The Struggle for Swaraj: 1927-47

EMERGENCE OF NEW FORCES

 In 1927, India saw signs of national revival and the growing influence of socialism, with
Marxist and socialist ideas spreading quickly. This shift gave rise to a new left wing
within the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, which not only
opposed imperialism but also addressed issues of internal class oppression by capitalists
and landlords.

 In the late 1920s, Indian youth became increasingly active in the national movement,
forming youth leagues and student associations across the country. The first All-Bengal
Conference of Students, presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru in August 1928, inspired
similar gatherings nationwide. During this period, many young nationalists began
embracing socialist and communist ideologies, influenced by the Russian Revolution and
disillusioned with Gandhian methods. M.N. Roy gained prominence internationally by
joining the Communist International's leadership. The government responded by
arresting leaders like Muzaffar Ahmed and S.A. Dange in the 1924 Kanpur Conspiracy
Case. The Communist Party of India was formed in 1925, and various worker and
peasant parties emerged, promoting Marxist ideas while continuing to support the
broader national movement and the Indian National Congress.

 During the late 1920s, peasants and workers became increasingly active in protests. In
Uttar Pradesh, tenants agitated for lower rents, protection from eviction, and relief from
debt. In Gujarat, the Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, led by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, saw
peasants successfully oppose increased land revenue through a No Tax Campaign. Trade
unionism also grew rapidly under the All-India Trade Union Congress, with numerous
strikes in 1928. Major strikes included the Kharagpur railway workshop, South Indian
Railway, Tata Iron and Steel Works (mediated by Subhas Chandra Bose), and a
significant five-month strike by 150,000 workers in Bombay textile mills, led by
communists. In total, over five lakh workers participated in strikes that year.

 The revolutionary movement in India gained momentum after the failure of the Non-
Cooperation Movement and began to adopt socialist ideals. In 1924, the Hindustan
Republican Association (HRA) was formed to pursue armed revolution. The British
government responded with the Kakori Conspiracy Case in 1925, sentencing many
revolutionaries, including the execution of Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqulla. By 1928,
under Chandra Shekhar Azad’s leadership, the HRA embraced socialism and was
renamed the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA).

 The revolutionaries began shifting away from individual violent acts, but the brutal lathi-
charge on an anti-Simon Commission protest on 30 October 1928, which led to the death
of Lala Lajpat Rai, reignited their anger. In retaliation, Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar
Azad, and Rajguru assassinated British officer Saunders on 17 December 1928.

 To spread awareness about their new political goals and the need for mass revolution,
HSRA leaders Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt threw a harmless bomb in the Central
Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929. Their intention was not to harm but to draw
attention, as stated in their leaflet: "to make the deaf hear." They chose to be arrested
voluntarily to use the trial as a platform for promoting their revolutionary message.
 In Bengal, revolutionary activities saw a revival with a major armed raid on the
Chittagong armoury in April 1930, led by Surya Sen. This marked the beginning of
several attacks on colonial officials. A notable feature of the movement was the active
participation of young women. The Chittagong uprising stood out as a coordinated group
effort targeting the structures of British rule, rather than isolated individual actions.

 The British government cracked down on the revolutionaries, arresting many and putting
them on trial, including Bhagat Singh and others for Saunders' assassination. Their bold
statements and fearless conduct in court won public sympathy. Congress leaders, despite
their commitment to non-violence, helped in their legal defence. A hunger strike was
launched to protest inhumane jail conditions, during which Jatin Das died after a 63-day
fast, becoming a martyr. Despite widespread protests, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and
Rajguru were executed on 23 March 1931. In a final letter, they expressed pride in their
role and faith in the ongoing struggle for freedom.

 In his final letters, 23-year-old Bhagat Singh reaffirmed his commitment to socialism,
emphasizing that true freedom meant liberation from both foreign rule and exploitation
by landlords and capitalists. He believed the struggle would continue as long as any
group exploited the labour of the masses, whether British or Indian. Bhagat Singh
defined socialism as the end of capitalism and class oppression. By 1930, he and his
comrades had rejected violence as a method of struggle. In his last political statement, he
clarified that though he may have appeared a terrorist early on, he no longer believed in
such methods and firmly disassociated himself from terrorism.

 Bhagat Singh was deeply secular and believed that communalism was as dangerous as
colonialism. He firmly opposed communal divisions and promoted unity. In 1926, he co-
founded the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha and served as its first secretary. The Sabha’s
rules, drafted by him, emphasized rejecting communal organizations and promoting
religious tolerance as a personal belief, advocating harmony among all people.

 The national revolutionary movement faded, though sporadic actions continued. Chandra
Shekhar Azad was killed in a police encounter in February 1931, and Surya Sen was
arrested and executed in 1933. Many revolutionaries were arrested, given lengthy prison
sentences, and some were sent to the Cellular Jail in the Andamans.

 By the end of the 1920s, a new political force was emerging in India, which even Lord
Irwin, the Viceroy, acknowledged as significant. The British government responded by
suppressing this rising movement with harsh measures. Revolutionaries, along with
leaders of the growing trade union and communist movements, were targeted. In March
1929, 31 prominent trade union and communist leaders were arrested, and after a lengthy
trial in the Meerut Conspiracy Case, they were sentenced to long prison terms.

BOYCOTT OF THE SIMON COMMISSION

 The British government's appointment of the Simon Commission in November 1927,

composed entirely of Englishmen, sparked widespread protests in India. The exclusion of
Indians from the Commission was seen as a violation of self-determination and an insult
to Indian dignity. At its 1927 Madras session, the National Congress, led by Dr. Ansari,
decided to boycott the Commission, a stance supported by the Muslim League and the
 Hindu Mahasabha. The Commission's formation temporarily united various Indian
groups, with the Muslim League also agreeing to the principle of joint electorates if seats
were reserved for Muslims.

 In response to the Simon Commission, Indian leaders and parties came together to
propose an alternative constitutional reform plan. This led to the Nehru Report, primarily
drafted by Motilal Nehru, finalized in August 1928. However, at the All Party
Convention in December 1928, the report was not passed due to objections from the
Muslim League, Hindu Mahasabha, and Sikh League. This failure hindered national
unity and contributed to the growth of communalism in India.

 A key distinction existed between the politics of nationalists and communalists.

Nationalists fought for political rights and freedom from the foreign government, while
communalists, whether Hindu or Muslim, often made demands on the nationalists and
sought support from the British government. They tended to oppose the Congress and
cooperate with the colonial authorities.

 The arrival of the Simon Commission in India sparked a massive popular uprising, with
nationalist unity and enthusiasm reaching new heights. On 3 February, an all-India hartal
was organized as the Commission arrived in Bombay, and wherever it went, it was met
with protests, including black-flag demonstrations and the slogan "Simon Go Back." The
government responded with brutal suppression and police violence to quell the
opposition.

 The anti-Simon Commission movement did not immediately lead to wider political
struggle because Gandhi, the unquestioned though undeclared leader of the national
movement, was not yet convinced that the time for struggle had come. But popular
enthusiasm could not be held back for long as the country was once again in a mood for
struggle.

POORNA SWARAJ

The National Congress reflected a renewed nationalist spirit when Gandhi returned to active
politics in December 1928, aiming to unite the Congress. At the historic Lahore session of
1929, Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President, succeeding his father, Motilal Nehru, marking
a unique family achievement. The session adopted Poorna Swaraj (Complete Independence)
as the Congress goal, and on 31 December 1929, the tri-colour flag of freedom was hoisted.
26 January 1930 was declared the first Independence Day, with a pledge to resist British rule.
The Congress also announced the launch of a civil disobedience movement, leaving the
struggle’s specific program to Gandhi. The nation was filled with renewed hope and
determination for independence.

The Civil Disobedience Movement

 Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement on 12 March 1930 with the famous
Dandi March. He and 78 followers walked 375 km from Sabarmati Ashram to Dandi,
where he broke the salt law on 6 April as a symbol of India's defiance against British
rule. His actions and speeches inspired widespread resignations among village officials.
Gandhi condemned British rule as a curse, leading to the moral, material, cultural, and
spiritual degradation of India. He pledged to destroy this system through a non-violent
 struggle, stating that while they would not kill, it was their duty to end the government's
oppressive rule.

 The Civil Disobedience Movement quickly spread across India, with widespread
violations of salt laws in Karnataka and the Central Provinces, defiance of forest laws in
Maharashtra, and refusal to pay taxes in eastern India. People participated in hartals,
demonstrations, and boycotts of foreign goods. Millions of Indians took part in
satyagraha, including peasants who resisted paying land revenue and rent, leading to
confiscation of their lands. A notable aspect of the movement was the active participation
of women, who left their homes, joined picket lines, and marched alongside men in
processions.

 The Civil Disobedience Movement reached the north-western frontier of India, inspiring
the Pathans under Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, known as the 'Frontier Gandhi.' He led the
Khudai Khidmatgars (Red Shirts), a non-violent group committed to the freedom
struggle. In Peshawar, two platoons of Garhwali soldiers refused to open fire on peaceful
demonstrators, even though it meant facing court martial and imprisonment. This
incident highlighted the growing nationalist sentiment within the Indian army, a key
pillar of British rule.

 The Civil Disobedience Movement also resonated in the eastern regions of India, with
the Manipuris and Rani Gaidilieu of Nagaland taking bold actions. At just 13, Rani
Gaidilieu joined the rebellion against British rule, was captured in 1932, and sentenced to
life imprisonment. She spent years in Assam jails, only released in 1947. The
government's response to the movement was harsh repression, including lathi-charges
and firing on unarmed crowds. Over 90,000 satyagrahis, including Gandhi and other
Congress leaders, were imprisoned, and the Congress was declared illegal. The press was
censored, and official reports stated over 110 deaths and 300 injuries from police firings,
though unofficial estimates suggest a higher toll. South India faced the worst repression,
with police targeting anyone wearing khadi or Gandhi caps.

 In 1930, the British government held the first Round Table Conference in London to
discuss the Simon Commission Report. However, the National Congress boycotted the
conference, rendering it ineffective. Without the Congress's participation, the
proceedings were seen as meaningless, akin to staging a Ramlila without Rama.

 In March 1931, Lord Irwin and Gandhiji negotiated the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which led to
the release of non-violent political prisoners and allowed for the making of salt for
personal consumption and peaceful picketing of liquor and foreign cloth shops. In return,
the Congress suspended the Civil Disobedience Movement and agreed to attend the
Second Round Table Conference. While some younger Congress leaders opposed the
pact for not addressing major nationalist demands, Gandhiji believed the British were
sincere in their desire to negotiate. He viewed the mass movement as needing to be
followed by a phase of legal political struggle. The Congress approved the agreement at
its Karachi session, enhancing its prestige as an equal of the British government.

 In September 1931, Gandhiji attended the Second Round Table Conference in England,
but despite his strong advocacy, the British government refused to grant Dominion Status
or the basic nationalist demand for freedom. Meanwhile, peasant unrest grew in various
parts of India due to the impact of the global depression, with the burden of land revenue
 and rent becoming unbearable. In response, the Congress launched a no-rent, no-tax
campaign, leading to the arrest of Jawaharlal Nehru in December 1931. Movements also
emerged in the North-West Frontier Province, Bihar, Andhra, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, and
Punjab, with leaders like Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan being arrested. On returning to
India, Gandhiji resumed the Civil Disobedience Movement.

 Under the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, the British government was determined to
crush the Congress, believing that signing the Gandhi-Irwin Pact had been a mistake.
Following the agreement, violence erupted in East Godavari, where a crowd was fired
upon for displaying Gandhi's portrait, resulting in four deaths. On 4 January 1932,
Gandhiji and other Congress leaders were arrested, and the Congress was declared
illegal. The government suspended normal laws, ruling through special ordinances, and
the police used brutal repression, arresting over a lakh of satyagrahis, confiscating
property, banning nationalist literature, and censoring newspapers.

 The Civil Disobedience Movement gradually lost momentum due to government

repression and internal differences among leaders. The Congress suspended and later
withdrew the movement in 1933-1934, with Gandhiji retreating from active politics.
Despite this, the movement succeeded in politicizing the masses and strengthening the
social foundation of the freedom struggle. Though independence was not immediately
achieved, Indians gained a sense of self-liberation, as shown by the warm reception of
political prisoners upon their release in 1934.

NATIONALIST POLITICS, 1935-1939

The Government of India Act, 1935

· Third Round Table Conference and Government of India Act of 1935: The Third
Round Table Conference took place in London in November 1932, without the Congress
leaders. It resulted in the Government of India Act of 1935, which provided for an All India
Federation and provincial autonomy. The federation was to unite British India provinces and
princely states, with a bicameral legislature where states had disproportionate representation
and non-elected representatives. Only 14% of the British Indian population had voting rights,
and the Act maintained British control over foreign affairs, defense, and key powers.

· Governor-General's Powers and Provincial Administration: The Act retained

substantial British control, with the Governor-General and Governors appointed by the
British government. They held special powers to veto legislation and were responsible for
crucial departments like the civil service and police. While provincial autonomy was
increased, Governors had overriding control, which limited local powers.

· Nationalist Discontent with the Act: The Government of India Act of 1935 did not fulfill
nationalist aspirations, as political and economic power remained with the British
government. The Congress condemned the Act as disappointing, as it allowed only limited
democratic participation and preserved British dominance over key areas.

· Congress Response and Election Strategy: Despite opposing the Act, the Congress
decided to contest the 1937 elections under the new system, aiming to highlight its
unpopularity. The Congress's campaign received massive popular support, even without
Gandhiji's direct involvement.
· 1937 Provincial Elections and Congress Success: In the February 1937 elections,
Congress achieved a decisive victory, winning a large majority of seats in most provinces.
Congress formed ministries in seven out of 11 provinces by July 1937 and coalition
governments in two others. Only Bengal and Punjab had non-Congress ministries, with the
Unionist Party ruling Punjab and a coalition of the Krishak Praja Party and Muslim League
ruling Bengal.

The Congress Ministries

The Congress ministries, while unable to change the imperialistic nature of British rule,
worked within the constraints of the Government of India Act of 1935 to improve the
condition of the people. They made efforts to reduce their own salaries, set high standards of
public service, and undertook positive reforms. These included promoting civil liberties,
repealing press restrictions, supporting trade unions and peasant organizations, and curbing
police powers. They passed agrarian reforms addressing tenancy rights, rent reduction, and
protection for peasant-debtors. The Congress also introduced prohibition in some areas,
focused on Harijan uplift, and improved education and public health. They supported khadi,
village industries, and modern industries. One significant achievement was their handling of
communal riots, maintaining order and unity. The psychological impact of having former
political prisoners now in power gave the people a sense of victory and self-government. This
period also saw significant political developments, signaling a new phase in the nationalist
movement and the Congress.

Growth of Socialist Ideas

 · The 1930s saw the growth of socialist ideas, both within and outside the Congress. The
global economic depression of 1929, which caused unemployment and economic
distress, led people to look at socialism as an alternative to capitalism. The Soviet
Union's success in industrial production during this time also highlighted the potential of
socialism and economic planning, attracting many, especially the youth, workers, and
peasants.

 The national movement had a pro-poor orientation that was strengthened by the Russian
Revolution of 1917 and the rise of Gandhiji. Jawaharlal Nehru played a key role in
promoting the vision of a socialist India, within the Congress and across the country.
Nehru's leadership within the Congress reflected a growing left-wing influence, as he
advocated for political freedom to also mean economic emancipation for the masses.

 In his presidential address to the Lucknow Congress in 1936, Nehru pushed the Congress
to adopt socialism as its goal, aiming to align with the peasantry and working class. He
argued that socialism was the solution to India's problems and called for revolutionary
changes in political, social, and economic structures, ending feudal and autocratic
systems, and replacing private property with a cooperative service system.

 The growth of radical forces in India was reflected in the policies of the Congress,
especially through the resolution on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy passed at
the Karachi session. This resolution focused on guaranteeing civil rights, equality,
universal adult franchise, free education, reducing rents and revenues, providing relief
from agricultural indebtedness, and controlling moneylending. It also emphasized
 workers' rights, including the right to form unions and the need for state ownership or
control of key industries.

 Radicalism in the Congress was further seen in the Faizpur Congress resolutions and the
Election Manifesto of 1936. These promised transformations in the agrarian system, such
as reducing rents and revenue, scaling down rural debts, securing tenant rights, ensuring
a living wage for agricultural laborers, and the right to form unions. In 1945, the
Congress Working Committee also recommended the abolition of landlordism.

 In 1938, when Subhas Chandra Bose became Congress president, the party committed to
economic planning by establishing a National Planning Committee led by Nehru. Nehru
and other leftists, including Gandhi, supported the public sector in large industries to
prevent wealth concentration. Gandhi, in 1933, agreed with Nehru that revising vested
interests was crucial for improving the condition of the masses, and in 1942, he
supported the idea of land to the tiller.

 Outside the Congress, socialist ideas led to the growth of the Communist Party and the
Congress Socialist Party, founded in 1934. In 1939, despite opposition from Gandhi,
Subhas Chandra Bose was re-elected Congress president. However, after internal
disagreements, he resigned and formed the Forward Bloc. By 1939, the left-wing had
significant influence in the Congress, commanding one-third of the votes on important
issues.
 By the late 1930s, socialism became the accepted ideology for much of India's
politicized youth. This period also saw the foundation of organizations like the All India
Students Federation and the All India Progressive Writers Association, reflecting the
growing influence of socialist ideas in various sections of Indian society.

THE PEASANTS' AND WORKERS' MOVEMENTS

The 1930s saw the widespread awakening and organization of peasants and workers in India,
largely due to the politicizing effects of the nationalist mass movements of 1920-22 and
1930-34. The economic depression after 1929 worsened conditions, with agricultural prices
dropping by over 50%, while employers sought to reduce wages. Peasants demanded land
reforms, rent reductions, and relief from debt, while workers sought better working
conditions and recognition of trade union rights. The Civil Disobedience Movement and the
rise of left-wing groups led to a new generation of political workers focused on organizing
peasants and workers. This resulted in the rapid growth of trade unions and peasants' unions,
especially in regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and
Punjab. In 1936, the All-India Kisan Sabha, the first all-India peasant organization, was
founded under Swami Sahajanand Saraswati's leadership.

CONGRESS AND WORLD AFFAIRS

The Congress, since its inception in 1885, had consistently opposed the use of the Indian
army and resources to serve British imperial interests in Africa and Asia. Over time, it
developed a policy against the spread of foreign imperialism.

In February 1927, Jawaharlal Nehru represented the Congress at the Congress of Oppressed
Nationalities in Brussels. This event, organized by exiles and revolutionaries from Asia,
Africa, and Latin America, focused on coordinating resistance to imperialism. Nehru
emphasized the shared struggle against common imperialist forces.

Nehru was elected to the Executive Council of the League Against Imperialism at the
Congress. In 1927, the Madras session of the National Congress warned the government that
India would not support Britain in any war aimed at advancing imperialism.

In the 1930s, the Congress took a firm stance against imperialism globally, supporting
national movements in Asia and Africa. It condemned the rise of fascism in Italy, Germany,
and Japan, and offered solidarity to countries like Ethiopia, Spain, Czechoslovakia, and China
resisting fascist aggression.

In 1937, when Japan attacked China, the Congress urged the Indian people to boycott
Japanese goods in support of China. In 1938, the Congress sent a medical mission to assist
the Chinese armed forces.

The Congress recognized that India's future was closely linked to the global struggle
between fascism and the forces of freedom, socialism, and democracy. Nehru articulated this
view in his 1936 presidential address, emphasizing that India's struggle was part of a broader
global movement against fascism and imperialism.

Nehru, while opposing India's participation in any imperialist war, offered full cooperation to
progressive forces worldwide. He believed that the struggle against imperialism and fascism
was a common fight for freedom and the breaking of political and social bonds.

PEOPLE'S STRUGGLE IN THE PRINCELY STATES

During this period, the national movement expanded to the princely states, where oppressive
economic, political, and social conditions prevailed. Peasants faced harsh exploitation, taxes
were exorbitant, and public services like education and healthcare were extremely
underdeveloped, while the princes spent lavishly.

Many princely states retained feudal practices such as serfdom and forced labour. Unlike
before, where rulers could be checked by internal revolts or invasions, British protection
removed these checks, enabling widespread misrule by the princes.

The British used the princes to counteract the growing nationalist movement and hinder
national unity. In return, the princes relied on British support to protect their positions and
opposed the national movement. Institutions like the Chamber of Princes (1921) and
provisions in the Government of India Act, 1935, were designed to weaken nationalist
influence.

In response to these conditions, people in princely states began organizing movements for
democratic rights and responsible governance. The All-India States People's Conference,
formed in 1927, helped coordinate these movements, which were particularly strong in states
like Rajkot, Jaipur, Kashmir, Hyderabad, and Travancore.

The princely rulers responded with repression and used communal divisions to undermine the
movements. For example, the Nizam of Hyderabad labeled the agitation anti-Muslim, the
Maharaja of Kashmir called it anti-Hindu, and the Maharaja of Travancore blamed
Christians.

The Indian National Congress supported these movements, advocating for civil rights and
representative government in princely states. In 1938, when it redefined its aim as full
independence, this goal was extended to include the princely states.

At the Tripuri session in 1939, the Congress resolved to play a more active role in the States
People’s movements. Nehru’s election as President of the All-India States People's
Conference in the same year symbolized the unity of struggles across British India and
princely states.

The States People's Movement helped foster national consciousness among the people in
princely states and contributed to the growing sense of Indian unity.

GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM

The growth of communalism was a key development during this period. The legislative
elections, conducted with a restricted franchise and separate electorates, deepened communal
divisions. The Congress failed to secure many minority-reserved seats, winning only 26 out
of 482 Muslim seats, most of them in the North-West Frontier Province. Both the Muslim
League and the Hindu Mahasabha also performed poorly. As the Congress adopted a radical
agrarian agenda and peasant movements gained momentum, landlords and moneylenders,
unable to openly defend their interests, began supporting communal parties. This shift gave
communal politics a boost. The Muslim League under Jinnah grew hostile towards the
Congress and spread fears that Muslims were threatened by the Hindu majority. It promoted
the divisive and historically unfounded idea that Hindus and Muslims were two distinct
nations incapable of coexistence. In 1940, the League formally demanded the partition of
India and the creation of Pakistan.

The Muslim League's propaganda gained momentum due to the existence and actions of
Hindu communal groups like the Hindu Mahasabha, which echoed the League’s two-nation
theory by claiming that Hindus were a separate nation. These groups opposed safeguards for
minorities, reinforcing fears among them. In general, minorities feel insecure when the
majority displays communal tendencies, which strengthens sectarian leadership within the
minority. During the 1930s, the Muslim League was stronger in areas where Muslims were a
minority and felt threatened, but weaker in Muslim-majority regions like the North-West
Frontier Province, Punjab, Sindh, and Bengal. In these areas, Hindu communalists even allied
with Muslim communal groups to form anti-Congress ministries. Notably, communal parties,
whether Hindu or Muslim, often supported British rule and did not actively participate in the
freedom struggle, treating other religious communities and nationalist leaders as their main
adversaries rather than the colonial rulers.

Communal groups and parties avoided addressing the social and economic issues important
to the masses, which were increasingly championed by the nationalist movement. Instead,
they came to represent the vested interests of the upper classes. Jawaharlal Nehru observed in
1933 that communalism was rooted in political reaction and that its leaders often resisted
progressive political and economic change. He pointed out that upper-class groups disguised
their own class interests by presenting them as communal demands, which, upon
examination, had little to do with the needs of the common people.
The national movement firmly opposed the communal forces, for its commitment to
secularism was always deep and total. Yet it was not able to fully counter the communal
challenge. In the end. communalism succeeded in partitioning the country. How is this failure
to be explained? One answer that is often given is that the nationalist leaders did not make
enough efforts to negotiate with and conciliate the communal leaders.

Nationalist leaders initially focused too much on negotiating with communal leaders, but
appeasement only strengthened communalism rather than weakening it. Between 1937 and
1939, Congress leaders repeatedly tried to engage Jinnah, but he made no concrete demands
and instead insisted that Congress declare itself a Hindu party—an impossible condition that
clashed with Congress’s secular principles. Appeasing one form of communalism only fueled
others in response. What was truly needed was a strong, consistent ideological struggle
against communalism, like the one waged against colonial rule. Unfortunately, nationalists
launched such campaigns only sporadically. Still, secular nationalism achieved significant
successes. Despite the violent communalism of 1946–47, India managed to frame a secular
Constitution and build a largely secular society. Hindu communalism remained a minority
view, and many Muslims, including leaders and intellectuals like Abul Kalam Azad, Khan
Abdul Ghaffar Khan, and Faiz Ahmed Faiz, resisted the pull of communalism and stood
firmly for unity and secularism.

National Movement during the Second World War

World War II began in September 1939 when Nazi Germany invaded Poland, following
earlier annexations of Austria and Czechoslovakia. Britain and France, after attempting to
appease Hitler, entered the war in support of Poland. Without consulting the Congress or
Indian legislature, the British government declared India's participation in the war. While the
Congress opposed fascism and sympathized with the victims, it argued that an unfree India
could not support a war for others' freedom. Congress demanded Indian independence or real
power before offering support, but the British refused and tried to divide Indians by involving
princes and religious minorities. In response, the Congress launched a limited satyagraha
involving select individuals, aiming to protest peacefully without causing mass unrest.
Gandhi explained the restrained nature and purpose of the movement in a letter to the
Viceroy.

Vinoba Bhave was the first to offer individual satyagraha, and by May 15, 1941, over 25,000
satyagrahis had been imprisoned. In 1941, two major global events changed the course of the
war: Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, and Japan attacked the U.S. fleet at
Pearl Harbor on December 7, joining the Axis powers. Japan rapidly captured several Asian
territories and reached Burma, bringing the war close to India. Congress leaders, newly
released from jail, condemned Japanese aggression and offered full cooperation in India’s
defense if Britain would transfer real power immediately and promise full independence post-
war. In response, Britain sent Sir Stafford Cripps to India in March 1942 to negotiate. Though
Cripps promised early self-government, talks failed because the British refused immediate
power transfer, and the Congress could not accept vague future promises while the Viceroy
retained autocratic control. Congress was willing to support the war effort, especially as
Japanese forces threatened India, but only under a national government.

The failure of the Cripps Mission deeply disappointed Indians, who, though still sympathetic
to the anti-fascist cause, found British rule increasingly unbearable. Wartime shortages and
soaring prices worsened public discontent. As Japanese forces neared India, tension rose
sharply between April and August 1942. In response, the Congress decided to launch a non-
violent mass movement demanding immediate independence. On 8 August 1942, at Bombay,
the All India Congress Committee passed the historic Quit India Resolution. That night,
Gandhi made a powerful speech declaring his uncompromising demand for complete
freedom, urging the people to "Do or Die"—either achieve independence or perish trying,
refusing to accept anything less.

Before the Quit India Movement could be launched, the British government pre-emptively
arrested Gandhi and other Congress leaders on 9 August 1942, declaring the Congress illegal.
This triggered a spontaneous nationwide uprising fueled by public outrage. Without
leadership or coordination, people responded with strikes, protests, and in many areas, violent
resistance. Government symbols like police stations and railway lines were attacked, and
temporary "parallel governments" were set up in places like Ballia, Tamluk, and Satara. The
movement saw active participation from students, workers, and peasants, while the upper
classes largely stayed loyal to the British. The government responded with brutal repression
—press censorship, shootings, aerial bombings, mass arrests, torture, and punitive measures.
Over 10,000 people were killed, making the repression the fiercest since the Revolt of 1857.

Although the Quit India Movement of 1942 was ultimately crushed and short-lived, it
revealed the deep-rooted nationalist sentiment and the people's immense capacity for
sacrifice. It showed that British rule could no longer continue without Indian consent. After
its suppression, political activity largely ceased until 1945, as national leaders remained
imprisoned and no new leadership emerged. In 1943, Bengal suffered a devastating famine,
killing over three million people. Public anger was intense, but with political expression
suppressed, it did not translate into organized resistance.

Subhas Chandra Bose, after escaping India in 1941, sought foreign support for India's
independence, first in the Soviet Union and then in Germany. In 1943, he went to Japan and
formed the Azad Hind Fauj (INA) to wage an armed struggle against British rule. The INA
was initially organized by General Mohan Singh and later bolstered by Indian soldiers
captured by the Japanese in Southeast Asia. Under Bose's leadership, the INA allied with the
Japanese army to march on India, with the goal of liberating the country and establishing a
Provisional Government of Free India. The INA's soldiers, inspired by this cause, adopted the
battle cry "Jai Hind."

With the collapse of Japan in the War during 1944-45, the INA too met defeat and Subhas
Bose was killed in an aeroplane accident on his way to Tokyo. Even though his strategy of
winning freedom in cooperation with the fascist powers was criticised at the time by most
Indian nationalists, by organising the INA he set an inspiring example of patriotism before
the Indian people and the Indian army. He was hailed as Netaji by the entire country.

POST-WAR STRUGGLE

After the end of World War II in April 1945, India's freedom struggle entered a new phase.
The Revolt of 1942 and the INA had shown the Indian people's determination, and with the
release of national leaders from jail, a new movement emerged. This movement focused on
the trial of INA officers Shah Nawaz Khan, Gurdial Singh Dhillon, and Prem Sehgal, who
were accused of treason. However, the Indian public viewed them as heroes, and mass
demonstrations demanding their release took place across the country. The British
government, unable to ignore the widespread public sentiment, eventually decided to free the
INA officers, even though the Court Martial had found them guilty.

Several factors led to the British government's changed attitude towards India after World
War II. First, the global balance of power shifted, with the USA and the Soviet Union
emerging as superpowers, both supporting India's demand for independence. Second,
Britain's economic and military strength was weakened after the war, and the Labour Party,
which had members sympathetic to the Congress demands, replaced the Conservative
government. British soldiers, weary after six years of war, were no longer willing to suppress
India's struggle for freedom. Third, the British-Indian government could no longer rely on
Indian civil and military personnel, as the INA had shown that nationalist sentiments had
spread within the Indian army. The 1946 naval ratings revolt and other strikes by Indian
military personnel highlighted this shift. Finally, the Indian people were increasingly
confident and determined to achieve independence, as shown by mass demonstrations,
strikes, and the naval mutiny. Despite brutal repression, including the killing of over 250
people in Bombay, the Indian demand for freedom became impossible for the British to
ignore.

After 1945, India saw widespread labor unrest, with strikes in almost every industry. Postal
and telegraph workers went on an all-strike in July 1946, while railway workers in South
India struck in August 1946. Peasant movements gained momentum, particularly the Tebhaga
struggle in Bengal, where sharecroppers demanded a one-third share of the crop instead of
one-half. Similar struggles for land and against high rents occurred in various regions,
including Hyderabad, Malabar, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. Students
actively participated in strikes, hartals, and demonstrations. Popular revolts also spread across
princely states like Hyderabad, Travancore, Kashmir, and Patiala. Additionally, the 1946
provincial elections saw the Congress win a majority of general seats, while the Muslim
League secured most of the seats reserved for Muslims.

In March 1946, the British government sent the Cabinet Mission to negotiate the terms for
India's independence. The Mission proposed a two-tiered federal plan to balance national
unity and regional autonomy, with a central government controlling defense, foreign affairs,
and communications, while provinces could form regional unions with shared powers. Both
the Congress and the Muslim League accepted this plan, but they disagreed on the formation
of an interim government and the interpretation of the Cabinet Mission's proposals. By
September 1946, an Interim Cabinet led by Jawaharlal Nehru was formed by the Congress,
and the Muslim League joined in October, though it boycotted the constituent assembly. On
20 February 1947, British Premier Clement Attlee announced that Britain would leave India
by June 1948.

The anticipation of India's independence was overshadowed by large-scale communal riots in

1946. Hindu and Muslim communalists blamed each other for the violence, resulting in
widespread killings. Mahatma Gandhi, devastated by the disregard for humanity, toured East
Bengal and Bihar on foot to quell the riots. Despite efforts by Gandhi and other nationalists to
combat communalism, the deep-rooted communal tensions, exacerbated by the British
government, proved difficult to overcome. Many lives were lost in attempts to suppress the
violence, but the seeds of division had already taken hold.

Lord Mountbatten, as Viceroy in March 1947, negotiated a compromise with Congress and
Muslim League leaders. India would gain independence, but it would be partitioned to create
Pakistan alongside a free India. The nationalist leaders agreed to the partition to avoid large-
scale violence and riots, but rejected the two-nation theory. The partition would only apply to
areas where the Muslim League had significant influence, such as Punjab, Bengal, and
Assam. A plebiscite was to be held in regions like the North-West Frontier Province and
Sylhet district, ensuring the partition wasn't based solely on religion.

Indian nationalists accepted partition not because of the existence of two separate nations, but
to avoid mass killings in communal riots that had spread across both Hindus and Muslims.
The British, who had done little to stop the violence, played a divisive role, potentially
hoping to pit the newly independent states against each other. Jawaharlal Nehru criticized the
British for their part in fostering communalism, which he believed would continue to plague
India. Even Jinnah, despite his two-nation theory, later urged Muslims remaining in India to
be loyal citizens and attempted to shift away from communal politics, though his efforts were
ultimately in vain.

India and Pakistan were declared independent on 3 June 1947, with princely states given the
choice to join either country. Most states joined India, guided by the diplomacy of Sardar
Patel and the pressure of popular movements. However, the Nawab of Junagadh initially
chose Pakistan, but after Indian troops intervened and a plebiscite was held, it acceded to
India. The Nizam of Hyderabad attempted to remain independent but was forced to accede to
India in 1948 following internal unrest and military intervention. The Maharaja of Kashmir
delayed his decision, but after an invasion by Pakistani forces, he acceded to India in October
1947.

On 15 August 1947, India celebrated its first day of freedom, marking the fulfillment of the
sacrifices and dreams of countless patriots. In a speech to the Constituent Assembly on 14
August, Jawaharlal Nehru expressed that India had made a historic pledge, and though the
journey wasn't fully complete, independence was a significant step. He emphasized the
importance of the moment, as India awakened to freedom, and called for dedication to serve
the country and humanity, recognizing that this achievement was just the beginning of greater
triumphs to come.

Despite the joy of independence, the moment was overshadowed by pain and sadness. The
dream of unity was shattered as communal violence erupted, resulting in brutalities and the
loss of thousands of lives in both India and Pakistan. Millions of refugees were displaced
from their ancestral lands. Nehru later reflected on the horror of the violence, describing how
fear and hatred led to unimaginable savagery, leaving a deep sorrow for the dead, the
suffering, and for India, which had long been fought for but now faced such immense
turmoil.

At the time of India's independence, the symbol of its tragedy was Mahatma Gandhi, who had
dedicated his life to non-violence, truth, love, and courage. Despite his efforts to bring peace
amidst communal violence, he was unable to prevent the widespread bloodshed. Gandhi, who
had been traveling to the riot-affected regions, spent Independence Day fasting and spinning
in Calcutta. Tragically, on 30 January 1948, he was assassinated, a martyr for the cause of
unity. Earlier, Gandhi had expressed a desire to leave this world rather than witness the
savage violence, regardless of religious identity, that had plagued the country.

India's independence marked the first step towards overcoming foreign rule, but the country
still faced deep-rooted issues like backwardness, inequality, and ignorance. Despite the
removal of colonial rule, as noted by Rabindranath Tagore, the legacy of British rule left a
state of misery. However, the freedom struggle not only ended colonialism but also shaped a
vision for India’s future: a democratic, secular nation focused on civil liberties, economic
self-reliance, social equality, and an active, politically aware populace. This vision also
embraced peace with neighbors and an independent foreign policy.

India's vision for a free nation was realized through the framing of its Constitution by the
Constituent Assembly, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and B.R. Ambedkar. Adopted on 26 January
1950, the Constitution established India as a secular, democratic republic with a
parliamentary system based on universal adult suffrage. It also set up a federal structure,
defining the powers of the Union and state governments. The Constitution guaranteed
fundamental rights to all citizens, including freedoms of speech, assembly, association, and
property.

The Constitution of India guaranteed equality before the law, equal opportunities in
government employment, and prohibited discrimination based on religion, caste, sex, or
birthplace. It abolished untouchability and ensured the right to freely practice any religion
while preventing religious instruction in state-funded institutions. The Constitution also
introduced Directive Principles of State Policy, guiding the state in creating laws for social,
economic, and political justice. These included promoting equal pay for equal work, welfare
measures like unemployment assistance, a uniform civil code, and support for the weaker
sections of society, including Scheduled Castes and Tribes. With these principles, the people
of India set out to build a just, secular, democratic, and egalitarian society.