MOTOR FUNCTIONS OF BRAINSTEM

Although many of the descending tracts which affect the motor

neurons originate from the brainstem, they are themselves
controlled by the higher centres of the CNS.
A transection of the upper pontine or midbrain results in
decerebrate rigidity (α-ϒ rigidity) with excitation of extensor
motor neuron and exaggeration of all spinal reflexes.
The decerebrate animal cannot perform integrated motor tasks
such as walking or righting itself because of excessive extensor
response.
The reticular formation is an aggregation of nerve cell bodies
and axon tract from the central core of the brainstem. It extends
rostrally into the diencephalon and finally into the spinal cord.
The rostral portion of RF gives rise to axons in the reticulospinal
tract which excite ipsilateral extensor motor neuron. Stimulation
of this area in a decerebrate animal causes the extensor mzls to
relax thus the reticulospinal tract has both stimulatory and
inhibitory effects on the extensor motor neurons.
The motor centres of brainstem are directly responsible for
reflex control of posture and spatial orientation of the body in
space. It accomplishes this by integrating afferent signals of
many receptors throughout the body. The most important of
these receptors are those in the organs of equilibrium (vestibular
organs of inner ear), the stretch and joint receptors of the neck
musculature.
MIDBRAIN ANIMAL
It is produced by making a transaction at the brainstem at the
cranial border of midbrain. In a midbrain animal, the highest
level of the CNS is the midbrain. If the cut is made a little bit
more caudally at the boundary between the midbrain and the
pons, a decerebrate animal is produced. In such an animal, only
the medulla and pons are in communication with the body via
the spinal cord. The same afferent input is available to both the
midbrain and decerebrate animals and connections to the
cerebellum are intact in both animals.

DIFFRENCES BETWEEN MIDBRAIN AND

DECEREBRATE ANIMALS

MIDBRAIN ANIMAL
1. It remains standing when set on its feet, but falls over when
pushed (crashes) and does not get up again. When it is
upright, its tonic distribution is abnormal.
2. There is a marked predominance of extensor tonus.
3. Decerebrate rigidity is present.
DECEREBRATE ANIMAL
1. It lacks decerebrate rigidity
2. It can right itself when pushed down
3. It has more physiologic tonic distribution in mzls.

Since the input to the brainstem relevant to motor fxn are not
different in both animals, the improvement in performance in
midbrain animal must be brought about chiefly by the motor
centres of the midbrain.
RIGHTING REFLEXES
These are those reflexes that return the body to its normal
posture after it has been displaced from it. In some ways, it
serves to maintain normal body posture and balance without
voluntary control. In combination with postural reflexes, it
guarantees suitable posture at each instance.
It occurs in a particular sequence i.e. there is a chain of righting
reflexes leading to a final posture.
In the 1st stage, signals from the vestibular organs bring the head
into the normal position. These reflexes are called labyrinthine
righting reflexes. This movts of the head changes its position
with respect to the rest of the body, an alteration signaled by
receptors in the neck musculature.
Messages from the neck mzl receptors then result to movts that
bring the trunk into its normal alignment. They are called neck
mzl righting reflexes.
VISUAL RIGHTING REFLEXES
In the midbrain animal, the V.R.R is not present. In a normal
condition, the V.R.R help to bring the body in correct posture
and can be said to produce a safety factor in the chain of righting
responses that result to the final posture.

STATIC AND STATOKINETIC REFLEXES

STATIC REFLEX
These are reflexes that control body position and balance, during
quiet lying down, standing and sitting.
STATOKINETIC REFLEX
These are reflexes that are elicited by movt and which result in
movt. Many statokinetic reflexes are initiated in the labyrinth
and the best known are the head and eye tuning responses e.g.
if an animal is rotated clockwise, the head returns anti-
clockwise. These responses are compensatory. When they
happen, the eyes and the heads are moved so that the visual
images remain as constant as possible during the movt of the
body. Without movt, the heads and eyes are kept in position by
static reflexes.
Other important statokinetic reflexes keep the body in balance
and in correct position during jumping and walking e.g. such
reflexes ensure that a cat lands with its body in the proper
position regardless of its position when it began to fall.

MUSCLE TONE
This is regarded as the background tension produced by the
summation of mzl twitches of many mzls fibres. All mzls in a
living organism possess such tone. Even in a relaxed limb, the
motor nerves are activated at low frequency. The resulting tone
is detectable as a resistance to passive bending of the limb.

The tone of the mzls is chiefly involved in their postural fxn.

Even when we sit relaxed, our limbs are not fully passive,
instead they adopt a certain posture which is determined by the
relative degree of tone in the various group of mzls. When some
sort of disturbance is anticipated e.g. someone is driving a car
and potential hazard is developed ahead, the tone ↑es i.e. the
basic posture in the mzls is ↑ed and the posture adopted is more
firmly maintained.
THE VESTIBULAR APPARATUS

RELATIONSHIP OF THE EAR TO THE BRAIN

This is the organ that detects equilibrium. It is composed of a
system of bony tubes and chambers found in the petrous
portion of the temporal bone called the Bonny Labyrinth
(snail-like).
Within this is a system of Membranous labyrinth which is the
fxnal part of the apparatus.
THE TWO LABYRINTHS OF THE INNER EAR. THE BONY
LABYRINTH IS PARTIALLY CUT AWAY TO SHOW THE
MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH WITHIN.
The membranous labyrinth is made up of 3 parts:
(1).The Cochlea
(2) 3 Semicircular Canals
(3) 2 large chambers called the Utricule & Saccule

The cochlea is the major sensory area of hearing

The 3 semicircular canals are oriented:

(1)Anteriorly (anterior portion)
(2) Posteriorly (posterior portion)
(3) Laterally or horizontally (lateral portion).
They are all arranged at right angles to each other. However, the
semicircular canal, utricule and saccule are all integral parts of
the mechanisms of equilibrium of the body.
ARRANGEMENT OF THE 3 SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
FUNCTIONS OF THE VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
1. It is concerned with orientation of the body in 3-
dimentional space.
2. Equilibrium
3. Modification of muscle tone
THE SEMI-CIRCULAR CANALS (SCC)
They are concerned with kinetic equilibrium. They are arranged
at right angles to each other and represent 3 planes of space-
anterior, posterior and lateral.
One end of each semicircular duct or canal has a dilatation
called the ampulla containing a transversely oriented crista
ampullaris which contains hair cells. These hair cells are
located in the columnar epithelium and are neuroepithelial in
composition.

Distribution of hair cells in the membranous labyrinth.

The hair cells are arranged in patches:
(1) In the ampullae of the semicircular canals to detect
acceleration,

(2) In the macula of the utricle and saccule to perceive

gravity direction and static position,

(3) In the organ of Corti of the cochlea to detect sound

vibration.

The hair cells contribute to the vestibular receptor system.

Each crista has opposite it a gelatinous cupula which moves
across the hair cells in response to movt of the endolymph fluid.

Ampullary region of semicircular canal.

DISTRIBUTION OF HAIR CELLS IN THE AMPULLA

 1) CUPULA IN A NORMAL POSITION

IMPOSED POSITION OF THE CUPULA DURING

ANGULAR ACCELERATION

Angular acceleration (rotation of the head) causes the

displacement of the endolymphatic fluid and movt of the cupula
which stimulates the hair cells. The receptors of the Semi-
Circular Canal respond to rotational acceleration rather than
linear acceleration.
The sensory organ/epithelium of the utricule and saccule is
called the macula. The macula also contains hair cells in contact
with a gelatinous covering containing small calcareous
substances called Otolyths or Statoconia. This statoconia are
made up of Caco3 crystals and are usually heavier than the
gelatinous matrix in which they are embedded.

The utricula macula responds to changes in gravitational forces

and linear acceleration in the long axis of the body and conveys
impulses concerning the positions of the head in space (when
standing up). This is called static equilibrium.
The saccular macula is less sensitive, but responds to linear
acceleration (when the person is lying down).

THE MACULA AT REST & TILT TO THE LEFT SIDE

CONNECTIONS OF VESTIBULAR NERVES
The fine nerve filaments from the hair cells of crista ampullaris
(semi-circular) and macula (of the utricule & saccule) becomes
myelinated as they pass centrally in the vestibular nerve (a part
of CN VIII) to the vestibular ganglion and then to the vestibular
nuclei.
From the vestibular nuclei fibres run in the medial longitudinal
bundles (which arises from the vestibular N. and go to the
nuclei of the nerves of extraocular mzls i.e. abducens (CN VI),
Cochlea- and Occulomotor nerves- CN 3) to the Occulomotor
nuclei through which changes in the positions of the eye are
affected.
Some fibres also pass in the medial lemniscus (they are fibres
arising from gracille and cuneate nucleus as internal arcuate
fibres but reach the posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus as
medial lemniscus).
Other fibres go in the inferior cerebellar peduncle to the
cerebellar cortex, mainly to the floculonodular lobe of the
cerebellum.
CLINICAL TESTS FOR THE INTEGRITY OF THE
VESTIBULAR APPARATUS
1. Balancing Test:
This is one of the simplest tests for equilibrium. The
mechanism is to simply have the individual perfectly
standing still with his eyes closed. If he no longer has a
perfectly functioning equilibrium system, he will waver to
one side and possibly fall. However some of proprioceptive
mechanism of equilibrium is occasionally well developed
to maintain balance even with his eye closed.
 2. Barany’s Test:

Air Force personnel demonstrating the effect on the sensory perception and spatial orientation of
a test person in a Bárány chair. After first having been rotated in the chair and then stopped, the
test person tries to point at a test board.

The subject is placed in the chair, blindfolded, then spun about the vertical axis while keeping
their head upright or tilted forward or to the side. The subject is then asked to perform tasks such
as determine their direction of rotation while blindfolded, or rapidly change the orientation of
their head, or attempt to point at a stationary object without blindfold after the chair is stopped.
The chair is used to demonstrate spatial disorientation effects, proving that the vestibular system
is not to be trusted in flight. Pilots are taught that they should instead rely on their flight
instruments.

This is a 2nd test that is frequently performed and it

determines the integrity of the person’s semi-circular
 canals. Here, the individual is placed on a Barany chair
and rotated very rapidly while the head is placed in
different positions or planes.

1st place the head forward and then angulate to one side or
the other. By such positions, each pair of semi-circular
canal duct is placed in a plane and the chair then rotated.
When the chair is stopped suddenly, the endolymph
because of its momentum continuous to rotate round and
round in the pair of semi-circular canal that has last been
placed on the horizontal plane.

This flow of endolymph causes the cupula to bend in the

direction of rotation. As a result, Nystagmus (involuntary
rapid movt of eyeball) occurs with the slow component to
the direction of rotation and the fast component to the
opposite direction.

Also as long as nystagmus lasts (about 10-20 secs), the

individual has sensation that he is rotating in the direction
opposite to that he was rotated in the chair. This test checks
the semi-circular canals on both sides of the head at the
same time.

3. Ice Water Test:

 This is a clinical test for testing one vestibular apparatus
separately from the other. This is done by placing iced
water into one ear. The semi-circular canal especially the
horizontal or the external is in close contact with the ear
and cooling the ear can transfer a sufficient amount of cold
to the semi-circular canals which goes along to cool the
endolymph. The cooling of the endolymph can cause it to
sink downwards a little resulting in a slight movt of the
fluid around the semi-circular canal. This stimulates the
semi-circular canals giving the individual a sensation of
rotation and also initiates nystagmus.

From these two (2) findings (Barany’s test and Ice water
test), one can determine if the semi-circular canal are
functioning properly. When they are normal, the utricules
are usually normal also. Disease condition usually destroys
the fxns of both at the same time.

SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF VESTIBULAR

DYSFUNCTION
1. Nystagmus: this may cause deviation of the eye to one side

2. Ataxia
 3. Nausea (centrally induced nausea)
4. Vomiting (emesis)

OTHER FACTORS CONCERNED WITH EQUILIBRIUM

1. Neck Proprioceptors:
These are joint receptors of the neck.

2. Proprioceptive and Exteroceptive information from other

parts of the body i.e.
(a).Foot pads (proprioceptive)
(b).Air pressure against the body while running
(exteroceptive)
3. Visual information from the retina.
CEREBELLUM

ARRANGEMENT IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

ANATOMICAL LOBES
LATERAL VIEW
The cerebellum is also called ‘Silent area’ of the brain because
it’s electrical stimulation does not cause any sensation and rarely
causes any motor movt. However, its removal causes movement
to become highly abnormal. It is vital in different conditions:
1. Running
2. Typing
3. Playing the piano
4. During talking
All the above activities require rapid muscular activity. Loss of
the cerebellum leads to in-coordination in the above conditions.
However, loss of the cerebellum causes paralysis of no muscle.
The cerebellum occupies the posterior cranial fossa-superiorly.
It is separated from the cerebral hemisphere of the cerebral
cortex by tentorium cerebelli and in front. it is related to the
pons and medulla from which it is separate by the 4 th ventricle.
It is divided into two (2) hemispheres or lobes right and left by a
midline vermis.
The cerebellum is made up of an inner white matter and outer
grey matter (outer layer making up the cortex). Embedded in the
grey matter are four pairs of cerebellar nuclei.
1. Fastigial nucleus
2. Nucleus Globosus
3. Embeliform nucleus
4. Dentate nucleus (outermost and biggest )
The cerebellum is connected to the rest of the brain by 3
peduncles
1. Superior peduncle – Midbrain
2. Middle peduncle – Pons
3. Inferior Peduncle – Medulla Oblongata
The peduncles contain afferent and efferent axon tracts from
different parts of the CNS.
FUNCTIONS OF THE VERMIS
It controls posture, tone, equilibrium and locomotion of the
whole body. It has a depressing influence on tendon reflexes
thus it`s stimulation will depress the tendon reflex or reduce
rigidity in decerebrate preparation.
Stimulation of the paravermal parts of anterior lobe will
potentiate tendon reflexes. However, the fxns of the cerebellum
can be studied more easily by dividing the cerebellum into the
fxnal parts:
1. Midline Vermal Area (Floculonodular area): This is the
region where the middle cerebella peduncles enter the
cerebellum. The fastigial nucleus which is the most medial
of the mid-cerebellar nuclei lies in this region-(lies near the
midline in the roof of the 4th ventricle). The mid-line
vermal area controls postural muscles and axial
musculature.
The vestibular apparatus has connections with this region
and this region has a speech centre.
2. Paravermal region: This region is lateral to the midline
vermal area but adjacent to it. It is in this region that the
globus nucleus lays and also the emboliform nucleus which
is lateral to the globus nucleus. The emboliform N is
internal to the globus N. This region controls the proximal
mzls and also potentiates tendon reflexes. It has also been
shown that the speed of human walking is mapped out in
this area of the cerebellum.

3. Lateral region: This is the most lateral of the regions of

the cerebellum. It contains the largest of the deep cerebellar
nuclei - dentate nucleus. It controls the distal mzls.
CLINICAL ABNORMALITIES OF CEREBELLUM
Note: All occur on the ipsilateral side of the problem.
1. Dysmetria and Ataxia (most important abnormalities). In
these conditions, movts overshoot their intended mark and
also results to over compensation. There is also in-
coordinate movt.

2. Past painting: A person ordinarily moves the hand or

some other moving parts of the body considerably beyond
the point of intention e.g. touching the tip of the nose.

3. Failure of Progression of movt:

a. Dysdiadochokinesia: succeeding movts may begin
much too early or much too late so that no orderly
progression of movt can occur e.g. turn the hand
upwards and downwards in a sequence.

b. Dysarthria: this is jumbled vocalization, with some

syllables load, some weak, some held back, some held
for short intervals- unintelligible speech.

c. Intention tremor (Action tremor): when performing

voluntary act, movt tends to oscillate especially when
approaching the intended mark. It presents 1st by
overshooting the mark and then vibrating back and forth
several times before settling on the mark.
d. Cerebellar Nystagmus: this results from damage to the
flocculonodular lobe. It leads to tremor of the eyeballs. It
occurs usually when one attempts to fixate the eyes on a
scene to one side of the head. It presents as rapid
tremulous movt of the eye rather than a steady fixation.

e. Hypotonia – flaccid mzl

f. Rebound
THE BASAL GANGLIA
These are subcortical nuclear masses. They are composed of:
1. Putamen
2. Caudate nucleus
3. Globus pallidus
-Combination of putamen and caudate nucleus is called Corpus
Striatum
-Combination of Putamen and globus pallidus forms the
lentiform nucleus.
The corpus striatum is divided by the internal capsule into
caudate nucleus medially and putamen laterally.
The globus pallidus is also lateral and also regarded as the
discharging centre of the basal ganglia.
The efferent fibres leaving the globus pallidus make up a large
part of the descending fibres of extrapyramidal system. They go
to the thalamus, hypothalamus, sub-thalamus or sub thalamic
nucleus, substantia nigra and reticular formation of midbrain.
Although situated in the brainstem, different structures may be
grouped together with the basal nuclei (Basal nuclei are made up
of basal ganglia and amygdaloid body):
1. Substantia nigra
2. Red nucleus
3. Sub-thalamic nuclei
4. Amygdaloid complex
NEURAL CIRCUIT OF BASAL GANGLIA
Afferent fibres to the corpus striatum arise from the cerebral
cortex, parts of the amygdaloid, the intralamina nucleus of
thalamus, substantia nigra and muscle receptors (proprioceptors)
Striatal efferent fibres project to the substantia nigra and globus
pallidus.
The major afferent fibres to the globus pallidus arise from the
striatum and sub-thalamic nucleus. Unlike the striatum, the
globus pallidus does not receive afferent fibres from the cerebral
cortex, thalamus and substantia nigra.
Pallidal afferents fibres form into four (4) bundles:
1. Ansalenticularis
2. Lenticular fasciculus (bundles of fibres)
3. Pallido – tegmental fibres
4. Pallido – subthalamic fibres
Pallido – fugal fibres (pallidal efferents) are arranged in a rostro
– caudal sequence with ansalenticularis most rostral, lenticular
fascicules intermediate and pallido – subthalamic fibres most
caudal.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BASAL GANGLIA
It participates in the conversion of the plans of movts arising in
the cerebral cortex into programs of movt. The striatum receives
the majority of all afferents to the basal ganglia, whereas the
most important efferent leave via the pallidum and proceed
mainly by way of thalamus to the motor cortex and in lesser
numbers to the motor centres of the brainstem.

In the hierarchy of brain organization, the cerebellum and Basal

Ganglia are centres of equal rank involved in the programming
of cortically based movt patterns.

Whereas, the Basal Ganglia are responsibly 1 oly for the

execution of slow steady movts, the cerebellum appears to be
chiefly concerned with;
1. Programming rapid movt
2. Correcting the course of such movt
3. Correlating of posture and movt.
Striato-nigral and Nigro-striatal Fibres
1. The largest number of nigral afferents arises from the
caudate nucleus and putamen (corpus striatum) and are
known as Striato-nigral fibres.

2. There are also nigral efferents called nigro-striatal fibres

which arise from substantia nigra and pass through the
internal capsule to terminate at the corpus striatum.

Pathologies that disrupt these fibres cause great havoc in body

movts. One such pathology involves an input to the striatum
from the substantia nigra (nigro-striatal fibres).
The substantia nigra is a group of cells in the mid-brain whose
neurons are pigmented. In man, they are black→ substantia
nigra or black substance. Extensive loss of its cells will cause a
deterioration of the nigro-striatal fibres – the transmitter of
which is dopamine.
The result of this disturbance of the nigro-striatal fibres and its
NT is the disorder of movts called Parkinsonism.
It is xterized by:
1. Muscular rigidity that tampers with movt.
2. Mask-like face.
3. Tremor at rest (involuntary tremor): this is of low
frequency that affects the handle and arms.
4. The patient has difficulty in initiating movt – akinesia
Symptoms of Parkinsonism in particular akinesia can be
successfully treated by application of a chemical called L-dopa
the precursor of dopamine.
NB: Dopamine is itself inefficient because it cannot pass
through the blood brain barrier.
Clinically, different names have been used to describe the
akinesia derived from Basal Ganglia dysfunction. These include;
1. Tremor – an involuntary trembling movement,

2. Athetosis – slow writhing movt involving mainly the

extremities. It may involve axial mzl groups and mzls of
the face and neck. The movts blend with each other to
produce a continuous mobile spasm – mask like face.

It can also be described as a constant succession of slow

writhing, involuntary movement of flexion, extension,
pronation and supination of the fingers and hands and
sometimes of the toe ad feet.
3. Chorea – a condition in which normal facial/ limb muscle
synergy are dissociated so that they become jerky
(spasmodic), irregular and purposeless. The movts are
described as choreic. Most important type of chorea is the
Huntington’s chorea, usually hereditary.

4. Ballism (Ballismus): movt that is violent and forceful. It

represents the most violent form of akinesia. It involves
primarily the proximal appendicular musculature and mzls
around the shoulder and pelvic girdle.
COMPARISON OF DISEASED SYMPTOMS OF
CEREBELLUM AND BASAL GANGLIA
S/N CEREBELLUM BASAL
GANGLIA
1. Asynergy Akinesia
2. Hypotonia Rigor
3. Intention tremor Tremor at rest
THE RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM (RAS)

RAS (Also showing an Inhibitory Area in the medulla that

can inhibit or depress the RAS)
RAS are multiple diffuse pathways extending upwards into the
CC from the mesencephalic reticular formation. They
terminate in almost all areas of diencephalon (thalamus) and CC.
They originate in the mesencephalic and pontine portions of the
reticular formation of the brain (RAF).
When stimulated electrically, they cause immediate and marked
activation of the CC and will even cause a sleeping animal to
wake instantly. Two (2) pathways are involved in the
transmission of info from RAS to CC:
1. Passes upwards to the intralamina midline and reticular
nuclei of the thalamus and from there through relay
pathways to essentially all parts and CC.
2. A less important, pathway which passes through the
Thalamus, hypothalamus and adjacent areas of the CC.

Fxns of Mesencephalic Portions of RAS:

This portion seems to provide intrinsic activation of the brain.
Also areas in the Brain Stem below the mid-level of the pons
can inhibit this RAS and cause sleep.
Fxns of Thalamic portions of RAS:
Electrical stimulation in different areas of the thalamic portion
of RAS activates specific regions of the CC more than others i.e.
it is involved in specific activation of certain areas of the CC in
distinction to other areas.

Other areas that Stimulate RAS:

a. Sensory stimulate from almost any part of the body
e.g. pain & proprioceptive
somatic impulses. NB: Both require some immediate
action of the brain.

b. Retrograde stimuli from the CC e.g. somatosensory

cortex, Motor cortex, frontal cortex, BG, hippocampus
and other limbic structures, hypothalamus.
An essentially large numbers of nerve fibres pass from motor
regions of the CC to the RF. Therefore motor activity in
particular is associated with high degree of reticular activation.
This partly explains the importance of moving around when one
wishes to remain awake.
COMA:
This is unconsciousness from which the person cannot be
aroused. It is the opposite of brain activation (RAS).
1. It can result from any factor that diminishes or stop
activities in the mesencephalic portions of the RAS.
Example: brain tumors e.g. pineal gland, pituitary gland
(hypophysis).

2. Vascular lesions that interrupts the blood supply to the mid

brain e.g. CVA.

3. Prolonged Hypoxia that causes Death of brain neurons.

4. Infective processes in the Brain Stem such as encephalitis

that causes sleeping sickness.

5. Poisons that destroy brain tissue.

Coma is distinct from sleep in that a person cannot be aroused
from coma. In some coma patients, all parts of the brain are
inactivated not just the RAS. In this case, all electrical activities
of the brain ceases. i.e. the brain waves are said to be flat and
this is called brain death.
However, the person can be kept alive only by being sustained
on artificial respiration, Naso-Gastric (NG) tube food
administration or by I.V. food administration and use of various
supportive drugs and fluids to maintain appropriate blood
circulation.
SLEEP
It is defined as unconsciousness from which the person can be
aroused. Stages can be from very light sleep to very deep sleep.
Types of Sleep
There are two (2) main types alternating with each other:
1. Slow Wave Sleep: Here brain waves are very slow. Most
sleep during the night is of this variety.

Xtics:
a. It is deep
b. Restful
c. Usually experienced during the 1st hour of sleep after
having being kept awake for many hours (night vigil).
d. Also associated with:
i. ↓se in peripheral vascular tone,
ii. ↓se in many other vegetative fxns of the boy
(defecation, urination etc).
iii. 10-30% ↓se in blood pressure
iv. 10-30% ↓se in respiratory rate
v. 10-30% ↓se in basal metabolic rates.

It is usually called Dream-less Sleep. However, dreams do occur

but are not usually remembered (No consolidate in memory).
Nightmares even occur.
 2. Rapid-Eye-Movt (REM) Sleep:

During this period, eyes undergo rapid movts despite the

fact that the person is still asleep. It occurs periodically
during sleep and it occurs in about 25% of the young adult.
Normally reoccurs after every 90mins.

Xtics:
a. Not restful
b. Associated will vivid dreaming
c. The lasts 5-30 mins
d. More difficult to arouse by sensory stimulus
e. Generalized exceedingly depressed mzls tone
f. Heart rate and respiratory rate usually become irregular-
xtics of the dream state.
g. .Rapid eye mvt occur- irregular mzl movt
h. .Brain is highly active; overall brain metabolism may be
used ↑ed up to 20%.
i. Electroencephalogram (EEG) shows a pattern of brain
wave similar to those of wakefulness. Hence this type of
sleep is called paradoxical sleep because it is a paradox
that a person can still be asleep despite marked activity
in the brain.

1st episode usually occurs 80-100mins after the person falls

asleep. When we are extremely sleepy, the duration of each bout
of REM sleep is short and may even be absent. Conversely, as
you become more rested through the night, the duration of REM
bout ↑es greatly.

Physiological Effects of Sleep

It has two (2) major effects
a. On the NS itself (most important)
b. On other body structures.

(a) It restores both normal levels of activities and normal

balance among the different parts of the CNS. It can be
likened to re-zeroing of the CNS. Absence of sleep
(prolonged wakefulness) is associated with progressive
malfxning of the mind and sometimes even causes
abnormal behavioral activities of the NS:- ↑ed sluggishness
of thoughts.

(b) ↑sed irritability

(c) Psychosis

Wakefulness leads to enhanced sympathetic activity, also leads

to ↑ed mzl tone. In slow wave sleep, there is ↓sed sympathy
activity and ↑es parasym activity, hence restful sleep
ensues/results.
There is also ↓sed arterial BP, ↓ed pulse rate, dilatation of skin
vessels, ↑se GIT activity sometimes, relaxation of mzls and ↓sed
basal metabolic rate by 10-30%.

BRAIN WAVES:
These are electrical recordings from the surface of the brain and
from the outer surface of the head. The recordings are called
EEG. There are four (4) types of brain waves.
1. α waves;
2. Beta waves;
3. Theta waves
4. Delta waves.