FOUNDATION
Prof. Rajesh Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Visiting Professor, Gati Shakti Vishwavidyalaya,
Vadodara 1
Topics to be Covered
➢ Structure
➢ Components of Structure
➢ Importance of Substructure
➢ Objectives of Foundation
➢ Types of Loads
➢ Bearing Capacity of Soil
➢ Types of Settlements in Foundation
➢ Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation
➢ Types of Foundations
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Substructure (Foundation of a Building)
A structure consists of two components
1. Superstructure – The part above the plinth level (the visible portion of the building)
2. Substructure – The part below the plinth level, also known as the foundation
Importance of Substructure
• The foundation is crucial as it transfers the building load to the soil
• Around 30% of the total construction cost is spent on the foundation
• The foundation soil must be stable to prevent settlement and structural failure
A strong site selection and foundation design ensure long-term stability, safety, and cost-
effectiveness in construction
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Objectives of a Foundation
A foundation is crucial to any structure, designed to ensure stability, safety, and durability
The primary purposes of a foundation are:
❖ Load Distribution
• A foundation distributes the total load of the structure over a larger area
• This prevents excessive pressure on the soil, reducing the chances of settlement or
structural failure
❖ Structural Support
• It supports the entire structure, ensuring it remains stable and secure over time
• Prevents tilting, sinking, or collapse under its weight
❖ Stability Against Disturbing Forces
• Provides resistance against natural forces such as wind, rain, earthquakes, and soil
movement
• Ensures that the building remains upright and undamaged even under extreme
conditions
❖ Level Surface Preparation
• The foundation creates a level and firm base for concreting and masonry work
• This ensures the construction process with proper alignment and placement
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Site Inspection
A general site inspection helps determine the suitable foundation type for construction
It includes:
❖ Water Table: Effect of water table variations on ground stability
❖ Storm Water Disposal: Drainage and water management at the site
❖ Soil Nature: Visual examination of soil type
❖ Ground Movement: Susceptibility to earthquakes, landslides
❖ Soil Quality & Thickness:
• Test Pits: Excavation to foundation level for direct examination
• Electrical Methods: Measuring soil resistance to assess quality
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Types of Loads
The type of foundation depends on the loads it bears, which are classified as:
1.Dead Load:
• Self-weight of building components.
• Includes provisions for future construction.
• Requires knowledge of building material weights for accurate calculation.
2.Live Load (Superimposed Load):
• Movable loads on the floor.
• Includes:
• Weight of people standing on a floor.
• Temporary material storage.
• Snow load (if applicable).
3.Wind Load:
• Significant in tall buildings.
• Wind pressure affects exposed walls and roofs.
• Causes pressure variation:
• Windward side: Decreased foundation pressure.
• Leeward side: Increased foundation pressure.
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Bearing Capacity of Soil
❖ Definition: Maximum load per unit area soil can safely resist without failure (know as ultimate
bearing capacity)
❖ Safe Bearing Capacity: Obtained by dividing ultimate bearing capacity by a factor of safety
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑺𝑩𝑪 =
𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒇𝒆𝒕𝒚
❖ Permissible Foundation Settlement:
➢ Angular Distortion: 1/500 (permissible), 1/1000 (desirable) for concrete structures.
➢ Differential Settlement Limits:
• Sandy Soil: ≤ 25 mm
• Clayey Soil: ≤ 40 mm
❖ Adjustments for Water Table & Soil Type:
• Non-cohesive soils (sand, gravel): Reduce allowable bearing capacity by 50% if water table
is near the bearing surface.
• Reclaimed/Shrinkable Soils: Assumed 50 kN/m² in absence of site data.
❖ Determination:
• Standard penetration test (SPT), plate load test.
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Types
TypesofofSettlements
SettlementsininFoundation
Foundation
The main types of foundation settlement are uniform settlement, differential settlement, and
tipping settlement.
❖ Uniform settlement
• Occurs when a structure is built on a single layer of soil
• The entire structure settles by the same amount
• The least concerning type of settlement
❖ Tipping settlement
• Can cause the entire structure to collapse
❖ Differential settlement
• Occurs when one part of a structure settles more than another part
• Can be caused by variations in soil, loads, or structural systems
• Can cause the structure to tilt, crack, and catastrophic failure 8
Types of Settlements in Foundation
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Essential Requirements of a Good Foundation
The following are the essential requirements of a good foundation:
❖ The foundation should be so located that it can resist any unexpected future
influence that may adversely affect its performance.
❖ The foundation should be stable or safe against any possible failure.
❖ The foundation should not settle or deflect to such an extent that will impair its
usefulness
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Types of Foundations
Foundation may be broadly classified into the following two categories.
1. Shallow foundation 2. Deep foundation
1. Shallow Foundation:
A shallow foundation is one in which the depth is equal to or less than its width ( Depth ≤ Width )
➢ Suitable for light structures on strong soils
➢ Types:
1.Isolated Column Footing – Supports single columns.
2.Wall Footing – Supports load-bearing walls.
3.Combined Footing – Supports two or more columns.
4.Cantilever Footing – Used when columns are near boundaries.
5.Continuous Footing – Supports multiple columns in a row.
6.Inverted Arch Footing – Used for weak soil conditions.
7.Grillage Foundation – Used for heavy loads on weak soil.
8.Raft (Mat) Foundation – Spreads load over a large area.
9.Stepped Foundation – Used on sloped ground for stability
2. Deep Foundation:
➢ When the depth is more than the width, it is termed as a deep foundation ( Depth > Width )
➢ Used for heavy loads or weak soil conditions
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Isolated Footing
Use in Framed Structures: Isolated footings are used when multiple columns need support.
Concrete Footing: It can be molded into any shape, often designed with a sloping profile for
even load distribution.
Types of Isolated Footings:
•Stepped Footing: Used for heavily loaded columns, increasing width in steps.
•Sloped Footing: Width increases gradually towards the bottom, providing a smoother load
transfer.
Function: The primary role of an isolated footing is to safely transfer column loads to the
soil, preventing excessive settlement or failure.
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RCC Isolated Footing
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Isolated Footing
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Wall Footing
Wall Footing (Load-Bearing Walls)
•Definition: A continuous footing provided along the length of a load-bearing wall.
•Types: Simple or stepped.
Depth of Footing
𝑃 (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)2
•Formula (Rankine’s Formula): 𝐷 = ×
𝑊 (1+ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)2
Where:
D= Minimum depth of footing (m)
P = Safe bearing capacity of soil (kg/m²)
W = Unit weight of soil (kg/m³)
∅= Angle of repose of soil (°)
•Minimum Depth: 90 cm for stability.
Width of Footing
𝑇
Formula: 𝐵 =
𝑃
Where:
B = Width of footing (m)
T = Total load per meter run (kg)
P = Safe bearing capacity of soil (kg/m²) 15
Wall Footing (Stone and Brick Footing)
Fig. Stone Foundation Fig. Brick Foundation
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Combined Footing
Combined Footing
➢ Used When:
•Two or more columns are closed, and individual footings overlap.
➢ Design Principle:
•Center of gravity (CG) of loads must align with CG of footing for balanced load
distribution.
➢ Shapes:
•Rectangular Footing – For equal column loads.
•Trapezoidal Footing – For unequal column loads.
➢ Purpose:
•Ensures uniform load transfer and prevents uneven settlement.
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Combined Footing
Fig. Combined Footing
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Strip Footing
❖ Definition:
• A type of shallow foundation used when good bearing soil is available within 3m depth.
• Provided along the length of load-bearing walls, hence also called wall footing.
❖ Types of Strip Footing:
1. Simple Footing:
• Used for light structures (e.g., residential buildings).
• Made of cement or lime concrete.
• Offset (projection beyond wall face): 15 cm on each side.
2. Stepped Footing:
• Used on sloping ground to avoid deep excavation.
• Made of brick/stone masonry with a concrete bed below ground.
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Strip Footing
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Strip Footing
❖ Width of Footing:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑢𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑁
Width=
𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚2
❖ Depth of Footing (Rankine’s Formula):
𝑃 (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)2
𝐷= ×
𝑊 (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛∅)2
D = Minimum footing depth
P = Safe bearing capacity of soil
W = Unit weight of soil
ϕ = Angle of repose of soil
❖ Minimum Depth:
• 900 mm for load-bearing walls (as per stability criteria).
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Strip Footing
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Cantilever Footing
❖ Cantilever Footing (Strap Footing):
➢ Consists of:
• Eccentric footing for exterior column.
• Concentric footing for interior column.
• Connected by a strap beam (cantilever
beam).
➢ Used when:
• A footing cannot be placed directly below
a column due to boundary limitations or
eccentric loading.
• The exterior column load is balanced by
the interior column load acting about a
fulcrum.
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Grillage Foundation
❖ Grillage Foundation:
➢ Used to transfer heavy loads from steel columns to soil with low bearing
capacity.
➢ Constructed using Rolled Steel Joists (RSJ) arranged in single or double
tiers.
➢ Double-tier arrangement:
•Top tier placed at right angles to the bottom tier.
•Distance between RSJ flanges = 1.5 to 2 times flange width (or 30 cm,
whichever is smaller).
➢ Concrete filling:
•Does not carry load, only holds steel joists in place and prevents
corrosion.
•Minimum 15 cm thick concrete bed required.
➢ Can be used for single or multiple columns.
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Grillage Foundation
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Grillage Footing
Fig. Grilage Footing
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Continuous Footing
❖ Continuous Footing:
•A single continuous RC slab is the foundation for three or more columns in a row.
•Prevents differential settlement and enhances earthquake resistance.
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Raft Footing
Raft (Mat) Foundation
❖ Used when:
• Heavy loads are applied to structures.
• The bearing capacity of the soil is very low.
❖ Construction:
• A continuous concrete slab covers the entire area beneath the structure, distributing
the load evenly.
• Prevents differential settlement and reduces contact pressure.
• Counteracts hydrostatic uplift in waterlogged conditions.
❖ Raft Foundation is adopted:
• If the total area of isolated footings exceeds 50% of the building footprint, it is more
economical to use a single raft foundation.
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Raft Footing
Fig. Raft Footing
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Deep Foundation
Deep foundations are used when shallow foundations are not feasible due to weak soil conditions
at shallow depths.
Types of Deep Foundations
1. Pile Foundation
2. Under-Reamed Piles
3. Timber Piles
4. Composite Piles
• Timber & Concrete Piles
• Steel & Concrete Piles
5. Steel Piles
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Deep Foundation
Types of Deep Foundations
1. Pile Foundation
•Function: Transfers structural loads deeper into the ground either by friction
or end-bearing or combined.
•Types:
• Friction Piles: Load is transferred through friction between the pile
and soil.
• End-Bearing Piles: Load is transferred to a hard stratum beneath the
pile.
•Materials Used:
• Friction Piles: Cast iron, concrete, timber, steel, wrought iron,
composite materials.
• Load-Bearing Piles: Steel sheet piles, concrete piles, timber piles.
•Construction Types:
• Cast-in-Situ or Precast piles.
• Cased or Uncased piles.
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Deep Foundation
Fig. Pile Foundation
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Deep Foundation
2. Under-Reamed Piles
•Used in: Expansive soils that swell and shrink,
causing foundation cracks.
•Function: Transfers load to a firm soil stratum
with better bearing capacity.
•Types:
• Single Under-Reamed Pile
• Double Under-Reamed Pile (both under-
reams must rest within firm soil).
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Deep Foundation
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Deep Foundation
3. Timber Piles
• Material: Wooden logs, free from defects.
• Shape: Circular or square.
• Size: 30 cm – 50 cm diameter.
• Length Limitation: Should not exceed 20 times the top width to
avoid buckling.
• Features:
• Iron shoe at the bottom for penetration.
• Steel plate at the top for load transfer.
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Deep Foundation
4. Composite Piles
❖ Combination of two materials to improve durability and cost-
efficiency.
❖ Types:
• Timber & Concrete Piles (Timber below water table, Concrete
above).
• Steel & Concrete Piles (H-Pile or steel pile attached to lower end
of concrete pile).
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Deep Foundation
5. Steel Piles
❖ Types:
➢ Rolled Steel H-Section Piles (easy to drive, projects above ground).
➢ Box Piles (Rectangular/Octagonal, filled with concrete).
➢ Tube Piles (Hollow cylindrical piles).
❖ Advantages: High strength, no length restrictions.
➢ Disadvantages: Susceptible to corrosion (salt, moisture, acid, oxygen).
➢ Protection Methods:
• Increased pile thickness.
• Concrete encasement.
• Chemical coatings/paint.
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Deep Foundation
❖ Caisson Foundation (Well Foundation)
Used primarily for underwater structures such as docks and bridges. It is hollow inside, resembling
a well, and transfers loads through the surrounding wall called steining
❖ Construction Process
1. Well Structure is constructed separately and transported to the site
2. Gradually driven down by removing soil from inside
3. Bottom plugged with concrete
4. Hollow portion filled with sand
5. Well cap added, followed by construction of the superstructure
❖ Advantages of Well Foundations
• Can reach great depths
• Cost-effective construction 38
Deep Foundation
Components of a Well Foundation
• Cutting edge
• Well curb
• Bottom plug
• Steining (Reinforced concrete side wall)
• Top plug
• Well cap
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Deep Foundation
Types of Well Foundations (Shapes
in Plan)
1.Circular
2.Twin Circular
3.Double-D
4. Dumb well
5. Twin hexagonal
6. Twin octagonal
7. Rectangular
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Deep Foundation
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Deep Foundation
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Cofferdam
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