe. It
marked the beginning of mass politics and it was during this period that the nationalist politics that
shaped the events of Europe in the subsequent years took birth.