SEHS4653
Control System Analysis
Unit 4
System Stability and Root Locus Method
(Reference: [1] chapter 5.6, 6.1‐2, 6.4‐5)
1
Content
• Poles and Zeros
• Stability and Pole-Zero Plot
• Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Root Locus Method
– Root Locus Plot Example
– Summary of General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
– Root-Locus Approach to Control Systems Design
2
Poles and Zeros
• Consider the below closed-loop transfer function,
𝐶 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 𝑏 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑏 𝑠 𝑏
𝑅 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎
• Rewrite the above equation with roots of the numerator and denominator,
𝐶 𝑠 𝑁 𝑠 𝑠 𝑧 𝑠 𝑧 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑧
𝐾
𝑅 𝑠 𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑝
• Hence,
Zeros: roots of numerator, 𝑧 , 𝑧 , ⋯ 𝑧
Poles: roots of denominator, 𝑝 , 𝑝 , ⋯ 𝑝
Gain: constant multiplier of the system, 𝐾
3
Stability and Pole-Zero Plot
• Transfer function is a rational function in the complex variable 𝑠 𝜎 𝑗𝜔
• Poles and zeros may be real or complex and represented graphically by
plotting on the complex s-plane, known as Pole-Zero Plot
• x-axis represents the real part of the poles/zeros; while y-axis represents the
imaginary part
• Zeros are marked with circle (o) while Poles are marked with cross (x)
4
Stability and Pole-Zero Plot
Stability
• A system is defined as stable if every bounded input produces bounded output
• Refer to the location of poles on the pole-zero plot
Stable
All the poles are in the left-hand
side of the pole-zero plot
Marginally Stable
One or more poles lie on the
vertical axis of the pole-zero plot,
i.e. has a zero real value, and no
poles lie in the right-hand side
Unstable
At least one pole lies in the right-
hand side of the pole-zero plot
5
Example 1
Given the pole(s) and zero(s) of a system.
System 1: Poles = 2, 3
System 2: Poles = 1.5, +1; Zeros = 0
System 3: Poles = 1 j2; Zeros = +2
(a) Write the transfer functions of the system.
(b) Sketch the pole-zero plot of the system.
(c) Determine the stability of the system.
Answer:
(a) 1 𝑠
System 1: 𝐺 𝑠 System 2: 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠 2 𝑠 3 𝑠 1.5 𝑠 1
𝑠 2 𝑠 2
System 3: 𝐺 𝑠
𝑠 1 𝑗2 𝑠 1 𝑗2 𝑠 2𝑠 5
6
Example 1 (continued)
Answer:
(b) & (c) System 1 System 2
Stable Unstable
System 3
Stable
7
Example 1 (continued)
Impulse Response (Time domain)
System 2
System 1
System 3
8
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• Method for determining the stability of a system without factoring the denominator
• It tells us whether or not there are unstable roots in a polynomial equation without
actually solving
• Information about absolute stability can be obtained directly from the coefficients
of the characteristic equation
Routh Array
• Consider an nth order characteristic equation, 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝐷 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑠 ⋯ 𝑎 𝑠 𝑎 𝑏
𝑎
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏
𝑎
𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑐
𝑏
𝑏 𝑎 𝑎 𝑏
𝑐
𝑏 9
Routh-Hurwitz Stability Criterion
• The Routh-Hurwitz Criterion states that the number of roots of the
denominator with positive real parts is equal to the number of changes in
the sign in the first column of the Routh array
• Hence, the system is stable if and only if there are no sign changes in the
first column of the array
• The number of sign changes in the first column equals the number of poles
in the right half s-plane
10
Example 2
Use the Routh array to determine the stability of a system given the following
characteristic equation
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 2𝑠 3𝑠 4𝑠 5
Answer:
The first 2 rows of the Routh array 𝑠 1 3 5
𝑠 2 4
The 3rd row of the array can be calculated as,
𝑠 1 3 5
2 3 1 4 2 5 1 0
𝑏 1 𝑏 5 𝑠 2 4
2 2 𝑠 1 5
The 4th row of the array can be calculated as,
𝑠 1 3 5
1 4 2 5 𝑠 2 4
𝑐 6
1 𝑠 1 5
𝑠 6
11
Example 2 (continued)
Answer:
The last row of the array can be calculated as,
𝑠 1 3 5
𝑠 2 4
6 5 1 0
𝑑 5 𝑠 1 5
6 𝑠 6
𝑠 5
The number of changes in sign of the coefficients in the first column is 2
This means that there are two roots with positive real parts.
Hence, the system is unstable
12
Example 3
Use the Routh array to determine the stability of a system given the following
characteristic equation
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2𝑠 24
Answer:
𝑠 1 2
The first 2 rows of the Routh array
𝑠 1 24
The 3rd row of the array can be calculated as,
𝑠 1 2
1 2 1 24
𝑏 22 𝑠 1 24
1 𝑠 22
The 4th row of the array can be calculated as,
𝑠 1 2
22 24 1 0 𝑠 1 24
𝑐 24 𝑠 22
22
𝑠 24
2 sign changes in the first column indicate 2 roots in the
right half of s-plane. Hence, this system is unstable. 13
Example 4
Determine the range of K for a stable system with the characteristic equation as
𝐷 𝑠 𝑠 3𝑠 3𝑠 1 𝐾.
Answer:
14
Example 5
Determine the range of K which will result a stable system as shown below.
Answer:
∆ 𝑠 𝑠 3𝑠 3𝑠 2𝑠 𝐾 0
15
Root Locus Method
• The basic characteristic of the transient response of a closed-loop system is closely
related to the location of the closed-loop poles
• If the system has a variable loop gain (K), then the location of the closed-loop poles
depends on the value of the loop gain chosen
• From the design viewpoint, in some systems, the selection of an appropriate gain
values may move the closed-loop poles to desired locations. Otherwise, addition of
a compensator to the system will become necessary
• Just finding the roots of the characteristic equation may be of limited value, because
as the gain of the open-loop transfer function varies, the characteristic equation
changes and the computations must be repeated
• A simple method for plotting the roots of the characteristic equation for all values
of a system parameter was used extensively in control engineering, called the root-
locus method
• By using the root-locus method, the designer can predict the effects on the location
of the closed-loop poles of varying the gain value or adding open-loop poles and/or
open-loop zeros
16
Root Locus Method
Open-loop pole-zero configurations
and the corresponding root loci
17
Root Locus Method
Angle and Magnitude Conditions
• Consider the negative feedback system below, the closed-loop transfer function is,
𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
𝑅 𝑠 1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
• The characteristic equation is obtained by setting the denominator of the above function
equal to zero:
∆ 𝑠 1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 0 or 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 1
• The values of s that fulfill both the angle and magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation, or the closed-loop poles,
Angle Condition: ∠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 180° 2𝑘 1 , 𝑘 0, 1, 2, …
Magnitude Condition: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 1
18
Root Locus Method
Angle and Magnitude Conditions
• A locus of the points in the complex plane satisfying the angle condition alone is the root
locus
• The roots of the characteristic equation (the closed-loop poles) corresponding to a given
value of the gain can be determined from the magnitude condition
• In many cases, 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 involves a gain parameter K, and the characteristic equation
may be written as,
𝐾 𝑠 𝑧 𝑠 𝑧 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑧
1 0
𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑝
• The root loci for the system are the loci of the closed-loop poles as the gain K is varied
from zero to infinity
• The root loci are always symmetrical about the real axis
• Remember that the angles of the complex quantities originating from the open-loop
poles and open-loop zeros to the test point s are measured in the counterclockwise
direction
19
Root Locus Method
Angle and Magnitude Conditions
• For example, if 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 is given by,
𝐾 𝑠 𝑧
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝
(how about the root nature of the above equation?)
• The angle of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 is then,
∠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 𝜙 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
• The magnitude of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 for this system is
𝐾𝐵
𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
where A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and B1 are the magnitudes of the
complex quantities 𝑠 𝑝 , 𝑠 𝑝 , 𝑠 𝑝 , 𝑠 𝑝 , and
𝑠 𝑧 , respectively 20
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
• First, obtain the characteristic equation
1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 0
• Then rearrange this equation in the form of
𝐾 𝑠 𝑧 𝑠 𝑧 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑧
1 0 For K > 0
𝑠 𝑝 𝑠 𝑝 ⋯ 𝑠 𝑝
1. Locate the poles and zeros of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 on the s plane
The root-locus branches start from open-loop poles and terminate at zeros (finite
zeros or zeros at infinity), as K increases from zero to infinity
Number of branches are equal to the number of roots of the characteristic equation
21
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
2. Determine the root loci on the real axis
If the total number of real poles and real zeros to the right of this test point is odd,
then this point lies on a root locus
Example:
• Select a test point, s, in each interval
• If select a test point on the negative real axis between 0 and –1,
∠𝑠 180°, ∠ 𝑠 1 ∠ 𝑠 2 0°
∴ ∠𝑠 ∠ s 1 ∠ 𝑠 2 180° 2𝑘 1 ,𝑘 0, 1, 2,3 …
• satisfies angle condition and this range forms a portion of the root locus
22
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
3. Determine the asymptotes of root loci
The root loci for very large values of s must be asymptotic to straight lines whose
angles (slopes) are given by
180° 2𝑘 1
Angles of asymptotes 𝑘 0, 1, 2, …
𝑛 𝑚
where n = no. of finite poles of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 and m = no. of finite zeros of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
All the asymptotes intersect at a point on the real axis. The point at which they do
so is obtained by
∑ poles ∑ zeros
𝑠
𝑛 𝑚
23
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
4. Find the breakaway and break-in points
If a root locus lies between two adjacent open-loop poles on the real axis, then there
exists at least one breakaway point between the two poles
If the root locus lies between two adjacent zeros on the real axis, then there always
exists at least one break-in point between the two zeros
Suppose that the characteristic equation is given by 𝐵 𝑠 𝐾𝐴 𝑠 0
The breakaway and break-in points can be determined from the roots of
𝑑𝐾 𝐵 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠 𝐵 𝑠 𝐴 𝑠
𝑑𝑠 𝐴 𝑠
If a real root is NOT on the root locus portion of the real axis, this root is NOT the
actual breakaway or break-in point
24
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
5. Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from a
complex pole (at a complex zero)
Angle of departure from a complex pole = 180°
– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question from zeros)
Angle of arrival at a complex zero = 180°
– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from other zeros)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question from poles)
Angle of departure = ?
25
General Rules for Constructing Root Loci
6. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis
(a) Use of Routh’s stability criterion; OR
(b) Put 𝑠 𝑗𝜔 in the characteristic equation, equating both the real part and the
imaginary part to zero, and solving for 𝜔 and K
7. Determine the closed-loop poles or Draw the root locus
A particular point on each root-locus branch will be a closed-loop pole if the value
of K at that point satisfies the magnitude condition, 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 1
The value of K corresponding to any point s on a root locus can be obtained using
the magnitude condition, or
product of lengths between point s to poles
𝐾
product of lengths between point s to zeros
26
Example 6
Consider the negative feedback system shown below. For this system,
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠 ,𝐻 𝑠 1
𝑠 𝑠 1 𝑠 2
Sketch the root-locus plot and then determine the value of K such that the damping ratio 𝜁 of a
pair of dominant complex-conjugate closed-loop poles is 0.5.
Answer:
1. Locate the poles and zeros of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 on the s plane
Pole: 𝑠 0, 𝑠 1, 𝑠 2
27
Example 6 (continued)
2. Determine the root loci on the real axis
1, 0
∞, 2
28
Example 6 (continued)
3. Determine the asymptotes of root loci
180° 2𝑘 1
Angles of asymptotes 𝑘 0, 1, 2, …
𝑛 𝑚
180° 2𝑘 1
60° 2k 1
3 0
60°, 180°
∑ poles ∑ zeros
𝑠
𝑛 𝑚
0 1 2
𝑠 1
3 0
29
Example 6 (continued)
4. Find the breakaway and break-in points
𝐾
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 1 𝑠 2 𝐾
𝑅 𝑠 𝐾 𝑠 𝑠 1 𝑠 2 𝐾
1 𝐶 𝑠 1
𝑠 𝑠 1 𝑠 2
∵
𝑅 𝑠 1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
∆ 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 1 𝑠 2 𝐾 0 ∴∆ 𝑠 1 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝑠 3𝑠 2𝑠 𝐾 0
∴𝐾 𝑠 3𝑠 2𝑠 Rejected and why?
𝑑𝐾
3𝑠 6𝑠 2 0 𝑠 0.423, 1.58 Only breakaway point
𝑑𝑠
𝐾 0.423 3 0.423 2 0.423 0.385
30
Example 6 (continued)
5. Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from a
complex pole (at a complex zero)
Since there are neither complex pole(s) nor complex zero(s), this step can
be omitted
31
Example 6 (continued)
6. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis
Routh Array
The characteristic equation, ∆ 𝑠 𝑠 3𝑠 2𝑠 𝐾 0
Method
Using Routh array, 𝑠 1 2
𝑠 3 𝐾
For stability: 0 𝐾 6
𝑠 6 𝐾
3
𝑠 𝐾
The crossing points on the imaginary axis can then be found by solving the
auxiliary equation obtained from the 𝑠 row; that is,
3𝑠 𝐾 3𝑠 6 0 ⟹ 𝑠 𝑗 2
The frequencies at the crossing points on the imaginary axis are thus 𝜔 2.
The gain value corresponding to the crossing points is K = 6.
32
Example 6 (continued)
6. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis
Put 𝑠 𝑗𝜔 into ∆ 𝑠 , Equating
term Method
∆ 𝑗𝜔 𝑗𝜔 3 𝑗𝜔 2 𝑗𝜔 𝐾 0
𝑗𝜔 3𝜔 2𝑗𝜔 𝐾 0
Equating terms, we have
𝑗𝜔 2𝑗𝜔 0 3𝜔 𝐾 0
𝑗𝜔 𝜔 2 0 3 2 𝐾
∴𝜔 0, 2 ∴𝐾 6
33
Example 6 (continued)
6. Find the points
where the root loci
may cross the
imaginary axis
34
Example 6 (continued)
7. Determine the closed-loop poles or Draw the root locus
35
Example 6 (continued)
7. Determine the closed-loop poles or Draw the root locus
From Matlab
36
Example 6 (continued)
Determine the value of K if damping ratio is 0.5
𝜙 cos 𝜁 cos 0.5 60°
Draw a line from origin with
60 for cutting the root locus
37
Example 6 (continued)
Then, locate the closed-loop pole that intersects to the root locus 𝑠 0.3 𝑗0.48
Substitute to ∆ 𝑠 for finding K, we have 𝑠 3𝑠 2𝑠 𝐾 0 𝐾 0.85
38
Example 7
Plot the root locus for the open-loop transfer function of a control system given by,
𝐾
𝐺 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 6𝑠 25
Answer:
1. Locate the poles and zeros of 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 on the s plane
39
Example 7 (continued)
2. Determine the root loci on the real axis
2, 0
40
Example 7 (continued)
3. Determine the asymptotes of root loci
180° 2𝑘 1
Angles of asymptotes 𝑘 0, 1, 2, …
𝑛 𝑚
∑ poles ∑ zeros
𝑠
𝑛 𝑚
41
Example 7 (continued)
4. Find the breakaway and break-in points
∆ 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 6𝑠 25 𝐾 0
𝑠 8𝑠 37𝑠 50𝑠 𝐾 0
42
Example 7 (continued)
5. Determine the angle of departure (angle of arrival) of the root locus from a
complex pole (at a complex zero)
Angle of departure from a complex pole = 180°
– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question
from other poles)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex pole in question
from zeros)
Angle of arrival at a complex zero = 180°
– (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question
from other zeros)
+ (sum of the angles of vectors to a complex zero in question
from poles)
43
Example 7 (continued)
5. Determine the angle of
departure (angle of
arrival) of the root
locus from a complex
pole (at a complex
zero)
44
Example 7 (continued)
6. Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis
∆ 𝑠 𝑠 8𝑠 37𝑠 50𝑠 𝐾
45
Example 7 (continued)
6. Find the points
where the root loci
may cross the
imaginary axis
46
Example 7 (continued)
7. Determine the
closed-loop
poles or Draw
the root locus
47
Example 7 (continued)
7. Determine the closed-loop poles
From Matlab
48
Root-Locus Approach to Control Systems Design
• In building a control system, a proper modification of the plant dynamics may be a
simple way to meet the performance specifications. This, however, may not be
possible because the plant may be fixed and not modifiable. Then we must adjust
parameters other than those in the fixed plant
• In practice, the root-locus plot of a system may indicate that the desired
performance cannot be achieved just by the adjustment of gain. Then it is necessary
to reshape the root loci to meet the performance specifications
• The design by the root-locus method is based on reshaping the root locus of the
system by adding poles and zeros to the system’s open-loop transfer function and
forcing the root loci to pass through desired closed-loop poles in the s plane
• If other than a gain adjustment is required, we must modify the original root loci by
inserting a suitable compensator
49
Root-Locus Approach to Control Systems Design
• Series Compensation [Unit 7] and Parallel (or Feedback) Compensation
• If a sinusoidal input is applied to the input of a network, and the steady-state output
(which is also sinusoidal) has a phase lead, then the network is called a lead
network
• If the steady-state output has a phase lag, then the network is called a lag network
• In a lag–lead network, both phase lag and phase lead occur in the output but in
different frequency regions
• A compensator having a characteristic of a lead network, lag network, or lag–lead
network is called a lead compensator, lag compensator, or lag–lead compensator
50
Root-Locus Approach to Control Systems Design
Effects of the Addition of Poles
• The addition of a pole to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling
the root locus to the right, tending to lower the system’s relative stability and to
slow down the settling of the response
• Figures below show examples of root loci illustrating the effects of the addition of a
pole to a single-pole system and the addition of two poles to a single-pole system
(a) Root-locus plot of a single-pole system; (b) root-locus plot of a two-pole
system; (c) root-locus plot of a three-pole system. 51
Root-Locus Approach to Control Systems Design
Effects of the Addition of Zeros
• The addition of a zero to the open-loop transfer function has the effect of pulling
the root locus to the left, tending to make the system more stable and to speed up
the settling of the response
• Figure (a) below shows the root loci for a system that is stable for small gain but
unstable for large gain. Figures (b), (c), and (d) show root-locus plots for the system
when a zero is added to the open-loop transfer function
52
