CHAPTER ONE

CONCEPT OF OFFICE

Learning objectives and outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Understand and explain what an office is

• Describe the characteristics of the various types of offices

• Discuss the functions of office to an organization

Introduction

There are different organizations in our society today which are established to achieve definite
objectives. In order to achieve these goals, organizations are required to perform a number of
functions on a regular basis. To perform these functions efficiently, organizations require
resources such as human resource, materials, money, means of communication and
transportation, etc. These resources should be used in efficient and effective ways to meet the
ever-changing needs of society. Hence, every organization requires an office for the effective
management of resources and information for achieving objectives.

The role of the office as an integral part of an organization cannot be underestimated. It is the
office that simplifies business operations and promotes coordination of activities between
persons and departments. The interpretation given to an office can be put into two ways.
Fundamentally, office definitions can be classified as being clerical or the traditional definition
such as receiving information, recording, processing, typing, photocopying, etc. to modern
definition such as decision-making, planning, organizing, directing, controlling, coordinating,
staffing, and communication.

Definitions of Office

The office is the central point in every organization which carries out several activities; clerical,
managerial, and administrative. It is an area in any organization that cannot be underestimated
if the function of every firm, organization or institution has been carried out successfully. Below
are some definitions of an office:

"Office is a place where clerical operations are carried out." – J.C. Denyer

"The office is the administrative center of a business." – Mills and Standing Ford

"An office is the place where the control mechanisms for an enterprise are located, where
records are initiated for communication, control and efficient operation of the enterprise." –
George R. Terry

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"The office is that part of a business enterprise which is devoted to the direction and
coordination of its various activities. It is the seat, not only of the administration activities which
determine the policy of whole business, but also of the principal executive activities whereby
policies are carried into effect." – James Stephenson

What is our take on these definitions? Let’s restate what the office is based on our
understanding of these definitions.

Office Functions

The functions an office performs can be classified into two:

• General/Clerical functions

• Administrative function

The administrative functions in the office are accomplished for the effective and efficient
operations of the work in the organization. These functions are performed by the board of
directors, chief executives, general managers, and sectional heads or managers. The major
administrative functions in the office are as follows:

• Preparation and implementation of plans

Basically, planning is a process of deciding in advance about a course of action(s) to be

taken. It is concerned with deciding what, when, where, why, and how official activities
are performed. Offices prepare both long- and short-term plans and implement them
through efficient and effective use of available resources (workforce, materials,
machines, money, etc.).

• Performing personnel functions

Personnel function is concerned with selecting and appointing the right candidates in
different managerial and clerical posts. The personnel function also includes the
activities relating to placing, training, promoting, transferring, remunerating, keeping a
personal record and retiring the office staff. The organization establishes a separate
personnel department to carry out such personnel functions.

• Communicating, Controlling and Coordinating of Activities

Coordination refers to the practice of relating the activities of various persons and
departments for the achievement of organizational objectives. Controlling is evaluating
whether actual performance meets the set target so that any remedial course of action
can be rectified. Communicating is the exchange of official information between people
or departments inside or outside the organization. All these functions are carried out by
the office.

• Safeguarding Assets

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 The office purchases necessary assets, utilizes, and safeguards them. It keeps proper
records regarding the value and condition of assets. It also maintains the record of the
officers who are responsible for the proper utilization and maintenance of assets and
reporting the condition of such assets.

Clerical functions

Clerical functions are also known as routine functions. Clerical activities such as photocopying,
scanning, printing, laminating, combing, etc. are performed frequently to support the successful
accomplishment of administrative functions. These functions are performed by clerical staff or
office assistants.

The main clerical functions are:

• Accepting information from within and outside the organization

Offices accept various types of information from internal and external sources. They
collect the information from internal sources like office personnel and departments such
as production, marketing, finance, accounting, and personnel.

• Recording the information

The information received from internal and external sources may be different in respect
of their priority. The office records information which are useful and important for the
organization.

• Processing information

The information received and recorded cannot be used readily for planning and decision-
making. The office should process the information in a suitable form. Information
processing may take the form of using statistical software like SPSS or EXCEL to
generate graphs and tables, using the calculator to calculate as well as analyzing the
information.

• Handling visitors

The office handles all visitors properly. It establishes a separate reception section for
better services and satisfaction of the visitors and customers. Such better services and
satisfaction of visitors and customers helps to increase goodwill and promote sales of
the organization.

• Communicates information

The office communicates the information to different persons and departments inside the
organization. It also communicates such information to all concerned parties like

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 customers, suppliers, and government outside the organization as required. The
information is communicated through fax, telephone, internet, email, etc.

Importance of Office

The office is considered as the mainspring of a watch and directing of a car. The office is
essential in order to perform a number of traditional (clerical and administrative activities) in
order to achieve organizational aims, goals, and objectives. The importance of the office to an
organization include:

• Offices serve as the planning and decision-making center: The office is where the
organization formulates its decisions, plans, and policies such as volumes of sales to
produce, cost per unit of product, develops staff conditions of service, conduct
negotiations, plans calendars, etc. It makes different types of the decision like changing
the amount of capital, objectives, rules and regulations of the office.

• Communicates and coordinates work: The office is the center that releases
information to different branches, units or departments of the organization. It also brings
together the various activities of different persons and departments, and directs them
towards the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. It passes useful
information to the staff and departments inside the organization and to the concerned
parties outside the organization as per their requirements.

• Controlling of work: the office supervises and evaluates the performance of different
staff and departments. It compares the actual performance of staff and departments with
the standard performance and takes corrective action to minimize the variations in
future.

• Public relation center: The office maintains good public relations for operating its
business successfully and increasing the goodwill of the organization. It provides
accurate and reliable information to all concerned parties as per their requirements. It
provides better services to customers, suppliers, lenders, owners, competitors, and
government in order to maintain good relationship with them.

• Proof of existence: The office is the proof of the existence of an organization. It is the
organization’s identity. It gives evidence that the organization is operating its business in
the society.

• Record center: The office is mainly the warehouse of information to the organization. It
receives, records, and keeps documents or records for use. It keeps records in an
orderly manner such that it can easily be retrieved when needed. Organizations rely
heavily on the office for information, and thus considered as the power house of all
records.

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 • Service center: The office is also considered as the service center to the organization.
It serves customers who transact business, and receives visitors as well as investors. It
also serves as a link among various department of the organization.

Formation of office

Every organization has an office that performs various activities for the efficient and effective
administration of plans and targets. The nature of the office depends on the volume of work that
is performed. A business with inadequate workforce and resources forms a small-sized office.
Similarly, an organization with the objectives of producing and distributing goods and services
over a long period of time from a permanent office.

• Permanent office

A permanent office, otherwise known as long-term office, is created for the making and
distribution of goods and services over a long period of time. Its activities are not time-
bound and its objectives are not sought within the specified timeframe. Usually, the size
of the permanent office is large with a large number of employees, and a huge amount
of capital and assets. Its files and transactions are voluminous. Ministries, departments,
public enterprises, joint stock companies, hospitals, schools, etc. form the permanent
offices for operating their activities.

• Temporary office

The temporary office is also known as short-term office. It is established with the
objectives of producing and distributing goods and services over a short period of time or
completing a particular job with a specific number of employees, and a small amount of
capital and assets. Its transactions are limited. Such offices can be as follows:

• Temporary office for completing a particular job: This type of temporary

office is established for the completion of a specific job. After the completion of
such specific jobs, the office is automatically closed. Offices formed for
constructing buildings, canals, roads, bridges, etc. are some examples of the
temporary office.

• Temporary office for a specific period: This type of temporary office is

established for a specific period of time. After the expiry of such specific
durations, the office is automatically closed. Hence, such offices exist till the
period elapses. Offices for conducting seminars, workshops, and trainings are
examples of such temporary offices. The office of different commissions
established for investing and reporting about different incidents within specified
timeframe is other examples. A temporary office is one which completes a
particular job or produces and distributes goods and services for a specific period
of time.

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Types of offices

Different offices are established for different objectives. On the basis of ownership and
objectives, offices are divided as follows:

1. Government office:

Government offices are established by the government for providing administrative services to
citizens and for socio-economic development of the country. The government approves the
annual budget for such offices and releases the budget for maintaining its expenditure. It follows
government accounting system to record its revenues and expenditure. The employees are
permanently appointed by the government. It is established in a country to also provide security
and peace. Ministry of Finance and the Office of the Auditor General are some of the examples
of government offices.

The following are the main characteristics of government offices:

• They are established, managed, and controlled fully by the government

• They pay incomes or proceeds in the government or state fund

• The Auditor General audits their accounts or financial transactions

• All monetary transactions are performed through the central bank

• They receive their budget from the government to meet their expenditure

Functions of government offices:

• To ensure that citizens obey the laws of the country

• To defend the state against any attacks either from within or outside

• To regulate the economic activities of firms

• To maintain peaceful and cordial relationship with other countries.

• To provide administrative support services to both individuals and corporations.

• To develop the basic infrastructures in the country.

• To protect private and public properties.

2. Business Office:

This office is established by individuals or government for the production and distribution of
goods and services with a view of earning money by satisfying consumers. They are
established by industrial, trading and service businesses. The office of industrial business buys

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raw materials, converts them into finished goods and sells them in the market. The office of
trading business buys finished goods and sells them in the market. The office of service
business renders services like banking, communication, insurance, transportation, and
electricity to earn a profit.

On the basis of ownership and objectives, business offices can be classified as follows:

• Office of Private Investment: This office is established by individuals in the private

sector for maximizing profit. The primary objective of this office is to maximize profit.
They are established by sole trading, partnership firm and joint stock company. They are
managed and controlled by the proprietor, partners, and board of directors.

Characteristic of office of private investment

• It is established with the investment of owner, partners, and shareholders.

• Its volume of transactions is usually limited.

• It develops accounting system independently.

• It reports its activities, profit or loss and financial position to the owners and
shareholders.

• Its accounts and financial statements are audited by a registered auditor.

• It is independent in making decisions and forming rules and regulations.

Office of Government Investment: This is established by the investment of

government in public sector for the production and distribution of goods and services of
daily necessities at reasonable price. It is also known as public enterprise. The primary
objective of this office is to provide services to the general public. It provides goods and
services of daily necessities at a reasonable price. It is managed and controlled by the
board of directors and joint stock company. The offices of Electricity Company of Ghana
and Ghana Water Company are some examples of offices of government investment.

Characteristics of office of government investment

• It is established with the sole or majority investment of government.

• It is managed and controlled by the board of directors nominated by government.

• It has a large volume of transactions.

• It is established and operated with the primary objective of rendering services.

• It reports its activities, profit or loss to government.

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 Service motive office

The service-motive office is one which is established by individuals or government for

providing education, health, social, and cultural services without the intent of making profits.
It is managed and controlled by the executive committee or board. It is established with the
aim of providing educational, health, social, and cultural services to society without any
intention of making profit. The office of Ghana Red Cross Society is an example of a
service-motive office.

Characteristics of service-motive office

• It meets its expenditures with the amount of subscription contributed by the members or
donation granted by the members and others.

• Its accounting is based on a cash basis.

• It reports its activities, incomes, expenses, and financial positions to its members.

• Its accounts and financial transactions are audited by a registered auditor.

• It has a separate legal status with independent management.

Trial questions

• Describe the functions of an office.

• Differentiate between temporal and permanent offices.

• Mention and explain four importance of an office.

• Distinguish between service-motive and business offices.

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CHAPTER TWO

OFFICE MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Learning objectives and outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain office management

• Describe the functions of office management

• State and explain the importance of office management

Introduction

The notion of management has gained special significance in the current competitive and
multifaceted business world. Efficient and decisive management is absolutely essential for the
continued existence of a business unit. Management is an action course made of some
elementary functions for achieving the goals of an enterprise through the support efforts of its
human resource.

Functions/process of management

Process means a sequence of activities carried out to achieve a specific objective. Process is a
systematic way of doing things. Correspondingly, in the management process, resources and

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human efforts are used in a well-ordered manner for realizing the goals of an enterprise.
Management process is unceasing and it is run by the managers functioning at different levels.

The management series of activities is, in fact, the management in practice. This process
proposes what managers are required to do in order to accomplish stated organizational goals
and objectives. The four main functions of management are:

• Planning: this is the prime function of management. It involves the determination of a

course of action to achieve desired results. It clearly indicates what needs to be done,
when it is to be done, where it is to be done, who is responsible for what needs to be
done and how to assess what has been done. Planning is the starting point of
management process and all other functions of management are related to and
dependent on this function. Planning is the key to a firm’s accomplishment, permanence,
and success. It helps to envisage future problems and keeps management prepared
with possible solutions.

• Organizing: Organizing is next to planning. It means, to bring the resources (men,

materials, machines, money, methods and market) together and use them appropriately
for realizing objectives. Organization is a process as well as a structure. Organizing
means arranging ways and means for the execution of a business plan. It provides
suitable administrative structure and facilitates execution of a proposed plan. Organizing
involves different aspects such as departmentalization, span of control, delegation of
authority, establishment of superior-team members’ relationship, and provision of
mechanism for co-ordination of various business activities.

• Directing/leading: It deals with guiding and instructing people to do the work in the right
manner. Directing/leading is the responsibility of managers at all levels. They have to
work as leaders of their team members. Clear plans and sound organization set the
stage but it requires a manager to direct and lead his men to achieve objectives. The
directing function is quite comprehensive. It also involves raising the morale of team
members.

• Controlling: This involves:

• establishing standards of performance,

• measuring work in progress and interpreting results achieved, and

• taking corrective actions, if required.

Business plans do not give positive results automatically. Managers have to exercise
effective control in order to achieve targets in a business plan. Control is closely linked

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 with other managerial functions. It is rightly treated as the soul of management process.
It is true that without planning, there will be nothing to control. It is equally true that
without control, planning will be only an academic exercise. Controlling is a continuous
activity of a supervisory nature.

Administration

Administration and management are often used interchangeably and synonymously. However,
many modern writers on management do not share the same interpretation of the two concepts
– regarding administration as meaning the same as management. Brech (2005) regards
administration as a part of management. In other words, administration is a subset of
management. Mullins shares the idea of Brech by stating: “For our purposes, administration is
interpreted as part of the management process, and concerned with the design and
implementation of systems and procedures to help meet stated objectives.”

Differences between Management and Administration

• Administration concerns putting into practice the plans initiated by management or the
actual implementation of set plans.

• Administrative tasks are usually spearheaded by unit, sectional, or departmental heads.

• Administration deals with spelling out the job description (position, duties and
responsibilities) of the various members of a particular unit in the organization.

• Administration actually puts into practice what is to be done, how it is to be done, when it
is to be done, who does what, and how to check whether what it to be done is done well.

Office Management

This is a branch of general management that basically deals with the management of an office.
As it is in general management, office management is an activity process that relates planning,
coordinating, communicating, staffing, organizing, directing and controlling the administrative
functions of an office in order to achieve a stated goal or objective. It is also the process of
making wise use of office resources (workforce, money, materials) efficiently to achieve the best
result with less effort and cost.

Components of Office Management

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 • Personnel: The office manages and keeps accurate records of employees. The
information includes files that contain employee’s activities, manages their salary and
wage, overtime and allowances, attendance, leave due, provident fund, transfers,
promotion, conditions of service, etc. It also helps to establish and maintain relationship
between members of the organization.

• Means: These are fundamentally the tools, equipment, machines, materials, methods or
processes, and money that would facilitate the work for the accomplishment of
objectives. Without the means, there is no production. It is always important to secure
the right caliber of means thus well qualified human resources, follow the right
procedure, use the right materials, etc. to get jobs accomplished successfully.

• Environment: The environment in the organization plays a very significant role in

ensuring that the resources available are used effectively and efficiently. The
environment relates to factors in the office such as lighting, interior design, ventilation,
cleanliness, furniture, washrooms, etc. Proper installation and maintenance of the
environment will boost employees’ morale to work in order to achieve job satisfaction.

• Purpose: Every organization or office has a purpose. The purpose gives the direction of
what should be done at any point in time to achieve stated goals. The purpose sets the
tone for the type of decision to be taken, the plans that need to be given, the required
resources (material, human, funds, etc.) that are needed for the accomplishment of
stated goals.

Importance of Office Management

• It helps in ensuring that resources available at the disposal of the organization are used
judiciously, efficiently, and effectively for the achievement of organizational goals.

• Management of the office helps in the planning and effective control in office activities.

• The office is the center of all activities. It receives visitors and ensures that it creates a
positive image or goodwill between the organization and the outside world.

• Managing office work would help minimize cost and leakage in the organization.

• Proper management of office activities assist in the implementation of decisions and

plans.

• Effective control mechanisms initiated at the office makes management of change very
easy and flexible.

• Effective management of office work ensures smooth and easy flow of information.

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 • Proper management of office activities as regards labor help reduce absenteeism and
turnover.

Trial questions

• Describe the process of management

• Differentiate between management and administration

• State and explain the similarities between management and administration

• Argue why it is necessary to plan, organize, lead, and control activities in

organizations

• Distinguish between office and office management

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CHAPTER THREE

OFFICE SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES

Learning objectives and outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Explain office systems and procedures

• Discuss the essential ingredients of office systems

• Explain the need for office systems and procedures

• Describe the need for improving office systems and procedures

Introduction

Generally speaking, a “system” is regarded as a group of interrelated and interdependent parts

operating in a sequence, according to a predetermined plan in order to achieve a goal or series
of goals. In management, a system may be viewed as a planned approach to the execution of
functions and activities necessary to accomplish set goals. Most, if not all, organizations operate
through a network of systems, e.g., for hiring personnel, conducting credit sales, purchases,
admission of students, accounting, exercising controls, mail handling, filing and indexing, etc.

In her book, Senior Secretarial Duties and Office Organization, Evelyn Austin points out that the
words ‘Methods’, ‘Systems’, and ‘Procedures’ are often used synonymously. According to her,
they may be likened to ripple over a surface of water. Thus, the complete system or procedure
is made up of a network of methods employed to achieve the objective of the procedure. Each
method is often made up of a number of simple operations. Helena Harding in, Secretarial
Procedures, for example, uses the terms ‘system’ and ‘procedure’ interchangeably when she
states: “An office system or procedure is the sequence of steps which are taken to perform a
particular operation of function.” According to her, a system is concerned with what is done,
how it is done, when, where, and by whom.

Some authors have, however, tried to draw a distinction between the two terms. According to
these authors, a procedure is the working level of a system. It is a specific working sequence –
a chronological sequence of required steps usually followed in performing a securing type of
work. It is an actual guide to employees on how to proceed, each time, on particular recurring or
repetitive/routine work. A system for completing a sale, for example, is made up of a network of
procedures; one of which is likely to be the collection of credit sales. One of the operations in
the collection procedure is likely to be that of creating accounts receivable to indicate the proper
handling of accounts outstanding at any point in time. A system for handling incoming mail also
encompasses the procedure involved in the collection/receipt of the mail, opening, date-
stamping, registering, sorting and delivering it to various individuals and departments for action.

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Terry, in Office Management and Control, defines office system as “a network of procedures
which are integrated and designed to carry out a major activity.” E.C. Erye gives a similar
definition: “a series of procedures designed to obtain specific objectives.” He also defines a
procedure as “a series of tasks which achieves a routine which can stand alone but which is
purposeless unless associated with other related procedures to achieve an objective.”

We can infer from the above definitions that office systems and procedures are linked. A system
is a comprehensive term which comprises procedures/methods/routines i.e., a system is a plan
or broad division of work, while procedures/routine are small parts or operations constituting the
system. Office systems are interrelated parts operating in a sequence. They indicate what is
done, how it is done, when, where, why, and by whom. They are designed to facilitate the
effective accomplishment of an organization’s goals and objectives. Procedures exist at all
levels of management but they become more numerous and extensive at the lower echelon of
the organization.

Essential ingredients of a successful office system

• Speed: A system should allow for the speedy execution of work. It should make it
possible for staff to meet scheduled dates and times especially where the system is to
be operated on a daily basis.

• Accuracy: This is a fundamental requirement of any office system and procedure.

Accuracy is of utmost importance particularly where a system involves financial
transactions. All accounting systems need to be 100% accurate.

• Economy: A system should not be too costly to implement and operate. The cost in
terms of human and material resources, as well as time and overheads, should not out-
weight the end results. The cost incurred in implementing the system must, at least, be
commensurate with the value of results produced.

• Simplicity: A system must be simple enough to enable implementers to understand and

operate it without much difficulty.

• Effectiveness and Efficiency: All systems and procedures must achieve a useful
objective. A system is effective if it achieves the goal/objective for which it was
established. It is efficient if it achieves its objective within the cost and time estimated for
its implementation.

• Dependability: A good system should be dependable, i.e., it should produce consistent

results and be subject to very little breakdown.

• Flexibility: Although a good system needs to be well-designed and structured, it should

not be rigid. It should be capable of being adapted and altered to meet changing
requirements.

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Importance of Systems and Procedures

• Avoidance of delays and bottlenecks: They enhance the flow of work and facilitate the
smooth, effective, and efficient management at the affairs of the office – e.g., delays are
reduced; office operations are carried out expeditiously.

• Better control: Systems enable better control to be exercised over what is done, thereby
reducing errors and preventing fraud. Well-designed systems and procedures lead to a
more even spread of workload.

• Economy: Systems help reduce overhead expenditure and make for economies.

• Better co-ordination: They facilitate co-ordination among departments of the

organization.

• Better training of staff: Well-designed systems are based on proper analysis. This leads
to a knowledge of the training needs of various categories of office staff. Good systems
make for proper training of new staff because the training programs are based on clearly
defined requirements.

• Procedures prescribe the most efficient way of getting a job done.

• Staff find jobs easier to do when they are familiar with clearly established procedures.

• Procedures make for uniformity and consistency. They ensure that a task of certain type
will be done in the same way throughout the organization.

• Procedures can be documented in the form of a manual. Employees who do not know
how a job is done can learn quickly and easily by referring to the manual.

• Reduction of inter-departmental friction: Procedures reduce the occurrence of inter-

departmental friction over who should do what, how, and when can be avoided.

• Liberation of Management: Littlefield and others are of the view that a good system does
not restrict management. On the contrary, it liberates management and permits it to
devote ample time to the managerial tasks assigned to it.

Drawbacks

• The system must always be kept up to date; otherwise, what was effective when
originally designed could become obsolete or inadequate for new needs.

• System design involves a lot of planning, and it is time-consuming and costly.

• Too rigid a system stifles initiative and becomes a restraint on the office.

The need for revision of systems

Office systems should be subjected to periodic review if the best possible benefits are to be
derived from them. With the development of new ideas and technology, changing information

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needs of management, new applications of existing products being developed, increasing
competition, and changes in legislation and policy, systems which were once efficient become
inefficient and must be examined and re-designed. Periodic review of office systems and
procedures will unearth unnecessary and counter-productive work practices. The major reasons
for review, according to (Zane, 2004), are:

• changes in business which the office serves;

• technical advances in office methods and equipment;

• changes in the office services required by management;

(a) Changes in business which the office serves

An office provides a service for a particular business. The systems which it employs must be
suited to that business, its organization, and activities. If the business remains unaltered, the
system may well continue to operate satisfactorily. Most businesses, however, are constantly
changing; new products, materials, processes, and machines are introduced, new markets and
marketing methods are developed, and new departments are created. Every such change tends
to make some office system less effective.

Any major alteration in the business of an organization necessitates the re-design of its related
office systems. It is often the minor changes which cause the most difficulty. Individually, they
may not warrant more than small revisions of procedures; cumulatively, they are likely to create
problems which can be solved only by complete re-design.

(b) Technical advances

New computers, machines and devices, and modifications of those already existing, are
frequently introduced. What was best for its purpose ten years earlier may become
obsolete. Advances continue to be made also in the ideas underlying office methods, as,
for example, the use of statistical and mathematical techniques to replace more detailed
methods and to make possible controls that would otherwise not be economical.

(c) Changes in the office services

Office systems are designed to provide the services which the management of the
business requires. As a business develops and as new management techniques are
introduced, the nature of the services demand changes and systems must be revised
accordingly. The most frequent changes are often in the information required for use in
planning and control. Sometimes, whole new systems may be introduced. It is more
likely, however, that management will ask for additional information piecemeal and the
office will make minor alterations to procedure in order to provide it. The cumulative
effect of many such minor changes is to render a system inefficient so that re-design
becomes necessary.

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Office Manuals

In many offices, procedures are written and published as office manuals. They may be written
as “Work or Duty Lists” for different departments and sections of the firm. In fact, office manuals
serve as a means of preserving office procedures.

Normally, these manuals contain the following:

• Outline of the organization – showing the duties of each section but the names of people
are not indicated.

• The systems/methods of doing the work, i.e., instructions on what and how to perform a
given task.

• The forms to be used and how to apply them.

These office manuals are kept by top management and issued to staff only when they affect
them. Sometimes, the manuals contain instructions on how to use them.

Written Procedures

Some organizations have a written record of systems and procedures compiled into an “office
manual”. An office manual includes written instructions on what has to be done, how, when,
and where, and gives information on the organization supporting the systems. It may be in a
book form but it is better in loose-leaf form so that updating sheets for changes in existing
procedures or the addition of new procedures may be inserted easily. Another advantage of the
loose-leaf form is that the manual can be devised in such a way that only relevant sections are
issued to staff, the complete record being kept by management only. This abridged version is
sometimes referred to as “duty lists.” It is essential that procedure manuals should be very well
presented if they are to inspire the respect, confidence, and attention of the staff who are to use
them.

Advantages of Manuals

Putting procedures into writing has some useful advantages as follows:

• It enforces close attention to the systems which may disclose inadequacies.

• It provides a basis for the training of personnel.

• Supervision is made easier.

• It provides a basis for defining the limits of each individual’s authority and responsibility
in the organization.

• The interrelationship of procedures within a system can be identified and the effect of
changes should be more easily recognized.

• Improvement to procedures is easier when steps have been identified.

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 • They facilitate the re-examination of procedure.

Disadvantages of Manuals

There are also the following disadvantages:

• Office manuals can be expensive to prepare both in cost and time.

• They can be difficult to keep up to date.

• They may introduce inflexibility in work performance.

• If operations and procedures are not in accordance with the manual or if the manual is
not kept up to date, it will be disregarded and the position will be more chaotic than if
there were no manual.

Establishing of Office System/Procedure

The foremost thing to consider when establishing office procedure is to look at the whole of the
office “in the round”. The manager has to establish:

• The objective of the office

• The nature of work involved in achieving objectives

• The competencies of the staff

• The responsibilities of the staff

• The method, strategy, or procedures for achieving objectives

Improving an Office System/Procedure

Before anything can be improved, it is necessary to examine what is being done to identify and
segregate the systems and the cause of the fault. To improve office procedures, there are some
essential steps to be taken:

• Determine the purpose of the assignment – whether it is to reduce costs, reduce

paperwork, increase output or eliminate errors.

• Examine existing methods and forms – by inspection, interviewing, self-recording diary,

etc.

• Write procedure records – descriptions of the steps involved.

• Depict the procedures on the appropriate chart on charts.

• Closely examine each procedure or set of procedures to identify the problem areas and
the causes of inefficiency.

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 • Assess alternative methods of performance – bearing in mind costs, purpose of the
procedure, purpose of the assignment, and control.

• Decide on the best possible methods and forms to use.

• Introduce new procedure – ideally with “dummy” runs using draft forms for testing
purposes.

• Prepare new job specifications for staff involved.

• Establish new or revised procedure with new forms and methods.

• Give instruction for reporting on problems that arise and, in any case, follow up after not
too long an interval, to ensure that the procedure is working. Modify it if necessary.

The “exception principle”

It is an established rule of efficient working that much needless recording and checking can be
avoided by the adoption of the “exception principle”. This means that were regular procedures
have been laid down and scheduled, and where the work is, to a great extent, routine, records
are made only of exceptions from the norm, not of all transactions. For example, if three days is
the maximum time for an order enquiry to be dealt with, a special note is made of any orders still
outstanding after three days of being received. This system can be operated only if regular
routine procedures and proper controls have been established.

Trial questions

1. Explain office systems.

2. Describe five essential ingredients of office systems.

3. Describe four means for improving office systems.

4. Briefly explain how you would establish an office system.

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21
CHAPTER FOUR

OFFICE PERSONNEL

Learning objectives and outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Define office personnel

• Identify the categories of office personnel and their functions

• Describe the traits required of office assistants

Introduction

Any organization is judged according to its staff. The term “office personnel” includes anyone
who works in an office, such as professional, managerial, and administrative staff. Office
personnel are the backbone of any business and without them, the day-to-day operations of a
business would fail; files, invoices, and paperwork would be lost, personnel and vendors would
not be paid, and supplies wouldn’t be ordered. The salary range of office personnel varies
based on their position within the company, specific duties assigned, and geographical location.

Every organization is established in the society with definite objectives. To achieve these
objectives, the organization has to perform a number of functions. To perform these functions in
coordinated and efficient manner, it requires an office. The office requires different types of
resources like men, materials, money, and means of communication and transportation to carry
out its functions. The human resources are the most valuable resources that utilize the other
resources for achieving organizational objectives. In fact, qualified, skilled, competent, honest
and dedicated personnel enable the organization to compete in the local and global market.
Hence, the organizational effectiveness depends on its qualified office personnel.

Meaning and Definition

Office personnel refer to the office chief, special chiefs and assistants that carry out all the
administrative as well as clerical functions jointly to achieve the objectives of an organization.
Office personnel refer to office staff. They are the human resources of an organization. They are
the people working at the top level, middle level and lower level of the organization in different
positions. Secretary, Joint secretary, Under Secretary, Section Officer, etc. are examples of
office personnel in a government office.

The office personnel refer to all the examples of the office comprising the chief, sectional chiefs
and assistants who jointly work for the attainment of the organizational goals.

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An office requires different types of personnel to perform various activities of an organization. In
order to perform such activities, the office requires a number of staff in different levels and posts
with required qualifications and qualities. Qualified, experienced, honest, sincere and dedicated
office personnel enhance the quality of products and services necessary for the satisfaction of
the customers.

Personnel management is concerned with finding the right people for the right position at a right
time in the right number. It refers to the process of recruiting, selecting, training and placing the
employees to the jobs to which they are best fitted. It further involves forecasting the manpower
requirement in terms of quantity and quality in conformity with expansion and development
programs of the organization. It makes personnel plans and policies and executes such them in
the interest of employees and the organization. Personnel management is the management of
people which is concerned with finding the right people for the right position at a right time in the
right number. It also involves utilizing, developing, and maintaining the human resources.

When studying office personnel, we usually consider the following:

• Categories of office personnel

• The process of recruiting and selecting people

• Employee training and development and

• Performance appraisal.

Categories of office personnel

A new employee must be made to understand his/her tasks before he/she is shown his/her
desk. The job title and grading system in different organizations may vary but they usually fall
under what we saw when discussing the organizational structure. They usually outline duties
and responsibilities and the qualities or qualifications and experiences sought.

Types of Office Personnel

An office requires different types of office personnel having different qualifications, skills and
knowledge to perform various activities. Some personnel work at the top level, some work at a
mid-level, and others work at a lower level. On the basis of position, responsibilities, and nature
of job, office personnel can be classified as follows:

Office Chief

The office chief is the in-charge who sets the objectives, formulates plans and policies,
manages resources, coordinates and controls the whole activities for achieving organizational
objectives. He/she is regarded as the boss of the organization. He/she is fully responsible for
the successful operation of the organization. He/she plays the role of the pilot of plane, captain
of a ship and driver of a bus.

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Functions of Office Chief

The functions of the office chief include:

• Setting objectives of the organization.

• Preparing short- and long-term plans and policies of the organization.

• Dividing the work among the workers in the organization.

• Directing and coordinating the activities of the different staff and departments.

• Adopting good remuneration system for motivating workers.

• Maintaining a sound accounting system in the organization.

• Reporting the performance and achievement of the organization to the board and public.

• Evaluating the performance of the staff and departments.

Importance/need of Office Chiefs

The following points highlight the necessity and importance of office chief:

• To determine the objectives of the organization.

• To make plans, policies, programs, rules and regulations for achieving the set
objectives.

• To motivate employees in their works by providing attractive remuneration, facilities and

opportunities.

• To ensure that there is discipline among staff.

• To form employee development to increase the efficiency of staff.

• To bring about effective supervision of work.

• To make the proper evolution of the performance of employees for their compensation
and promotion.

Sectional Chief

An organization is divided into different sections or departments on the basis of their functions.
These departments are production, finance, personnel, marketing, accounting, and public
relation departments. Each department or section is monitored and led by an executive officer,
who is known as a departmental or sectional chief. He is a mid-level officer of the organization.
He is the officer who performs all the activities of the concerned department under the direction
of the office chief. He prepares plans and policies, makes a division of work and mobilizes the
resources of the department efficiently.

Functions of Sectional Chief

• Setting the departmental objectives in conformity with the organizational objectives.

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 • Preparing departmental plans and policies for achieving departmental objectives.

• Reporting the performance, problems, and achievements of the department to the office
chief.

• Dividing the work among the staff working in the department.

• Mobilizing human and other resources in an efficient manner for carrying out
departmental activities smoothly.

Office Assistant

Office assistants work in the lower-level position. An office assistant is a subordinate staff who
performs routine jobs to assist the sectional and office chiefs in their daily official works. They
are clerical staff who carry out all the clerical activities of the office. They perform daily official
works as per the direction of the sectional chief. Similarly, assistant accountant, receptionist,
marketing assistant and the computer operator are the office assistants in the business office.
On the basis of the nature of job, an office assistant is classified as follows:

• Personal Assistant (P.A): A personal assistant is also known as a private secretary.

The personal assistant performs all the routine works on behalf of the executive officer
or office chief as per the directions given. He is the assistant of a particular executive or
office chief. He is the assistant who usually maintains confidential records, handles
telephone, visitors, and emails, drafts important confidential documents, arranges
meeting and seminars and reminds the executive or chief for his daily schedule. The
personal assistant is appointed by ministers, secretary of a ministry or department and
office chief of a government office. The personal assistant is the private secretary who is
to perform all the clerical functions on behalf of the chief.

• Receptionist: The receptionist is a subordinate lady staff appointed for the reception of
inquiry section to handle the telephone, visitors, and customers. She has to make
introduction among the visitors, tell them about objectives, functions, productions and
services of the organization. She has to serve the visitors with tea and coffee, cold
drinks, newspapers, and magazines while they are waiting to see the executive or office
chief. She should always be willing to pay attention and devote herself to the service and
satisfaction of visitors and customers.

• Sectional Clerk: A large organization establishes different sections and departments to

carry out production, marketing, finance, personnel and accounting functions. These
sections are handled by the sectional or departmental chief. The sectional chief cannot
handle all managerial and clerical works of his section alone. He requires a number of
staff to assist or support in performing and completing the sectional or departmental jobs

25
 smoothly. The sectional clerk is a junior office staff who is assigned a particular work in a
particular section to assist the sectional chief carrying out the sectional activities.

Qualifications of office Assistant

The following are the main qualifications required to be a competent office assistant:

• Academic qualification: The academic qualification is the formal educational degree or

diploma which is awarded by schools, boards or universities. In order to be a competent
office assistant and to make yourself eligible for a higher post, you should try
continuously to gain higher academic qualifications.

• Training: Training is the formal process of preparing a person for a particular job. It
helps to develop knowledge and skills, and build confidence for performing the assigned
job more efficiently. The person should take formal training in computer, language,
shorthand, correspondence, accounting and secretarial courses to be a competent
assistant.

• Experience: Experience is the process of gaining additional knowledge, skill, and ability
by observing and doing the particular job. It is the way of practical learning to do a job. It
makes the person mature for doing the job. The experience makes a man perfect in the
job. An experienced staff is like a jewel that is valued as great asset of the office.

• Knowledge of accounting: Every office performs a large number of financial

transactions daily. One of the important functions of an office assistant is to keep
systematic records of such financial transactions. For these, he requires a fundamental
knowledge of principles and practices of accounting. Someone with a fundamental
knowledge of accounting is generally preferred by the office as its office assistant.

• Knowledge of rules and regulations: The office assistant should have a sound
knowledge of financial rules and regulations to perform and record financial transactions.
He should be familiar with administrative procedures. He should have the basic
knowledge of the law of contract, law of agency, law of indemnity, and law of company
incorporation and management.

Functions and Duties of Office Assistant

An office assistant is appointed to do a large number of clericals works efficiently. He has to

perform a variety of works as per the direction of the sectional chief and the office chief daily.
The following are the main functions and duties of an office assistant:

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• Preparing plans for daily works: A plan for daily works means preparing a list or
schedule of jobs to be performed daily. The plan or schedule helps the office assistant to
perform the daily official works conveniently and effectively. While making a plan for the
daily works, he has to give priority for more important and urgent works. He may take
guidance from his superior for preparing an effective schedule to perform the daily
works.

• Drafting and typing letters: Drafting a letter means writing it. The office assistant has to
draft different types of letters and documents. He has to draft an inquiry letter, reply
letter, quotation letter, order letter, complaint letter, invitation letter and greetings letter
as per the direction of the superior. To achieve the objectives of drafting the letters, the
office assistant should have a sound knowledge of parts and qualities of a good letter.
After drafting a letter, he should type it properly.

• Filing letters and documents: Filing is the process of collecting and preserving important
letters and documents in a systematic manner for future reference. The office assistant
has to file all the important letters and documents properly for their safety and quick
retrieval. In order to maintain files properly, the office assistant should have a sound
knowledge of different methods of filing and indexing.

• Handling telephone: Handling the telephone is the process of making and receiving
calls. The office assistant should handle all telephone calls properly. As the telephone
rings, the office assistant has to answer to the caller with the necessary information. He
has to transfer important calls to the boss. While handling the telephone, he should be
polite, courteous, and tactful.

• Handling emails: Handling the email is the process of receiving and sending letters and
documents or recording entries and dispatch book. Office assistants should handle all
incoming and outgoing mails, letters and documents properly.

• Reminding the chief: The office chief is always busy in preparing plans, making
decisions, solving problems and attending meetings and seminars. He may forget
important appointments and other official works. It is the duty of the office assistant to
update the appointments of the chief and to remind him of important official works.

• Using machines: A modern office manages different types of office machines and
equipment to perform official activities more conveniently and efficiently. These office
machines and equipment assist the office assistant is carrying out assigned duties
smoothly. Hence, the office assistant should use telephone, calculator, computer, fax
and photocopier properly while performing official duties.

• Preparing reports: The office assistant has to prepare different types of report on daily
activities of the office. They have to prepare and submit reports regarding office income,
expenses, performance, progress, and problems to the sectional or office chief. Such
reports help to make appropriate decisions and control the activities of the organization.

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Traits of Office Assistants

• Personal appearance: Personal appearance refers to the outlook of the assistant. The
appearance of the assistant should be good-looking to others; Attractive appearance
gives a good impression to visitors and customers. Hence, the office assistant should be
neat and clean, wear a well-fitted dress, and maintain good health to make his
appearance attractive.

• Cleanliness: Cleanliness helps the assistant to be healthy. It adds to the beauty of the
office assistant. It helps to make the personal assistance’s appearance attractive and
impressive. It makes the assistant smart and active. Hence, the office assistant should
take regular bath, wear spotless dresses, cut nails, brush teeth, and wear polished
shoes to make him or her look neat and clean.

• Makeup: Makeup is an act of decorating the appearance using cosmetics such as

lipstick/lip-gloss/lip balm, eye shadow, concealer, press powder, pencil, and mascara
which are very much important for an office assistant. Proper makeup makes the office
assistant’s appearance pleasing and impressive. However, over-makeup should not be
done; otherwise, it makes the assistant ugly.

• Faithfulness: The office assistant should be faithful to the organization, superiors, and
customers. Faithfulness is the quality of being honest, sincere, accurate, loyal, and
confidential. The office assistant should perform his assigned jobs with full enthusiasm
and supply accurate and reliable information to superiors and customers. He should
maintain secrecy for confidential information, letters, and files. He should not leak out his
official secrecy even to his family members and friends.

• Tactfulness: The office assistant should be tactful in handling people and jobs. Tact is
the skill and ability to solve problems, handle people, and do official jobs in a proper
manner even in a difficult situation and new environment. The tactful office assistant can
cope with the new environment, problems, and people patiently. The office assistant
should be tactful in using his experience, knowledge, and ideas to solve problems and
satisfy people.

• Learning habit: The office assistant should have a keen interest in learning new things
directly related with his work. The learning habit helps to develop his skill and efficiency.
He should be able to cope with the changing environment through his continuous
learning habit. The office assistant should have a habit of learning new things to adjust
himself with the ever-changing environment.

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 • Politeness: Politeness costs nothing, but it pays in many unbelievable ways. He should
be helpful and co-operative with workers, juniors, seniors, visitors, and customers. It
helps to maintain and develop a good relationship with people, both inside and outside
the organization. In every moment, the office assistant should be polite in handling
telephone calls, visitors, customers, and reporting performance.

Trial questions

1. Describe four duties of an office supervisor.

2. Differentiate between sectional clerks and receptionists.

3. Describe five duties of an office assistant.

4. Explain five characteristics of a personal assistant.

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CHAPTER FIVE

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Resource management is an aspect of the project management process that plans, organizes,

manages, and measures people's work. Its purpose is to plan, allocate and schedule the

company's resources as efficiently as possible. This is done in order to maximize

each resource's utilization.

Types of Resources

Different types of resources need to be managed for most projects. They include:

 Human resources: team members and stakeholders

 Financial resources: your budget and the money you have to keep the project rolling

 Technology and software

 ‘Soft’ resources: knowledge, information, and skills

 Physical space: facilities such as meeting space and offices

 Materials: office supplies, or, if you’re making a product, this includes raw materials to

make the product

Purpose of Resource Management

Resource management is based on efficiency and optimization.

 Nothing gets missed

Resource management and supporting software helps you keep track of your resources both

from the start, and on an ongoing basis

 Efficiency

Ensures the right supplies and resources are available when you need them

 Optimized workflows

Increases productivity and employee retention and decreases the risk of project failure due to

burnout or disengagement. With resource management, you won’t be overloading Kathy

while Joe sits at his cubicle with nothing better to do than play solitaire. Everyone can see

what they’re expected to complete and when.

30
Advantages of resource management

 Avoids unforeseen hiccups

By understanding your resources upfront and planning how to use them, you can

troubleshoot gaps or problems before they happen.

 Prevents burnout

Effective resource management allows you to avoid “over allocation” or “dependency”

of resources by gaining insight into your team’s workload.

 Provides a safety net

Let’s say the project was not successful due to lack of resources (it happens). Resource

planning and management establishes that you did everything you could with what you

had.

 Builds transparency

Other teams can gain visibility into your team’s bandwidth, and plan accordingly if your

team is at maximum capacity or available to take on new projects.

 Measures efficiency

With a high-level understanding of what’s needed to manage and execute an upcoming

project, you can effectively plan and measure ROI.(return on investment)

Resource management techniques.

Resource Allocation

The process of assigning and managing assets to support an organization's strategic goals is

called resource allocation. In project Management, it is the scheduling of activities and

resources

required by those activities taking into consideration both the project time and the resource

availability. It involves balancing competing commitments and priorities in order to determine

the most effective course of action to best utilize a limited pool of resources and maximize the

return on investment.

Resource Allocation Process & Strategies

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Resource allocation begins with strategic planning. A company shall formulate and agree on
its

vision and goals, and proceed to accomplish them by setting objectives and working through

each of them systematically. Once a strategy is drawn, it will be necessary to allocate

sufficient

resources to accomplish it. Project budgeting comes into play at this stage as each
department

will use an agreed budgeted fund to allocate resource for specific purposes, such as buying raw

materials, hiring employees, etc. Resources must be moved to where they are needed the
most.

This is why resource allocation is at the core of each project, and why without a proper

allocation, a project is destined to fail.

Core Resources

 Land: Natural resource required in production process, land, mineral, forest, oil and

water resources.

 Labour: The aggregate of a person's physical and mental effort used to generate goods

and services. It is a primary factor in production. The labor force is determined by the adult

population of a nation.

 Capital: Wealth in the form of money or assets is a sign of the financial strength of an

individual, organization, or nation, and is assumed to be available for development or

investment.

Allocation Decisions

The basic allocation decisions begin with the choice of what is going to fund the project. It is not

only important to avoid allocating resource merely in terms of meeting milestones, but also

important in terms of timing and utilization of scarce resources.

Resource Allocation Problems

 Time is limited: Projects must be finished by an agreed time, using as few resources as

possible.

 Resources are limited: Projects must be executed by remaining within specific levels of

resource usage or general resource constraints.

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 Resource over-allocation: Assigning more tasks than what resources can handle within

the standard work week. A company with multiple projects and a limited pool of resources

often face this issue, which leads to overtime and overspending on financial resources.

Resource scheduling

This is aligning the project’s timeline, available resources, and the scope. It’s crucial as it

tells you when exactly you will need given resources so that you can plan your bookings

accordingly. The project manager should be reminded to keep an eye on resource

availability when assigning people to projects.

There are several project scheduling techniques you may be used:

Critical Path Method

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is a technique used to determine the longest possible time

the project will take to finish. By listing all the tasks and categorizing them as critical and

floating, you can calculate the timeline and mark dependencies between the tasks.

Components

The essential technique for using critical path method(CPM) is to construct a model of the
project that includes the following:

1. A list of all activities required to complete the project (typically categorized within

a work breakdown structure),

2. The time (duration) that each activity will take to complete,

3. The dependencies between the activities and,

4. Logical end points such as milestones or deliverable items.

Using these values, CPM calculates the longest path of planned activities to logical end points
or

to the end of the project, and the earliest and latest that each activity can start and finish without

making the project longer. This process determines which activities are "critical" (i.e., on the

longest path) and which have "total float" (i.e., can be delayed without making the project

longer). In project management, a critical path is the sequence of project network activities

which add up to the longest overall duration, regardless if that longest duration has float or not.

This determines the shortest time possible to complete the project. There can be 'total float'

33
(unused time) within the critical path. For example, if a project is testing a solar panel

and task 'B' requires 'sunrise', there could be a scheduling constraint on the testing activity so
that it would not start until the scheduled time for sunrise. This might insert dead time (total float)

into the schedule on the activities on that path prior to the sunrise due to needing to wait for this

event. This path, with the constraint-generated total float would actually make the path longer,

with total float being part of the shortest possible duration for the overall project. In other words,

individual tasks on the critical path prior to the constraint might be able to be delayed without

elongating the critical path; this is the 'total float' of that task. However, the time added to the

project duration by the constraint is actually critical path drag, the amount by which the project's

duration is extended by each critical path activity and constraint.

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a method similar to CPM, but it uses

a weighted average duration rather than estimates to calculate possible timeframes.

Using PERT, you will also have to create a list of tasks with dependencies between them,

include milestones and estimated duration for each task. Based on that information, you can

estimate your project’s timeline on three levels of confidence:

 Optimistic timing ( it is generally the shortest time in which the activity can be completed)

 Most-likely timing( the completion time having the highest probability, note that this time is
different from the expected time.

 Pessimistic timing( the longest time that an activity might require)

 Expected time = (optimistic + 4 x most likely + pessimistic)/6

Fast-tracking

Fast-tracking is a simple scheduling technique used by project managers to determine which

tasks can be handled simultaneously. Knowing the dependencies between the tasks, you

know which jobs require other assignments to be done beforehand. Similarly, you can list

tasks that can, at least partially, overlap so that you can speed up the project’s delivery.

Crashing

If using fast-tracking hasn’t resulted in saving the desired amount of time, you can use the

crashing technique. It comes with a cost, though, as you need to add time in order to speed

34
up the project. The way to do so is, e.g., to add paid overtime–you end up with a higher

project’s cost but are still able to fit within the deadline.

Resource leveling

In project management, resource leveling is defined by “A Guide to the Project Management

Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) as "A technique in which start and finish dates are adjusted

based on resource limitation with the goal of balancing demand for resources with the available

supply."] Resource leveling problem could be formulated as an optimization problem. The

problem could be solved by different optimization algorithms such as exact algorithms or meta-

heuristic methods.

When performing project planning activities, the manager will attempt to schedule certain

tasks simultaneously. When more resources such as machines or people are needed than are

available, or perhaps a specific person is needed in both tasks, the tasks will have to be

rescheduled concurrently or even sequentially to manage the constraint. Project planning

resource leveling is the process of resolving these conflicts. It can also be used to balance the

workload of primary resources over the course of the project[s], usually at the expense of one of

the traditional triple constraints (time, cost, scope).

When using specially designed project software, leveling typically means resolving conflicts or

over allocations in the project plan by allowing the software to calculate delays and update tasks

automatically. Project management software leveling requires delaying tasks until resources are

available. In more complex environments, resources could be allocated across multiple,

concurrent projects thus requiring the process of resource leveling to be performed at company

level.

In either definition, leveling could result in a later project finish date if the tasks affected are in

the critical path.

Resource leveling is also useful in the world of maintenance management. Many organizations

have maintenance backlogs. These backlogs consist of work orders. In a "planned state" these

work orders have estimates such as 2 electricians for 8 hours. These work orders have other

attributes such as report date, priority, asset operational requirements, and safety concerns.
These same organizations have a need to create weekly schedules. Resource-leveling can take

35
the "work demand" and balance it against the resource pool availability for the given week. The
goal is to create this weekly schedule in advance of performing the work. Without resource-
leveling the organization (planner, scheduler and supervisor) is most likely performing subjective

selection. For the most part, when it comes to maintenance scheduling, there is less, if any, task

interdependence, and therefore less need to calculate critical path and total float.

Resource Smoothing

Resource smoothing is one of the project management tools used in the resource optimization

techniques. It is defined as a technique that adjusts the activities of a schedule model so that all

requirements for the resources do not go beyond the resource limits already pre-defined during

the planning.

There are only a few reusable resources that are limitless thus the time schedules have to be

imposed and adjusted to manage the limited availability of the resources in a given time.

Resource smoothing is one of the tools used to reconcile the limited resources and time but a

different approach than resource leveling.

It is used when the time constraint takes important priority in project planning. The objective of

this project management tool is to complete the work or activity within the required date and, at

the same time, avoiding peaks and troughs or the resource demand.

A smooth resource profile is usually achieved by delaying some tasks or works. This will reduce

the flexibility of the schedule when it comes to dealing with delays but it is very cost effective in

managing and using the resources.

Resource forecasting

To define it briefly, resource forecasting in project management is the prediction of the

resources your company will need in the future in order to bring projects to fruition. When

services businesses make these forecasts, they typically use historical and current project data
to anticipate how many people they should hire, retain or let go and what skill sets are needed
to serve clients and their evolving needs.

Even if you’re not an avid chess player, the game provides a good analogy here: You plan
several steps ahead, determining which players you’re going to use and how you’re going to
place them on the board most effectively in order to win the game. Or rather, execute projects
successfully and profitably.

Matching Supply and Demand

36
A resource forecast is going to help you ensure that your resource pool will be proportional to
the workload. It will tell you how many people from your current resource supply you need on

upcoming projects, for how many hours and what their cost rates will be. You’ll identify where

the skill gaps are that would otherwise create obstacles on the ground.

Without a resource forecast, you would have a hard time understanding if and when you should

rev up hiring. You’d struggle to budget appropriately when an opportunity comes in. And without

that information, how are you going to deliver accurate quotes for new projects—or ensure that

they’ll be lucrative? Without resource forecasting, your business will die on the vine.

Resource forecasting is a vital preliminary step in planning successful projects. It will help you

better manage your team’s time, budget correctly and ensure quality outcomes and healthy

profits.

Benefits of resource forecasting

The immediate benefit of forecasting resources is obviously that you won’t be stranded without

an adequate workforce in the coming months. But there are plenty of additional advantages that

can be counted on to make your organization stronger overall.

A good resource forecast can:

 Optimize your resources’ time for the greatest efficiency, which means increasing

billability (and profits)

 Produce more revenue by taking stock of anticipated skills to identify and adapt to future

market trends

 Help your organization become flexible to adjust to demand changes

 Prevent project planning bottlenecks

 Prevent burnout from consistently overbooking employees

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CHAPTER SIX

CONFLICT MANAGEMENT IN THE OFFICE

Management of Conflict

Learning Outcome:

After completing this module the students will be able to:

 Understand the concept and meaning of conflict

 Understand the levels or types of conflict

 Explain the causes of conflicts in MNCs

 Understand the management of conflict

Introduction

Conflict means any contradiction or clashing interest between two persons or groups. It is an

expression of hostility, negative attitudes, dispute, aggression, rivalry and misunderstanding.

Industrial conflict means any dispute or difference between employers and employees, or within

employees, which may be concerned with employment, or terms of employment or with working

conditions etc. MNCs employ persons from different countries with different cultural, social,
political and religious environments. So, conflicts may arise due to different perceptions, values,
working practices etc.

Traditionally, conflicts were viewed as harmful and dysfunctional resulting from poor

communication, a lack of openness and trust between people and the failures on the part of
managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of the employees. Conflicts may result
in loss of productivity because of non-cooperation between groups. Conflicts also result in
distraction from work and reduction in concentration on work. Hence, as per traditional view
conflicts should be avoided. Properly framed tasks, rules, regulations, procedures and authority
relationships can identify and correct problems of conflict.

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Modern view point view conflict as a positive force in a group. As per this view, conflicts are

necessary for a group to perform effectively. This approach encourages conflict. There should
be a minimum acceptable level of conflict between the group to make it viable, self critical and
creative; otherwise, the group will never strive for changes and innovations. This type of conflict
is called functional conflict. On the other hand, conflicts that hinder group performance, these
are dysfunctional conflicts.

Levels or Types of Conflict

Managers in MNCs have to face 20 to 30 percent of their time in dealing with conflict situations.

Hence, it is very important that mangers should understand the types of conflict they have to
deal with so that the techniques to deal with these conflicts can be found out. Following are
types of conflicts:

a. Individual level conflict

b. Interpersonal conflict

c. Group level conflict

d. Organisation level conflict

1. Individual level conflict: all individuals have conflict within themselves. An individual may

have conflicts when his motives or drives are blocked or he is facing competing roles and goals

and unable to take decisions. The reasons behind these conflicts may be uncertainty about
roles and goals, inability to compare various alternatives available and unacceptability to the
decisions of company. Following are three types of conflicts that may arise within an employee:

a. Frustration: when employee is unable to do as per own desires, he/she becomes frustrated. It

is the highest level of dissatisfaction which in turn gives rise to conflict within individual.

Frustration arises due to blockage of individual’s drives or motives before reaching his/her

goal. These blocks may be physical or mental/social-psychological. In case of MNCs, where

expatriate has joined foreign subsidiaries, if he/she is not able to work according to his/her

own acceptable standards as performed in parent company; he or she may get frustrated.

These restrictions may be due to cultural/social or physical environment of the host country or

organisation.

b. Goal conflict: sometimes, employee may be confronted with two or more competing goals.

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This type of conflict has both positive and negative features, due to which employee may not

be able to take decision regarding the goal to be achieved. If an employee is having foreign

assignment or promotion within the parent company, he may be confused between the two.

Or employee given promotion but will have to join foreign subsidiary may cause conflict

within employee as on one side, there is positive aspect in term of promotion on the other

hand, negative aspect in the form of leaving his home and family to join foreign subsidiary.

c. Role conflict: every person plays different roles in social and organisational situations and

every individual in an organisation is expected to behave in a particular manner while

performing a specific role. When the expected role is different from the behaviour anticipated

by the individual in that role, role conflict arises because there is no way to meet one

expectation without rejecting the other. Role conflict arises, when the role expectations are

understood, but due to one or the other reason, they cannot be compiled with.

In case of an international assignee, he/she is expected to meet parent company

standards in foreign subsidiary also. The roles, their performance criteria etc. are decided in

parent country, however, they are performed in host country, there may arise role conflict due

to difference in cultural, social and other environmental factors in host country. Where, the

international assignee has an understanding of host country culture and environment and also

realises that the use of parent country procedures may not work properly in host country, role

conflict is likely to occur.

2. Interpersonal conflict: interpersonal conflict refers to conflict between two or more

individuals and is the most common type of conflict. The company may create situations in

which two individuals are placed in conflict situations. In MNCs there may arise interpersonal

conflicts between local manager and parent country manager due to disagreement over goals

and objectives, different standards of performance, lack of proper communication and

information sharing, different cultures etc. for example, in case of Japanese foreign

subsidiaries, generally, communication between parent company and subsidiary takes place in

Japanese and is not translated. Host country managers even lack access to communication and

unable to participate in decision making. As a result conflicts arise between host country

mange and parent country manger resulting into strong consequences like frustrations, or even

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resignations.

3. Group Level Conflict: Group refers to two or more persons working for some common goal

with predefined structure of role and status relations and having a defined system of values

and behaviour norms. Groups affect the behaviour of their members along with affecting

behaviour of other groups and the organisation as a whole. Group level conflicts are of two

types: a. Intra group conflicts and b. Inter group conflict

Intra group conflicts arise between members of a particular group. It is similar to inter

personal conflict with the difference that the conflict arises between the people belonging to a

common group. Causes of conflict are similar to those of interpersonal conflicts.

Inter group conflicts means conflicts between different groups in the organisation. These

conflicts may be among different levels of organisation like middle level managers having

conflict with top or lower level managers, or may be between different functional

departments, like marketing department having conflict with production department. The

maximum access to and share in resources, favourable time schedules, different perceptions,

values, cultures may cause inter group conflicts.

4. Organisational Level Conflicts:

Inter organisational level conflict occurs between organisations which are in some way or the

other dependent upon each other. The conflicts between parent company and foreign
subsidiaries are more prevalent. Conflicts may also arise among different foreign subsidiaries of
an MNC.

Factors like differences in cultural, social and other environmental factors, like lack of

informational facilities, dominance of parent company, different rules, regulations etc. may result

into conflicts between headquarters and subsidiary. Conflicts may also arise between parent

company or subsidiary and trade unions, govt agencies of host country, or any other
organisations

having impact on the organisation. MNCs can have conflict with local govt due to changes in

policies or rules or regulations.

5. Causes of Conflicts in MNCs:

1. Communication Gap: communication gap can be a cause of conflict. Due to poor

communication, differences may arise between parent country nationals and host country
nationals. HCNs may also not provide proper and required information about the local

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environment. Similarly, if PCNs are unable to inform or explain the required procedures, or
expectations of parent company, it may lead to interpersonal conflicts. The language problems
or semantic problems in two different nations can cause conflicts.

2. Behavioural aspect of conflict: Difference between expectations and actual behaviour at

host country can also lead to role conflict for expatriates. It can also lead to inter personal
conflicts between local managers and expatriates. The dominance behaviour of parent company
to have control over the subsidiary can also cause conflicts between the two. Different value
systems, social and cultural values, customs and behaviours of different nationals can cause
conflicts amongst them.

Partiality on the part of PCNs with local employees can also cause conflicts.

3. Structural Aspect of conflict:

a. the larger the size of organisation, more are the chances of conflict

b. more decentralisation of decision making, autonomy to employees can enhance the levels of

conflicts within the organisation.

c. if roles are not properly defined, it can cause conflict. Duties, responsibilities, accountability
should

be properly defined and assigned to each employee, regardless of nationality.

d. competition for scarce resources like funds, facilities etc. causes conflict among the people
and

divisions who are sharing them and have to compete for them.

e. diversities in policies relating to human resources for PCNs and HCNs will lead to industrial

conflicts.

6. Conflict Management

There are two approaches for managing industrial or organisational conflicts.

a. Preventive measures b. Curative measures

In preventive measures, MNC tries to create a situation where dysfunctional aspects of conflicts
do not take place. In other cases, if conflicts have occurred, they should be resolved as early as
possible to avoid any destruction. Both measures are explained as follows:

a. Preventive Measures: to manage organisational conflicts, some of the following preventive

measures can be taken by the organisation:

1. Establish common goals: common goals for conflicting groups can be established.

Management can find common goals upon which groups can agree and re-establish valid

communication between the groups.

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2. Reduction in interdependence: the main reason behind inter-group conflict is

interdependence among them. Lesser the interdependence, lesser are chances of conflicts. In

case of MNCs, subsidiaries should be provided sufficient autonomy to frame policies and take

decisions which are in the best interests of the company by keeping in view local environment

of host country. The policies of parent country cannot be applicable to other countries due to

diverse environment.

3. Cross cultural training of expatriates: the expatriates should be given cross cultural

training to better understand the local conditions of host country. This training can be given

either before arrival or after arrival to host country. This will help expatriates to better

understand local environment and hence, will frame and take decisions as per host country

conditions which will help in minimising their conflicts with HCNs.

4. Properly defined roles: roles should be properly defined to all employees including

expatriates. The tasks, responsibilities, and authorities of all employees should be properly

defined and communicated to all. It will lessen inter personal and inter group conflicts.

5. Trust and communication: more open and free communication will prevail amongst

members of an organisation if they trust each other. All individuals and groups should be

encouraged to communicate openly with each other, so that misunderstandings, if any,

prevailing can be removed. In this way, they are able to understand the problems of each

other in a better way. MNCs should ensure proper flow of communication between parent

country/headquarters and host country. It should send all messages in language known to

locals or arrange for their translation.

6. Impartiality: MNCs should give equal benefits and opportunities for growth to HCNs as

given to PCNs. It will reduce chances of conflicts. However, countries following ethnocentric

approach will always employ PCNs for higher posts in foreign subsidiaries. It may present

resentment in the minds of HCNs.

7. Shared resources: sharing of scarce resources also sometimes result into inter group

conflicts. Company should strive to increase resources, or optimum allocation of scarce

resources amongst different groups.

8. Coordination: MNC should do efforts to establish coordination between the activities of its

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various units. Within a unit, there should be proper coordination among different activities.

9. Reorganisation of groups: groups can be reorganised with people having something in

common placed in one group. In this way they will have common interest and objective,

hence reducing conflicts.

10. Participative management: employee participation in management and profit sharing

create a sense of belongingness among the employees and prevents industrial conflicts.

11. Collective bargaining: collective bargaining is a process by which employers and the

representatives of the employees on the other, attempt to arrive at agreements and helps in

settlement of issues and prevention of industrial conflicts and disputes.

b. Curative Measures or conflict resolution:

Curative measures are taken after the occurrence of conflicts. It is also known as conflict
resolution.

For resolving conflicts, mangers must know different conflict resolving modes and appropriate
use of resolving modes in different situations. Following are some conflict resolution techniques:

1. Avoidance: to suppress and avoid an open conflict is one of the main conflict resolution

strategies. In different national cultures, there exist different levels of conflict avoidance. For

example, the Japanese are more likely to avoid conflicts than the Americans. An avoiding

behavior shows failure to address important issues and a tendency to remain neutral when

there is a need to take some action. Hence, avoidance behavior should be adopted in

following situations:

a. When the avoider want that other party should cool down, and tension can be handled

later on more productively.

b. When more information is required to make a good decision.

c. When a third party can resolve the conflict more effectively.

2. Competing: a competing style is based on assertiveness and lower amount of

cooperativeness. It is power oriented and approaches conflict in terms of a “WIN-LOSE”

strategy. It can have both positive aspects as well as negative aspects. As a positive

aspect, competing style helps in taking quick decisions while on negative side,

competitor can coerce other parties into conflict. In case of MNC, PCNs may dominate

HCNs due to powers assigned to them by parent company.

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3. Collaboration: in case of collaboration, both parties try to find some solution to solve

the conflict which would be satisfying to both parties. This style includes high level of

cooperation and assertion.

4. Accommodating: this style is low in assertiveness and high in cooperativeness.

Managers adopting accommodating approach to conflict management, will show little

concern to their own personal interests. This style is adopted when maintaining

harmony is important.

5. Compromising: under compromising mode of conflict management, parties to conflict

agree to compromise the situation and agree to share resources or solve the conflict

which gives some degree of winning and losing for both parties. This practice is

generally followed when both collaboration and competition fail to work effectively in

resolving conflicts. Parties also compromise to settle the issue in short run till a more

permanent solution to the problem can be found.

6. Investigation: govt. of host country can appoint a board or court to conduct investigation into

the conflict. Investigation can be conducted voluntarily on an application by either or both

parties to the conflict or compulsory by the govt.

7. Mediation: in this method, an outside party assists the parties to conflict in their negotiations.

Main job of mediator is to settle the conflict by bringing a voluntary agreement.

8. Conciliation: the purpose of conciliation and arbitration is to reunite the two conflicting

groups in the industry in order to avoid interruption of production, distrust etc. under

conciliation, representatives of both employees and employers are brought together

before a third party in order to persuade them to arrive at some sort of settlement. It is

an extension of collective bargaining with third party assistance.

9. Voluntary arbitration: if the two conflicting parties do not come to an agreement, either

by themselves or with the help of a mediator or conciliator, the matter may be

submitted before an arbitrator voluntarily, whose decision, the parties will have to

accept.

10. Compulsory arbitration or adjudication: in case of weak trade unions, compulsory

arbitration is used. Compulsory arbitration is also used when all voluntary methods fail to

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arrive at a settlement.

MNCs adopt different conflict resolution styles for different countries. In a study of comparing

styles of Taiwan and US it was found that Taiwanese are more likely to use avoiding and

compromising styles as compared to Americans. MNCs can adopt different actions depending

upon situations, parties to conflict and organizational resources available.

7. Summary

Industrial conflict means any dispute or difference between employers and employees, or within

employees, which may be concerned with employment, or terms of employment or with working

conditions etc. MNCs employ persons from different countries with different cultural, social,
political and religious environments. So conflicts may arise due to different perceptions, values,
working practices etc. There are four levels or types of conflicts: individual level, inter-personal,
group level and organizational level conflicts. The causes of conflicts in MNCs are
communication gaps, diversity

in cultural, social and other environmental factors at personal, organizational and national level,
lack of resources, lack of cooperation on the part of parent company, lack of autonomy given to

subsidiaries, urge to take control over subsidiary, etc. MNCs can manage conflicts by taking

preventive measures like eestablishing common goals, reduction in interdependence, cross

cultural training of expatriates, properly defined roles, trust and communication, impartiality,
shared resources, coordination, reorganisation of groups, participative management and
collective bargaining. Conflicts can be resolved by adopting any of the measures like avoidance,
competing collaboration, accommodating, compromising, investigation, mediation, conciliation,
arbitration either voluntary or compulsory.

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CHAPTER SEVEN

MAINTAINING EFFECTIVE OFFICE RELATIONS

Ten Tips for Developing a Good Working Relationship with Your manager
1. Visualize your manager’s job: this helps you to appreciative and determine the
kind of support you can offer him/her in order for work progress.
2. Be reliable: When you are up to your tasks and schedules, you make work easier
for your manager and he will begin to count on you. Therefore ensure you are
reliable and can be counted on.
3. Know your stuff: there is every indication that your confidence builds up on the
job you do when you are knowledgeable with the tasks you carry out. Make every
effort to learn new things and be abreast with new technologies and procedures
for ensuring efficiency in your work.
4. Anticipate: put yourself into your job. Take each task seriously to ensure you
deliver on every task. Prepare well in advance the tasks for the week and take
each day at a time. Anticipate what could go wrong. For instance power cuts
which could delay the start of meetings, so that you can make arrangements for
generator etc. anticipate what your manager’s reaction will be to some
circumstances and remember solutions and preferences he will use and prepare
for them.
5. Take charge: it is important to always know that you are the office manager.
Therefore be in charge. Ensure you are on top of issues and supervise those
working under you well so things work well in your office.
6. Don’t be a pain: your manager values you most when you adhere to instructions
concerning tasks given to you. Write down often the comments he makes

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 concerning tasks to be performed. When you repeatedly fail to carry out
instructions, you put your manager on edge. Don’t be a pain.
7. Communicate: always ensure you understand what tasks have been given you.
By communicating often with your manager on your schedules. Whenever you
are in doubt, communicate with him for clarification. Keep communication free and
open.
8. Be your own toughest critic: as you carry out your schedules, review and review
till it is up to the acceptable standard. Ask yourself questions, is this letter mail-
able? Well centered and set out? Do I have the right envelope size adequate for
the documents I am working on? Train yourself to be your own toughest critic.
9. Don’t have too many “new ideas”: much as it is good to learn and adapt new
things, don’t implement too many ideas at a go. Always discuss with your
manager any new ideas and win his trust on it before implementing them.
10. Stretch yourself: it is expected that your manager will need you to stand with him
through the toughest and critical times. These times come in once a while. When
it is those times, be willing to work extra hours. For example when there is an
upcoming conference or important business.

Gaining your manager’s Confidence

When you are able to build a good relationship with your manager, a good and sound
working relationship will bring about success in your department’s mission. Therefore
with a positive attitude and professional behavior, you will enjoy your current
assignments and have opportunities for promotion growth and continuing challenge.
Remember that managers place the highest value on the ability of the Secretary to:
1. Follow directions
2. Accept criticism
3. Keep information confidential
4. Continue to work despite interruptions
5. Communicate well verbally
6. Maintain a professional appearance
7. Work well under pressure
8. Be flexible and adaptable

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9. Be a team member
10. Work alone (in a non-traditional office setting)
11. Be creative and able to understand technological processes (such as machine
logic)
12. Base decisions on careful analysis of data.
The best you can do therefore is to keep in mind the above tips and continue to gain
your manager’s confidence.
Ability to Manage People
The nature of the secretary’s job is meeting with people, serving people. Therefore one
major role of the secretary is people management. If a secretary has a skill in this area,
it will be a plus for the organization. How should a secretary manage people then? Here
are a few factors to consider in managing people:
 Treat people with respect and see them as professional in their own world.
 Take a chance at helping with other aspects of work and help relieve others from
pressures they encounter.
 Give people a listening ear and avoid being self-centred.
 Take charge of the office and manage it effectively especially when the manager
is not in office.

Managing people effectively will include domains like the following:

 The office
 The Manager
 Your Colleagues or contemporaries
 Your subordinates and
 Your Customers and clients

 Managing the Office

Every secretary’s main function is the ability to manage the office. She is the one who is
responsible for coordinating the office resources (both human and material). The
secretary is also responsible for monitoring the office environment with the help of those
office staff working under him/her.in line with this role, the secretary is expected to look
for new ways of getting the office functioning appropriately especially with the changing
conditions of an automated office environment.
 Managing the manager

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To manage the manager is to support and assist him in carrying out his schedules.
These are the ways in which the secretary can manage the manager.
1. Diary and Appointments: The secretary takes charge of the daily appointments of
the manager by using the diary and appointments as these help to give
reminders to the manager of future appointments and events (details in Chapter
Four).
2. Meetings and Conferences: Secretaries are expected to help the manager in
organizing meetings, conferences and other seminars of the Organization
(Chapter Eight).
3. Time management especially in terms of handling the manager’s appointments;
knowing managers have tight schedules.
4. The secretary ought to help manage the psychological disposition of the
manager as well.
5. To appreciate the secretary’s role, managers expect him/her to be reliable so that
the manager can confide in her. The privacy of the manager, his calendar of
schedules and other tasks are known by the secretary, therefore to manage the
manager means helping him through these.
6. The secretary’s role in managing imprest at the office leaves her with no choice
than to be honest and reliable. When this is done well, then the manager will be
assisted accordingly with his finances.
7. The manager expects his office to be well taken care of especially when he is out
of town. Therefore, the secretary ought to keep the office active and under proper
management.
8. The secretary helps the manager with telephone calls, correspondence, files and
documents, meetings, visitors and other tasks. When these schedules are well
taken care of, the manager succeeds with his work.
 Managing Contemporaries

Your relationship with colleagues in the workplace is important, and can to a large
extent determine the level of your success. Good workplace relationships is a special
ingredient which boosts the moral of the secretary to perform better and makes her
enjoy all the more, her daily work. Bear in mind that, when there is a strain in
relationships or colleagues tend to have bad relationships, this could affect the harmony
and in effect can cause a lot of delays and anxiety.
The following tips, if well practised, could help to build good and cordial relationship
with your colleagues at the work place:

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 Respect for your colleagues: All relationships are built on respect. This includes
the ones you share with your lateral colleagues as well as your manager. There
will of course be the occasional prickly co-worker who is easily offended, but
there is little you can do about that. Always do your best to avoid offending those
with whom you work. Respect is reciprocal!
 Take your job seriously: Regardless of your position, others in your workplace
will respect and value their jobs. Consequently, if you undermine the role that
you do, you are undermining their roles too. This is a sure-fire way to annoy your
colleagues. Ensure that your colleagues understand that you know your job and
are happy doing it.

 Avoid borrowing: Avoid borrowing equipment from your colleagues – especially if

you neglect to return it to them! If your job requires the regular use of particular
office equipment, say a stapler or hole-punch, then, make sure that you are
supplied with your own.

 Be dependable: Being dependable means you can be trusted and people can
have confidence in you. Next time a colleague tells you something in good faith,
keep it to yourself. There is nothing worse than a tell-tale.

 Politeness: As the saying that goes, “A good name is better than riches!” Being
polite can simply mean respectfully letting people know how you stand on a
particular issue, whether positive or negative. Never promise anything you know
you cannot do! It will rob on your character.

 Never burn your bridges: Just as technology has made the entire world a global
village, then sometimes you may find yourself working with colleagues that you
have worked with before, so you should always try to maintain a good
relationship with your colleagues, even if you know that the working relationship
will be brief. This is the cream of building good relationships. Whatever you do in
life, no matter your position, remember that the only constant thing in life is
change.

 Don't Gossip: Be friendly and accommodating in the work place but don’t gossip!
This is one of the little things that distinguishes you as a professional, so make
sure that you are the professional you are trained to be.
 Team Spirit: Whatever your job, if you work with others then you need to work as
a team. Flow with your team members and don’t get left behind. If you manage
others, then carry your team along. You should always try to avoid working in
isolation.
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  Learn to be calm and collected: Learn to always exercise self- control. Do not
respond to situations nastily, regardless of the circumstances. By remaining
professional and calm, you show that you have the maturity to handle awkward
situations, which is a quality that people will admire in you. Being calm and
collected is all about showing that you have got it together, (whether you actually
do or not) and that is something that everyone wants.

 Managing Subordinates

The secretary has the responsibility of ensuring that staff under his/her care are
properly supervised. Since subordinates usually form the majority of the working
group, the secretary must do his / her best to ensure they carry out their work
properly. To do this, the secretary must show leadership skills and be able to earn
the respect of the subordinates. The secretary should also empathize with the
subordinates and be willing to respect their opinions.

 Managing customers and clients

This aspect of the secretary’s job is critical. It is the responsibility of the secretary to be
a good PR for the manager. As customers come in, their first impression of the
company may be gotten from how the secretary receives them. The secretary must
therefore be tactful in handling customers. To do this, the secretary must be cheerful,
courteous, diplomatic and pleasant. She should have the ability to solve customers’
problems .she ought to have good listening skills and ensure that in all her dealing with
customers, she will be warm, enthusiastic and well groomed.

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 CHAPTER EIGHT
ORGANIZING MEETINGS AND CONFERENCES
Business meetings are held for various reasons and purposes. Meetings are governed
by law and its place in the business office is very important. This chapter discusses how
meetings could be organized effectively. It describes procedures to be followed before
meetings, during meetings and after meetings. The chapter also describes minutes and
gives tips on organizing conferences and virtual meetings.

Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
 Organize meetings effectively.
 Plan meetings and conferences with the basic ingredients to successful
meetings.
 Prepare notices for meetings.
 Prepare agenda and minutes
 Appreciate and organize conferences.

Meetings are very important to every business organization. It is a time when

discussions and major decisions are taken. Meetings are a way of life in the workplace.

Regardless of where you work, at some time or other your manager will ask you to
arrange a gathering, from a thirty-minute conference to a week-long national meeting.
Whether two or two hundred people are involved, attention to details will be necessary.

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Every Secretary should know what to do before, during and after meetings. Secretaries
must know how to use lists and obtain reminders to check on arrangements, which
procedures to follow when called upon to take minutes and prepare them.

What are business meetings?

The word “meeting” is not defined anywhere in the Companies Act. Ordinarily, a
company meeting may be defined as a gathering or assembling or coming together of
two or more persons. Usually by a previous arrangement or notice, the parties agree to
meet to discuss and transact lawful business.
A company meeting may be defined as a concurrence or coming together of at least a
quorum of members in order to transact either ordinary or special business of the
company.

Therefore, a meeting can be defined as a gathering or an assembly of a number of

persons for transacting a lawful business. According to the company’s code, there must
be at least two persons for a meeting to be constituted. One shareholder usually cannot
be said to constitute a company meeting even if he had with him several proxies from
other shareholders. In exceptional cases, a meeting could be constituted by just one
person.

Characteristics of a Company Meeting:

The characteristics of a company meeting are as follows:
1. Members of a company numbering two or more ought to be present at the
meeting.
2. The coming together or the assembling of persons must be for discussion and
transaction of some lawful business.
3. A previous notice would be given for convening a meeting.
4. The meeting must be held at a particular place, date and time.
5. The meeting must be held as per provisions/rules of Companies Act
922(Schedule 8).

KEYS TO PLANNING AND ORGANIZING A SUCCESSFUL MEETING

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There are two basic ingredients to successful meetings: caution and courtesy.
Caution
Most successful meeting planners take nothing for granted. They try to anticipate
everything that could go wrong – projector light bulbs that burn out, single electronic
outlets that must be reached by extension cord, and refreshments that don’t show up on
time. Then they take steps to ensure that these nuisances don’t cause a major
difficulty. They bring extra bulbs and extension cords; they remind the caterers several
times when the refreshments are expected. In other words, they check and double-
check everything.

As your experience in planning meetings increases, you will develop a long list of things
that could go wrong. If you write down these details or store them on a computer disk,
you will be better able to repeat past successes and avoid mistakes the next time.

Most importantly, you must plan these events as far in advance as possible. Every
arrangement will involve more time, forms, phone calls, and rechecking than you
originally expected. Regardless of how well organized an event is, unforeseen
difficulties can and do occur. For example, suppliers may prove unreliable as may the
weather. Last minute rushes can lead to embarrassing oversights, so take the extra
time earlier on to identify and check on all details. If you follow the procedures we
suggest, then even unavoidable problems will be easier to handle.

Courtesy
No matter how experienced a meeting planner you may be, there is no doubt that those
who provide assistance both regularly and on special occasions contribute greatly to
your success. These individuals include sales managers at hotels, travel agents, office
workers and caterers, to name just a few. A Secretary should always make requests
pleasantly and make sure to thank them for their assistance afterward.

This show of courtesy builds up a reservoir of goodwill that one can tap very carefully in
times of crisis. If you are courteous, don’t over ask and if you are available to assist
others when called upon, then they in turn will be willing to help you when the need
arises.

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Before the Meeting
In planning the meeting, you will likely have several responsibilities. You will need to
find out details such as the day, time, length, and location of the meeting; confirm the
location; prepare an agenda; assemble necessary materials and equipment and
checkup last-minute details.

Initial Preparation
There are four things that should be finalized as soon as possible after a meeting has
been decided on. Your manager should select the day, time, length, and location, plus
two or three alternative times. After those decisions have been made, you should do
the following:
1. Determine from the manager in charge pertinent details such as the topic and the
participants.

2. A scheduling form must be devised. Across the top, write the names of the
participants. In the left margin, list days of the week and, if appropriate, time of
day.

3. Send the form to the participants, or call them, and request an immediate reply.
Identify at least three alternative dates and times, and ask potential participants
to hold these times open temporarily.

4. Determine the best time for the meeting as soon as possible. Check the time
with your manager, and confirm it with the other participants – preferably in
writing. This meeting notice should include answers to who, what, when, where,
and why questions. To avoid confusion, always give both the day and date of the
meeting.

5. As the meeting nears, reconfirm the participant’s attendance by telephone or

mail. Reconfirmation is also useful for some regular meetings, such as a monthly
staff conference.

Confirming the Location

Confirming the location of the meeting is your next responsibility, in many cases, all you
will do is reserve a conference room, when a location is selected, you should make
every effort to see where the meeting will be held, obtain a diagram of the room or their

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facility to identify size, room arrangement alternatives, audiovisual aids, proximity to
dining facilities, and so on.

Larger meetings require careful arrangement of one or several rooms and clear
instructions to hotel or conference centre personnel. Detailed requests are put in writing
to remind those handling these arrangements.
When confirming location, ask your manager if audiovisual equipment will be needed.
Then reserve or rent the appropriate equipment for that date. Be sure to check that all
equipment is working properly immediately before the meeting.
In terms of virtual meetings, location of meeting and its confirmation may not be
needed. However, always remember to send the meeting link for virtual participants to
join meetings as scheduled. As the business office becomes sophisticated and
technologically advanced, virtual meetings may be planned more often. Secretaries
must therefore download the preferred application to be used and learn to use them
efficiently.

Preparing an AGENDA and Supporting Materials

The next thing to do is to prepare an agenda and all necessary supporting materials. A
well planned and complete agenda that sets the tone for an effective meeting includes
meeting length; topics to be covered, their order and the individuals responsible for
each; and expected outcomes.
The word ‘agenda’ literally means ‘things to be done’ but in business practice, agenda
refers to what we call agenda paper which actually itemizes the main issues to be
discussed at the meeting.
Forms of agenda
There are different forms of agenda. Its form depends on the requirements of the kind of
meeting or in some cases, the form the meeting will take. Four forms of agenda are:
a) A ‘skeleton’ form of agenda

This is a bare outline or summary form, which basically gives just the issues the
meeting hopes to deal with. It is the type of agenda which usually goes along with a
notice of meeting when it is being sent to members expected to attend a meeting.
b) A detailed agenda

57
 This is the kind of agenda which sets out with a complete heading of the meeting
with a draft form of resolutions meant to be submitted to the chairman
c) A ‘bell curve’ structure

This is sometimes recommended for agendas. This usually involves items of a

simple nature coming before those items which may be difficult or contentious. It is
considered that the most difficult item should appear just past the middle followed by
simple items towards the end of the meeting.
d) The agenda made for the chairman (usually called Chairman’s agenda)

This is more detailed than the other forms of agenda. It has a wide margin left for the
chairman’s note taking. The details of each item on the agenda are expanded briefly
for the chairman’s preview and understanding.

Preparing the agenda

When it comes to the preparation of an agenda, the company rules concerning the
preparation will be considered. If there are no such rules, the head of the organization
or the chairman of a committee will detail what ought to go into the agenda. Often this
responsibility is also given to the secretary to put together.
Obviously, it may not be easy to outline a standard method or way to prepare an
agenda, as this the preparation of any agenda will depend on the type of meeting, the
nature and importance of the meeting. There are however, some points which ought to
be borne in mind when preparing an agenda.
a) You must make sure that every relevant item that ought to be discussed is on the
agenda. Do not omit any item of importance. This can be achieved in various
ways:
 The agenda you put together must be done in consultation with the
chairman therefore, find out from him and other officials who might have
some issue to be included.
 From the previous meeting, check to see if there were some decisions
which were deferred, or other items which occur monthly, quarterly or
routinely and include them.
b) Be mindful of the rules or regulations that govern the meeting especially those
that concern the order in which the business to be discussed ought to be
arranged. A logically arranged agenda must be your priority for these reasons:
 When it is well arranged and properly done, it will prevent any confusion. It
will also prevent or reduce issues and questions to be posed to the

58
 chairman for lack of clarity in the agenda. It will also avoid unnecessary
prolonged meeting.
 Again, it will save the chairman of the meeting from having to make
adjustments or alterations to the agenda for which he may need the
meeting to agree on.
c) Motions which are to be submitted should be submitted within the time allocation
as enshrined in the meeting rules. As is accepted with the detailed form of
agenda, motions should be included in the agenda and in the actual words of the
proposer and the seconders (that is if the rules permit it).
d) Ensure you get the approval from the chairman before circulating the notice of
meeting with agenda.

If you prepare an agenda for a formal meeting such as an Annual General Meeting of
an association, the usual order may be as follows:
1. Reading and correcting of minutes
2. Approval of minutes
3. Presentation of Reports :
 Reports of Officers
 Reports of standing committees
 Reports of Special Committees
4. Any unfinished business
5. Main business of the day
6. Appointment of committees
7. Nomination and elections
8. Announcements, including date of next meeting.

Preparing Materials
While setting out the agenda, you should duplicate reports, minutes and presentation
outline that must be available for the meeting. Also, send out any pre-meeting material
at least five working days before the event. For those new to the meeting location or
community, maps directing them to the site form an airport or nearby major highway will
be helpful.
If items such as charts and other graphics, pads and pencils will be needed, check with
your manager and get them and the correct number too. Prepare all these materials
ahead of the meeting to hand out or put at each participants place.

59
If the meeting is to take place outside the office premises, then you need to book the
accommodation at least two weeks in advance. Check for yourself if all expected
facilities and material are in good condition at that hotel, etc. Check last-minute details.
Your final responsibility before the meeting will be to check all last-minute details. Make
a final visit to the meeting room just before the event to ensure that nothing has been
changed. Then review the entire plan from start to finish and see if anything else is
needed. Commonly, overlooked items include:
1. Telephone
2. Accessible copying machine
3. Chalkboard, chalk, and erasers
4. Extra bulbs for overhead projectors
5. Extension cords
6. Making pens
7. Tape recorder and blank recording tapes
8. “No smoking” signs if that is the rule.
9. Extra copies of materials being used
10. Video equipment
11. Water glass for the speaker.

Other things that need special attention are:

1. Seating arrangements that promote communication, and interaction, such as
round tables for a seminar.
2. Temperature control – maintaining a cool (but not cold) room that will keep
participants alert.
3. As much lighting as possible, particularly to allow speakers and audiences to see
each other.
4. There should be a troubleshooter available to handle problems that need
immediate attention, from closing a door to getting help with a faulty sound
system.

Virtual Meetings
In terms of virtual meetings or in case some participants of the meeting cannot join the
meeting physically, arrangements can be made for such participants to join virtually.
The business office is changing by the day therefore the secretary is advised to move
with the times. Virtual meetings are of immense benefit to the organization. It allows for
uninterrupted week day office activities. It also eliminates costs and reduces
absenteeism at meetings.
If virtual meetings will be used, the following should be taken care of:

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  It will be important to research and chose the best platforms and also one that is
preferred by the organization. For example, the office could use skype, google
hang-outs, google meet or zoom applications.
 Ensure that the agenda of meeting is sent ahead of time.
 The link for the virtual meeting with details are also forwarded to participants
 Test and retest the system and everything to be used before meeting starts.
 Record proceedings if need be.

Preparing Notice of the Meeting

A notice of meeting is a form of communication sent to members authorized or invited to
participate in a meeting. The notice is usually put together by the secretary to the
meeting (in conjunction with the chairman) on behalf of the conveners of the meeting. It
is expected that the notice of meeting will be prepared based on the rules that have
been established concerning that particular meeting.
You should ensure that notices are sent out well in advance (in the case of company
general meetings, there is a statutory minimum notice). For a less formal meeting, a
notice may be sent one to three days prior to a meeting. According to the Companies
Act, 2019, Act 992, meetings, other than adjourned meetings, shall be convened by
notice in writing to the persons who are, entitled to receive notice of general meetings at
least twenty-one days’ notice, or in the case of a special resolution, seven days’ notice
shall be given as per the Companies Act, 2019, (Act 992) This does not include the date
on which the notice is served but includes the day when the notice is given). The Act
provides that:
“Notice of general meetings shall be given in accordance with paragraphs 1 to 6 of the
Eighth Schedule to this Act and section 168 of this Act and accompanied by any
statements required to be circulated with the notice in accordance with paragraphs 5
and 6 of the Eighth Schedule to this Act and section 168 of this Act.”

Contents of notice according to the Companies Act, shall specify:

(a) The notice of a meeting shall specify:

(i) the place, date and hour of the meeting,
(ii) the general nature of the business to be transacted at the meeting in sufficient detail
to enable those to whom the notice is given to decide whether to attend or not; and
(iii) where the meeting is to consider a special resolution, shall set out the terms of the
resolution.

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(b) In the case of notice of an annual general meeting, a statement that the purpose is
to transact the ordinary business of an annual general meeting is a sufficient
specification that the business is,
(i) to declare a dividend;
(ii) consideration of the financial statements and reports of the directors and auditors;
(iii) the election of directors in the place of those retiring;
(iv) the fixing of the remuneration of the auditors; and (v) for the removal and election of
auditors and directors;
(c) A business may not be transacted at a general meeting unless notice of it has been
duly given

Figure 8.1 is a sample of a notice of a meeting.

Magpee Ventures Ltd

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

Notice is hereby given that the 10th Annual General Meeting of the
company shall be held …. ( place ) on ………(date) at ……..(Time) .

AGENDA

1. To receive the report of the directors and the accounts for the
year ended (date) and to declare dividend.

2. To elect directors in place of those retiring.

3. To reappoint the auditors and to authorize the

directors to fix their remuneration.

By order of the Board

Dated ……………………….. Jennifer Aidoo

Registered office Secretary

(Address)

A member who is entitled to attend the meeting has the right

to appoint a proxy to attend and vote on his behalf. A
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proxy need not be a member of the company
 Figure 8.1 Notice of a meeting (formal)

The notice should mention the place, time and date of the meeting. The day must be a
working day and the time should be during business hours unless agreed otherwise by
all the directors. It is not necessary to state in the notice the business to be transacted,
unless the articles of the company or the Act so require.

Your Role as Secretary Before Meetings:

It is the secretary’s duty to:
 Consider and arrange a venue which is suitable for the kind of meeting and the
participants of the said meeting.
 Ensure that minutes of the previous meeting have been duly circulated and in
good time too.
 Receive, compile and inform the meeting of those members who are unable to
attend the meeting (apologies for absence).
 Prepare the chairman’s agenda and include all necessary information which
would be needed at the meeting.
 Get the attendance register prepared before the day of meeting.

As secretary, you should always anticipate long meetings and provide tea or lunch
for the meeting participants.

DURING THE MEETING

During the meeting, you may be responsible for greeting participants, taking minutes,
and or providing special assistance.

Greeting or Welcoming Participants

Most likely you will be asked to greet or welcome participants. This task can range from
seating two people in a manager’s office to registering a large group at seminar. You

63
may have to answer questions about the meeting’s agenda and the location of facilities
such as restrooms and phones. In this role, you act as the meeting’s host and do as
much as possible to make visitors feel welcome.

Quorum:
There must be a proper quorum for every meeting. The quorum for Board Meeting
should be at least two directors or one-third of total strength of the Board of Directors,
whichever is more subject to a minimum of two directors. While determining the total
strength, the vacancies are not counted.

Taking Minutes
You may also be required to take minutes, depending on the complexity of the meeting
and the need for a written record. This responsibility will vary according to the
manager(s) and the organization. In general, you will need to record six basic facts:
1. Date, location, and time the meeting was held.
2. Name of chairman
3. Kind of meeting (regular, special, board, executive, committee),
4. Names of members present and absent (groups of under twenty people)
5. Order of business as indicated on the agenda.
6. Motions made, their adoption or rejection, and originators of the motions.

As you record this information, remember to take enough notes, using each agenda
item as a major heading, when unclear points are made, request an immediate
clarification. You will find taking notes easier when you made and seconded at a small-
group meeting, if necessary, prepare a seating chart.

Your Role during the Meeting

The following are the role of the secretary during the meeting:
 She is responsible for providing stationery and organizing an attendance register.
 The seating arrangement is prepared by the secretary. This can be done,
according to the meeting protocols (e.g. chairman at the head of the table).
 Minutes are read by secretary and she takes notes and records proceedings of
the meeting.
 She provides assistance for the chairman as well as the members of the meeting
who may require information during the meeting;

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  When the meeting ends, the secretary is expected to stay back and ensure that
the venue and all other items that ought to be taken back to the office is taken
care of.

After the Meeting

After the meeting, usually there are four other tasks left to do; preparing the minutes,
recording the details of the meeting, filing the minutes and related material, and
preparing acknowledgements.

Preparing the Minutes

Minutes may be defined as a record of all the proceedings at a meeting written out and
set out in an acceptable fashion to serve as evidence.
If you are to prepare the minutes, assemble your notes into a rough draft as soon as
possible after the meeting. Have your manager check your draft. Then prepare the
final copy. Although the format may vary, all minutes generally report events in
chronological order- as they happened.
Content of minutes
Although the contents will vary according to the kind of meeting, here are some items
commonly seen with minutes:
a) Heading of the minutes : the heading should include the following
 The name of the organization which organized the meeting.
 The type of meeting, for instance, an Annual General Meeting.
 The meeting place (venue, where meeting was held)
 The day as well as the date on which meeting was held (note that the time
of meeting is omitted).
b) Attendance: write out the names of those members who attended the meeting
and those in attendance. Those in attendance are in the meeting for the sake of
their position (ex-officio) and they are not members. In the minutes of a large
meeting, only the number of members present should be indicated.
c) Resolutions: ensure that you records the decisions taken as well as the
resolutions passed. For example, you may indicate that it was resolved that a
bus is bought from the official funds raised.
d) Writing out the narration of the minutes: this is the record of the items on the
agenda and how the discussion on them went. It precedes the resolutions made.
e) Indication of the names of proposers and seconders of motions: in writing of
minutes, the names of those who proposed and seconded motions will be
recorded depending on the type of meeting it is. For example, in the case of

65
 board meetings, or committee meetings, the names of proposers and seconders
are not usually recorded. However in general meetings, they are recorded.
f) Number the items of discussion in the minutes: this is done serially and is
necessary especially in loose-leaf minute books. The use of serial numbers help
with referencing and cross-indexing of the minutes. and, where applicable, the
cross-indexing of minutes according to subject-matter.
g) The Chairman signs: the chairman will usually sign his signature during the next
ensuing meeting when the meeting have read and approved the minutes. (Note
that the chairman who signs the minutes need not be the one who was in the
chair during the meeting).

ORGANIZING CONFERENCES
Conferences are important programmes at which issues pertaining to world, health,
business and other contemporary issues are discussed. The role of the secretary in
organizing conferences follow the same pattern as in organizing meetings: before,
during and after the conference. In this case, the conference periods can be broken
down to pre-conference, conference and post-conference periods. The role of the
secretary in planning conferences is critical. A well planned conference is the pride of
every manager.

Pre-conference period
Before the conference, there are so many tasks to be taken care of. Therefore, the role
of the secretary to the planning committee and the chief executive of the organization
must work hard to determine the following:
 The type of conference being put together (what is the conference about: is it for
brainstorming, training or problem-solving).
 Topics to be discussed at the conference. This must be determined by the
committee or sub-committee working on that. This will ensure that the relevant
speakers are gotten for these topics.

It is sometimes prudent to have a conference leader who will have supervisory roles
over the conference. Such a leader must have the following attributes:
 Smart, intelligent and be able to think through things quickly and clearly
 A good sense of humour. This is important if there is to be a fulfilled conference
 Analytical ability is needed to take decisions or appreciate the happenings at the
conference, therefore, the leader must have special analytical ability

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The following are things that ought to get done before the conference begins:
1. Selected topics for discussion at the conference
2. Flyers and notices for the conference. This must include the date of the
conference, the time, venue, topics and themes for the conference.
3. Conference centre: ensure the facility is booked, items needed like, visual aids,
lecture materials, stationery and other contingencies are catered for.
4. If the conference will visit places of interest, committee must ensure that these
places are confirmed; buses needed for these visits are arranged, lunch etc
5. Before the day of the conference, the committee must ensure they inspect the
venue for purposes of ensuring that the venue has all that will be needed for the
conference.
* For virtual conferences, similar to virtual meetings discussed in section under
meetings
The Conference period
The planning committee including the chairman of the committee and the secretary
should take note of the following:
 Committee members must arrive early to the conference physical venue or
virtual.
 Be in charge of the registration of conference participants and ensure they are
well seated.
 Proceedings of the conference to be fully recorded
 Effective time management by chairmen of the various sessions of the
conference
 Ensure the provision of regular supply of electricity or in lieu of that, generators to
ensure uninterruptible power supply.
 Also the provision of stable internet connectivity with regard to organizing virtual
conferencing(For virtual conference)
 Work hard day by day to ensure that communiques and resolutions are made
ready for the adoption by participants.

Post-conference period
This is the period after the conference when the conference has come to an end. To
ensure that the objectives for which the conference was held are achieved, this is the
period to ensure that the following are done:

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1. Evaluation of the conference. Did everything go as planned? Are there any
hitches that were encountered? Were there any avoidable happenings?
2. Dissemination of reports. Are there reports waiting to be distributed?
3. Any leftover copies of documents used should be sent back to the office.
4. All resolutions arrived at, at the conference should be drafted for the approval of
the board.
5. Participants should be given copies of the final resolutions for action
6. If transportation ought to be organized for participants, secretary must follow up
and ensure that is done.

Chapter Summary
Meetings are governed by law and organizing effective and successful meetings are
based on two major factors – caution and courtesy. The role of the secretary in
organizing meetings have been discussed under three sections – role before, during
and after meetings. Virtual meetings and how to ensure its smooth running has also
been discussed. The world is technologically changing, therefore meetings and
conferences need to take care of virtual participants. Minutes are records and this
chapter has given a sample minutes to help put together good minutes. Secretaries
must properly coordinate the various aspects of meeting organization and ensure that
no stone is left unturned.
Review Questions
1. What are the procedures for organizing meetings? Before meeting? During and
after meeting?
2. What are the items that should appear in a notice for a meeting?
3. Identify the major sections of minutes.
4. What materials ought you to take care of while preparing an agenda for a
meeting?
5. What would be the role of the secretary in helping to organize conferences?

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CHAPTER ELEVEN

STAFF RECRUITMENT, SELECTION, AND PLACEMENT

Learning objectives and outcomes

By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Determine the sources of recruiting from within and outside an organization.

• Describe the process of recruitment and selection.

• Distinguish between recruitment and selection.

• Explain staff placement.

Introduction

Recruitment and selection are functions associated with the personnel or human resources
department. They are concerned with the identification of vacancies and of filling them with
appropriate staff. The selection element, in particular, requires a lot of careful attention to secure
the right candidate for the job. Vacancies may arise for various reasons; among them are the
following:

• Retirement

• Resignation

• Dismissal

• Increased workload

• Creation of new posts, etc.

Sometimes vacancies may be advertised internally (within the organization) whereas other
times, organizations are legally bound to advertise them outside and even internationally.
Basically, good advertisement should make reference to the following:

• Job title

• Nature and location of the organization

• Details of the job

• Required qualifications

• Skills and experiences

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 • Salary details

• How to apply

• Closing date for application, etc.

Recruitment refers to the process of attracting possible candidates who have the competencies
and experiences required for performing a particular task to apply for a job.

The process of recruiting office personnel

A general recruitment process is as follows:

The recruitment process begins with the human resource department receiving requisitions for
recruitment from any of the departments of the organization. These requisitions usually contain:

• A call for vacancies in each section of the organization

• Preparing the job descriptions and personnel specification.

• Locating and developing the sources of required number and the type of employees
usually through advertisements.

• Short-listing and identifying the prospective employees with required characteristics.

• Arrange the interviews with the selected candidates.

• Conducting the interview and decision-making.

The recruitment process is immediately followed by the selection process. This involves
conducting the final interviews, making decisions on the successful candidate(s), and issuing
appointment letters.

Aims of recruitment

It aims at developing and maintaining adequate manpower resources upon whom the
organization can depend when it needs additional employees. Recruitment is a positive process
of searching in this way; it increases the selection ration and enables management to select
suitable employees.

Sources of recruitment

In general, there are two sources of recruiting employees. They are internal and external
sources.

Internal sources

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This is recruitment of employees from within the organization. This may take the form of
promotion, transfers, internal advertisement, retired managers or recalled from leave. Internal
sources include transfers, promotions, upgrading, demotion, re-engaging retired employees as
well as dependents and relatives of deceased employees.

The existing talented employees may be given the adequate training to be eligible for promotion
to higher position(s) in the organization. Filling a vacancy from within the organization has the
advantage of stimulating and preparing for possible transfer or promotion, increasing the morale
of employees, and simplifying selection placement procedures.

Advantages of internal recruitment

• It saves time.

• It is economical.

• It is usually simple and reliable.

• Since employees are already familiar with the work situation, there may be no need for
further induction.

• It serves as a source of motivation and morale-booster for existing employees.

• In effect, it reduces the rate of employee turnover.

• Existing employees develop a sense of loyalty and commitment to the organization.

Disadvantages of recruiting from within

• Organization does not benefit from the innovative and creative ideas of people outside it.

• It is not all vacancies that can be filled from within. There the scope of recruiting from
within limited.

• Usually, the post of the person promote remains vacant for some time

• There is the possibility of selection team being subjective in their assessment of the
person being promoted.

• Employees who are not likely to be promoted may feel disappointed.

External sources of recruitment

External recruitment refers to the process of attracting and employing people from outside the
organization. Prospective job candidates may be employed through contact with professional
associations such as the Institute of Public Relations, Institute of Human Resource
Management Practitioners, etc., through advertisement or announcements in the media (print,
television, radio, internet, etc.), recruiting from universities, polytechnics, training colleges,
vocational technical institutions etc. Individuals may also apply voluntarily to organizations for

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employment (unsolicited applicants), through human resource consulting firms, employment
exchanges, and recommendations.

Advantages of Outside Recruitment

The following are some of the advantages of external recruitment:

• New applicants bring their creative and innovative ideas to bear in the organization.

• There is wide scope from which the organization can select from.

• It reduces the possibility of being bias and partial.

• Organizations are able to fill in all their reservation requirements.

• Heartburns, envy, hatred, jealousy, and competition among employees for a position
may be avoided, if not eradicated.

Disadvantages of Outside Recruitment

• The cost of advertisement, allowance for interview panel and refreshment as well as
orientation of new members make it expensive to undertake.

• Basically, it takes a long time to complete the recruitment and selection process.

• Members who may not be promoted from within to occupy vacant positions may feel
disappointed and may decide to leave the organization for other ones.

• Existing employees may not commit themselves and would also not remain loyal to the
organization.

• It will not motivate employees to exert much effort at the workplace.

• In spite of the rigid process involved in the process, there is the likelihood that the wrong
employee may be selected.

Selection Procedure

This is the process of choosing or picking the most suitable and ideal candidate for job
placement. It comes immediately after the recruitment process is completed. Selection ensures
that the competencies, experiences, and, usually, the education or qualification of the
individual(s) to be selected matches the job and person specification needed to do the job.
Selection is usually conducted by the employer, a recruitment agency, or a panel.

Just after recruitment, selection commences with the screening of prospective applicants’
applications, followed by the constitution of an interview panel, interview, test (where the need
be or where applicable), background checks, medical checks, then finally a choice is made of
the most suitable and qualified person(s). When the panel chooses the right person(s), an offer
or appointment letter would be written to the said prospective employee. Days or a week may

72
be given for the said new employee to accept the offer before the induction/orientation and final
placement. Where the prospective employee refuses the offer, then it will be transferred to the
second most qualified job candidate.

Summary of steps in recruitment and selection

Steps Activity Action

Recruitment Process

1 Identification of vacancy Line Manager

2 Justify the need to fill the gap Line Manager

3 Seek authorization Chief Executive Officer

4 Place an internal advert Human Resource Manager

5 If no response is given by the deadline, go Human Resource Manager

ahead and place an external advert. However,
if responses are received and there are no
suitable applications, go ahead and place the
external advert.

Selection Process

6 If responses received from external advert Human Resource Manager

have suitable applications, shortlist them.

7 Constitute an interview panel Human Resource Manager

8 Schedule a venue, day and time and invite CEO/Human Resource

shortlisted applicants for interview. Manager

9 Interview sessions are held, results collated Panel

and report submitted on who is most suitable

10 Background and reference check Human Resource Manager

11 Medicals Human Resource Manager

12 Give the offer of employment Prepared by Human

Resource Manager and
Signed by CEO

13 Acceptance Prospective Employee

14 Induction/orientation Human Resource

Manager/Head Of

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 Department

15 Placement Human Resource

Manager/Head of
Department

Appointment

Once all interviews are over, the interviewer will decide whether or not an appointment can be
made. It is not simply a question of selecting the best candidate unless that person fits the
selection criteria for the position. Successful candidates are always given a written letter of
confirmation, usually accompanied by a document outlining terms and conditions of employment
usually referred to as a “contract”. This contract document must include many elements agreed
upon by the contracting parties.

Induction programs

This is the first element of training. It helps new employees to settle down quickly and feel a part
of the organization. First impressions form a permanent mark in the mind of a newcomer; and if
the environment is unfavorable, it takes a long time to change the individual’s opinion towards
the organization. The personnel/human resources department has the possibility and
responsibilities to create a good impression from the beginning to avoid shortcomings, if given a
free hand.

Inductions/orientations can be in all shapes and sizes; ranging from several hours’ program of
familiarization to several weeks (full program of events) depending on the scale and nature of
the organization. The events will include all types of things which a new employee expects to be
linked with such as the following:

• The organizational background

• Organizational chart and explanation of where the particular job fits into the overall plan.

• A booklet of terms and conditions of employment (usually referred to as the

organizational rules and responsibilities). The personnel officer should explain any item
which is not clear and mention those which are likely to be altered in the near future.

• Appraisal scheme and an outline of possible channels of promotions and transfers.

• Training possibilities including a plan of workshops and other short courses.

• Grievances, social, medical and other facilities. These should also include all usual
facilities like toilets, medical services, dining areas, tea/coffee/lunch; prayer break times,
if applicable, etc.

• General amenities such as bicycle sheds and car parking arrangements, etc.

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In large organizations, this information will likely be in a form of a leaflet or staff handbook.
Another important aspect of induction is to introduce new employees to their immediate
supervisors so as to remove any feeling of isolation and general unease which may exist.

In addition to providing all these necessary details, the personnel officer should carefully point
out that the new job will no doubt mean some amount of adjustment to a new working
environment, new colleagues and new methods of doing things. The officer must emphasize
that the personnel/human resources officer is there to offer a helping hand and advice whenever
anything bothers them (the new employee). In doing this, s/he will also be automatically helping
to create a good first impression. Only after this formal induction and the introduction of the new
employee to the supervisor will the personnel/human resources officer officially hand over the
newcomer.

Training and Staff development

Personnel work and responsibilities towards staff do not start and end with appointment.
Thereafter, all manner of employees need to be given due respect; including the training and
staff development once they are in the job. Training can be in one of the following:

Job-specific training

Induction is a process rather than a specific training. It depends on the nature of the
appointment. Job-specific training may range from a relatively informal nature whereby an
employee is apprised of departmental systems or procedures, probably by “sitting next to Juma”
(that is to say learning from an existing staff member); to training in the operation of a piece of
equipment, and so on. It may sometimes include attending a formal course put together by the
organization such as Word processing (computer) course for a new secretary.

Kinds of Training and Staff Development Programes

There are many categories of training and staff development programs. Those trainings may
either be conducted “in-house” or “off-site”. Courses are of varying duration and may or may not
carry awards at the end. They are usually designed to meet specific requirements in respect of
content and time scale.

There are a number of factors which determine whether these courses are to be undertaken on
or off the job site. The following are some of these factors:

• The sort of training needed;

• Time which can be made available;

• Respective advantages and disadvantages of conducting the courses “on-the-spot” or

“away from it”;

• Availability of suitable courses within or without the office/country;

• Content, structure, and training methods;

• Accommodation and other facilities;

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 • Cost implications; etc.

Performance Appraisals

Appraisal is a systematic exercise designed to assess an employee’s performance on the job.

Formally, it may mean a “chart with the boss” to see “how he or she is getting along”. It may
also mean completion of various assessment forms and appraisal interviews.

Employees are appraised for various reasons including the following:

• Assess the present and future potential of staff for further growth and development.

• Identify promotion-deserving staff.

• Identify training and staff development needs.

• Motivate staff to improve their personal performance.

• Provide an opportunity to point out weaknesses or shortcomings and strengths in work

and attitude.

• Performance appraisal enables supervisors identify the strengths and weaknesses or

the gaps in employees’ competencies

• Provide staff with opportunity to raise issues of concern to them; etc.

Advantages of Performance Appraisal

Performance appraisal is an investment for any organization and can have multiple advantages,
as follows:

• It serves as means of validating the selection process or procedure.

• It also serves as a basis for promoting employees.

• It serves as a measure upon which employees will be promoted.

• It is a basis for training and development of employees’ competencies.

• Through performance appraisal, effective system of communication can be developed

between employer or management and subordinates. This can, in effect, build good
rapport and trust, and bring about congenial working relationship at the workplace. All
the above factors ensure effective communication.

• Favorable feedback from performance appraisal evaluation serves as a source of

motivation to employees.

Elements of Appraisal

There are basically three elements of appraisal:

• Performance review

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 • Potential review, and

• Reward review

Performance review analyses what an employee has done and what she or he is doing in
HR/his job with a view of helping her/him to improve her/his personal performance and, hence,
effectiveness of the organization.

Potential review is designed to identify where an employee’s career should be heading and
within what sort of time scale. This review is never easy. Some organizations choose someone
who is unfamiliar with the employee undergoing appraisal to conduct it in order to secure great
objectivity.

Reward review usually links increments and other benefits to performance. Technically,
rewards may be given or with-held according to performance during assessment period. Such a
process can obviously have severe implications for staff motivation and morale. It is, therefore,
appropriate if this kind of review is arranged at separate times from other aspects of appraisal.

Appraisal Techniques

The following are the most common techniques of assessing the performance of office staff:

Overall assessment: This is where the supervisor prepares a written statement about the
employee. This is a simple technique which forces supervisors to sit down and gather their
thoughts. It will very much be influenced by the supervisor’s skills at expressing his thoughts in
writing.

Guideline assessment: This one requires the supervisor to consider more specific questions.
Theoretically, the answers are more precise but in practice, the comments are relatively
unhelpful in that the guidelines are mostly too vague.

Grading assessment: This takes the guidelines techniques further by providing a framework of
reference for which the person carrying out the appraisal is required to select the statement
which most might describe the staff being assessed. This assessment might include descriptive
words such as outstanding, good, satisfactory and poor; but the problem rests in determining
how good actually the “good” is.

Merit assessment is similar to grading but relies on numerical rather than descriptive words. Its
advantage is that the results are quantifiable. This assessment, however, still falls short of being
objective and will do little to boost morale or improve motivation. Also, many appraisers stick to
the middle band and are reluctant to operate the range of possible rating.

Other Techniques: It is speedily becoming common in many organizations for employees to be

asked to evaluate their own performance by completing a questionnaire which will form the
basis of counseling sessions with their supervisors. It is also becoming common to engage in
open problem-solving discussions between employees and their supervisors. This ensures
transparency and openness. These techniques provide both parties with the opportunity to
defend or justify their actions, answer criticisms, and mutually arrive at a plan of action for the
future.

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Promotion, Transfers, Termination, and Dismissal

The personnel department also acts as a center for dealing with transfers and promotion of
employees. By keeping records and checking on all employees’ movements, it can ensure that
the most suitable members are given the opportunity for promotion.

Supervisors (or in case of government setup – directors) have considerable responsibility in

deciding on transfers which cannot be offset as the personnel officer’s responsibility. They (the
supervisors) must be extra careful not to make mistakes on promotion or transfers and, more
so, on termination as the responsibility for such actions rests on them and mistakes may be
disastrous. They should be constantly on the look-out for changes which occur in individuals
and in jobs which are main reasons for transfers.

The responsibility for making inter-departmental transfers, however, lies naturally with the
personnel officers. Supervisors should realize how they can assist and avoid friction with fellow
supervisors. One supervisor should never try to entice an employee away from another
department until after negotiation with their respective supervisors in the presence of respective
office personnel/human resources manager.

In cases of promotion, although the responsibility still rests with personnel officers, the
recommendations come from supervisors. Any mistake made by any of them receives
considerable attention from other interested parties.

If an organization wishes to terminate its employee, it should conduct a termination interview to

find out the true reason for leaving. Of course, the supervisor may have interviewed the
employee earlier, but the truth might not have appeared at that stage. Termination, therefore,
must be carried out by the highest authority based on facts and figures.

Terminations are usually followed by dismissals. The authority to dismiss an employee is a

serious and very responsible duty which demands the application of absolute fairness.

Range of Supervisory Jobs

No two supervisors’ jobs are exactly alike. Two apparently similar supervisory jobs may, in fact,
be very different depending on such factors as the size, type, and structure of the organization,
and relationship between the management, status, etc. This variation in supervisory jobs
depends mainly on the range and complexities of duties, and the particular level of supervision.
A typical example of levels of supervision can be grouped as follows:

• Primary level supervision: Operators who are usually given authority over a small group
of workers.

• Section supervisors: Includes all supervisors who are responsible for different sections
consisting of about six primary groups.

• Departmental supervisors: This consists of about six sections headed by a foreman. The
groups may also be termed as department and its head a superintendent or director.

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 • Wok supervision: All senior supervisors come under this category. There are many
categories used for their foremen.

Training of Supervisors

Most supervisors learn their jobs by actually doing them; making mistakes and correcting them
as they gain experience. Although this type of trial and error is considered to be an essential
part of training, practical experience must be supplemented by formal training to form a sound
working base. Recently, a variety of short courses have been on offer at many training centers.
Some of the centers are formally registered and others are not. In order for these training
courses to be accredited by employers, suitable training facilities, a right syllabus, and
appropriate lecturers should be in place beforehand. The centers should also be subject to
periodical supervision by an official authority.

Trial questions

1. Distinguish between recruitment and selection.

2. Why do most organizations prefer internal recruitment to external sources of

recruitment?

3. Describe why most employers do employment interview.

4. Why is performance appraisal necessary in organizations?

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