NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY TIRUCHIRAPPALLI

Manufacturing Technology

Dr. Vineet Kumar Yadav

Assistant Professor, Department of Production Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Tiruchirappalli,
Tiruchirappalli- 620015, Tamil Nadu, India.
Email: [email protected]
Syllabus
Unit 1: Introduction to manufacturing process - Selecting manufacturing process – global
competitiveness of manufacturing costs – Fundamentals of materials – their behavior and
manufacturing properties– Ferrous metals and alloys – Non-Ferrous metals and alloys.
Unit 2: Casting: Solidification of Alloys and its mechanism – Gating system design and
estimation of solidification time – Riser Design and Riser placement – Defects and Product
Design.
Welding: Physics of Arc sources – Welding equipment's - Types of welding processes –
Electrode designation and fluxes – Principle and application of Special welding processes.
Brazing and Soldering.
Unit 3: Forming process: Forging, Rolling, Drawing, Extrusion – Classification, Defects
and Inspection.
Sheet metal forming process: Shaping process for plastics – Extrusion, Injection and
Compression Molding.
Unit 4: Machining process: Various machining process and its working principles – Metal
Cutting: Tool geometry – single edge tools – reference plane – Tool specifications –ASA,
NRS – Mechanics of Orthogonal cutting and Oblique cutting – Tool wear and Tool life –
Economics of Machining.
Unit 5: NC & CNC machine tools and manual part programming Machining centre. NC part
programming – Computer aided part programming - Rapid Prototyping processes:
Stereolithography, Fused Deposition modelling, 3D Printing, Selective laser sintering –
Rapid Tooling techniques.
Numerical Control
• Numerical control (NC) is a form of programmable automation in which the mechanical
actions of a machine tool or other equipment are controlled by a program containing
coded alphanumeric data.
• When the current job is completed, the program of instructions can be changed to
process a new job.
• The capability to change the program makes NC suitable for low and medium
production. It is much easier to write new programs than to make major alterations in the
processing equipment
Numerical Control
• Numerical control can be applied to a wide variety of processes.
• The applications divide into two categories:
➢ machine tool applications, such as drilling, milling, turning, and other metal
working;
➢ other applications, such as assembly, rapid prototyping, and inspection.

• The common operating feature of NC in all these applications is control of the work head
movement relative to the work part.
Numerical Control
• The development of NC owes much to the U.S. Air Force and the early aerospace
industry.
• Initiated by John Parsons and his associate Frank Stulen at Parsons Corporation in
Traverse City, Michigan.
• He had named his system the Cardamatic milling machine, since the numerical data was
stored on punched cards.
• The name numerical control was adopted in March 1951 based on a contest sponsored by
John Parsons among “MIT personnel working on the project.”
• The first NC machine was developed by retrofitting a Cincinnati Milling Machine
Company vertical Hydro-Tel milling machine that had been donated by the Air Force
from surplus equipment.
• The controller combined analog and digital components, consisted of 292 vacuum tubes,
and occupied a floor area greater than the machine tool itself.
Basic Components of an NC system

1. A part program of instructions

2. A machine control unit
3. Processing equipment
Advantages of NC
• Greater manufacturing flexibility
• Reduced manufacturing lead time
• Reduced non-productive time
• Reduced fixturing
• Reduced inventory
• Quality control improved
• Greater operator safety.
• Reduce the scrap
• Reduced floor space requirement
Disadvantages and Limitation of Conventional NC
• High investment cost and Maintenance cost – most complex and sophisticated
technology cost more than the conventional machine.
• Require skilled operator – finding and training of NC personnel should be
considered.
• Tearing and wearing of punch tape and less reliable punch tape component.
• Part programming mistake in punched tape.
• No optimal feed and speed – conventional NC machine do not provide an option to
change the cutting speed and feed during the operation.
Applications of Numerical Control Technology
• Numerical control technology has application in a wide variety of production
operation such as metal cutting, automatic drafting, spot welding, press working,
assembly, inspection, etc.
• The NC technology is suitable to sequence/series of machining process.
• Job geometry is complex, expensive. Mistakes in the process lead to high loss.
• It is expected engineering design changes in future.
• High metal removal is required.
• The work-part required 100% inspection.
• There must be close tolerance on work-part.
• When many operations need to be done when processing. It is frequently
processed in batches of small lot sizes.
NC Coordinate systems

Coordinate systems used in NC (a) for flat and prismatic work and (b) for rotational
work
Motion Control Systems

(a) Point-to-point (positioning) control (b) Continuous path (contouring) control

Absolute and Incremental Positioning
Computers and Numerical Control
• The makers of NC equipment incorporated the computer technology into their products,
starting with large mainframe computers in the 1960s and followed by minicomputers in
the 1970s and microcomputers in the 1980s.
• Today, NC means Computer Numerical Control (CNC), which is defined as an NC
system whose MCU consists of a dedicated microcomputer rather than a hardwired
controller. The latest computer controllers for CNC feature highspeed processors, large
memories, solid-state memory, improved servos, and bus architectures
CNC Machine Control Unit
• Central Processing Unit
• Memory
• I/O Interface
• Controls for machine tool axes and spindle speed
• Sequence controls for other machine tool functions

Configuration of CNC Machine Control Unit

Features of CNC that Distinguish It from Conventional NC
• Storage of more than one part program
• Program editing at the machine tool
• Fixed cycles and programming subroutines
• Adaptive Control
• Interpolation
• Positioning features for setup
• Acceleration and deceleration calculations
• Communications interface
• Diagnostics
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machine
NC Machine Classifications
1. Motion control:
➢ Point to point (PTP)
➢ Continuous (contouring) path
2. Control loops:
➢ Open loop
➢ Closed loop
3. Power drives:
➢ Hydraulic
➢ Electric or
➢ Pneumatic
4. Positioning systems:
➢ Incremental
➢ Absolute positioning
5. Hardwired/Soft-wired
➢ Hardwired NC
➢ Soft-wired Computer Numerical Control (CNC)
Open/Close loop control
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machine
• The functions of machine tool are partly or fully taken over by a dedicated computer
(i.e., computer controlled)
• A micro or minicomputer is assigned with machine tool.
• The movements of machine components are controlled by coded instructions in the form
of numbers or letters (i.e., program)
• The program may be prepared by programmer or obtained from drafting software (e.g.
AutoCAD)
• The programs can be modified and displayed at the machine, along with a simulated
view of the process
• Availability of small computer with large memory and program editing capabilities
popular the use of CNC systems widely.
CNC
• The CNC is a computer-based electronic equipment, which receives information in
digital form from input devices, as well as positional information of certain elements of
the machine. Then it interprets the digital data as requirements for new positions of the
machine elements and gives appropriate commands of direction.
Industrial applications
• Metal fabrication
• Electrical discharge machining
• Automotive
• Manufacturing
• Electronics
• Agriculture
Advantages of CNC machining
• Higher flexibility and repeatability
• Reduced indirect costs
• Increased productivity
• Consistent quantity
• Reliable operation
• Reduced non-productive time
• Higher accuracy
• Reduced lead time
• Automatic material handling
The construction of CNC
Components of a CNC system
MMI Function
• Operation functions
• Parameter-setting functions
• Program-editing functions
• Monitoring and alarm functions
• Service/utility functions
NCK Function
• An interpreter plays the role of reading a part program, interpreting the ASCII blocks in
the part program, and storing interpreted data in internal memory for the interpolator.
• An interpolator plays the role of sequentially reading the data from the internal data
buffer, calculating the position and velocity per unit time of each axis, and storing the
result in a FIFO buffer for the acceleration/deceleration controller.
• Position Control
• Acceleration/Deceleration Control
PLC Function
• Flexibility: The control logic can be changed by changing only a program.
• Scalability: The expansion of a system is possible by adding modules and changing
programs.
• Economic efficiency: Reduction of cost is possible due to the decrease in design time,
high reliability, and easy maintenance.
• Miniaturization: The installation dimension is smaller compared to a relay control box.
• Reliability: The probability of failure occurrence due to bad contact decreases because of
using a semiconductor.
• Performance: Advanced functions such as arithmetic operations and data editing are
possible.
Components of a CNC system
• Input Devices
• Machine Control Unit
• Machine Tool
• Driving System
• Programmable logic controller (PLC)
• Servo-control unit
• Display unit
Machine Control Unit
• It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the controlling action of the CNC
machine.
• The various functions performed by the MCU are
➢ It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
➢ It decodes the coded instruction.
➢ It implements interpolation ( linear, circular and helical ) to generate axis motion
commands.
➢ It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
➢ It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
➢ It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and
tool change.
Machine Tool
➢ CNC controls are used to control various types of machine tools.
➢ Regardless of which type of machine tool is controlled, it always has a slide table and a
spindle to control position and speed.
➢ The machine table is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs along the Z
axis.

30
Automatic Tool Changer
• An Automatic Tool Changer or ATC
is used in computerized numerical
control (CNC) machine tools to
improve the production and tool
carrying capacity of the machine.
• ATC changes the tool very quickly,
reducing the non-productive time.
• Generally, it is used to improve the
capacity of the machine to work with
a number of tools.
• It is also used to change worn out or
broken tools. It is one more step
towards complete automation.

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Automatic Tool Changer Type

2
3 1
4 6
5

Sequential Spindle

8 1 4

6 2

7 5 3

Random Access
Spindle
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Feed Back System
➢ The feedback system is also referred to as the measuring
system.
➢ It uses position and speed transducers to continuously monitor the position at which
the cutting tool is located at any instant.
➢ The MCU uses the difference between reference signals and feedback signals to generate
the control signals for correcting position and speed errors.

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CNC Machining Centers

• CNC machining centres

• CNC turning centres
• CNC milling centres
• Vertical machining centre
• 5-axis machining centre
• CNC travelling column
• Horizontal machining centre
CNC Machining Centers

• The term “machining centres” describes almost any CNC milling and drilling
machine that includes an automatic tool changer and a table that clamps the
workpiece in place.

• CNC machine centre is a advance manufacturing machine tool which performs wide
range of machining operation with accuracy and good quality surface finish.

• The orientation of the spindle is the most fundamental defining characteristic of a

CNC machining centres.
CNC Machining Centers

Various mechanisms used in CNC machining centers, there main aim is to reduce the
production time and gives the best quality results.

1. ATC (Automatic tool changer)

2. APC (Automatic Pallet changer)

3. Feedback systems

4. Servo motors systems

5. Re-circulating Ball screw and Nut

CNC Machining Centers
CNC machining centers can further be classified based on the rotation of
either the work piece Or the rotation of the tool as:

1. CNC turning machines

2. CNC Milling machines

CNC Turning
• The primary function of a CNC Turning Center is that it rotates (or “turns”) your
workpiece.

• CNC Turning Machines are one of the oldest and simplest forms of
machining parts, called “lathes,” .

• Can be either horizontal or vertical depending on the weight and

tolerance of the workpiece.

• Workpeices for this process are usually round, but can be other shapes —
like squares or hexagons.
CNC Turning
• The workpiece is held in place by an instrument known as the “chuck.” The chuck
then spins at various RPMs (depending on the capability of your machine).

• When this occurs, the machine’s tool moves into the rotating workpiece
and begins to shave away material to create the desired shape.
CNC Milling Machines
• The primary function of a CNC Milling Machine is that your tool will be doing the
rotating and moving while your workpiece stays in one spot (generally).

• Milling is a more specific process that is similar to drilling and cutting.

• These machines can also be either horizontal or vertical, again depending on the
tolerance and weight of your workpiece.

• This process has many axes that allow for a variety of shapes, holes, and slots to be
cut into the workpiece at many angles.

• These axes provide many different maneuvers, either by the spindle or the bed, to
cut the part desired to the exact specifications.
CNC Turning Machines
CNC Turning Centers
Types of Drives
Types of Drives
• Spindle- to drive the main spindle
• Axis- to drive the saddle and carriage

1. Electrical Motors
• Stepper motor
• DC servo motor
• AC servo motor
2. Fluid Motors
• Hydraulic Drive Stepper motor DC servo motor
• Pneumatic Drive

AC servo motor
Hydraulic Drive Pneumatic Drive
Drives
• Hydraulic Drive
• Pneumatic Drive

Hydraulic Drive Pneumatic Drive

Stepper Motor
• A stepper motor is a pulse-driven motor that changes the
angular position of the rotor in steps.
• Due to this nature of a stepper motor, it is widely used in
low cost, open loop position control systems.

Types of stepper motors:

o Permanent Magnet
Employ permanent magnet
Low speed, relatively high torque
o Variable Reluctance
Does not have permanent magnet Low
torque

46
Permanent magnet (PM) stepper motor
• Rotor is a permanent magnet.
• PM motor rotor has no teeth and is designed to be magnetized at
a right angle to its axis.
• Figure shows a simple, 90⁰ PM
motor with four phases (A-D).
• Applying current to each phase
in sequence will cause the rotor
to rotate by adjusting to the
changing magnetic fields.
• Although it operates at fairly low
Permanent magnet stepper
speed, the PM motor has a
relatively high torque
characteristic.
• These are low cost motors with typical step angle ranging
between 7.5⁰ to 15⁰ 47
Variable Reluctance Motor
• The cylindrical rotor is made of soft steel and has four poles
• It has four rotor teeth, 90⁰ apart and six stator poles, 60⁰ apart.
• Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator coils in
sequence.
• It attracts the metal rotor. When
the windings are energized in a
reoccurring sequence of 2, 3, 1,
and so on, the motor will rotate in
a 30⁰ step angle.
• In the non-energized condition,
there is no magnetic flux in the air
gap, as the stator is an
Fig. Variable reluctance stepper motor
electromagnet and the rotor is a
piece of soft iron; hence, there is
no detent torque.
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Hybrid stepper motor

• Hybrid stepping motors combine a

permanent magnet and a rotor with
metal teeth to provide features of
the variable reluctance and
permanent magnet motors together.

• The number of rotor pole pairs is

equal to the number of teeth on one
of the rotor's parts. The hybrid
motor stator has teeth creating Hybrid stepper
more poles than the main poles
windings

49
• Rotation of a hybrid stepping motor is produced in the
similar fashion as a permanent magnet stepping motor,
by energizing individual windings in a positive or
negative direction.

• When a winding is energized, north and south poles are

created, depending on the polarity of the current
flowing.

• These generated poles attract the permanent poles of the

rotor and also the finer metal teeth present on rotor.

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• Therotor moves one step to align the offset magnetized rotor
teeth to the corresponding energized windings.
• Hybrid motors are more expensive than motors with
permanent magnets, but they use smaller steps, have greater
torque and maximum speed.

• Step angle of a stepper motor is given by,

51
Advantages of stepper motors
• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken.
Vibration and noise occur when running at high speed.
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 SERVO MOTORS
• Servomotors are special electromechanical devices that produce
precise degrees of rotation.

• A servo motor is a DC or AC or brushless DC motor combined

with a position sensing device.

• Servomotors are also called control motors as they are involved in

controlling a mechanical system.

• The servomotors are used in a closed-loop servo system as shown

in Figure A reference input is sent to the servo amplifier, which
controls the speed of the servomotor.

Servo system block diagram 33

• A feedback device is mounted on the machine, which is
either an encoder or resolver.
• This device changes mechanical motion into electrical
signals and is used as a feedback.
• This feedback is sent to the error detector , which
compares the actual operation with that of the reference
input.
• If there is an error, that error is fed directly to the
amplifier, which will be used to make necessary
corrections in control action.

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• In many servo systems, both velocity and position are
monitored.
• Servomotors provide accurate speed, torque, and have
ability of direction control.
DC servomotors
DC operated servomotors are usually respond to
error signal abruptly and accelerate the load quickly. A
DC servo motor is actually an assembly of four separate
components, namely:
o DC motor
o gear assembly
o position-sensing device
o control circuit 35
AC servo motor
• Magnetic force is generated by a permanent magnet and
current which further produce the torque.

• It has no brushes so there is little noise/vibration. This

motor provides high precision control with the help of
high resolution encoder.

• The stator is composed of a core and a winding. The

rotor part comprises of shaft, rotor core and a permanent
magnet.

• Digital encoder can be of optical or magnetic type. It

gives digital signals, which are in proportion of rotation
of the shaft. 36
Advantages of servo motors
• Provides high intermittent torque, high torque to inertia
ratio, and high speeds
• Work well for velocity control
• Available in all sizes
• Quiet in operation
• Smoother rotation at lower speeds

Disadvantages of servo motors

• More expensive than stepper motors
• Require tuning of control loop parameters
• Not suitable for hazardous environments or in vacuum
• Excessive current can result in partial demagnetization
of DC type servo motor 57
Linear Motion Drives
• Linear motion drives are mechanical transmission systems
which are used to convert rotary motion into linear motion.

• The conventional thread forms like vee or square are not

suitable in CNC because of their high wear and less efficiency.

• Therefore CNC machines generally employ ball screw for

driving their workpiece carriages.

• These drives provide backlash free operation with low friction-

wear characteristics.

• These are efficient and accurate in comparison with that of nut-

and-screw drives. Most widely used linear motion drives are
ball screws.
58
Principle of Working
• The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal’s law which
says that the pressure in an enclosed fluid is uniform in all the
directions.
Schematic of a Hydraulic System

• The hydraulic systems consists a number of parts for its proper functioning - storage
tank, filter, hydraulic pump, pressure regulator, control valve, hydraulic cylinder, piston
and leak proof fluid flow pipelines.
Basic Components of Pneumatic Systems
• carries power by employing compressed gas generally air as a fluid for transmitting the
energy from an energy-generating source to an energy – use point to accomplish useful
work.
MAJOR COMPONENTS RELATED TO CNC MACHINE TOOLS

Any CNC machine tool essentially consists of the following parts:

✓ Part program
✓ Program input device
✓ Machine Control Unit
• Machine Tool
• Feed Back System
✓ Drive System
✓ Power Drives
CNC Turning Centers

Bifurcated column structure for

CNC Machining centre to
improve torsional rigidity
CNC Milling Machines

According to the orientation of spindle, CNC machining centre can be classified

as :

• Vertical machining centres (VMCs): generally favour precision while

• Horizontal machining centres (HMCs) generally favour production

• Universal Machining centres (UMC) 5 axis machining centre, which is able to

pivot the tool and/or the part in order to mill and drill at various orientations
CNC Vertical Machining Centre
• In CNC vertical machining center, the workpiece is held on the table
base and the spindle which contains the cutting tool is fixed on vertical
spindle Z axis. The table moves in X and Y axis and spindle with cutting
tool moves in Z axis.

• Travelling column

• Gantry structure

• Multiple spindle
CNC Vertical Machining Centre

• Present day production vertical axis CNC machining centre Bridgeport

VMC 500