Psychology

in education
The primary aim of educational psychology is to identify the most effective
ways of learning. Educational psychologists research and observe how the
brain processes information and solves problems, how memory works, and how
external factors such as peers and even classroom layouts can affect learners.
Their research can then be applied to help children and adults as they learn
and to help those with behavioral and learning issues, too.

Strategies to
improve learning
Educational psychologists can suggest a range
of strategies to help learners improve how they
acquire and retain information. Encouraging
students to work alone to achieve their own goals
can be beneficial, but it is also important to share
knowledge and work together to improve group
solidarity and foster confidence.

“The principal goal

of education in the
schools should be HOW WE LEARN
Individuals retain information best
creating men and when they are motivated to learn and
are committed to improving their skills.
women … capable of Working alone fosters independence
and a sense of individual achievement.
doing new things.”
Jean Piaget, Swiss clinical psychologist
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Psychology in education 166 167

WHERE EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS WORK

❯ Schools The most common ❯ Businesses In the corporate ❯ Government Here psychologists
employment settings for educational setting, educational psychologists provide vital support as they advise
psychologists are schools and may work in-house or as consultants on educational policy. They develop
educational institutions. Here they for companies wanting to improve curriculums and learning strategies
advise on how to improve teaching the effectiveness of their staff. for teachers in the state school
effectiveness by offering analysis They develop and administer system, advise on ways to help
and programs. They instruct on psychometric testing to screen children with learning difficulties, and
better ways to manage classrooms, new recruits for ability and honesty, train the staff who provide such
train teachers, and identify problem and run specialist training for staff support. Their role also involves
learners and instigate special to improve employee motivation helping to train specialist personnel,
education when needed. and performance. especially for military roles.

CLASSROOM STRUCTURE TEACHING METHODS

Activities in small groups encourage Teachers can use a range of tools to
questions and build confidence. If reinforce learning, such as using more
a learning environment is emotionally than one way to explain each concept,
and physically safe, individuals are breaking down information into chunks,
more likely to test ideas. and encouraging active participation.
 Educational theories
The complex methods by which people process, memorize, and retrieve
information—and then develop independent thought—can be interpreted
through a range of theories.

In the classroom the classroom can be beneficial. An early, but still

As science and research techniques have advanced, dominant, idea is cognitive learning theory (CLT),
so have ideas about how the mind receives new based on the work of influential psychologist Jean
information and retains it. Applying these ideas in Piaget. CLT proposes that learning is the result

Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development
Jean Piaget believed that as
people develop from babies to
adults, they build a vast series of
knowledge units that shape the
way they understand the world.
Every time they encounter
something new, they draw on
their previous knowledge to
assimilate it. When they cannot,
they are forced to learn and SENSORIMOTOR STAGE PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
accommodate new information. (0−2 YEARS) (2−7 YEARS)
The first knowledge to develop is Children begin to develop language abilities
understanding that an object can exist even but do not yet grasp logic. However, they are
when it cannot be seen, known as object starting to use symbols and understand that
permanence—for example, knowing that an object can represent something else—
a toy is simply hidden under a blanket. pretending a doll is a person, for example.

Race’s ripple theory

EXPERIENCE
Devised by Professor Phil Race, the ripple model offers
an alternative to Kolb’s cycle. It involves four integrated
TESTING IDEAS IN PRACTICE

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle processes that intersect like ripples on a pond, with a
David Kolb built on Piaget’s work, basic need or desire at its core.
publishing his four-part theory in 1984. His ❯ 1. Motivation Learning D
OBSERVATIONS/REPETITIONS

cycle of learning has four connected stages starts with an aspiration.

that form a continuing process. Initially,
❯ 2. Practice Trial and
concrete experiences lead to reflective
error drives action O
observations about what has been
and discovery.
experienced. These observations are then
translated into abstract concepts—in other ❯ 3. Making sense
Discoveries are 1-NEEDING/
words, ideas are developed. The fourth WANTING
digested.
stage is putting these ideas into practice,
which Kolb called “active experimentation.” ❯ 4. Seeing results
Feedback affects
motivation.
DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS
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of mental processes, which are influenced by internal Under these influences, an individual learns through a
and external factors. An example of an internal factor number of mechanisms. One is observing and copying
would be a person’s belief about their own ability— other people. Another is being encouraged by teachers
students who believe they can improve their or parents to put what they have learned into action,
capability will be more likely to progress in their which reinforces it. Practice or repetition is also a
learning, whereas those who believe they are stuck critical part of learning, as is reproduction—the
with a certain level of intellect are unlikely to learn replication of newly learned behavior and adjustment,
as effectively. External factors might be a teacher if necessary, based on the
who is supportive or a safe learning environment. feedback given by others.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE ADULTS CONTINUE TO LEARN

(7−11 YEARS) (ADOLESCENCE−ADULTHOOD) Using everything they have acquired
Now children start to think logically. For As young teenagers progress to adulthood, during the development stages, adults go
example, they understand that a portion they acquire the ability to think abstractly on to expand their learning. Moving
remains the same even though it may change and to logically test hypotheses. They can beyond Piaget's theory and continuing to
in appearance, such as a quantity of water imagine potential outcomes to situations, learn new skills throughout adulthood
poured from one glass into two glasses. which allows them to problem solve and plan. can strengthen cognition and memory.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Developed by Albert Bandura, social learning theory centers on how behavior is learned, and combines the cognitive
approach (where internal mental processes influence learning) and the behavioral approach (where learning is a result of
environmental stimuli). It argues that children learn by copying other people who serve as models, and who can influence
a child’s behavior positively or negatively. The theory posits four requirements for learning positive behavior:
Attention Retention Reproduction Motivation
The individual A memory Mental and The individual
must take of the behavior physical practice must have a
notice of the behaviors or attitude that has been of what has been observed reason to reproduce what
they are exposed to. If observed needs to form so is key to improving and they observe. If they know
the behavior is novel that it can be referred to changing behavior. With that they will be punished
or different in some way and acted on later in a practice, an individual or rewarded for acting in a
it is more likely to focus situation similar to that in can reproduce learned certain way, they are more
an individual's attention. which it was learned. behavior when required. likely to alter their conduct.
EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

How learning works change brain structure. The area performance of the brain, and the
The field of neuroscience has of the brain required for paying way in which people learn can
increasingly overlapped with close attention is used when significantly enhance the brain’s
psychology as discoveries about learning something new (the ability to absorb and retain new
the chemistry of the brain have conscious area), but with repeated information, too (right).
helped psychologists understand training of a particular task, activity
how we process information. switches to the unconscious area
New technologies such as fMRI of the brain. Neurons also begin r
(functional magnetic resonance to fire more frequently when a skill
imaging) have enabled scientists to is repeatedly practiced correctly,
map brain activity, revealing how thus making the messages passing
it changes when we learn. between them stronger.
Research pioneered by Studies have also shown that
neuroscientist Nathan Spreng has lifestyle changes, such as diet
revealed that practicing a task can and stress control, affect the

“… imagining particular behaviors Physical activity stimulates the

production of neurotransmitter chemicals
can change brain structure.” (pp.28−29), such as dopamine, which the
brain uses to make, interpret, and transfer
John B. Arden, American author and director of mental health programs signals within it and the body.

GAGNE’S HIERARCHY OF LEARNING

American educational psychologist SIGNAL LEARNING STIMULUS RESPONSE LEARNING
Robert Gagne devised a classification
1 Individuals can be conditioned to 2 A system of rewards and
system for different types of learning, respond in a desired way to a stimulus that punishments is used to reinforce a
increasing in complexity from 1 to 8. would not normally produce that desired response. For example, a child
If each step is completed in order, response. For example, on seeing a hot learns to say thank you when prompted
learners build on their skills and their object they automatically withdraw their by their mother, and is praised in reward
engagement and retention increase. hand (see classical conditioning, pp.16−17). (see operant conditioning, pp.16−17).

CHAINING VERBAL ASSOCIATION DISCRIMINATION LEARNING

3 People learn to string together 4 The next step in Gagne’s system 5 Individuals learn to differentiate,
several previously learned nonverbal is being able to put together separate, or discriminate, among chains of
stimulus response actions—for example, previously learned verbal skills—for information, both physical and
picking up a ruler, lining it up against two example, a child describing “my fluffy conceptual. An example of this is a
points on a piece of paper, and drawing teddy bear” instead of just “bear.” This Spanish speaker learning Italian, which
a line between them. is key for developing language skills. has many similar words.

CONCEPT LEARNING RULE LEARNING PROBLEM-SOLVING

6 In this stage, people learn 7 The main type of learning required 8 The most complex learning task,
relationships between different concepts for basic day-to-day functioning, rule this requires individuals to select and
and learn to differentiate between them. learning shapes behavior so that people organize previously learned sets of rules,
Individuals grasp the skills of learning by can speak, write, and carry out routine chain them into a new set of rules, test
example and by being able to generalize activities, all of which are governed by them, and decide on the best solution to
and categorize. basic rules. a new challenge.
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Research has shown a a Neuroscience has shown
direct link between hours that the more a person
slept and grades achieved practices something—with
at school. For teenagers the feedback to correct their
optimum number is 9 hours practice—the stronger
15 minutes, according to and faster their nerve
sleep expert Dr. James Maas. impulses become due to
increased production of
a special neuron coating
called myelin.

New material should be learned

in small chunks to maximize the
ability to process and retain it—
15 minutes of learning content is
advised, followed by a short
period of resting time before The more senses that are
introducing the next chunk. used for remembering
information, the better the
brain can absorb it. For
example, imagining your
hands on a piano while
reading the notes when
learning a new composition
can enhance memorization.

Changing the brain

Psychologists with a special interest in education have
researched how the brain can be reprogrammed to improve
the outcomes of learning. A few simple strategies can make
a big difference, but it is only in the past few decades that
hypotheses have been backed by experiments.
 The psychology
of teaching
An important niche for educational psychologists is teacher training,
and a large body of research has resulted from developing and testing
ideas to help teachers become more effective in the classroom.

What teachers can do not set themselves high aspirations going forward.
Teachers can help their students fundamentally This in turn leads to poor academic performance,
improve how they learn by refocusing them on the which continues the student’s cycle of self-doubt.
idea of competence instead of a belief in innate If teachers can help students to grasp that success
intelligence. By increasing a student’s belief in their or failure in a task is not related to ability but to the
ability to do well, known as self-efficacy, educational amount of practice and effort applied, then it keeps
psychologists believe that a student’s cognitive students motivated rather than feeling demoralized.
functioning and motivation improve. Students with
high self-efficacy are more likely to take on challenges Learning goals
and make an effort to perform well at these if they There are two types of learning goals that
believe they can succeed. With low self-efficacy, teachers can set: performance goals and mastery
students see any failure as a setback and will therefore goals. Performance goals rely on the student’s own
competence in order to achieve a specific level—for
example, getting an A in French. Mastery goals
THE LEARNING PYRAMID emphasize the student’s perseverance and desire
to learn—for example, becoming fluent in French.
Research from the US National Training Laboratories
Mastery goals are better than performance goals
Institute has shown that some teaching methods are
more effective than others. A learning activity that in that learners focus on honing and improving
requires students to actively participate results in their skills, whereas performance goals emphasize
better retention levels, whereas activities requiring less competition as a motivator for performing well
involvement result in lower retention levels. and rely on an individual’s level of intelligence.

Building blocks for

LECTURE
5% successful teaching
READING 10% There are a number of practical tools that teachers can use
to encourage student confidence and a love of learning.
AUDIO VISUAL 20%
Teachers should ensure that these methods are working
DEMONSTRATION 30% together to create a progressive learning environment.

GROUP DISCUSSION 50%

“People’s beliefs about
PRACTICE BY DOING 75%
their abilities have … [an]
TEACHING OTHERS 90%
effect on those abilities.”
Albert Bandura, Canadian social cognitive psychologist
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Make positive connections

Offer support for students; nurture
personal relationships and encourage
positive relations with other
students and teachers; and
set clear expectations about
appropriate classroom conduct.

Teach specific skills Foster student creativity

Help students understand how to transfer Ask students to design their own
one learned idea to another context, and research projects, demonstrate tasks,
give them practice activities such as sample and build models to explain concepts.
tests, activities, and problems to encode Allow them to explore and struggle
learning into long-term memory. while providing support.

Give students Set students Control student

timely feedback short-term goals stress level
Monitor students in every lesson Instead of overwhelming students Run an organized classroom with
and redirect them when they with a big task, give them a daily schedule; have enough
need it. Ensure that praise and incremental goals, allowing them breaks for students to process
constructive criticism are related to to successfully complete each each chunk of learning; and
their degree of practice and effort. stage of the task. maintain a safe environment.

Promote group teaching Encourage motivation

and discussion Set high but realistic
Encourage other students to expectations for your students;
voice their concerns, questions, reinforce the value of practice
and ideas to give the group a and effort over innate
sense of solidarity and allow intelligence; encourage
individuals to feel confident in self-evaluation; and adopt
expressing themselves. a caring attitude.
 Assessing problems
In order to help people learn more effectively, educational psychologists
must first identify any problems a person is facing, how these have
developed, and the ways in which they are affecting the learning process.

How it works educational psychologist at this stage. However,

Through their research, educational psychologists a learning problem may not emerge until the child
understand that the learning process is affected by is in preschool, in which case teachers play a key
a variety of factors, including emotional and social role in noticing any difficulties in how the child plays
issues and specific physiological disorders. It can and undertakes basic tasks. In some cases, problems
be clear from an early age if a child has learning may not be identified until adulthood, often because
problems, and parents may seek the help of an they were missed when the individual was at school.

Uncovering
difficulties HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS ASSESS PROBLEMS
Identifying a learning problem early
on often originates with the teacher Talk to teachers Talk to parents
who suspects issues after daily Those with concrete, firsthand Talking with a child's parents
observation of the student. An experience of a student’s can shed light on how the child
educational psychologist can then difficulties are usually current performs certain tasks at home
make a full assessment and develop or previous teachers. Talking to and how the child relates to
a plan for helping the student. teachers is normally a first step. family members.

Observe child in classroom Talk to child

This can flag key indicators The child does not always need
such as how the child controls to be involved in the assessment,
Learning problems implements such as pens, how but talking to them might reveal
It is difficult to pinpoint the exact they cope with buttons, and how they comprehend and
cause of a learning disability, whether how well they follow directions. pronounce words, for example.
it is environmental, biological, or a
combination of both, but it is possible
to identify it by its symptoms. The four
DYSLEXIA DYSGRAPHIA DYSCALCULIA
examples outlined here all begin with
Difficulties with reading, Trouble with writing and Impairments in basic
the Latin prefix “dys,” meaning difficulty. writing, and spelling. Often processing letters in words, arithmetic and making
good at creative thinking. and difficulty coordinating. calculations.

DYSPRAXIA
Poor coordination causing clumsy movements, and a lack
of the basic ability needed to coordinate daily activities.
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Taking action Educational psychologists often work together with

It is crucial for psychologists to fully understand the psychiatrists, social workers, speech therapists, and
nature of an individual’s problem, so they employ a teachers, applying ideas of behavioral, cognitive, and
variety of strategies to build up an accurate picture social psychology to the classroom. These applications
of how the person behaves and processes information are integral to understanding why a student may
in an educational setting. Previously, this would have behave in a certain way in a classroom setting, how
involved a written or oral intelligence test. Today, their brain processes and retains information, and how
although formal testing can still play a part when family and peers may affect learning. Psychologists
educational psychologists assess a student—especially can apply these approaches to any educational
when a particular disability such as dyslexia is environment, from preschools and primary schools to
suspected—the current approach is more holistic. adult learning centers and corporate training schemes.

Analyze schoolwork
A selection of the child’s schoolwork
6.6million
children in the US have a
may uncover patterns in the way a child
writes their answers, and whether their special education need
problem is in one particular area, such National Center for Education Statistics, 2015
as mathematics, or several areas.

Questionnaire or specific assessment

ASSESSMENT TYPES
There are a number of standardized tests
for measuring different aspects of learning By utilizing different types of tests, psychologists can get
problems, from those that are rooted in a well-balanced view of a student’s problems and begin
social or emotional issues to those that to implement ways to address these.
are neurological or developmental. ❯ Cognitive and developmental tests measure a pupil's
ability to process and interpret information, and
compare results against the norms for that age group.
❯ Social, emotional, and behavioral tests identify
Behavioral problems problems that stem from underlying social and
Psychologists can help teachers emotional issues. They reveal an individual’s stress level,
deal with disruption in the sense of self-esteem, and ability to overcome adversity.
classroom by assessing a child ❯ Motivational tests measure a student's incentive to
with behavior issues to try to learn—a vital element. Such tests include the Motivation
uncover the triggers and how to Assessment Scale for Learning (EMAPRE) in higher
resolve them. This often means education, which uses a questionnaire format.
getting parents on board and ❯ Academic tests are more formal types of testing that
examining lifestyle issues such as can identify whether a student is in the appropriate class
diet, stress, and social pressure. for their academic level, and flag learning disabilities. IQ
testing can also be undertaken, but results are limited.