Unit-IV

LASER PHYSICS

Introduction
The word LASER is an acronym for “Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation”. It is a powerful monochromatic light source of collimated
beam in which the light waves are highly coherent. The laser light has many superior
features compared to conventional light source. Einstein introduced this concept in
1917. Dr. T.H. Maiman demonstrated the first laser namely the ruby laser in the year
1960.

Characteristics of LASER :

Laser differs from the ordinary light with respect to some properties. They are

• Monochromaticity
• Directionality
• Coherence
• Intensity

1. Monochromaticity :
Laser beam is highly monochromatic. It emits single wavelength (one colour)
because atoms or molecules are transition between two energy states. Hence it
possesses good spectra since range of laser beam wavelength () is very narrow. But
ordinary light emits combination of wide range of wavelength (colors) because atoms
or molecules are transition from several number of excited states to ground state, so it
emits different energies, therefore it is polychromatic.

2. Directionality or Divergence :
The light ray coming ordinary light source travels in all directions, but laser
light travels in single direction. For example, the light emitted from torch
spreads 1km distance, But the laser light spreads a few centimeters distance
even it travels longer distance. The ordinary source emits light in all directions
and its angular spread is 1 metre/metre. But the laser is highly directional and non-
divergent and its angular spread is 1mm/metre.
The angular spread () or divergence is given by,
𝑟2 − 𝑟1
𝛷= 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝐷2 − 𝐷1
where D1, D2 are any two distances from the laser source emitted and r1, r2 are the
radii of the beam spots at a distance D1 and D2, respectively.

3. Coherence
A predictable correlation of the amplitude and phase at any one point with
other point is called coherence. The light from a source consists of wave pattern.
These wave patterns when identical in phase and direction are called coherent.
Laser has a high degree of coherence than the ordinary sources. The coherence of
laser emission results in an extremely high power of 5106 watt/m2. A laser beam
can be focused to a very small area of about 0.7 m diameter.

4. Intensity

Laser light is highly intense than the ordinary light. This is because of
coherence and directionality of laser. The ordinary light spreads in all directions, so
the intensity reaching the target is very less. But in the case of laser, due to high
directionality the intensity of laser beam is concentrated in a small region. This
concentration of energy gives a high intensity. Since in Laser many number of
photons are in phase with each other, the amplitude of the resulting wave
becomes 𝑛𝑎 and hence the intensity of laser is proportional to 𝑛2𝑎2. It is estimated
that light from a typical 1mW laser is 10,000 times brighter than the light from the
sun at the earth’s surface.
Ordinary light versus LASER :

Ordinary light LASER

Ordinary light are Polychromatic Laser light is monochromatic since it
since it consists of radiations of consists of only single wavelength.
several wavelengths.
Ordinary light is divergent because it Laser light is non-divergent because it
spreads in all directions travels in single direction
Intensity of ordinary light is lesser Intensity of Laser light is higher because
because concentration of photons is lesser concentration of photons is higher
Ordinary light is not Coherent Laser light is highly Coherent
Due to less intensity brightness of Due to high intensity brightness of Laser
ordinary light is low light is high
Examples: Sunlight Example: Laser light

Ground state and Excited states:

The lowest energy level for an individual atom occurs when its electrons are
all in the nearest possible orbits to its nucleus ,this energy level is called the “Ground
state”.

When one or more of an atom’s electrons have absorbed energy, they can move
to outer orbits, and the atom is then referred to as being excited, and that energy
level is called as “Excited state.” Excited states are generally not stable; as
electrons drop from higher-energy to lower-energy levels, they emit the extra energy
as light.

Interaction of Radiation with matter

1. Induced Absorption or Stimulated Absorption :

An atom is in the ground state with energy E1 absorbs a photon of energy

h and goes to the excited state with energy E2 as shown in Fig. This transition is
known as stimulated absorption or induced absorption or simply absorption. Here the
energy difference is given as (E2 – E1) = h.
 If there are many number of atoms in the ground state then each atom will absorb
the energy from the incident photon and goes to the excited state then,

The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to,

R12  Energy density of incident radiation ()

 No. of atoms in the ground state (N1)

R12 = B12  N1

Where, B12 is a constant which gives the probability of absorption transition per
unit time.

2. Spontaneous emission

The natural tendency of an atom is to seek out the lowest energy configuration.
The excited atoms do not stay in the excited state for longer time but tend to return to
the lower state by giving up the excesses energy h as shown in fig. The atom in the
excited state E2 returns to the ground state E1 by emitting a photon of energy h
without any external energy. Such emission of radiation not initiated by any external
influence is called spontaneous emission. This emission is uncontrollable.
 The rate of spontaneous emission R21 (Sp) is proportional to number of atoms or
molecules present in the excited state.

i.e R21 (Sp)  N2

R21 (Sp) = A21 N2

where A21 is a constant which gives the probability of spontaneous emission

transitions per unit time.

3. Stimulated emission

The atom in the excited state E2 as shown in fig. A photon of energy h can
stimulate the atom to move to its ground state. During this process the atom emits
an additional photon whose energy is also h. As the emission is stimulated by
external photon, this process is known as stimulated emission.

The rate of stimulated emission R21 (St) is proportional to,

R21  Energy density of incident radiation ()

 No. of atoms in the excited state (N2)

i.e R21 (St)   N2

R21 (St) = B21  N2

where B21 is a constant which gives the probability of stimulated emission

transitions per unit time.
Einstein’s A and B Coefficient:
(Relation between Einstein’s coefficient and Energy density of radiation)
Einstein’s theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on
Planck’s theory of radiation.

Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 having number of atoms N1 and N2

respectively, as shown in figure.

E2 N2

hυ = E2 - E1

E1 N1

According to Einstein’s theory,

Rate of Stimulated absorption is, R12 = B12  N1
Rate of Spontaneous Emission is, R21(Sp) = A21 N2
Rate of Stimulated Emission is, R21(St) = B21  N2
Where, A and B represents the Spontaneous and Stimulated process
respectively. Eυ is the energy density of radiation.
At thermal equilibrium,

The rate of absorption = The rate of emission

B12  N1 = A21N2 + B21  N2 ---------------- (1)

 [B12 N1 - B21 N2] = A21N2

𝐴21𝑁2
𝐸υ =
[𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2]

𝐴21
𝐸υ = 𝑁 - ------------ (2)
[𝐵12 1−𝐵21]
𝑁2

Under thermal equilibrium, the population of energy levels obeys the

Boltzmann’s distribution law.
 We know from Boltzmann distribution law,
−𝐸1
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝑇
−𝐸2
𝑁2 = 𝑁0 𝑒 𝐾𝑇

Where, K is the Boltzmann constant,

T is the absolute temperature and

N0 is the number of atoms at absolute zero at equilibrium,

we can write the ratio of population as follows,

𝑁1 𝐸2−𝐸1
= 𝑒 𝐾𝑇
𝑁2
since E2 – E1 = h, we have
ℎ𝝊
𝑁1
 =𝑒 𝐾𝑇------------------------------- (3)
𝑁2
Substitute eq(3) in eq(2), we get

𝐴21
𝐸υ = ℎ𝑢
[𝐵12𝑒𝐾𝑇 − 𝐵21]

Divide both numerator and denominator by 𝐵12 , we get

𝐴21
𝐵12 − − − − − − − −(4)
𝐸υ = ℎ𝑢 𝐵21
[𝑒𝐾𝑇 − ]
𝐵12

According to Maxwell-Boltzman statistics

𝐵21
𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝑢3 and =1
=
𝐵12 𝑐3 𝐵12

Equation (4) becomes,

8𝜋ℎ𝜐3
𝐸υ = ℎ𝑢
𝑐3 [𝑒𝐾𝑇 − 1]

This is the relation between Einstein’s coefficient and Energy density of

radiations(Eυ).
Difference between Stimulated and Spontaneous Emission :

Sl.No Stimulated Emission Spontaneous Emission

1. An atom in the excited state is The atom in the excited state

induced to return to ground returns to ground state thereby
state, thereby resulting in two emitting a photon, without any
photons of same frequency and external inducement is called
energy is called stimulated spontaneous emission.
emission.

2. The emitted photons move in The emitted photons move in all

same direction and are highly directions and are random.
directional.

3. The radiation is high intense, The radiationis less intense and

monochromatic and coherent. is incoherent.
4. The photons are in phase. The photons are not in phase.

5. The rate of transition is given The rate of transition is given

by R21(St) = B21  N2 by R21(Sp) = A21N2

Light amplification :

Let us consider many numbers of atoms in the excited state. We know the
photons emitted during stimulated emission have same frequency, energy and are in
phase as the incident photon. Thus results in 2 photons of similar properties. These two
photons induce stimulated emission of 2 atoms in excited state thereby resulting in 4
photons. These 4 photons induce 4 more atoms and give rise to 8 photons etc., as
shown in Fig.
 Principle: Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step giving
rise to an intense beam of photons that are coherent and moving in the same direction.
Hence the Light is Amplified by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, termed as LASER.

Population inversion:

When a system is in thermal equilibrium, the distribution of atoms in energy

states at a given temperature follows the Boltzmann’s law as
ℎ𝝊
𝑁1
𝑁2
= 𝑒𝐾𝑇

From the above equation, it is clear that the population is maximum in ground
state as compared with excited state. i.e N1 > N2 .
If the situation is reverse, i.e N2 > N1 , there are more atoms in an excited state than
the ground state as shown in fig(b), this condition is called “Population inversion”.

When a suitable energy is supplied to the system, atoms get excited into 𝐸3.
After their lifetime 10−8 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠, the atoms are transit to 𝐸2. Due to more lifetime of
an atom in state 𝐸2(10−3 𝑠e𝑐𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠), the atomsstay for longer time than compare
with the state 𝐸3. Due to the accumulation of atomsin 𝐸2, the population inversion is
established in between the 𝐸2 and 𝐸1 states.
 Pumping methods :

The process of achieving population inversion is called pumping. Pumping can be

classified into the following types based on the type of source of pumping.
1. Optical pumping: Here the atoms are excited with the help of photons emitted by
an optical source. The atoms absorb energy from the photons and raises to excited
state. Optical pumping is used in solid laser.
Examples : Ruby Laser, Nd-YAG Laser
2. Electrical pumping: Electrical discharge pumping is used in gas lasers. Since gas
lasers have very narrow absorption. The electrons are accelerated to very high
velocities by strong electric field and they collide with gas atoms and these atoms
are raised to excited state.
Examples : Argon Laser, CO2 Laser, He-Ne Laser

3. Chemical pumping: Due to some chemical reactions, the atoms may be raised to
excited state. Examples : Dye Laser.

Metastable state :
It is an excited state of an atom with a longer life time than the other excited
states. Atoms in the metastable state remain excited for a considerable time in the
order of 10-6 to 10-3 seconds. Such relatively long-lived states are called as Metastable
state. An atom can exist in a metastable energy level for a longer time before
radiating than itcan in an ordinary energy level.
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally,
excited atoms have short life times and release their energy in a matter of 10-8
seconds through spontaneous emission. It means atoms do not stay long to be
stimulated. As a result, they undergo spontaneous emission and rapidly return to the
ground level; thereby population inversion could not be established. In order to do so,
the excited atoms are required to ‘wait’ at the upper energy level till a large number of
atoms accumulate at that level, that is A Meta stable state.
These levels lie in the forbidden gap of the host crystal. There could be no
population inversion and hence no laser action, if metastable states don’t exist.
 Optical Pumping: Three- and Four-Level Systems
In a simple two-level system, it is not possible to obtain a population inversion
with optical pumping because the system can absorb light (i.e., gain energy) only as
long as population inversion, and thus light amplification, is not achieved.
Essentially, the problem isstimulated emission caused by the pump light itself.
Inversion by optical pumping becomes possible when using a three-level system.
Pump light with a shorter wavelength (higher photon energy) can transfer atoms
from the ground state to the highest level. From there, spontaneous emission or a
non-radiative process (e.g., involving phonons in a laser crystal) transfers atoms to an
intermediate level, called the upper laser level. From that level down to the ground
state, the laser transition with stimulated emission can occur. With sufficiently high
pump intensity, population inversion for the laser transition can be reached as
stimulated emission by the pump radiation is prevented by the transfer to the
intermediate level.
Laser gain with a much lower excitation level is possible in a four-level system,
such as Nd:YAG. Here, the lower level of the laser transition is somewhat above the
ground state, anda rapid (most often non-radiative) transfer from there to the ground
state keeps the population of the lower laser level very small. Therefore, a moderate
population in the third level (the upper laser level), as achieved with a moderate
pump intensity, is sufficient for laser amplification.

Three level four level laser

Components of Lasers
Active Medium:
It is the material in which the laser action takes place. The active medium may be
solid crystals such as liquid dyes, gases like CO2 or Helium-Neon, or semiconductors
such as GaAs. This medium decides the wavelength of laser radiation. Active mediums
contain atoms which can produce more stimulated emission than spontaneous
emission and cause amplification they are called “Active Centers”.
Pumping Energy Source (Excitation Mechanism):
Energy Source (Excitation mechanisms) pumps the active centers from ground state
to excitedstate to achieve population inversion. The pumping by energy source can be
optical, electricalor chemical depending on the active medium.
Resonance Cavity:
The optical resonator contains a pair of reflecting surfaces of which one is fully
reflecting and the other partially reflecting. The active material is kept in between
the two reflecting surfaces. Photons (light) emitted due to transitions between the
energy states of the active material are bounced back and forth between the two
reflecting surfaces, so the intensity of the light is increased. Finally the intense
amplified beam called laser is coming out through the partial mirror as shown in the
diagram.
 Unit –I LASER Engineering Physics
Different Types of lasers
On the basis of active medium used in the laser systems, lasers are classified into several
types
I. Solid lasers : Ruby laser, Nd;YAG laser, Nd;Glass
II. Liquid lasers : Europium Chelate laser, SeOCl2
III. Gas lasers : CO2, He-Ne, Argon-Ion Laser
IV. Dye lasers : Rhodamine 6G
V. Semiconductor lasers : InP, GaAs.

6. Ruby laser
Ruby laser is a three level solid state laser and was constructed by Mainmann in
1960. Ruby (Al2O3+Cr2O3) is a crystal of Aluminium oxide, in which 0.05% of Al+3 ions are
replaced by the Cr+3 ions. The colour of the rod is pink. The active medium in the ruby rod
is Cr+3 ions.

Construction
In ruby laser 4cm length and 5mm diameter rod is generally used. Both the ends of
the rods are highly polished and made strictly parallel. The ends are silvered in such a
way, one becomes partially reflected and the other end fully reflected. The ruby rod is
surrounded by xenon flash tube, which provides the pumping light to excite the chromium
ions in to upper energy levels.

Xenon flash tube emits thousands joules of energy in few milli seconds, but only a
part of that energy is utilized by the chromium ions while the rest energy heats up the
apparatus. A cooling arrangement is provided to keep the experimental set up at normal
temperatures
Working

The energy level diagram of chromium ions is shown in figure.

The chromium ions get excitation into higher energy levels by absorbing of 5600A0
of wave length radiation. The excited chromium ions stay in the level H for short interval of
time (10-8 Sec). After their life time most of the chromium ions are de-excited from H to G
and a few chromium ions are de-excited from H to M.
 Unit –I LASER Engineering Physics

The transition between H and M is non-radioactive transition i.e. the chromium ions
gives their energy to the lattice in the form of heat. In the Meta stable state the life time of
chromium ions is 10-3 sec. The life time of chromium ions in the Meta stable state is 105
times greater than the life time of chromium ions in higher state.
Due to the continuous working of flash lamp, the chromium ions are excited to
higher state H and returned to M level. After few milli seconds the level M is more
populated than the level G and hence the desired population inversion is achieved. The
state of population inversion is not a stable one. The process of spontaneous transition is
very high. When the excited chromium ion passes spontaneously from H to M it emits one
photon of wave length 6943A0. The photon reflects back and forth by the silver ends and
until it stimulates an excited chromium ion in M state and it to emit fresh photon in phase
with the earlier photon. The process is repeated again and again until the laser beam
intensity is reached to a sufficient value. When the photon beam becomes sufficient
intense, it emerges through the partially silvered end of the rod. The wave length 6943A0 is
in the red region of the visible spectrum.

Draw backs of ruby laser

The laser requires high pumping power

The efficiency of ruby laser is very small

It is a pulse laser
Uses o ruby laser
1. Ruby lasers are in optical photography
2. Ruby lasers can be used for measurement of plasma properties such as electron
density and temperature.
3. Ruby lasers are used to remove the melanin of the skin.
4. Ruby laser can be used for recording of holograms.

7. He-Ne Laser

Ruby laser is a pulse laser, even it have high intense out put. For continuous
laser beam gas lasers are used. Using gas lasers, we can achieve highly coherence, high
directionality and high monochromacity beam. The out put power of the gas laser is
generally in few milli watts. The first He-Ne gas laser was fabricated by Ali Javan and
others.
Applications of Lasers

LASER Cutting

Laser is used as a tool to cut thin metal sheets by properly focusing the laser onto any particular
area to be cut, for a longer time. Thus due to thermal effect the sheet is cut.

LASER Welding

In ordinary welding process the heat will be made to fall on the area to be welded, so that the
material in that area will go to molten state. This on cooling will join the material. In this process the
heat will spread all over the surroundings and will affect the other area of the material and hence the
material gets damaged. This damage can be avoided by using laser welding. In laser welding the beam
is focused onto the area to be welded and other areas remain unaffected. Without affecting the material
the area to be welded alone melted and joined.

LASERS in Industry

Using high power lasers we can weld or melt any material. We can produce very small holes that
cannot be done by mechanical drilling. Lasers can be used for cutting and for testing the quality of the
materials. During laser welding and drilling there is no damage the structure of the materials. Lasers
can be used for surface hardening techniques.

MEDICAL APPLICATIONS

Laser cosmetics surgery is used for removing tattoos, scars, stretch marks, sunspots, wrinkles and hairs.

1. Laser types used in dermatology:

It include Ruby (694nm), pulsed diode arrays (810nm), Nd: YAG (1064nm) and Er :
YAG (2940nm)
2. Laser eye surgery:
Laser eye surgery is a medical procedure that uses a laser to reshape a surface of the
eyes. This is done to correct short sightedness, long sightedness and astigmatism (uneven
curvature of the eye surface).
3. Soft- Tissue surgery:
a. In soft tissue laser surgery, a highly focused laser beam vapourises the soft tissue with the
high water content.
 b. Soft tissue laser surgery is used in a variety of applications which include general
surgery, neuro surgery, ENT, dentistry and oral surgery.
c. Soft tissue laser surgery is also used in veterinary surgical fields.
4. Laser light therapy
Laser light therapy involves exposure to laser light of specific variant. The light is
administered for a prescribed amount of light. This is commonly used for skin diseases
and disorders.
5. Laser is widely used for no-touch removal of tumors, especially of the brain and spinal cord
6. In dentistry, laser is used for tooth whitening and carries removal.

LASER SURGERY

A type of surgery that uses the cutting power of a laser beam to make bloodless cuts in tissue or
remove a surface lens such as a skin tumor. There are a number of different types of lasers that differ in
emitted light wavelengths and power ranges and in their ability to clot, cut or vapourise tissue. Among
the commonly used lasers are pulsed dye laser, the YAG laser, the CO2 laser and the argon laser.
 Questions

1. Distinguish between Ordinary light and Laser light.

2. Distinguish between spontaneous and stimulated emission?
3. List out the characteristics of LASER.
4. What is meant by Spontaneous emission?
5. What is meant by stimulated emission?
6. What is meant by population inversion?
7. What is meant by pumping?
8. What are different methods of pumping?
9. What are the conditions required for laser action?
10. What are Einstein‘s coeffecients?
11. Define active medium.
12. What is meant by Optical resonator or Resonance cavity?
13. Explain construction and working of He-Ne Laser.
14. Explain construction and working of Ruby Laser.
15. Derive Einstein’s relation for stimulated emission and hence explain

the existence of stimulated emission.

16. Discuss the applications of laser in various fields.