Atmosphere
The Troposphere:
• Is the lowest layer of the earth’s atmosphere where temperature
decreases with an increase in height.
• consists of ¾ of the total atmosphere in weight.
• contains almost all the weather.
The Stratosphere
• It is the layer above the troposphere where temperature initially
remains constant to an average height of 20 km then increases to
reach a temperature of -2.5°C at a height of 47 km, then above 51 km
temperature starts to decrease again.
• The reason for the increase is the action of ultraviolet radiation in the
formation of ozone.
• The boundary between the stratosphere and the next layer, the
mesosphere is known as the stratopause.
• The average height of the stratopause is 50 km in temperate latitudes.
The Tropopause:
• This marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere and is where
temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height.
• (Practically taken as the height where the temperature fall is less than 0.65°C per 100 m (2°C
per 1000 ft.)
• The height of the tropopause is controlled by the temperature of the air near the surface.
• The warmer the air, the higher the tropopause.
• The colder the air, the lower the tropopause.
• Therefore, temperature variations due to latitude, season, land and sea, will all cause varying
heights of the tropopause.
• There are two locations where the tropopause abruptly changes height or “folds”.
• These are at approximately 40° and 60° latitude.
• The average height of the tropopause at the Equator is 16-18 km with an average temperature
of -75°C to -80°C, and at the poles 8 km with an average temperature of -40°C to -50°C.
• The average value at 50°N is 11 km (36 090 ft) with a temperature of -56.5°C.
• The temperature of the tropopause is controlled by its height.
• The higher it is, the colder the temperature at the tropopause.
• The lower it is, the
warmer the temperature
at the tropopause.
• The temperature at the
tropopause can be as
high as -40°C over the
poles and as low as -
80°C over the Equator.
The Significance of Tropopause Height
The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks:
• the maximum height of significant cloud.
• the presence of jet streams.
• the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). It is now referred to as
TURB.
• the maximum wind speed.
• the upper limit of most of the weather
Temperatures
• Temperature in the troposphere increases from the poles to the
Equator.
• Temperature in the lower stratosphere increases from the Equator to
the poles in summer but reaches max temperature in mid latitudes in
winter.
Atmospheric Hazards
• As aircraft operating altitudes increase, so concentrations of OZONE
and COSMIC RADIATION become of greater importance to the aviator.
• Above 50 000 ft, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable
limits and air needs to be filtered before entering the cabin.
• The heat of the compressor system will assist in the breaking down of
the ozone to an acceptable level.
• Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare
activity a lower flight level may be necessary.
• Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should
result in pilots receiving prompt and accurate information regarding
high altitude hazards, but it is important that they should be aware of
these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning action.
The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)
• Because temperature and pressure vary with time and position, both
horizontally and vertically,
• It is necessary, in aviation, to have a standard set of conditions to give
a common datum for:
1. the calibration of aircraft pressure instruments
2. the design and testing of aircraft.
• The standard atmosphere now used in aviation is the ICAO International Standard
Atmosphere
• (ISA). ISA defines an ‘average’ atmosphere from -5 km (-16 400 ft) to 80 km (262 464 ft).
• For practical purposes we just need to look at the ISA between mean sea level and 20 km.
• The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is:
1. a MSL temperature of +15° Celsius,
2. a MSL pressure of 1013.25 hectopascals (hPa),
3. a MSL density of 1225 grams / cubic metre,
4. a lapse rate of 0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C/1000 ft) up to 11 km (36 090 ft),
5. a constant temperature of -56.5°C up to 20 km (65 617 ft),
6. an increase of temperature 0.1°C/100 m (0.3° C/1000 ft), up to 32 km (104 987 ft).
• Note: Practically we use a lapse rate of 2°/1000 ft for calculations up to the Tropopause.
ISA Deviation
• To determine true altitude and for the assessment of performance data it is
necessary to determine the temperature deviation from the ISA at any
specified altitude.
• To do this we firstly need to determine what the ISA temperature is at a
specified altitude, then calculate the deviation from the ISA.
• The ISA temperature at a particular pressure altitude is found by reducing
the MSL temperature
1. by 2°C for each 1000 ft above 1013 hPa datum:
2. ISA Temperature = 15 - 2× altitude (in 1000 ft)
3. e.g. find the ISA temperature at 18 000 ft:
4. ISA temperature = 15 - 2 × 18 = -21°C
Note: Remember the temperature is isothermal above 36 000 ft (11 km) in the ISA at -57°C.
Calculation
• ISA Deviation = actual temperature - ISA temperature
• So if the actual temperature at 18 000 ft is -27°C, then the deviation
is: ISA Deviation = -27 - (-21) = -6°
If Height (ft) =15500
OAT (°C) =-23° ISA MSL is 15 °C
ISA AMSL 15500 is -16 °C
Find ISA Deviation
ISA Deviation = -23 - (-16) = -7° C
• If the limiting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5000 ft AMSL is ISA
+10, what is the maximum temp at which you can operate?
ISA MSL is 15 °C
• Max temperature = +15°C ISA AMSL 5000 is 5°C
Max deviation allowed is 10 °C
Max temperature = ISA AMSL + Max deviation
ISA Deviation = 10 + 5 = +15°C
• If the deviation at 3500 ft is +12, what is the ambient temperature?
• Ambient temperature = +20°C ISA MSL is 15 °C
ISA AMSL 3500 is 8°C
ISA Deviation = ? – (8) = +12 ° C
Ambient temperature => +12 +8 = 20 ° C
The ICAO International Standard Atmosphere
• Note: The previous table how the pressure against height change
equation is modified as altitude changes but the figures offered only
relate to ISA conditions of Temperature and Pressure.
• We can assess changes outside these conditions by using the following
formula:
H = height change per hPa in feet
T = Actual Absolute Temperature at that level in kelvin (K)
P = Actual Pressure in hPa
Note: this formula is only valid for calculating the height change per hPa change in
pressure at a specified altitude; it cannot be used to calculate a change in height
between two pressure levels, nor the change in pressure between two altitudes.
H = height change per hPa in feet
T = Actual Absolute Temperature at that level in kelvin (K)
P = Actual Pressure in hPa
Height Change / hPa (ft) Temp (°C) Pressure (hPa)
73 ft -44.4 300
37 ft -4.8 696.8
91 ft -56.5 228.2
