Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Investigation of climate-adaptive thermal effects of a double-sided

hydronic loop embedded in an opaque building envelope
Youngjin Hwang a , Amogh Wasti b , Theodorian Borca-Tasciuc b,
Alexandros Tsamis c,*
a
College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology, 3360 South State Street, Chicago, IL, 60616, USA
b
Mechanical, Aerospace, and Nuclear Engineering Department, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA
c
School of Architecture, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY, 12180, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Dynamic opaque building envelopes have emerged as a promising solution to mitigate the impact
Dynamic building envelope of conventional static envelopes on building heating and cooling demands. However, the devel­
Solar energy opment faces several challenges, including a predominant focus on thermal barriers optimized for
Hydronic system
either heating or cooling, limited dynamic operational modes, and a lack of studies evaluating
Climate-adaptive
Heating and cooling
their performance under diverse climate conditions with practical applications. This research
investigates the dynamic operational modes of a hydronic-based opaque building envelope sys­
tem featuring a double-sided hydronic heating and cooling layer across various climate condi­
tions. The system incorporates two hydronic layers, positioned on the exterior and interior
surfaces of the envelope. Eight operational configurations were examined: two coupled modes,
where the layers function as a closed loop to facilitate direct heat transfer between distinct en­
vironments, and six decoupled modes, where the layers operate independently, responding
separately to their respective environments. Computational simulations conducted using Mod­
elica demonstrated that the coupled modes for direct heat exchange significantly enhanced heat
transfer rates, ranging from − 155.05 W/m2 to 172.81 W/m2, compared to a conventional static
wall, which exhibited rates between − 11.48 W/m2 and 13.65 W/m2. Decoupled modes displayed
effective thermal barrier properties, achieving nearly zero heat transfer under certain conditions.
They also provided effective heating and cooling transfer rates ranging from − 73.28 W/m2 to
79.21 W/m2, in contrast to static walls, which increased heating and cooling loads between
− 9.34 W/m2 and 11.5 W/m2. The study highlights the potential of dynamic operational modes,
offering insights for advancing hydronic-based dynamic opaque building envelopes to enhance
building energy efficiency.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

The building sector, encompassing residential and commercial buildings, is the largest energy consumer in the U.S., accounting for

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Tsamis).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.111943
Received 28 August 2024; Received in revised form 9 January 2025; Accepted 25 January 2025
Available online 31 January 2025
2352-7102/© 2025 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

nearly 40 % of total energy use [1]. Heating and cooling alone represent over 50 % of residential and 40 % of commercial energy
consumption [2,3]. Although the U.S. Energy Information Administration projects that heating and cooling energy use could decrease
by up to 20 % in residential and 32 % in commercial buildings by 2050, these will still constitute the majority of building energy
consumption [1]. Furthermore, the building industry is responsible for approximately 37 % of global greenhouse gas emissions, with
an anticipated increase of another 30% in current emissions by 2050 without significant changes [4].
Given this context, reducing energy use for heating and cooling in buildings is essential for minimizing their environmental impact.
Opaque building envelopes play a significant role in this effort as they account for approximately 35 % and 25 % of total building
energy use in residential and commercial buildings, respectively [5]. Moreover, the energy associated with opaque building envelopes
represents about 11 % of total primary energy use in the U.S [6]. Therefore, enhancing the performance of opaque building envelopes,
as emphasized in a recent report by the U.S. National Renewable Energy Laboratory [5], can substantially reduce the energy demand
for heating and cooling, thereby mitigating the environmental footprint of the built environment.
Dynamic opaque building envelopes (DOBEs) have emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Unlike static
opaque envelopes, DOBEs can adapt to changing environmental conditions, optimizing energy efficiency and indoor thermal comfort
[7–9] (Fig. 1). DOBEs achieve this by continuously adjusting their thermal properties, such as thermal resistance and heat retention, in
response to external and internal conditions. Recent studies have demonstrated that DOBEs can offer enhanced energy performance
and thermal comfort compared to static envelopes [7,10]. Moreover, the adaptability of DOBEs not only reduces indoor energy de­
mands but also facilitates the utilization of renewable energy sources [11,12].
While various DOBE configurations have been proposed to improve additional aspects of indoor environmental quality, this study
focuses specifically on the thermal performance of DOBEs, with an emphasis on their impact on heating and cooling energy use in
buildings. This research proposes an advanced DOBE incorporating a dynamic insulation system that uses hydronic layers embedded
within the opaque envelope. The study investigates the system’s advanced adaptability to climates and its potential to harness
renewable energy sources effectively.

1.2. Literature review

The primary focus of developing DOBEs in terms of thermal performance is to provide an adaptive range of thermal properties,
enabling the system to dynamically respond to heating or cooling demands. This adaptability helps mitigate issues such as overheating
or overcooling, which often arise due to the fixed thermal resistance of conventional static envelopes [13]. Numerous studies have
explored the benefits of DOBEs with switchable or movable insulation systems applied to building walls [14,15] and roofs [16,17].
Menyhart and Krarti [14] demonstrated that a theoretical switchable two-stage insulation wall could achieve significant heating and
cooling energy savings ranging from 7 % to 42 % across the U.S. Similarly, research on roof systems with a two-step switchable
insulation in U.S. residential buildings across five climate regions revealed annual cooling energy savings of up to 44 % and heating
energy savings of up to 17 % [16]. A comparable theoretical switchable roof insulation investigated in commercial buildings showed 5
% reduction in building energy use, further enhanced to 19 % with optimized controls, along with a 34 % reduction in electrical peak
demand [17]. Alberto et al. [18] proposed a practical, affordable movable insulation using conventional insulation panels. Preliminary
physical assessments of this concept revealed a thermal conductance range of 0.5–10 W/m2K, although it remains at the conceptual
stage.
While theoretical two-stage dynamic envelope studies have effectively demonstrated thermal benefits across various climate re­
gions, they have largely remained conceptual, without practical technical implementations. To address this limitation, DOBEs
incorporating specific materials or technologies have been developed beyond theoretical movable systems. These include thermal
diodes, latent heat utilization with materials like Phase Change Materials (PCMs), dynamic heat transfer via liquid mediums and air
movement control, and gas deployment through dynamic pressurization, among others [19].
Material-oriented DOBEs employ multifunctional or unique thermophysical materials, enabling building envelopes to exhibit
reversible and repetitive responses to environmental conditions [20]. PCMs, which enhance heat capacity through phase transitions,
have been widely applied in DOBEs. These systems have shown reductions in heating and cooling energy use, shifts in peak energy
demands, and improvements in indoor thermal comfort [21–23]. Advanced PCM-integrated DOBEs further enhance performance by
incorporating additional systems. Zhou and Razaqpur [24] developed a PCM-Trombe wall integration, achieving 20 % greater thermal
efficiency than traditional Trombe walls by improving passive solar energy utilization and reducing heat loss in cold seasons. Li et al.
[25] proposed a dynamic PCM layer that adjusts its location within the wall by compressing an air gap, reducing heat gain by up to
535.73 % and heat loss by 58.76 %.
Active technology-oriented DOBEs have also been extensively studied. These systems include thermal diode envelopes [26], active
vacuum thermal insulation systems [27], and hydronic-based systems [28]. Hydronic-based DOBEs, also known as pipe-embedded
dynamic envelopes [29], circulate water through pipes embedded within the envelope for heating and cooling. These systems
leverage the high thermal capacity of water, versatile flow control, architectural flexibility, and integration potential with hydronic
renewable energy systems like solar thermal and geothermal [28,30–32]. Hydronic-based DOBEs can be categorized into single fluid
layer systems and double-sided fluid layer systems.
Single fluid layer DOBEs have been investigated for both heating and cooling. Šimko et al. [33] explored various design config­
urations of a single hydronic layer within the wall and demonstrated that active control of supply water temperature allows the system
to alternate between functioning as a space heating system or a thermal barrier, reducing insulation requirements in cold climates.
Kisilewicz et al. [34] proposed a glycol-based single layer system connected to a ground heat exchanger, achieving heat loss reductions
of 53 %–81 % compared to static insulation during winter, although the system was optimized for heating seasons and showed limited

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cooling benefits. For cooling-focused systems, Yu et al. [35] proposed a micro-capillary sheet embedded wall system designed to
reduce cooling loads and provide supplementary cooling. The study demonstrated that by supplying water to the micro-capillary tubes
at a temperature similar to the indoor air temperature, which requires low-grade thermal water, the system effectively neutralized the
thermal load of the wall. This not only minimized cooling demands from the wall but also provided additional cooling impacts. Shen
and Li [36] investigated the cooling performance of a pipe embedded wall integrated with an evaporative cooling tower for circulating
cooled water. The study showed a reduction in electricity consumption for cooling by up to 58.9 % compared to conventional wall
construction in China, with the roof and west walls identified as the most effective envelope orientations. Several studies have explored
the dynamic thermal performance of single fluid layer DOBEs for both heating and cooling. Biswas et al. [37] proposed a system
incorporating a single layer of copper tubes embedded between insulation and an aluminum foil layer. The study showed an 11 %
reduction in cooling energy use in U.S. climate zone 2 and a 20.6 % reduction in heating energy use in climate zone 4. Krzaczek et al.
[29] conducted field investigations of a single layered pipe embedded envelope system in a cold climate, installed on south, west, and
north walls. The study showed that the proposed system can maintain consistent indoor temperatures year-round by thermally
neutralizing the walls, with interior wall surface temperature variations not exceeding 0.6 ◦ C and daily indoor air temperature
fluctuations below 0.8 ◦ C.
A few DOBEs featuring double-sided fluid layer systems, or theoretical designs suggesting their potential, have been introduced to
enhance thermal adaptability through various operational modes. Mumme et al. [38] proposed a theoretical double-sided dynamic
insulation with switchable R-values for indoor and outdoor layers, allowing interaction with distinct environments. Incorporating a
PCM layer for thermal storage, the system demonstrated up to 70 % heating and cooling energy savings in U.S. climate zone 3 across
eight U.S. climate region. Similarly, Kishore et al. [39] investigated PCM-integrated double-sided dynamic walls, showing 15–72 %
reductions in annual heat gain and 7–38 % reductions in heat loss compared to static walls in U.S. climate zones 2 to 5. Jung et al. [40]
developed an active insulation system comprising two hydronic circuits, with one dedicated to dynamic insulation and the other
connected to a thermal energy storage system. Implemented in an interior wall, this system achieved energy savings of 11.3–16.4 %
during peak cooling days in U.S. climate zones 2 to 6. Tsamis et al. [41] proposed a dynamic envelope system that adapts to varying
climate conditions by coupling or decoupling two hydronic layers. While demonstrating versatility across elements such as walls, roofs,
and floors, the study was limited to investigating thermal performance for specific operational modes and climates.
In summary, most previous studies have effectively demonstrated the potential thermal benefits of implementing DOBEs for
heating and cooling energy savings in buildings by dynamically regulating heat transfer through the envelopes and autonomously
interacting with both indoor and outdoor environments. While these studies highlight promising benefits, the following limitations
have been identified through a comprehensive literature review:

• Limited investigations into a wide range of climate conditions with practical technology: Although previous studies on theoretical
switchable insulation systems explored their feasibility and thermal benefits across various climate regions, practical technical
implementations were not introduced and remained at the conceptual stage. Most prior studies introducing either material-
oriented or technology-oriented DOBEs targeted specific climate regions due to limitations arising from the characteristics of
the materials or technologies employed. A few technology-oriented DOBEs, such as double-sided dynamic insulation systems,
investigated their benefits in various climate zones. However, these also remained at the conceptual stage, relying on theoretical
switchable insulation [38,39] or being applied to interior walls [40], rather than external envelopes, which could offer enhanced
interactions with external climates.
• Limited dynamic thermal performance for both heating and cooling: Few studies explored the benefits of DOBEs for both heating
and cooling, with most focusing on theoretical switchable insulation. Material-oriented DOBEs demonstrated limited adaptability
to varying climates because of their dependence on specific material characteristics or physical forms tailored to predominant local
climate conditions. Similarly, most technology-oriented DOBEs, particularly hydronic-based systems, targeted either heating or
cooling energy savings. While some material-oriented DOBEs achieved enhanced performance by incorporating additional dy­
namic systems [24,25], these approaches introduced complexity in practical applications. A few hydronic-based DOBEs demon­
strated potential benefits for both heating and cooling seasons [29,37], but these studies focused on limited dynamic performance,
aiming at thermally neutralizing envelopes or showing less effectiveness compared to systems optimized solely for heating or
cooling.
• Limited versatility in dynamic operational modes: Hydronic-based DOBEs have the potential to offer versatile dynamic operational
modes by manipulating water circulation, yet most prior studies primarily concentrated on providing thermal barriers. Addi­
tionally, these studies largely investigated the impacts of varying inlet water temperatures and mass flow rates. While double-sided
fluid layer systems could potentially enable versatile operational modes through two hydronic layers embedded in the envelopes,
the studies explored scenarios in which these layers operated separately. Consequently, the focus remained on either thermal
neutralization or providing a thermal barrier.

2. Motivations & objectives

If a DOBE could adapt to climate changes more actively, beyond merely adjusting thermal resistance to achieve a continuously
optimized thermal barrier, a building could achieve significant heating and cooling energy savings by maximizing the use of ambient
climate conditions. The novelty of this study lies in investigating the dynamic thermal performance of a DOBE across a wide range of
climate conditions, with a particular focus on a double-sided hydronic layer embedded in an opaque building envelope.
The double-sided hydronic layer, integrated into both the interior and exterior surfaces of the envelope, can independently respond

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to indoor and outdoor environments. Furthermore, by operating in various configurations, either coupling the layers or decoupling
them for individual control, the system can provide versatile dynamic modes that effectively adapt to changing climates.
This study aims to explore the benefits of various operational modes of the double-sided hydronic layer, emphasizing its functions
as a thermal barrier, heat exchanger, and thermal neutralizer. These features demonstrate the system’s versatility for building ap­
plications, with the potential to achieve enhanced energy savings for heating and cooling.
The ultimate goal of this study is to provide insights into the potential and limitations of the proposed technology by examining its
dynamic adaptability in detail. This includes an analysis of various thermal operational modes under varying inlet water temperatures
and mass flow rates.

3. Methodology

The study is conducted using a case study introduced in this paper and examined through computational simulation using Mod­
elica, an equation-based system modeling language [42].
Prior to proceeding with the methodology section in detail, it is essential to clarify the scope of analysis in this study primarily
focuses on investigating thermal performance. While the authors recognize potential challenges, such as condensation on envelope
surfaces and water freezing within the hydronic tubes under certain climate conditions, the study prioritizes examining the thermal
effects of the proposed DOBE. This approach aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and limitations of versatile
operational modes across various climate conditions.

3.1. The case study: A double-sided hydronic loop embedded dynamic opaque building envelope

In this study, a double-sided hydronic circuit embedded in a structural insulated panel (SIP), referred to as HydroSIP, is investigated
as a case study to evaluate the potential of utilizing double-sided dynamic technology for opaque building envelopes (Fig. 2). The
concept and theoretical aspects of HydroSIP were previously introduced in Refs. [41,43]. For the hydronic layer, a micro-capillary
tubing system was chosen.
As shown in Fig. 3, unlike conventional static walls, each surface of the HydroSIP envelope is equipped with a hydronic layer that
can be connected in a closed loop. This configuration is referred to as Heat Exchange Mode (HEM), which facilitates direct heat transfer
between distinct environments by leveraging beneficial temperature differences. When HEM is not advantageous, the hydronic layers
can be decoupled and activated individually to add or remove heat from specific building surfaces. These operational modes are
termed Isolating Modes (IMs). The operational flexibility of HydroSIP enables the implementation of various climate-adaptive IMs to
effectively regulate the indoor thermal environment. For instance, in extreme weather conditions—both hot and cold—this system can
simultaneously operate the decoupled hydronic layers to enhance the thermal performance of IM for heating or cooling. In scenarios
where the outdoor environment is extremely hot and the indoor environment requires cooling, each hydronic layer can circulate cold
water to absorb and remove heat from both sides. By modifying the configuration of the hydronic layers, the thermal resistance of the
envelope can be dynamically adjusted in response to environmental changes, thereby maximizing its effectiveness.
Consequently, HEM is categorized into two modes based on its application: 1) Heat Exchange Mode for Heating (HEM-H) and 2)
Heat Exchange Mode for Cooling (HEM-C). Similarly, IM is categorized into six operational modes depending on the activation of
individual hydronic layers: 1) Double-side Isolating Mode for Heating (DIM-H), 2) Room-side Isolating Mode for Heating (RIM-H), 3)
Outside Isolating Mode for Heating (OIM-H), 4) Double-side Isolating Mode for Cooling (DIM-C), 5) Room-side Isolating Mode for

Fig. 1. Heat transfer through conventional static envelopes and dynamic opaque building envelopes.

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Fig. 2. Double-sided hydronic layer embedded dynamic opaque building envelope.

Fig. 3. Various dynamic operational modes of HydroSIP.

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Cooling (RIM-C), and 6) Outside Isolating Mode for Cooling (OIM-C).

The eight dynamic operational modes, illustrated in Fig. 3, are thoroughly investigated in this study under various environmental
conditions and performance parameters.

3.2. Testing methods and assumptions

The application of DOBEs is significantly influenced by envelope orientations due to variations in ambient climate conditions. To
more effectively address the generalized thermal effects of the proposed DOBE and explore its potential applications, a theoretical
simple box-shaped room model was developed without specific climate requirements.
For climate conditions, the test utilized the exterior surface temperature Text.srf as a parameter to represent outdoor climate con­
ditions. Since Text.srf is affected by various outdoor environmental factors and directly impacts heat transfer between indoor and
outdoor space, it serves as a simplified representation of generalized outdoor weather conditions. To encompass a broad range of
outdoor scenarios, eight distinct values of Text.srf , ranging from − 12 ◦ C to 52 ◦ C, were employed. Additionally, two constant room air
temperatures Troom of 20 ◦ C and 26 ◦ C were selected for heating and cooling scenarios, respectively.
To provide further details, a simple box-shaped room model was developed with dimensions of 2 m (width) by 2 m (depth) by 3 m
(height). One wall of the box, measuring 2 m by 3 m, was selected to implement and evaluate the thermal performance of two distinct
building envelopes: HydroSIP and a conventional static SIP. All other surfaces of the box were considered adiabatic, with their
temperatures assumed to be equivalent to Troom . To account for convective heat transfer between the interior wall surface and the room
air, a simplified constant convective heat transfer coefficient of 3.076 W/m2K was applied. This coefficient aligns with the value used
in the simple natural convection algorithm for interior walls in EnergyPlus [44]. Since HydroSIP functions as a thermally activated
surface incorporating an embedded hydronic heating and cooling layer, it was essential to consider the effect of radiant heat exchange
among the interior surfaces on its thermal performance. Consequently, a simulation model was developed to calculate radiant heat
exchange among the interior surfaces within the room model. This process involved modifications to an existing radiant heat exchange
model named “Infrared Radiation Exchange” from the Buildings Library for Modelica [45].
As mentioned above, eight values of Text.srf and two values of Troom were selected to represent a generalized wide range of climate
conditions, generating 16 ambient climate conditions for each combination of Text.srf and Troom , necessitating either heating or cooling.
For each combination, the optimal dynamic operational modes of HydroSIP were selected, as shown in Fig. 5. This method enables a
comprehensive examination of HydroSIP’s thermal performance across various environmental conditions.
For instance, assuming an initial interior wall surface temperature Tint.srf equal to Troom , HEM-C is activated when Text.srf falls below
Troom , enabling direct heat transfer from the room to the outside. Thus, HEM-C was tested within a range of Text.srf from − 12 ◦ C to 22 ◦ C
when Troom was set at 26 ◦ C. Conversely, for HEM-H, Text.srf must be higher than Troom to provide direct heat transfer from the outside to
the room. Therefore, HEM-H was tested within a range of Text.srf from 22 ◦ C to 52 ◦ C, while Troom was set at 20 ◦ C. In instances where
ambient conditions do not align with the requirements of HEMs, IMs are activated. For example, when Troom is 20 ◦ C, necessitating
heating, and Text.srf varies between − 12 ◦ C and 18 ◦ C, IMs for heating are activated. Similarly, IMs for cooling are activated when Troom
is 26 ◦ C, requiring cooling, and Text.srf ranges from 22 ◦ C to 50 ◦ C. To understand the impacts of different IMs, all three distinct IMs
–DIM, RIM, and OIM – were analyzed for both heating and cooling scenarios.
For IM-Cs, an inlet water temperature of 15 ◦ C was used, while a temperature of 30 ◦ C was employed for IM-Hs. These values are
typical inlet water temperatures for micro-capillary radiant heating and cooling systems [46]. When one of the hydronic layers is
deactivated, as in the cases of OIM-C, RIM-C, OIM-H, and RIM-H, the initial water temperature within the deactivated hydronic layer
was set to a closer ambient temperature, either Troom or Text.srf . In the case of HEM-C and HEM-H, there is no initial inlet water
temperature because the hydronic layers are coupled and circulate water within the loop to transfer heat. Therefore, the initial
temperatures of the layers for the HEM scenarios were also set to closer ambient temperatures.
The mass flow rate is a crucial factor influencing the thermal performance of hydronic-based DOBEs. Based on recommendations
from the design handbook of micro-capillary tube networks [35], three mass flow rates—0.00075 kg/s, 0.00225 kg/s, and 0.003
kg/s—were selected for a single micro-capillary tube. Additionally, four more mass flow rates were incorporated for testing purposes
(Table 1).
A detailed summary of the assumptions and parameters used in this investigation is provided in Fig. 4. The primary objectives of the
testing include a) indoor surface heat transfer rates, b) outlet water temperatures of the micro-capillary layers, and c) the interior
surface temperature.

3.3. Construction parameters

Both the conventional SIP and HydroSIP models in this study maintained identical dimensions, each measuring 2 m in width and 3
m in height. Each consisted of two structural sheets attached to either side of an insulation foam core. For this study, it was assumed
that the structural sheets were composed of typical fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). Table 2 provides parameters for the SIP layers,

Table 1
Selected mass flow rates for a single micro-capillary tube.
Mass flow rate (kg/s) 0.0003, 0.00075, 0.0015, 0.00225, 0.003, 0.00375, and 0.0045

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Fig. 4. Assumptions in simulation models for HydroSIP-based and conventional SIP wall-based rooms.

including the insulation form core, which has a thickness of 106 mm and an RSI-Value of 2.65. This RSI-Value meets the minimum wall
insulation requirements for U.S. climate zone 4, characterized by mixed climate conditions. In the HydroSIP configuration, micro-
capillary layers containing 132 individual parallel micro-capillary tubes each were embedded between the structural sheets and the
insulation foam core. The specifications for this double-sided hydronic layer are detailed in Table 3. The same parameters listed in
Table 2 for the structural sheets and insulation foam core were also applied to the corresponding components of HydroSIP.

3.4. Simulation model development

A steady-state computational simulation model was developed using Modelica, which has emerged as a state-of-the-art building
energy modeling and simulation language [42]. The Modelica Standard Library—specifically, models within “Modelica.Fluid” [47]—

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Fig. 5. Tested HydroSIP operational modes based on the relationship between exterior surface temperature and room air temperature.

Table 2
Parameters of the structural sheet and insulation foam core.
Structural sheet Insulation foam core unit

Thickness 3 106 mm
Thermal conductivity 0.35 0.04 W/m⋅K
Specific heat capacity 1200 1400 J/kg⋅K
Density 1600 10 kg/m3

Table 3
Parameters of the micro-capillary hydronic layer.
Value Unit

Tube inner diameter 9.6 mm

Tube thickness 6.4 mm
Thermal conductivity 0.6 W/m⋅K
Tube density 1 kg/m3
Spacing between tubes 15 mm

and the Buildings Library [45] were employed to simulate heat and fluid transfer processes and to define boundary conditions in the
models. As illustrated in Fig. 6, the simulation model for the proposed system was developed hierarchically, starting with a single
micro-capillary tube, extending to a micro-capillary layer, and then integrating with the other layers of HydroSIP to complete the full
assembly of a HydroSIP model. The completed HydroSIP model was subsequently applied to the room model.
This section demonstrates each step of the hierarchical modeling process in detail.
The model for a single micro-capillary straight tube was developed based on a one-dimensional steady-state fluid model, incor­
porating steady-state heat conduction and assuming uniform surface temperatures along the tube. Properties such as density and

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Fig. 6. Hierarchical development process of a simulation model using Modelica.

specific heat capacity were assumed to remain constant throughout the process.Fig. 7 illustrates the thermal and fluid transfer as­
sumptions for the single micro-capillary tube, with each node in the diagram (Fig. 7a) corresponding to a Modelica simulation model
(Fig. 7b).
In the Modelica modeling environment, thermal energy transfer is indicated by red lines, with red-colored opaque and hollow
square symbols representing heat ports that store thermal energy information, such as temperature and heat flow rate. Fluidic transfer
is indicated by blue lines, with blue-colored opaque and hollow circular symbols representing fluid ports, which function similarly to
the heat ports by storing data such as mass flow rate and specific thermodynamic enthalpy.
For the straight tube model, a steady-state pipe model named “Pressure Drop” from the Buildings Library was employed. The
“Buildings.Fluid.Heat Exchangers.RadiantSlabs.SingleCircuitSlab” model was adapted to establish this basic singular straight tube

Fig. 7. Single straight tube simulation model’s assumptions (a) and Modelica simulation model (b).

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model, encapsulating both the thermal and fluid transfer characteristics of the tube in this study.
The convective heat transfer Qconv between the inner wall surface of the tube and the water was calculated using Equation (1),
employing the epsilon-NTU method.
⎡ ⎤
⎢(Ts − Tout ) − (Ts − Tin )⎥
Qconv = kcAΔT = kcA⎢
⎣ ( ) ⎥
⎦ (1)
ln TTss−− TTout
in

Here, kc represents the overall convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the inner wall surface area of the tube, Ts is the inner wall
surface temperature of the tube, and Tin and Tout are the inlet and outlet temperatures of the water, respectively. The value of kc is
determined as a function of the mass flow rate, using the “kc_overall” function implemented in the Modelica Standard Library.
For conductive heat transfer through the tube, a lumped heat transfer approach was assumed, which does not consider energy
storage. The thermal conductance G was defined as follows:
2kπLtube
G= (2)
log DDouter
inner

In this equation, k represents the thermal conductivity of the tube material, Ltube is the length of the tube, Douter is the tube’s outer
diameter, and Dinner is its inner diameter. Given that the micro-capillary layer in HydroSIP is positioned between a structural sheet and
foam core insulation, two heat ports and separate thermal conductance models were incorporated to compute the conductive heat
transfer across these two adjacent surfaces (Fig. 7b).
The developed single straight tube model was employed to create the micro-capillary layer model composed of multiple parallel

Fig. 8. HydroSIP Modelica simulation model.

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straight tubes. It was assumed that the layer uniformly distributes water to each tube, resulting in a consistent mass flow rate across all
tubes. Consequently, the total mass flow rate of the micro-capillary layer ṁtot was defined by equation (3) as follows:
ṁtot = ntube ṁ (3)

Here, ntube represents the number of parallel straight tubes within the layer, and ṁ is the mass flow rate of a single micro-capillary tube.
The simulation parameters are consistent across each tube, ensuring uniform computation of fluid variables at both inlets and outlets.
The micro-capillary layer model facilitated the development of the HydroSIP simulation model. HydroSIP consists of five layers
arranged sequentially from the exterior side to the interior side: a structural sheet layer, a micro-capillary layer, an insulation foam
core layer, another micro-capillary layer, and a final structural sheet layer. In Fig. 8, each node in the resistance diagram of HydroSIP
was replaced with an appropriate individual simulation model sourced from the Buildings Library and the Modelica Standard Library.
Within the model, the thermal conductance through the structural sheets and the insulation foam core was represented using a
single-layer heat conductance model from the Buildings Library. This model calculates one-dimensional steady-state conductive heat
transfer for homogenous materials, assuming uniform surface temperatures. To represent the heat transfer between the exterior and
interior environments through the micro-capillary heating and cooling layers, the heat ports of the micro-capillary models were
connected to one of the heat ports of the structural sheet model and one of the heat ports of the insulation foam core, respectively
(Fig. 8).
To compute the heat conduction between individual micro-capillary tubes and adjacent surfaces, the models representing the
structural sheets and insulation foam core were configured to align with the number of single micro-capillary tubes (ntube ). In the
HydroSIP model, the fluid dynamics were modeled under the assumption that parallel single micro-capillary tubes exhibit identical ṁ
and water temperatures. It was also assumed that the tube wall surfaces, along with the surfaces of other layers, maintain uniform
surface temperatures. As a result, the heat transfer between the exterior and interior environments through HydroSIP was modeled as
consistent across all subdivided sections of HydroSIP.
The model initially calculated the heat transfer rate for each segment between the other layers and both the outer and inner single
micro-capillary tubes. This value was subsequently multiplied by the total number of micro-capillary tubes to determine the overall
heat transfer rate of the subdivided HydroSIPs, as denoted by equation (4):

Q̇tot = ntube Q̇ (4)

Here, Q̇tot represents the total heat transfer rate between the ambient environments and the entire surface of HydroSIP, while Q̇ is the
heat transfer rate between the ambient environments and each subdivided surface of HydroSIP. Equation (4) was implemented in the
“Heat Multiplier” models of the HydroSIP Modelica model, as depicted in Fig. 8, to compute the overall heat transfer rates at the
interior and exterior surfaces of HydroSIP, respectively.
The HydroSIP model was used for room simulations. Two room simulation models were developed to represent the distinct
operational modes of HydroSIP: the HEM and IM scenarios. Fig. 9a illustrates the model for the IM scenarios. In this configuration, each
hydronic layer is connected to a separate ideal water pump, which provides a constant water temperature and ṁ to individually control
the micro-capillary hydronic layers. A constant Text.srf is applied to the exterior surface of HydroSIP, using the solid red-colored heat
port. Between the constant Troom model and the void heat port linked to the HydroSIP interior surface, convective heat transfer and
radiative heat exchange models are incorporated based on the previously addressed assumptions. Fig. 9b illustrates the model for the

Fig. 9. Modelica simulation models for (a) the IM scenarios and (b) the HEM scenarios.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

HEM scenarios, which shares a general configuration similar to the IM scenario model. However, to facilitate water circulation within a
coupled hydronic loop, only one ideal water pump model is used. The outlet fluid port from one of the micro-capillary layers is
connected to the inlet fluid port of the other micro-capillary layer, enabling water circulation within the loop.

4. Results

The study simulated 16 different environmental conditions based on two Troom settings and eight Text.srf values. Within these
conditions, eight dynamic thermal modes of HydroSIP were individually analyzed, including six IMs and two HEMs. Each simulation
employed seven distinct ṁ values. In total, 203 cases were examined to assess the thermal performance of HydroSIP under various
environmental conditions.
The primary variable for evaluating heating and cooling performance in this study was the interior surface heat flux. A positive heat
flux indicates heat flowing from the room to the panel side, representing a cooling mode, while a negative heat flux indicates heat
flowing from the panel to the room, representing a heating mode.

4.1. Investigation of the isolating modes for heating (IM-Hs)

HydroSIP offers three isolating modes for heating: DIM-H, RIM-H, and OIM-H. These modes were evaluated at a constant Troom of
20 ◦ C and Text.srf values of − 12, 0, 10, and 18 ◦ C, simulating environmental conditions requiring heating but lacking HEM potential.

Fig. 10. Thermal performance of (a) DIM-H and RIM-H and (b) OIM-H.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

The thermal performance of these modes is detailed in Fig. 10.

Compared to the interior surface heat flux of a conventional SIP wall, which ranged from 0.72 W/m2 to 11.47 W/m2, indicating
heat loss from the room to the exterior, all IM-Hs provided heating to the interior, outperforming the conventional SIP wall under the
given environmental conditions and ṁ values. Specifically, DIM-H and RIM-H shifted the interior surface heat flux to negative values,
demonstrating that HydroSIP effectively delivered heat to the room, as shown in Fig. 10a. Depending on the ṁ and operational mode,
the heat flux ranged from − 57.35 W/m2 to − 75.63 W/m2.
Notably, for RIM-H at a Text.srf of 0 ◦ C, the heat flux reached − 72.83 W/m2 at a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s, showing approximately a 20 %
improvement over the heat flux at the lowest ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s in this study. However, changes in the heat flux were minimal—less
than 3W/m2 —when the ṁ increased from 0.0015 kg/s to 0.0045 kg/s, resulting in up to a 4 % improvement. Remarkably, even at the
lowest ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s, there was a significant improvement in thermal performance compared to the conventional SIP wall,
transforming a potential heat loss of 0.72 W/m2 to 11.47 W/m2 into beneficial heat delivery to the room, ranging from − 57.35 to
− 59.95 W/m2.
The simulation results also indicated that the thermal performance of DIM-H and RIM-H was not significantly affected by Text.srf .
With HydroSIP circulating water through the micro-capillary layers at a constant inlet temperature of 30 ◦ C across different ṁ values,
the discrepancies in interior surface heat flux were less than 3 W/m2, which is considered negligible. Moreover, DIM-H and RIM-H
delivered nearly identical heating performance to the room. For instance, at a Text.srf of 10 ◦ C and a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s, the heat flux
measurements for DIM-H and RIM-H differed by only 0.01 W/m2. This minor discrepancy was consistent across all cases, with the
largest observed difference being just 0.24 W/m2.
OIM-H exhibited performance characteristics distinct from those of DIM-H and RIM-H. This difference arose from the circulation of
water in the outer micro-capillary layer at 30 ◦ C, which increased the inner surface temperature of the exterior FRP sheet. Conse­
quently, the temperature difference between the inner surface temperature of the exterior FRP sheet and Tint.srf was reduced, effectively
thermally neutralizing the wall. This change in thermal behavior led to instances where the interior surface heat flux approximated 0
W/m2, as shown in Fig. 10b. For example, at a Text.srf of 10 ◦ C, the heat flux was measured at 0.17 W/m2 with a ṁ of 0.00075 kg/s, and
at a Text.srf of 0 ◦ C, the heat flux recorded was 0.11 W/m2 with a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s.
Nonetheless, at lower ṁ values—specifically, 0.0003 kg/s and 0.00075 kg/s—most scenarios exhibited heat being released from
the room to the exterior. Despite these observations, OIM-H still outperformed the conventional SIP wall in thermal efficiency.
However, neither DIM-H nor OIM-H were deemed advantageous for sustainable building systems due to substantial heat loss from the
outer micro-capillary layer to the external environment. The findings indicated that these modes either provided heating or achieved
thermal neutralization of the wall.
As shown in Fig. 11, the temperature of the water supplied at 30 ◦ C to the outer micro-capillary layer in both DIM-H and OIM-H fell
within a range of − 2.70 ◦ C–28 ◦ C. Additionally, the study reaffirmed the similar thermal performance of DIM-H and RIM-H, noting that
the heating benefit did not increase significantly when the ṁ exceeded 0.0015 kg/s. For DIM-H, at a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s, the outlet water
temperature decreased to 13.28 ◦ C, necessitating additional heating to restore the water temperature to 30 ◦ C for effective operation of
the outer micro-capillary layer, without providing significant heating advantages.
Based on the results, the study concludes that only RIM-H should be considered a viable operational mode for effective heating.
Fig. 12 summarizes the simulation results of the three IM-Hs under specified environmental conditions at an optimal ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s.

Fig. 11. Outer micro-capillary outlet water temperatures under various exterior surface temperatures and mass flow rates for DIM-H OIM-H.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

This figure also details the surface temperatures of the layers within both the conventional SIP and HydroSIP.

4.2. Investigation of the isolating modes for cooling (IM-Cs)

HydroSIP introduces three IM-Cs: DIM-C, RIM-C and OIM-C, similar to its heating counterparts. Each mode was evaluated under
constant indoor conditions with a Troom of 26 ◦ C and varying Text.srf values of 30, 40 and 52 ◦ C, representing scenarios requiring cooling
but lacking HEM potential. Fig. 13 illustrates the thermal performance of these modes.
Contrary to the conventional SIP wall, which exhibited an interior surface heat flux ranging from − 9.34 W/m2 to − 1.44 W/
2
m —thereby increasing the room cooling load—all three IM-Cs effectively provided cooling. Both DIM-C and RIM-C achieved a

Fig. 12. Analysis summary of IM-Hs.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

positive interior surface heat flux, demonstrating that HydroSIP provided cooling effects and counteracted the negative thermal impact
of the conventional SIP wall, thereby reducing the room cooling load. The heat flux achieved by these modes ranged from 63.44 W/m2
to 81.58 W/m2 (Fig. 13a).
DIM-C and RIM-C showed closely similar cooling performance across all tested environmental conditions. Although cooling per­
formance was influenced by these environmental conditions, the average difference in interior surface heat flux between DIM-C and
RIM-C at identical ṁ values was minimal, at just 0.3 W/m2. For instance, at a Text.srf of 52 ◦ C, DIM-C achieved a heat flux of 64.15 W/m2
at a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s. Meanwhile, RIM-C, at the same ṁ, provided a heat flux of 65.10 W/m2 when Text.srf was 30 ◦ C. The maximum
observed difference in cooling performance under the same ṁ was only 0.95 W/m2, suggesting that DIM-C and RIM-C exhibit nearly
identical cooling performance when operated at the same ṁ.
The mass flow rate significantly influenced cooling performance in the HydroSIP system. For instance, at a Text.srf of 40 ◦ C and a ṁ of
0.0015 kg/s, a heat flux of 79.27 W/m2 was measured, showing approximately a 22 % improvement in cooling performance compared
to the flux of 65.39 W/m2 at a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s under identical external conditions. However, similar to IM-Hs, the heat flux exhibited

Fig. 13. Thermal performance of (a) DIM-C and RIM-C and (b) OIM-C.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

minimal variation when the ṁ exceeded 0.0015 kg/s. At the highest tested ṁ of 0.0045 kg/s, the average interior surface heat flux
across all simulation cases was 81.51 W/m2, resulting in only a modest 3 % improvement in cooling performance compared to the flux
at a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s.
OIM-C exhibited distinct performance characteristics compared to the other modes. The circulation of water at a temperature of
15 ◦ C in the outer micro-capillary layer reduced temperature difference between the inner surface temperature of the exterior FRP
sheet and Troom . This configuration decreased heat transfer to the room or effectively neutralized heat transfer through the wall. Several
instances of nearly zero heat flow were observed, as illustrated in Fig. 13b. For example, at a Text.srf of 52 ◦ C and a ṁ of 0.00225 kg/s,
the heat flux measured was 0.53 W/m2, and at a Text.srf of 40 ◦ C with a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s, the heat flux was 0.86 W/m2.
Although a few cases, such as those at ṁ values of 0.00075 kg/s and 0.0003 kg/when Text.srf was 52 ◦ C, exhibited a slight increase in
room air cooling load, these instances still demonstrated a reduction of up to 6.37 W/m2, representing a 68 % reduction in heat gain
compared to conventional SIP wall applications.
DIM-C and OIM-C, which activate the outer micro-capillary layer, offer significant potential for harnessing renewable thermal
energy sources. These modes circulate cool water through the outer micro-capillary layer to provide additional cooling or thermally
neutralize the envelope by absorbing heat from the exterior environment. Consequently, the water in the circuit collects free thermal
energy, predominantly from solar radiation, which can be effectively reused if the system is integrated with thermal energy storage.
Fig. 14 shows that lower ṁ values exhibit higher potential for storing free thermal energy. For instance, at a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s, the
inlet water temperature in the outer micro-capillary layer, initially set at 15 ◦ C, increased to 43.78 ◦ C. Assuming higher Text.srf values
correlate with greater solar energy potential, HydroSIP can effectively harvest solar energy through the activation of DIM-C or OIM-C,
while simultaneously providing cooling to the building.
The study revealed that DIM-C does not outperform RIM-C in terms of cooling efficacy. OIM-C is better suited for thermally
neutralizing the building envelope rather than providing substantial cooling, thereby limiting its application potential. However, DIM-
C could be effectively utilized in buildings located in extremely hot climates or those aiming to harness ambient renewable thermal
energy. OIM-C is more appropriate for buildings in colder climates where minimal cooling is required but where there is potential for
solar thermal energy harvesting. It is important to emphasize that both modes achieve optimal performance when integrated with a
thermal energy storage system. Without such integration, additional energy may be required to cool the outlet water from the outer
micro-capillary layer back to the desired inlet water temperature necessary for cooling.
Fig. 15 summarizes the simulation results for the three IM-Cs under the specified environmental conditions, with a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s
identified as optimal within the study range. This figure also presents detailed surface temperature profiles of the layers within both the
conventional SIP and HydroSIP.

4.3. Investigation of the heat exchange modes (HEMs)

HEM-C and HEM-H were analyzed individually in this study, with the initial water temperature in the coupled double-sided hy

Fig. 14. Outer micro-capillary outlet water temperatures under various exterior surface temperatures and mass flow rates for DIM-C OIM-C.

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Fig. 15. Analysis summary of IM-Cs.

dronic circuit set to match Troom . For the HEM-C analysis, Troom was set at 26 ◦ C, and five Text.srf values of − 12, 0, 10, 18, and 22 ◦ C were
examined. In the case of HEM-H, Troom was maintained at 20 ◦ C, with four Text.srf values of 22, 30, 40, and 52 ◦ C under consideration.
As demonstrated in Fig. 16, both modes significantly altered heat transfer within the building envelope and effectively provided
heating or cooling, even with minimal temperature differences between Text.srf and Troom as small as 2 ◦ C. For instance, HEM-H
delivered a heat flux of 9.32 W/m2 to the room at a temperature difference of 2 ◦ C, with a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s. In contrast, the con­
ventional SIP wall exhibited a heat release of 0.72 W/m2 from the room to the outside, thereby increasing the heating load under the
same environmental conditions.
The thermal performance improved as the temperature difference between the environments increased. For HEM-C, cooling

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Fig. 16. Thermal performance of (a) HEM-C and (b) HEM-H.

performance peaked at 172.81 W/m2 at a ṁ of 0.003 kg/s when Text.srf was − 12 ◦ C, resulting in a 38 ◦ C temperature difference between
Troom and Text.srf . The highest performance for HEM-H was observed with a heat flux of − 155.05 W/m2 when Text.srf was 52 ◦ C, with a ṁ
of 0.0003 kg/s.
The study also highlighted that lower ṁ values outperformed higher ones for HEMs. When ṁ was increased to 0.0045 kg/s, the
average thermal performance of HEMs was found to be 73.2 % and 71.8 % lower than the average performance at a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s
for heating and cooling, respectively. Consequently, HEMs require a low ṁ value to effectively provide heating or cooling.
Fig. 17 summarizes the simulation results for both HEM-C and HEM-H at a ṁ of 0.0003 kg/s, which produced the maximum heating
and cooling performances. These results are directly compared with those of the conventional SIP wall under the same environmental
conditions. Additionally, the figure provides detailed surface temperatures of the layers within both the conventional SIP wall and
HydroSIP, facilitating comprehensive analysis and comparison.

5. Discussion

The study aimed to investigate the dynamic performance of the proposed hydronic-based DOBE with eight different operational

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Fig. 17. Analysis summary of HEMs.

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modes across a wide range of climate conditions. Specifically, the study focused on determining whether the proposed operational
modes of the double-sided hydronic layer could achieve thermal blocking, exchanging, and neutralizing effects to reduce building
heating and cooling loads. Additionally, the study analyzed the impact of varying mass flow rates on system performance.
The operational modes are broadly classified into two categories. The IM scenarios operate both hydronic layers individually to
block or neutralize heat transfer through the wall while providing heating or cooling. In contrast, the HM scenarios aim to directly
transfer heat from one side to the other by utilizing the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor spaces.
All three IM-H modes demonstrated substantial improvements in thermal performance compared to the conventional SIP wall, as
shown in Table 4. DIM-H and RIM-H were notably effective, delivering approximately 73 W/m2 of heat to the room across all tested
climate conditions, whereas the conventional SIP wall exhibited heat loss from the room to the exterior. The study also indicated that
DIM-H provided a marginal heating performance enhancement of less than 2 W/m2 compared to RIM-H, suggesting that the activation
of the outer micro-capillary layer has minimal impact on the heating performance of HydroSIP. Similarly, while OIM-H reduced heat
loss from the room by thermally neutralizing the wall, a significant amount of heat was still lost to the exterior through the outer micro-
capillary layer under cold climate conditions. Consequently, RIM-H was identified as the optimal dynamic thermal mode for IM-H.
Among the tested ṁ values, a ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s was identified as optimal. Exceeding this rate resulted in up to a 4 % increase in
interior surface heat flux compared to the performance at 0.0015 kg/s. However, the potential for significant pressure drops across the
hydronic layers at higher ṁ values suggests that operating the system at these rates would require substantial operational energy while
providing only marginal heating benefits.
IM-C modes demonstrated similar results to IM-H modes, as detailed in Table 5. DIM-C and RIM-C effectively provided cooling
across the tested climate conditions, in contrast to the conventional SIP wall, which increased the room cooling load. As with DIM-H,
DIM-C did not enhance the cooling performance of HydroSIP compared to RIM-C, indicating that the outer micro-capillary layer does
not significantly contribute to cooling performance improvement.
However, the significant increase in outlet water temperature from the outer micro-capillary layer in DIM-C suggests that it can
effectively harvest free thermal energy from the external environment. The heat collected by HydroSIP could be utilized as a free
heating source when integrated with a thermal energy storage system. OIM-C, which utilizes only the outer micro-capillary, also
demonstrated potential for effectively harvesting free thermal energy for later use. Additionally, it reduced the room cooling load
through thermal neutralization of the wall, making it particularly effective in cold climate regions where cooling demands are
minimal.
The same optimal ṁ of 0.0015 kg/s identified for IM-H modes was also found to be optimal for IM-C modes, highlighting the
similarity in how both modes utilize hydronic layers, differing only in the inlet water temperature required for heating or cooling
purposes.
HEMs for both heating and cooling demonstrated significant potential for harnessing low-grade ambient thermal energy sources by
altering the thermodynamics of a building envelope through the utilization of temperature differences between indoor and outdoor
environments.
HEM-C absorbed heat from the indoor environment and released it directly outdoors by employing a coupled double-sided micro-
capillary layer. Conversely, HEM-H harnessed heat from the outdoor environment to warm the indoor space. Under the conditions
studied, the interior surface heat flux increased by up to 143.57 W/m2 with HEM-H for heating and 159.16 W/m2 with HEM-C for
cooling, compared to the heat flux of a conventional SIP wall (Table 6). The results further indicated that HEM-C and HEM-H out­
performed IMs when the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor environments exceeded 15 ◦ C. Additionally, HEMs were
effective in enhancing heat transfer for heating and cooling even when the temperature difference between environments was as small
as 2 ◦ C.
The study highlights that HEMs function optimally at a low ṁ value. A reduced ṁ allows the water in the circuit sufficient time to
absorb or release heat to or from the environment, thereby enhancing thermal performance. The optimal ṁ value for HEMs was
identified as 0.0003 kg/s, providing the most effective energy transfer in the context of HEM operations and maximizing the benefits of
ambient thermal energy utilization.

6. Conclusion

In this study, a comprehensive investigation was conducted to assess the thermal effects of a double-sided hydronic layer embedded
DOBE, called HydroSIP. The investigation was performed at the module scale, with a comparison to the thermal performance of a
conventional static SIP wall. The study focused on analyzing eight dynamic operational modes of the proposed DOBE to evaluate its
potential as a thermal barrier, exchanger, and neutralizer, contributing to a versatile DOBE system capable of adapting to a wide range
of climate conditions.
A steady-state simulation model was developed using Modelica. The ultimate goal of this study was to provide insights into the
potential and limitations of the proposed system, including optimal operational conditions for specific mass flow rates. Beyond
examining this particular building envelope technology, the study also explored broader possibilities for DOBEs by analyzing a
comprehensive range of potential operational modes, which could be further developed independently.
The key findings of the study are summarized as follows:

• All the IM operational scenarios demonstrated substantial thermal benefits as a thermal barrier, with some thermal neutralizing
effects also observed. These findings illustrate versatile climate adaptations that could reduce building heating and cooling energy

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Table 4
Analysis summary of optimal IM-Hs.
Room air temperature Exterior surface temperature
20 ◦ C (heating required)
− 12 ◦ C 0 ◦C 10 ◦ C 18 ◦ C
2 2 2
Conventional SIP heat flux 11.47 W/m 7.17 W/m 3.59 W/m 0.72 W/m2
HydroSIP DIM-H heat flux − 73.10 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 73.17 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 73.23 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 73.28 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s
HydroSIP RIM-H heat flux − 72.62 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 72.83 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 73.01 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 73.14 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s
HydroSIP OIM-H heat flux 1.57 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 0.11 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 1.11 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 2.09 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s

Table 5
Analysis summary of optimal IM-Cs.
Room air temperature Exterior surface temperature
26 ◦ C (cooling required)
30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 52 ◦ C
2 2
Conventional SIP heat flux − 1.44 W/m − 5.03 W/m − 9.34 W/m2
HydroSIP DIM-C heat flux 79.21 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 79.16 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 79.09 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s
HydroSIP RIM-C heat flux 79.05 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 78.89 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 78.70 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s
HydroSIP OIM-C heat flux 2.08 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s 0.86 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s − 0.61 W/m2 at 0.0015 kg/s

Table 6
Analysis summary of optimal HEM-Hs and HEM-Cs.
Room air temperature Exterior surface temperature
20 ◦ C (heating required)
22 ◦ C 30 ◦ C 40 ◦ C 52 ◦ C
2 2 2
Conventional SIP heat flux − 0.72 W/m − 3.59 W/m − 7.17 W/m − 11.48 W/m2
HydroSIP HEM-H heat flux − 9.32 W/m2 at 0.0003 kg/s − 47.10 W/m2 at 0.0003 kg/s − 95.42 W/m2 at 0.0003 kg/s − 155.05 W/m2 at 0.0003 kg/s

Room air temperature Exterior surface temperature

26 ◦ C (cooling
− 12 ◦ C 0 ◦C 10 ◦ C 18 ◦ C 22 ◦ C
required)

Conventional SIP heat 13.65 W/m2 9.34 W/m2 5.75 W/m2 2.87 W/m2 1.44 W/m2
flux
HydroSIP HEM-C heat 172.81 W/m2 at 0.0003 120.13 W/m2 at 0.0003 74.90 W/m2 at 0.0003 37.84 W/m2 at 0.0003 19.02 W/m2 at 0.0003
flux kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s kg/s

use compared to a conventional static wall. However, the impact of operating the outer hydronic layer in these modes was marginal
in terms of enhancing heating and cooling performance.
• The implementation of the outer hydronic layer demonstrated potential for harvesting solar thermal energy as a supplemental
benefit in cooling modes, particularly when used in IM-Cs. This observation underscores the potential advantages of integrating
climate-adaptive opaque envelope systems with thermal energy storage systems. Conversely, activating the outer layer in IM-Hs
resulted in energy losses to the outdoor environment with minimal improvement in heating performance.
• Substantial benefits as a heat exchanger were also observed. Both the HEM heating and cooling modes effectively transferred heat
between distinct spaces by solely leveraging the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor environments. These modes
demonstrated significant potential for energy savings while requiring minimal operational energy to circulate water within the
closed-loop system embedded in the building envelope.

Although this study demonstrated the benefits of a double-sided hydronic layer embedded in a DOBE, each dynamic operational
mode was analyzed individually under steady-state environmental conditions. To comprehensively evaluate the benefits of the pro­
posed system, annual dynamic simulations at a building scale are required, complemented by the development of a dynamic control
strategy.
Moreover, the performance of DOBEs may vary depending on different opaque envelope applications, such as walls with varying
orientations or roof implementations. These variations necessitate further research to evaluate their effectiveness across diverse
scenarios. Additionally, since this study primarily focused on thermal performance, critical challenges associated with hydronic-based
systems, such as condensation and water freezing, should be addressed in future studies.
Lastly, the HydroSIP system demonstrated potential for reducing building energy use when integrated with thermal energy storage
systems. Additional research is needed to explore integration approaches and optimize system performance.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Youngjin Hwang: Methodology, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Amogh Wasti: Validation, Methodology. Theodorian

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Y. Hwang et al. Journal of Building Engineering 102 (2025) 111943

Borca-Tasciuc: Supervision, Methodology. Alexandros Tsamis: Conceptualization.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing in­
terests: Alexandros Tsamis, Theodorian Borca-Tasciuc, and Youngjin Hwang has patent #US 2023/0045768 A1 pending to Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute. If there are other authors, they declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal re­
lationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgments

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support and funding for this research provided by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

Nomenclature

DOBE Dynamic opaque building envelope

PCM Phase change material
SIP Structural insulated panel
HEM Heat exchange mode
IM Isolating mode
HEM-H Heat exchange mode for heating
HEM-C Heat exchange mode for cooling
DIM-H Double-sided isolating mode for heating
RIM-H Room-side isolating mode for heating
OIM-H Outside isolating mode for heating
DIM-C Double-sided isolating mode for cooling
RIM-C Room-side isolating mode for cooling
OIM-C Outside isolating mode for cooling
FRP Fiber-reinforced polymer
Text.srf Exterior surface temperature
Tint.srf Interior surface temperature
Troom Room air temperature
Qconv Convective heat transfer
kc Overall convective heat transfer coefficient
A Inner wall surface area of a single micro-capillary tube
Ts - Inner wall surface temperature of a single micro-capillary tube
Tin Inlet temperature of the water
Tout Outlet temperature of the water
G Thermal conductance
Ltube Length of a single micro-capillary tube
Douter Outer diameter of a single micro-capillary tube
Dinner Inner diameter of a single micro-capillary tube
ṁ Mass flow rate of a single micro-capillary tube
ṁtot Total mass flow rate of a micro-capillary layer
ntube Number of parallel straight tubes within a micro-capillary layer
Q̇ Heat transfer rate between ambient environments and the subdivided surface of HydroSIP
Q̇tot Heat transfer rate between ambient environments and the entire surface of HydroSIP

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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