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Getting Started
About This Book
Eight Standards for Mathematical Practice
Test-Taking Strategies Or

Chapter R: Review
R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions G @ A-CED.1; A-CED.4; A-REI.3 Ol

Writing and Evaluating Algebraic Expressions

Solving Equations
Literal Equations 13
R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change 14
The Slope-Intercept Form of a Line 14
Rate of Change 18

R.3 Functions A-REI.10; F-IF.1; F-IF.2 2

Graphs of Functions 23

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities G A-CED.3; 25

A-REI.5; A-REI.6; A-REI.11; A-REI.12
Solving Systems of Equations by Graphing Zo
Solving Systems by Elimination or Substitution 28
Graphing Linear Inequalities OZ
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities by Graphing Be

R.5 Polynomial Operations A-SSE.2; A-APR.1 36

Power Rules 36
Products and Quotients to a Power OL
Zero and Negative Exponents 38
Multiplying Polynomials 39

R.6 Parabolas eG F-BE.3 41

Translating Parabolas in Vertex Form 42

Key to the icons:

The computer icon indicates Digital Activities that can be found at www.amscomath.com.
The globe icon @ indicates where Real-World Model Problems are found in the text.

Contents
Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2 4a

1.1 Functions aN F-BE.3 45

Properties of Functions 45
Domain and Range of Functions 48
Translating Function Graphs 49
Scaling Function Graphs 52
Odd and Even Functions 52

1.2 Models 54
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Drawing a Scatter Plot 55
Modeling Data with Trend Lines 56
Regression D7
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Linear Models 58
Multi-Part Problem Practice 63

1.3 Working with Models > ©) n-0.2; A-Sse-1a; A-CED.3; F-BF1a 64

Linear Programming 65
Multi-Part Problem Practice 70

1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations and Expressions A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.2; A-REI.6 wh

The Form of an Equation 71
Structure and Factoring 7a
Systems of Equations with More than Two Variables 2

Chapter 1 Key Ideas 74

Chapter 1 Review oS

Chapter 2: Quadratics 78

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials A-SSE.2 72

Special Product Patterns 80
Structure and Factoring 82
Factoring by Grouping 84

2.2 Polynomial Patterns A-SSE.2 85

Factoring Sums and Differences of Cubes 85
Factoring Two-Variable Polynomials 86

2.3 Patterns and Equations © A-SSE.2; A-APR.4 88

Algebra 1 Review: The Square Root Principle 88
Algebra 1 Review: The Zero-Product Property 89
Using Structure in Expressions to Solve an Equation oD
Factoring and Identities oo

iv Contents
 2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula © A-REI.4a; A-REI.4b 94
Completing the Square 94
The Quadratic Formula of.
Graphing Calculator: The Quadratic Formula 29
Multi-Part Problem Practice 102
2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers N-CN.1; N-CN.2; N-CN.8 103
Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers 104
Multiplying Complex Numbers 105
Optional: Complex Conjugates 106
Factoring Identities and Complex Numbers 107

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations N-CN.7; A-APR.3; A-REI.4b; F-IF.8a 108

Graphs and the Number of Solutions to a Quadratic 108
Graphing Calculator: Graphing Quadratic Equations 109
The Discriminant 109
Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations 110

2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions G © A-CED.2; F-IF.4; S-ID.6a 114

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling with Quadratic Functions 114
Multi-Part Problem Practice 118

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin eG © G-GPE.2 118

Geometric Definition of a Parabola 118
Graphing a Parabola at the Origin 120

Chapter 2 Key Ideas 126

Chapter 2 Review 27
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-2 129

Chapter 3: Polynomials 132

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials A-SSE.2; A-APR.1 133

Combining Like Terms in Multivariable Polynomials 134
Evaluating Multivariable Polynomials 135
Operations with Multivariable Polynomials 136

3.2 Dividing Polynomials A-APR.6 138

Long Division of Polynomials 138
Long Division of Polynomials with Remainder 141
Synthetic Division 142
Dividing Expressions Using a Computer Algebra System 146

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems A-APR.2 147

The Remainder Theorem 147
The Factor Theorem 148

Contents Vv
 3.4 Solving Polynomial Equations Algebraically A-SSE.1a; A-APR.3 152
Solving Cubic Equations 152
Solving Quartic Equations 153

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions G N-CN.9; A-APR.3; F-IF.7c 154

Graphing Polynomial Functions by Plotting Points 156
Graphing Calculator: Graphing Polynomial Functions 15Z
Graphing Polynomial Functions Using Zeros 159
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 160
Linear Factorization Theorem 160
Summary of Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 161

3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs 165

3.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions F-BF.3 168
3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions © A-CED.2; A-CED.3; F-IE.4; F-IE.6; 170
F-IF.7c; F-IF.9

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling Polynomial Functions 170

Multi-Part Problem Practice 174

3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations A-REI.7; A-REI.11 175

Solving Polynomial Systems Graphically 175
Graphing Calculator: Solving a System of Polynomial Equations 176
Solving Polynomial Systems Algebraically AZZ,
Multi-Part Problem Practice 178

Chapter 3 Key Ideas 179

Chapter 3 Review 180
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-3 182

Chapter 4: Rational Expressions 184

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions © A-SSE.1a; A-SSE.1b; 1S5

A-SSE.2; A-APR.6; A-APR.7
Simplifying Rational Expressions 185
Multiplying Rational Expressions 187
Dividing Rational Expressions 189
4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions A-SSE.1a; A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.2; 2
A-APR.7
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with Common Denominators 192
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with Different Denominators 194
Least Common Multiple 195

vi Contents
 4.3 Rational Equations a © A-CED.1; A-REI.1; A-REI.2 197
Algebra 1 Review: Evaluating Rational Expressions and Equations 197
Rational Equations 200
Extraneous Solutions 201
Multi-Part Problem Practice 204
4.4 Graphing Rational Functions © A-REI.11; F-IF.4; F-IF.5; F-BE.3 205
Translating and Reflecting Rational Functions 206
Solving a System of Rational Equations by Graphing 22
Multi-Part Problem Practice 216
Chapter 4 Key Ideas 216
Chapter 4 Review 218
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-4 220

Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals 222

5.1 Radical Operations N-RN.2 223

Review: Roots Das
Simplifying Radical Expressions 205
Product Rule for Radicals Ded
Quotient Rule for Radicals 228
Multiplying Square Root Radicals with Negative Radicands 21

5.2 More Operations with Radicals N-RN.2 Doe

Adding and Subtracting Like Radicals Doe
Multiplying Monomial and Binomial Radical Expressions 234
Rationalizing the Denominator 235
Summary: Simplifying Radical Expressions 237
Multi-Part Problem Practice 238

5.3 Exponent Notation N-RN.1; N-RN.2; A-SSE.2 252.

Exponent Notation for Roots 239
Derivation of Roots as Powers 241
Rules of Exponents and Fractional Exponents 242
Multiplying and Dividing Radicals with Different Indices but Same Radicand 242

5.4 Radical Equations A-REI.1; A-REI.2 245

Squaring Principle 245
Extraneous Solutions 246
Power Principle 248
Multi-Part Problem Practice 250

Contents vii
 5.5 Radical Function Graphs G © A-CED.2; F-IF.5; F-IF.7b; F-BE.3 251
Graphing a Square Root Function 251
Graphing a Cube Root Function 259

Chapter 5 Key Ideas 256

Chapter 5 Review D7,
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-5 208

Chapter 6: Exponential Functions 260

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs eG F-IF.6; F-IF.8b; F-BE.3 261

Exponential Functions 261
Exponential Function Graphs 262
Translating Exponential Function Graphs 264
Rate of Change in Exponential Functions 265

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions © A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.3c; F-IF.4; 268

F-IF.7e; F-LE.5; S-ID.6a
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling Exponential Functions 268
Multi-Part Problem Practice 2

6.3 Combining Functions © F-BF.1b 278

Evaluating a Combined Function 280

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions G © F-BF.4a 281

Inverse Functions 281
The Graph of a Function and Its Inverse 283
Optional: When Does a Function Have an Inverse Function? 284
Composite Functions 286
Optional: Domain Restrictions of Composite Functions 287
Multi-Part Problem Practice 289

Chapter 6 Key Ideas 290

Chapter 6 Review 290
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-6 292

Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions 294

7.1 Logarithms eG F-LE.4 295

Logarithmic Functions 295
Common Logarithms 2o7,
Solving Logarithmic Equations on

7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs A-REI.11; F-BF.3 300

Translating Logarithmic Function Graphs 302

viii Contents
 7.3 Natural Logarithms and e © F-LE.4 305
7.4 Laws of Logarithms F-LE.4 308
Logarithmic Identities 308
Logarithmic Equations 309
Logarithms of Products Ol
Logarithms of Quotients 312
Logarithms of Powers B13
Change-of-Base Formula ote
Summary of Logarithm Rules 314
Solving Exponential Equations 316
7.5 Modeling with Logarithms © A-CED.1; F-IF.4; F-IF.6; F-IF.7e; F-IF.9 O17
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling Logarithmic Functions oL7,
Multi-Part Problem Practice 323
7.6 More Logarithmic Operations A-SSE.2; F-LE.4 324
Breaking Up and Combining Logarithmic Expressions 324
Derivations of the Rules of Logarithms 325
Multi-Part Problem Practice 327
Chapter 7 Key Ideas 328
Chapter 7 Review O29
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-7 330

Chapter 8: Sequences and Series 332

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences eG © F-IF.3; F-BF.1a; F-BF.2; F-LE.2 333

Recursive Formula for Arithmetic Sequences 334
Explicit Formula for the General Term 335

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series 342

Sigma Notation 343
Partial Sum of an Infinite Arithmetic Series 344
Derivation of Formula for Arithmetic Series 344
Arithmetic Series in History 347
Multi-Part Problem Practice 349

8.3 Geometric Sequences GS © F-IF.3; F-BF.1a; F-BF.2; F-LE.2 350

Recursive Formula for Geometric Sequences 350
Explicit Formula for the General Term Bol
What Type of Sequence? SOO

Contents ix
 8.4 Geometric Series © A-SSE.4 361
Geometric Series and Partial Sums 361
Derivation of Formula for Geometric Series 361
Infinite Geometric Series 364
Derivation of Formula for Infinite Geometric Series 365
Multi-Part Problem Practice 370

8.5 Binomial Theorem A-APR.5 370

Binomial Expansion 370
Factorial Notation 374
Binomial Coefficients 374
Binomial Theorem O77:

Chapter 8 Key Ideas 380

Chapter 8 Review 382
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-8 384

Chapter 9: Trigonometry 386

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles G) c-srr.s 387

Right Triangle Basics 387
Special Right Triangles 389

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions G © G-SRT.6; G-SRT.7; 394

G-SRT.8
Trigonometric Ratios 394
Sine, Cosine, and Complementary Angles oo7,
Sine, Cosine, and Tangent for Special Triangles 401

9.3. Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions eG F-TF.1 406

Reference Angles and Trigonometric Functions 408
Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 408
Radian Measure of Angles 414

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle G F-TF.2; F-TE.8 417
The Unit Circle 417
Trigonometric Identities 419
Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle 421.
Multi-Part Problem Practice 423

X Contents
 9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs G © F-IF.4; F-IF.7e; F-BF.3; F-TF.5 424
Properties of Trigonometric Function Graphs 424
Graphs Using the Unit Circle 426
Scaling Trigonometric Function Graphs 427
Translating Trigonometric Function Graphs 431
Sine and Cosine Identities 435
Graph of the Tangent Function 436
Multi-Part Problem Practice 44]
9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 44]
Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent 441
Reciprocal Trigonometric Function Graphs 444
9.7 Modeling with Functions S-ID.6a 448
Chapter 9 Key Ideas 456
Chapter 9 Review 458
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-9 460

Chapter 10: Probability 462

10.1 Introduction to Probability G © S-CP.1; S-CP.2; S-MD.6 463

Experimental Probability 463
Theoretical Probability and Sample Spaces 464
Simulations 468

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and 472

Compound Events G © S-CP.1; S-CP.2; S-CP.4
Independent Events and the Multiplication Rule 472
Compound Events 476
10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules © S-CP.1; S-CP.7; S-MD.7 481
“Or” and the Addition Rule 481
Mutually Exclusive Events and the Addition Rule 482
The Subtraction Rule 483
Multi-Part Problem Practice 486

10.4 Conditional Probability © S-CP.3; S-CP.4; S-CP.5; S-CP.6 487

Conditional Probability and Independent Events 487
Conditional Probability and Two-Way Tables 489

10.5 The Normal Distribution G S-ID.4 494

Approximating the Area Under the Normal Curve: z-Scores 499
Calculation Using a z-Score Chart 499

Contents xi
 10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization © S-IC.1; S-IC.2; S-IC.3 507
Surveys, Observational Studies, and Experimental Studies 507
Randomization and Lurking Variables 508
Multi-Part Problem Practice DIS

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and DIS

Margin of Error G S-IC.1; S-IC.2; S-IC.4; S-IC.5; S-IC.6; S-MD.7

Means and Proportions 514

Confidence Interval and Margin of Error LS
Computing the Margin of Error 516

Chapter 10 Key Ideas O23

Chapter 10 Review 524
Cumulative Review for Chapters 1-10 528

Glossary 530

Digital Activities and Real-World Model Problems 538

Index 539

xii Contents
 CTV ad Fyreete
About This Book
Algebra 2 is a full-year course, written to give students a strong understanding of the concepts of
algebra as well as prepare them for new statewide end-of-course examinations. All instruction,
model problems, and practice items were developed to support the new math standards. Each
chapter opens with lesson-by-lesson alignment with the standards. The eight Mathematical
Practice Standards are imbedded throughout the text in selected Model Problems, extensive
practice problem sets, and the comprehensive Chapter and Cumulative Reviews.
In Algebra 2, students will explore quadratic, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic,
and trigonometric functions and apply their knowledge to contextual problems. Algebra 2
builds on the themes of Algebra 1. Students see structure in expressions, transform functions,
and use regressions as a method to analyze and model data. Finally, students will expand their
understanding of probability by building on concepts introduced in earlier years. Throughout
the text, prior learning is accessed to build a strong foundation for learning new concepts.
Each chapter incorporates multiple performance tasks that measure the ability of students
to think critically and apply their knowledge in real-world situations. In addition, students
and teachers have access to a companion Web site (www.amscomath.com) with activities and
simulations linked directly to lessons in Algebra 2. Teachers also have the option to include a full
range of digital simulations, electronic whiteboard lessons, videos, and interactive problems
to stimulate conceptual understanding through the digital teacher edition. Through the online
Math” program, available separately, students and teachers have access to a comprehensive
suite of instructional videos, adaptive practice exercises, quizzes, and tests with automated
grading and reporting.
Careful and consistent use of this text and the supporting materials will give students a firm
grasp of Algebra 2, prepare them for new end-of-course examinations, and give them the tools
they need to be college and career ready.

Eight Standards for Mathematical Practice

The mathematical practices are a common thread for students to think about and understand
math as they progress from Kindergarten through high school. Students should use the
mathematical practices as a method to break down concepts and solve problems, including
representing problems logically, justifying conclusions, applying mathematics to practical
situations, explaining the mathematics accurately to other students, or deviating from a known
procedure to find a shortcut.

[Le9 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Attack new problems by analyzing what students already know. Students should understand
that many different strategies can work. Ask leading questions to direct the discussion. Take
time to think.
explain the meaning of the problem
analyze given information, constraints, and relationships
plan a solution route
try simpler forms of the initial problem
use concrete objects to help conceptualize
monitor progress and change course, if needed
continually ask, “Does this make sense?”

Getting Started 1
(9 Reason abstractly and quantitatively.
Represent problems with symbols and/or pictures.
e make sense of quantities and their relationships
e decontextualize—represent a situation symbolically and contextualize—consider what
given symbols represent
create a clear representation of the problem
consider the units involved
attend to the meaning of numbers and variables, not just how to compute them
use properties of operations and objects
EEF Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning
of others.
Ask questions, defend answers, and/or make speculations using correct math vocabulary.
¢ use assumptions, definitions, and previously established results
e make conjectures and build a valid progression of statements
* use counterexamples
¢ justify conclusions and communicate them to others
¢ determine whether the arguments of others seem right
EZ Model with mathematics.
Show the relevance of math by solving real-world problems. Look for opportunities to use
math for current situations in and outside of school in all subject areas.
¢ apply mathematics to solve everyday problems
¢ analyze and chart relationships using diagrams, two-way tables, graphs, flowcharts, and
formulas to draw conclusions
¢ apply knowledge to simplify a complicated situation
¢ interpret results and consider whether answers make sense
UT Use appropriate tools strategically.
Provide an assortment of tools for students and let them decide which ones to use.
¢ choose appropriately from existing tools (pencil and paper, concrete models, ruler, protractor,
calculator, spreadsheet, dynamic geometry software, etc.) when solving mathematical
problems
¢ detect possible errors by using estimation or other mathematical knowledge
e use technology to explore and compare predictions and deepen understanding of concepts
(ie Attend to precision.
Use precise and detailed language in math. Instead of saying “I don’t get it,” students should
be able to elaborate on where they lost the connection. Students should specify units in their
answers and correctly label diagrams.
speak and write precisely using correct mathematical language
state the meaning of symbols and use them properly
specify units of measure and label axes appropriately
calculate precisely and efficiently
express answers with the proper degree of accuracy
4 Look for and make use of structure.
See patterns and the significance of given information and objects. Use these to solve more
complex problems.
¢ see the big picture
e discern a pattern or structure

2 Getting Started
 recognize the significance of given aspects
apply strategies to similar problems
step back for an overview and shift perspective
see complicated things as being composed of several objects
[LEY Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.
Understand why a process works so students can apply it to new situations.
* notice repeated calculations and look for both general methods and shortcuts
* maintain oversight of the process while paying attention to the details
* evaluate the reasonableness of intermediate results
¢ create generalizations founded on observations

Test-Taking Strategies
General Strategies
¢ Become familiar with the directions and format of the test ahead of time. There
will be both multiple-choice and extended response questions where you must
show the steps you used to solve a problem, including formulas, diagrams,
graphs, charts, and so on, where appropriate.
¢ Pace yourself. Do not race to answer every question immediately. On the other hand,
do not linger over any question too long. Keep in mind that you will need more time to
complete the extended response questions than to complete the multiple-choice questions.
¢ Speed comes from practice. The more you practice, the faster you will become
and the more comfortable you will be with the material. Practice as often as you can.

Specific Strategies
e Always scan the answer choices before beginning to work on a multiple-choice
question. This will help you to focus on the kind of answer that is required. Are
you looking for fractions, decimals, percents, integers, squares, cubes, and so on? Eliminate
choices that clearly do not answer the question asked.
¢ Do not assume that your answer is correct just because it appears among the choices.
The wrong choices are usually there because they represent common student errors.
After you find an answer, always reread the problem to make sure you have chosen the
answer to the question that is asked, not the question you have in your mind.
¢ Sub-in. To sub-in means to substitute. You can sub-in friendly numbers for the variables
to find a pattern and determine the solution to the problem.
¢ Backfill. If a problem is simple enough and you want to avoid doing the more complex
algebra, or if a problem presents a phrase such as x = ?, then just fill in the answer choices
that are given in the problem until you find the one that works.
© Do the math. This is the ultimate strategy. Don’t go wild searching in your mind for
tricks, gimmicks, or math magic to solve every problem. Most of the time the best way to
get the right answer is to do the math and solve the problem.

Getting Started 3
beairel
eyt= y

Chapter Content
Lessons

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions G © as A-CED.4;

Writing and Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
Solving Equations
Literal Equations

R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change

The Slope-Intercept Form of a Line
Rate of Change

R.3 Functions A-REI.10; F-IF.1; F-IF.2

Graphs of Functions

A-CED.3; A-REI.5; A-REI.6;

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities GS inetd aoee. in
Solving Systems of Equations by Graphing
Solving Systems by Elimination or Substitution
Graphing Linear Inequalities
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities by Graphing

Polynomial Operations A-SSE.2; A-APR.1

Power Rules
Products and Quotients to a Power
Zero and Negative Exponents
Multiplying Polynomials

R.6 Parabolas G F-BE.3

Translating Parabolas in Vertex Form

4 Chapter R: Review
e
EES) R
os e rT
Vocabulary
axis of symmetry parabola rate of change

binomial | polynomial slope

boundary line power of a power rule slope-intercept form

domain power of a product rule standard form of a polynomial

function power of a quotient rule system of equations

intercept product rule system of inequalities

monomial quotient rule vertex

order of operations range vertex form for a parabola

LESSON JN 7 mmesseeccoan saeco

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions

Writing and Evaluating Algebraic Expressions
You have been evaluating algebraic expressions for a while in your studies. In this
lesson, we provide some practice with exponents, negative numbers, and a few
other complications.
When evaluating expressions, the mathematical operations are done in the
following order: parentheses, exponents, multiplication and division from left to
right, and addition and subtraction from left to right (PEMDAS). This is called the
order of operations.

In this activity, practice your skills by writing equations and moving between equations
and words.

Go to www.amscomath.com :
to use the activity.
Ze

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions 5

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Evaluate —4x + 3x* when x = 2. If a variable needs to
have a value substituted
SOLUTION for it, completing the :
erettute See Given » substitution will start the :
EA-0) 4340; Oa SF ae > for x, | Process of evaluating the |
: oe:
Evaluate exponents —-4-2+ 3 -4 Applying order of SAR SE ee ER CCZI

operations (PEMDAS), s
since oe are no
parentheses, first evaluate the exponents.
Multiplication and division eS 12 Next, evaluate any multiplication and
division from left to right.
Addition and subtraction last 4 Finally, evaluate addition and subtraction
from left to right.

2. Evaluate 4(x — 1)? — 2x* + 5 when x = 3.

SOLUTION
Substitute A(x — 1)8 — 2x7 +5 Substitute 3 for x.
4- (3-1) —2-G) +5
Parentheses first ai(2) = 205 (3) +5 Applying the order of operations (PEMDAS),
first evaluate whatever is in parentheses.
Exponents second Arb 25 OSS Next, evaluate exponents.
Multiplication and 32 lS a5 Evaluate any multiplication and division from
division third left to right.
Addition and 14+5 Finally, evaluate any addition and subtraction
subtraction last 19 from left to right.
This problem supplies
3. Evaluate —3x° — x* — x when x = —2. some practice with
negative numbers
SOLUTION and exponents. Note
Substitute —3x3 — x? -— x Given x = —2, that —2? = at With
—3-(—2)3— (—2)? —(-2) — substitute —2 for this expression, the
x into the \. exponent is applied
original equation. first. In contrast, to 1

Evaluate terms with =e 8) — 4.— (—2) Evaluate the terms ae ee Nene

exponen ts with exponents first a 20\2acy
Bie = 4 since
ee
Multiply 24 —4—(-2) Multiplication and | (—2) - (-2) = 4.

Subtract 2a (2) Finally, add and subtract

= 2) from left to right.
Dy
Model Problems continue...

6 Chapter R: Review
 Model Problems continued

4. Evaluate ae when a = 5 and b = 3. In this problem, we evaluate an expression

=b or? with multiple variables and a fraction bar.
The fraction bar is a grouping symbol, as are
parentheses—do the operations above and ‘
SOLUTION below it before doing the division at the end.
far thoreeoales Ey Substitute a = 5 and b = 3.
ieee
moe
Simplify numerator 2:5—-3 10-3 _ 7 __ Infractions, group the numerator as one
—3+2 —3+2 -3+42 expression and the denominator as another
expression. First, simplify the numerator by
multiplying then subtracting. (We also could
have simplified the denominator first.)
Simplify (bios sive] Sone Of Simplify the denominator. Last, divide.
denominator saoati2 sites |

5. It costs $500 to rent a movie theater. Algebraic expressions are the building blocks of
Tickets cost $9. Write an expression for algebra. In this problem, write an expression for
the profits. calculating profits at a movie theater. Profits are
the difference between sales and costs.
SOLUTION
State Profits equal sales minus costs _ Start with the relationship between profits, sales,
relationship and costs.
Use facts 9n Sales equal the number of tickets sold times their
from price, $9. If we let n be the number of tickets sold,
problem then 9n is the total sales.
9n — 500 The profits equal the sales, 9n, minus the cost, $500.

6. Elena is 100 meters away from the finish line and is approaching it at 4 m/s. Write an expression
for her distance from the finish line as a function of time.

SOLUTION

State 100 — distance she runs Her distance from the finish line is 100 meters
relationships distance = speed - time minus how far she runs. The distance, she runs
me equals the product of her speed and time.
Use facts LOD tees. Use s to represent speed and f to represent time.
from 100 — 4t The product of speed and time is distance so
problem subtract that from the 100 meters she has to
go to the finish line. She is running at 4 meters
per second, so substitute that value into the
expression for s.

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions 7

PRACTICE
i. Paul evaluates the expression . 518 dollars worth of tips were made at a
2(x — 3)? + 4x* — 6 for x = —2. His restaurant one night. If there were x number
solution steps are stated below. of waiters working that night and each
received an equal cut, write an expression
Stem: 2(-2 3) + .4(—2) ae for the amount each waiter made.
Step 2. 2(—5)> + 4(—4y—"G
Step o. 2(—125)'= 166 10. You pay $9 to join a music-download
step 4: —272 service, then $0.45 for each download. Write
Which is the first incorrect step? an algebraic expression for the total amount
you spend on x downloads.
mote pel Ga Jotep Ss
Deeotep.2 D. Step 4 11. You pay $29 to get into an amusement park,
then $3 for each ride. Write an algebraic
. George is three years older than twice his expression for the total amount you spend
brother’s age. If x represents his brother’s on x rides.
age, which expression best represents
George’s age? 12. A soccer team played g games and lost
a2 3 Cy. 3d 2 | games. Write an algebraic expression for
the fraction of games won in terms of I and g.
Dial |Pewee
13. You have Q quarters, D dimes, and
. If the sum of all the positive odd integers
N nickels. You then pay for candy with
less than 1000 is S, what is the sum of all the
4 quarters, 5 dimes, and 6 nickels. Write an
positive even integers less than 1000?
expression for how much money you have
fT es) 0.0 Gy 25 in cents after the purchase.
B. #5-F'500 DP o2S & 500
14. The number of fans who will attend a
soccer match equals 69,000 minus 40 times
. Evaluate a(t + 2)? — =when = 3) the square of the price of a ticket. Write an
expression for the number of fans who will
attend, using P to represent the price of the
. Evaluate a + 2) — =When p= 8: ticket.

15. Jean can complete a school science project

PVs a in h hours. Write an algebraic expression for
. Evaluate5 eS + —x when
x = —1. the number of projects she can finish in
8
m minutes.

. Evaluate4{ x — 8
3\i aS
+ a when xX= —3.
a Exercises 16-19: Simplify.

16. Ovo)
Write an expression for the total number of
calories in 10 fries when there are x calories 17. Odea)
per fry.
18. (oe)

19. le LOX)

8 Chapter R: Review
 Solving Equations
You have been solving equations for several years. We provide a bit of practice
with slightly more complicated equations.

Algebraic Properties of Equality

Addition property Ifa =b,thena+c=b+canda—c=b-c.
Multiplication property Ifa = b, then ac = be.
Division property Ifa =bandc #0,thena+c=b~+c.
Substitution property If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in
expressions or equations.

Properties of Addition and Multiplication

Commutative properties

Associative properties (try)

AZ = + (Yate)
(a: b)-c=a:(b-c)

Distributive Property
Multiplication a(b + c) =ab + ac
a(b — c) = ab — ac

S In this activity, you can write a computer program to solve equations using properties
of equality.

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions 9

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve -13 + d = 11 — 3d.
SOLUTION
Combine like terms —13 + 4d = 11 To solve for d, isolate it on one side of the equation. Add
3d to both sides so that d will be only on the left side of
the equation. Combine the like terms.
Isolate the variable 4d = 24 Isolate the variable on the left by adding 13 to both sides.
Divide both sides by d= Divide both sides by the coefficient, 4.
the coefficient

Zn oolve’—(—7 + x) = 125
SOLUTION
As always, you
Distribute —1-(—7+x)=12 Distribute the negative sign by must be car eful
—1-(—7)+(-1-x)=12 multiplying each term in with negative
7—x=12 parentheses by —1. hed rae
Isolate the ==) To solve the equation, isolate the variable term.
variable To do this, subtract 7 from both sides.
Divide by the -1:x__5_ To isolate x, divide by the coefficient of x, which
pestuaent oH “1 is -1. Since = equals 1, x is by itself.
Divide x= -5 Divide 5 by —1, which gives us the solution, —5.

@e MP 2,4) A regional airline sells first-class tickets for $125 and economy tickets for $75. The airline
sold 30 more economy tickets than first-class tickets for a total of $4250.
a_ Write an equation that models the total ticket sales in terms of the number of first-class tickets
sold, x.
b_ Find the number of first-class tickets sold by solving the equation found in part a.

aoe A table can help

a Maker Price Label organize |
You information
the type of < the
tickets in the left
table 125 in a problem.
75(x + 30)
column. Label the
) = =
ficket price, number
elon ee. Sie eee +" 4250 of tickets sold, and the total amount of
money in the top row.
Filling in the “First class” row, the price of a first-class ticket is $125. Let x be the
number of first-class tickets sold, since we don’t know how many have been sold.
Sales equal price times the quantity, which is 125x.
Filling in the “Economy” row, the price of economy tickets is $75. The number of
economy tickets sold is x + 30 (which is 30 more than the number of first-class tickets
sold, x). Sales of these tickets equal the price times quantity.
The total sales, $4250, is given.

Use facts 125x + 75(x + 30) = 4250 ‘The sales for first class plus the sales for economy equals
to write total sales. These are the expressions in the column on the
equation far right. The first two rows under Sales sum to the third.
Model Problems continue...

10 Chapter R: Review
 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b Distribute 125x + 75x + 2250 = 4250 Distribute the 75, then combine like
and combine 200x = 2000 terms, both terms with x and constants.
like terms
Stateanswer x = 10 first-class tickets Divide by the coefficient 200. The
variable x represents the number of
first-class tickets. The airline sold
10. Check the answer. Thirty more
economy tickets were sold than first
class, so 40 economy tickets were sold.
Multiply 10 by $125 and 40 by $75.
The sum of the products is $4250, the
amount stated in the problem.

PRACTICE
1. Cole was so confident in his athletic ability 4. Matt decides to open a doughnut shop. The
that he gave Trang a 5-minute running head startup costs will be $2525. Each doughnut
start on an 8000-foot race. Trang can run will cost $0.50 to make. He intends to
about one mile every ten minutes, while sell each doughnut for $1.25. How many
Cole can run about one mile every doughnuts does he have to sell to make
8 minutes. Who wins the race, and by money?
how many feet?
A. 1443 doughnuts
A. Trang wins by 1100 feet B. 2020 doughnuts
B. Trang wins by 1300 feet C. 3189 doughnuts
C. Cole wins by 1100 feet D. 3367 doughnuts
D. Cole wins by 500 feet
Exercises 5—20: Solve.
2. Acar leaves at 6 AM. traveling 60 mph.
5 38 = 3d
+8
Another car starts at 8 AM. down the same
highway, traveling at 70 mph. At what 6 69 = 9d
+6
time will the second car catch up with the
LOO 702 EL
other car?
8. 8 — 8z = —40
Ay Vi sA MM,
B. 6PM. 9. 6—97.— —30
Co PM: 10. 7 —6z = —23
D. 10P™M.
11. —5(5x — 6) = —45
3. At an opera theatre you manage, you sell
balcony seats for $150 and first-level seats 12. —6(6x — 4) = —120
for $75. You sell $13,500 worth of tickets, 13. = abi =p OWT Al)
with 120 more first-level seats than balcony
seats. How many balcony seats do you sell? 14. —12 = 4(—-3w + 6)

A. 10 15. 5y + 125:= 5(Sy +5)

Da wlo 16. 4y + 20 = 2(3y + 5)
Ge 20
17. DY ly = 2 19
D320
Practice Problems continue...

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions 11

Practice Problems continued...

18. LS) eae Yin Vt ace 7 27. You have 6 times as many dimes as nickels
and have a total of $3.90. How many coins
19. 169 — (10x — 5) = 9(4x + 4) do you have?
20. 241 (9% = 2) —6(6%:43) 28. In a video game, a player can score either
4 or 10 points ina level. After 10 levels,
21. The perimeter of the figure below is 40. Tamara has 88 points. How many 10-point
If
W = 4x + 3 andL = 6x — 3, what
is x?
levels did she have?

29. You get 60 points for just taking the test. You
get 8 points for correct answers and lose
2 points for wrong answers. You answered
W 10 questions and scored 120. How many
questions did you get right?
22. The perimeter of the figure below is 31. 30. A 70-liter tank of seawater contains 11% salt.
IfB = 4x —5,L = 6x + 2, and
H = 7x, what How many liters of freshwater (water with
is x? no salt) need to be added to change the salt
concentration to 6%? Round your answer to
the nearest hundredth.

31. A peanut butter factory makes 10-ounce and

18-ounce jars. In an hour, they manufacture
600 jars of peanut butter that contain
10,160 ounces of peanut butter. How many
18-ounce jars did they manufacture?
23. The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°.
32. In still air, a bird flies at 36 miles per hour.
iA B. €=— 2.3. 3, whatis C — A?
With the wind, it travels 6 miles farther in
3 hours than it flies in 6 hours against the
<\
wind. How fast is the wind, in miles per
hour? Round your answer to the nearest
tenth.
a C\
33. A plane ride takes 4 hours from Seattle to
Springfield and 3.8 hours headed back.
24. A cross-country skier is 19 kilometers closer
Assuming the wind is blowing parallel
to the start of a 45-kilometer race than she is
to the plane in the same direction with a
from the finish. How many kilometers is she
constant speed of 10 mph for both trips,
from the finish?
what is the speed of the plane?
25. A runner is running a total of 55 miles and
34. (PREY A truck going 50 miles per hour
has m miles to go. If the runner has already
set out on a 200-mile delivery at 6:00 A.M.
run 10m miles, how many miles does m
Exactly half an hour later, a car left from
represent?
the same place and traveled in the same
26. Sam and Sue are joggers. Sam is trying to direction as the truck. What was the speed
catch up with Sue, who has a head start of of the car, in miles per hour, if it caught up
4 miles. Sam jogs at 7 miles per hour and to the truck at 8:00 A.M.? Round your
Sue at 4 miles per hour. How many hours answer to the nearest tenth.
will it take Sam to catch up? Round your
answer to the nearest tenth.

12 Chapter R: Review
Literal Equations

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. The equation y = 3x + 5 is of the form often used to graph lines. Solve it for x.
SOLUTION

Isolate x Yeo Solve this equation for x. Subtract 5 from both

y—5=3x+5-—5 _ sides to isolate the x-term.
y—5 = 3x

Divide by the coefficient Y¥—5 _ x Divide both sides by 3 to isolate x. State the
3 : equation with x on the left.
sey nal)
are
2. The equation s = vt + 5f? is a physics equation, with s standing for change in position, v for
velocity, and ¢ for time. Solve the equation for velocity.
SOLUTION
Isolate v s=vt + 5 Solve this equation for v. Subtract 5t* from both sides
s— 5?= vt so that the term withvis by itself on one side.
i e =5e
Divide by the coefficient ° = Divide both sides by t to solve for v.
t
; 5
State with variable on left v= Beneae State the equation with the variable we are solving for
on the left.

3. In the equation 3a + ax = 2b, solve for a.

SOLUTION
Factor 3a + ax = 2b To solve for a, first factor the expression on the left.
a(3 + x) = 2b
Divide by the ae 2b Divide both sides by the coefficient of a,3 + x,
coefficient 3h) etorsolve forma:

PRACTICE
1. A student is designing a rectangular table. 2. It costs $300 to buy materials to make
To experiment with values for length and candles. Each candle sells for $15. If n
perimeter of the table, the student wants represents the number of candles sold,
to solve the formula for the width. Which which of the following represents the
best shows how to solve the formula for expression for the profits?
perimeter, P = 21 + 2w, for w? A. 15n — 300
Peete Bom00; 15
= 2) gn
Ao oP S20 FEaroe C. 3004+ 15n
p-l D. None of the above.
Baath — 272i, © .D. Anas
Practice Problems continue . ..

R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions 13

Practice Problems continued ...
3. Lisa owns twice as many books as Jill. 15. At Technic Music, the regular price of a
If Lisa owns b books, how many books music CD is d dollars. If all the music CDs
does Jill own? are discounted 50% off regular price, how
many music CDs can Brian purchase if he
A. Cr 20 has r dollars?
16 If c construction workers can build a house
B. [De in d days, how many days will it take
nN
S\N
|>
m construction workers to build three
4. Ifx + y = 2, what is x — y? identical houses? Assume the work rate for
Ae 2 each construction worker is the same.
Bae 17. If the value of 10 ounces of gold is d dollars
Ce2 and an ounce of gold is equivalent to
D. There is not enough information. s ounces of silver, what is the value, in
dollars, of 3 ounces of silver?
. Solve for a:a — 9x =c
18. The relationship between the temperature in
- Solve for x: xy + z = 8w degrees Celsius C and degrees Fahrenheit
Solve for y: 8y — 7x + 9y = 112x F is given by the equation C = 26 Oye
- oolve for y: 8y — 5x + 9y = 80x Solve for F in terms of C.
ou
oon
. Solve for x: 7(x + 3a) =b 19. The surface area of a right circular cylinder
is given by the formula SA = 2mr(r + h).
10. Solve for x: 5(x + 6a) = b
Solve for the height h in the formula as a
function of the surface area and radius.
11. Solve for w: BOISE

12. Solve for w: st =

13. Solve for b: bx + by = 18

14. Solve for b: bx + by = 12

LESSON R.2
R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change
The Slope-Intercept Form of a Line
Slope is the rise over the run of a line. The rise is the vertical change between
any two points on the line, and the run is the horizontal change between those
same two points. The slope of a line can be calculated by the formula es = ane
oan 1
formula uses variables with subscripts like y,, which is read as “y sub 1.” As usual,
the variables x and y are the coordinates of the points.
When an equation is written y = mx + D, it is said to be written in slope-intercept
form. The constant m is the slope of the line. The other constant in the equation
is b, the y-intercept. An intercept is where a graph intersects an axis on the graph.
The y-intercept is where the line intersects the y-axis, at the the point (0, b). In the
equation y = 2x + 3,m = 2 and b = 3.

14 Chapter R: Review
 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the slope of the
line in the graph. The line in the graph
rises 4 between A and B,
and it runs 2.

SOLUTION
Slope equals rise slope = aa Between A and B, the line travels from a y-coordinate of
divided by run 2 to 6. That is a vertical change of +4. The rise from
Rise = 4 pets 4 A to B is 4. The line travels from an x-coordinate of 1 to an
Run = 2 oy x-coordinate of 3. That is a horizontal change of +2. The
run from A toBis 2. The slope equals rise divided by run.
slope = 2 The slope of this line is 2.

2. Calculate the slope of the line between s

points (—1, 4) and (2, 1) using the formula 27
XxX. — x4
The subscript 2 is used for point A and subscript 1
for point B.

SOLUTION
Formula for rise _ changeiny ¥.—¥, This is the formula for slope. The slope equals
slope run change in x — x, the rise divided by the run. That is the change in
y between two points divided by the change in x.
Calculate the rise, or the change in y, by subtracting
the y-coordinates. To calculate the run, or the
change in x, subtract the x-coordinates of the two
points.
Substitute the Yves
alas dew. Substitute the values stated above. The y-coordinates
coordinates Nasr Xyweee don 1) are in the numerator, and the coordinates of point A
come first.

Do the Now do the calculation. The slope is —1.

operations Model Problems continue...

R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change 15

 Model Problems continued

3. Use the graph to identify m and b, and

describe how they affect the line that they describe.

SOLUTION [434324
y=mx+b y= Sree You see an equation written in the form y = mx + b, with
b equal to 2. The coefficient of x is m. In this equation,
m = —3, because x is multiplied by —3.
m = slope m = —3 = slope For an equation in this form, the slope of the line equals m,
the coefficient of x. Since m equals —3, the slope equals —3.
Between any two points on the line the ratio of the rise to the
runs 73.
b is y-intercept y-intercept is 2 The value of b determines the y-intercept, or the value of y
where the line crosses the y-axis. In the graph of y = —3x + 2,
the line crosses the y-axis at 2.

4. Describe howa line is plotted By looking at the value of |

on a graph when the slope m in an equation of the =|
is'o, 0, atid —3o0. form y = mx + b, you can |
determine the direction |
of the line, and whether [|
it is eeeorr flat. :

SOLUTION y nae = i
m positive: line y = 3x When the slope is positive, like in the graph of y = 3x, the line goes
goes up from left to up as you move from left to right. In other words, as x increases in
right value, so does y. When 1 is positive, the line goes up from left to
right.
m negative: line y = —3x When the slope is negative, like in the graph of y = —3x, the line
goes down from left goes down from left to right. Its steepness is the same as y = 3x, but
to right y = —3x goes up from left to right.
The larger the y = —30x As the absolute value of m becomes larger, the line becomes steeper,
absolute value of m, like in the graph of y = —30x. It is steeper than the graph of y = —3x.
the steeper the line
One way to graph an equation is to use its y-intercept
5. Graph the equation y = a ae. and slope. First, plot its y-intercept. Then, move to
the right for the run. Move up the rise (if the slope is ]
positive) or down (if the slope is negative). Plot a second :
SOLUTION point Ble and ay a ie Woroueh ae pains,

y-intercept y= a + (=2) The y- seiteteept where fhe ime crosses the y-axis, isae
constant added to the x-term. We restate subtracting
2 as adding —2, so the constant is being added. The
y-intercept is the term added to the term with x, so —2 is
the y-intercept.
Model Problems continue...

16 Chapter R: Review
WuCele C2) adcell (Tit Metts tee |

Plot the (O72) This gives us one point to plot. The y-intercept is where
y-intercept the line intersects the y-axis.
slope = ae slope = = The slope is the coefficient of the x-term, which is =

Add rise, run to (0 + 4, -2 + 3) = (4,1) Use the rise and run to determine a second point.
point The point (0, —2) is our starting point. We rise 3 above
—2 and run 4to the right of 0.
Connect the Two points make a line, so drawa line through
points with a them to graph the equation.
line

6. The points (1, —7) and (10, 8) are on aline. Find the equation for the line in slope-intercept form.
SOLUTION
Given (1, —7) and (10, 8) The line runs through the points (1, —7) and (10, 8).
Use these points to calculate the slope of the line.
Formula for slope m= ee This is the equation for slope.
aol
List coordinates Y, = —7,Y. = 8 These are the coordinates of the points.
using subscripts ita ke, Xp = 10

Substitute m eenee oad)

1 Substitute the values stated above.

Calculate m m= ~ = : Subtract and divide. The slope, m, is =

Substitute =form y= mx +b Since both points, (1, —7) and (10, 8), are solutions to
the equation, substitute either one of these points into
y=—x+b : Wea ;
the equation y = me + b, with the value of m
calculated above. Then solve for b.
Substitute point on -7 = ee oma) Substitute the point (1, —7) into the equation so far.
line 3 Replace x with 1 and y with —7.
Solve for b —7 = : +b Solve for b.
5 26
earls adage
Write equation ~ a - = We calculated m = >and b= oo Replace m and
b with those values in the slope-intercept form of the
equation.

R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change 17

PRACTICE
1. The graph shows the function y = mx + b. 1
=—x-9
According to the graph, which of the
14. Yar
following is true?
5
=2x+7
15. a
16. = 8x-10|
ae
17. Graph the lines y = —2x + 2 and
y = —2x — 2 on the same set of axes.
What are the similarities and the differences
of these graphs?
ee im O00 GC. an <0,
b <0
18. Graphy = ae +3 andy = —2x + 1 onthe
Baie a. .0) Ds 0,b= 0
same set of axes. What do you notice about
. What is the slope of y = 13x — 17? the angle between the graphed lines? What
. What is the slope ofy = —3x — 13? is the relationship between the slopes of the
lines?
- What is the y-intercept of y = —3x + 14?
« What is the y-intercept of y = —18x + 11? 19. (PRY Geoducks are a clam found on
the northwest coast of the United States and
. What is the y-intercept of y = 3x + 6? southwest coast of Canada. They can live
©-
“vu
ND
WOW
RF
CF Calculate the slope of the line that passes 150 years, and their shells can grow to 20
through (3, —4) and (1, 4). centimeters in length or more. A geoduck
grows from 4 centimeters in length at age 10
Calculate the slope of the line that passes years to 18 centimeters in length at age 100.
through (5, —10) and (3, 4). Assuming it grows at a constant rate, write
Exercises 9-16: Graph each function. an equation in slope-intercept form that
describes a geoduck’s growth as a function
Sry — OX +8 of its age.
10. y= 8x +5 20. CZ] A company installed a computer
Leos —Sx— 8 system worth $15,000. After 8 years, the
value of the system was estimated to be
12. y = —6x — 6 $2600. Assuming that the system depreciates
linearly, write an equation in the form
13. 'y = 3x-9
P = mt + b showing the relationship of the
worth, P, of the system and the time, t, in
years.

Rate of Change
How quickly one quantity changes with respect to another is described by a ratio
called the rate of change. A rate of change might describe how fast something
changes with time, for example, how the vertical position of someone on an
amusement park ride changes over time.
The rate of change measures how rapidly one quantity changes with respect to
another. The slope of the graph equals the rate of change. A positive slope indicates
a positive rate of change, and the greater the slope, the greater the rate of change.
The quantities increase or decrease together. A negative slope means a negative
rate of change. When one quantity increases, the other decreases, and vice versa.

18 Chapter R: Review
We analyze the graph of Charlie on an
amusement park ride. The graph on
the right is his vertical position versus a
time. During part A, Charlie is rising g
on the amusement park ride. During 2 me
part B, Charlie is on hold, waiting to be 2
dropped. During part C, Charlie is ‘ i.
dropped and falls back to his initial io
position.
NSo

SS
0 5 10 15
Time (seconds)

MODEL PROBLEM
Use the graph to answer the following questions.
a __ Describe Charlie’s rate of change between 0-8 seconds, 8-10 seconds, and 10-12.5 seconds.
b Calculate Charlie’s speed during his ascent.
y

Rise _ Change in height

Slope =
Run Change in time

(meters)
Height

0 2, 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (seconds)

SOLUTION
a 0 to8seconds Constant rate The slope equals the rate of change, or the speed.
When Charlie is being pulled up, he rises at a
constant speed.
8 to 10 seconds Rate = 0 Charlie then gets 2 seconds of suspense, dangling
before he falls. The graph is horizontal, which
means the slope is 0.
10 to 12.5seconds Rateincreases As he falls toward the ground, he moves faster and
over time faster. He accelerates. The curve becomes steeper as
he approaches the ground. The absolute value of its
slope at each time equals his speed at that time.

b Formulafor Slope = mee The slope of the line equals the rate of change.
slope
Substitute =
SlopeMeee Calculate the rise between two points. He rises
values — from 25 meters to 75 meters in 4 seconds.
Solve Slope = 12.5 m/s The rate of change is 12.5 m/s.

R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change 19

PRACTICE
1. The graph represents a boat’s movement 4. TZ) You leave your house and walk
during the day. Which of the following is toward school along a straight line at a
true, according to the graph? constant speed. After walking for four
minutes, you pause, looking for your hat.
It takes you one minute to realize you
dropped it and two minutes to walk back to
it. You pick it up and head back to school,
this time walking a bit faster so that you
Sé6SSaS8
arrive at school eight minutes later. Draw a
(miles)
Distance
NOo

a
graph of the relationship of your distance
ae) away from home versus time. Although you
03525 4 6:8 10) 12) 14. 16
Time (hours)
do not have enough information to draw a
line with a specific slope during some time
A. The boat started and finished its trip in periods, draw a graph that could accurately
different ports. reflect your walk.
B. The boat changed its direction of sailing
twice during the day. ut A graph of a marble’s distance versus time is
C. The average speed of the boat’s three shown.
speeeds was 5 mph.
D. The velocity of the boat was negative
during the last 3 hours of its trip.

2. The graph shows Tim’s savings growth

during the year. Calculate the slope to find woe
NY
aaN
Ss)
FS)
Sa
SS)
(feet)
Distance
how much he saved each month. panySo

7000
6000 >
5000 — (12, 6300)- a When is the marble’s velocity negative?
4000
3000
b What is the marble’s velocity from 0 to
Savings
2000 5 seconds?
1000
o
(0, 1500) + 4 c What is the marble’s velocity from 5 to
OL 273) 4 SG 27938" 29) 10 12) 13) 14 8 seconds?
Months
d What is the marble’s velocity from 8 to 13
seconds?
3. A graph of a car’s distance from home along
a straight road is shown. Mr. Sheridan drives 196 miles in his car at a
constant speed. He starts with a full tank of
13 gallons, and finishes with 6 gallons.
120
a Draw a graph representing the amount
S
60
of gasoline, g, in Mr. Sheridan’s car as a
function of mileage, m.
30
(miles)
Position b What does the slope of your line tell us
O12: 3:24 OO. Sao MOM 1Os 13: about the efficiency of Mr. Sheridan’s car?
Time (hours)

What is the car’s speed from 0-2 hours? Practice Problems continue .. .
What is the car’s speed from 2-8 hours?
What is the car’s speed from 8-12 hours?
® When
7
ao is the car moving fastest?

20 Chapter R: Review
Practice Problems continued .. .

7. The graph of the position of two friends 9. A group of students made an experiment:
with respect to time is shown. they poured water into vases of various
shapes and measured the water level in each
vase. (The same glass for pouring water
was used for all.) They also drew a graph
showing the water level, W, as a function
of number of glasses poured, H. Analyze
(miles)
Distance the rate of change of the water level in each
OC
FO
ON
graph and sketch the matching vase shape.
ue 2S:
64255 6
Time (hours) a ee

a What is the speed of the slower friend in

the first two hours of the trip?
b What is the speed of the faster friend
during the same time?
c Explain the situation represented by
the graphs. Use the friends’ speeds,
directions, and meeting time in your
_ explanation.
0 2 4 6 8 1012
141618
8. Water is poured into a vase at a steady rate.
Look at the graph showing the level of
water in the vase as a function of volume
of water added. Is the rate of change of the
water level constant? If not, explain how it
changes, and why.
y Water Level in a Vase

OO 2) 4 67S 10M2
4 toms

18
(centimeters)
Height 16
14
12

Volume (cubic liters)

CO
FD
ON
OR 27 AS Or SmONI2
4 ons

R.2 Linear Functions and Rate of Change 221

LESSON R.3
R.3 Functions
A function is a relation between two sets that takes an input from one set and
supplies exactly one output from the other set. Different inputs can have the
same output. The domain is the set of possible inputs. The range is the set of
possible outputs.
The output given by a function is
usually written using the notation
f(x), which is pronounced “f of x,” |
where f is the name of the function |
and x is the input. A function can |
be defined by a mathematical
expression, such as 11 — 2x. :

Mathematical expressions can impose limits on the domain and range. For a
number to be part of the domain, it must, when substituted, create an expression
4
with a defined value. For instance, the domain of the function f(x) = is all
pe
real numbers except 2. Why? If x = 2, then the function is undefined since the
denominator equals 0 in this case, and the result of dividing by zero is not defined.
An example of how an expression limits the range is the function g(x) = x’. Its
range is 0 and positive numbers. Why? The expression x* cannot be negative for a
real number input.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. What is f(x) = 11 — 2x when x = 3? Be careful: The expression f(3) does not mean
multiply f by 3! The letter f here represents a_ |
SOLUTION function, not a number. )

f(x)whenx=3 f(x) =11—- 2x The function fassigns to each input x the value of 11 eX,
fe)= 1h 233 To evaluate a function means to calculate the output for
{@) =11—6 a given input, such as 3. Subtract 6 from 11 to get 5. The
f(3) =5 value of the function f(x) = 11 — 2x is 5 when x = 3.

2. a What is ¢(3) when 9(x) = 2x° — 4? Letters other than f can

b What is g(—2) when g(x) = 2x° — 4? represent a function:
c State your answers from parts a and b as ordered pairs. g(x) = 2x? — 4and
h(y) = y + 2 are functions
SOLUTION as well.

a Find 9(3) g(x) =2x° — 4 The function g(x) is defined by the mathematical expression
2(3) = 2(3)? — 4 2x° — 4. To find the value of the function for the input
x = 3, start by substituting 3 for x in the expression that
defines the function.
Evaluate 9(3) = 2-27 -4 On the right, perform the operations: 2 - (3)° — 4.
expression (3) = 50 The result is 50.

Model Problems continue...

22 Chapter R: Review
WUCels Ce) adcell Cit Me
ttrt
Tee

b Find g(—2) g(x) = 2° — 4 Find g(—2) by substituting —2 for x and evaluating the
Ba) 2(—-2) 4 expression. The result is —20.
22 2 (-8) A
8(—2) = —20

¢ State as 8(3): (3, 50) The inputs and outputs can be represented as the ordered
ordered SG 2) =2;—20) pairs (3, 50) and (—2, —20). The first coordinates in
pent. the ordered pairs are the input values, and the second
coordinates are the output values of the function.

Graphs of Functions You can determine the

domain and range of a
The graph of a function is the result of plotting all the ordered pairs (x, y), function by examining
where x, the horizontal coordinate, is any member of the domain of f(x), its graph. The set of
and y, the vertical coordinate, equals the value of the function f(x). The set of ‘) x-values represents the
all vertical coordinates is the range. The vertical axis can be labeled f(x) or y. | domain, and the set of |
y-values represents the |
range.

MODEL PROBLEMS.
1. Graph the linear function f(x) = 3x — 1.

SOLUTION

Plot first point f(x) =3x-1 To graph a function f, you can replace
TO) OKO) ee f(x) with y, and graph the resulting
equation. Evaluate the function f for
x = 0 and find that it equals —1. State
that as the ordered pair (0, —1). Plot the
point.
Plot second point (BOC) aaa Do the same for x = 1. The output of the
function is 2. Plot the point (1, 2).

Draw line To graph the function, connect the points

with a line.

Model Problems continue...

R.3 Functions 23
 Model Problems continued

- You see a graph representing the vertical location of a ball

versus time. Its vertical location is measured on the vertical
axis, and time is measured on the horizontal axis. The graph
reflects the possible values for the domain and range. What
are the domain and range of the function shown in the graph?

SOLUTION
Domain From 0 to 5 Determine the domain first. The graph does not go to the left of
OS V5 the origin, or to the right of 5 on the x-axis, and there are function
values for every value of x between 0 and 5. The domain of this
function is restricted to the set of numbers from 0 to 5.
Range From 0 to 100 The smallest y-value on the graph is 0 and the largest is 100, and
OS y= 100 every y-value between is represented on the graph. The range is
the set of numbers from 0 to 100.

PRACTICE
1. Which table represents a function? 3. If g(x) = —2x° + 3, what is ¢(—2)?

e re
Dn67,
“ 4.
3 Suppose cae
y is directly proportional to x by
a factor of k, i.e., y = kx. When x = 5 and

c. constant
y = —25, what is the proportionality

A. -5
i
A a
al
PAS
2. Which gives two points that lie on the graph D245
1
of the function f(x) = x + 3? 5. f(x) = 4x — 16. What is f(5)?
A. (2,4), (—2, 4) 6. ¢(y) = 10y + 13. What is ¢(—2)?
(2 3),(s,4) 7. f(z) = 425 + 9. What is f(4)?
C. (2,2), (4,2) 8. f(z) = 2z° — 20. What is f(—3)?
Das 24),(145) Practice Problems continue .. .

24 = Chapter R: Review
Practice Problems continued .. .
Exercises 9-12: Give the domain and range for 1 eee ee
each function. ikictaliaca ||

(634324,]

LESSON R.4 maw

omer

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and

inequalities
Solving Systems of Equations by Graphing
A system of equations is two or more equations with the same set of variables.
The equations we will start working with are linear equations like those in the
model problems. For a system with two variables, the solution is an ordered pair.
The point of intersection of the lines is the solution to the system of equations.
A system of linear equations may have no solutions, one solution, or an infinite
number of solutions. If the two lines are parallel, then they will never intersect and
the system will have no solutions. If the two lines overlap, then every point on the
lines is a solution. Since there are infinite number of points on a line, there are an
infinite number of solutions.

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 25

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Determine the number of solutions for each system of equations.
Cc

SOLUTION
Graph A has one solution because the lines represented by the system intersect at a single point.
GraphB has an infinite number of solutions because both equations of the system represent the
same line. Graph C has no solutions because the lines are parallel.

2. Solve y = —x + 3and y = x —1 by graphing.

SOLUTION
Graph each The first step in solving a system of equations
equation by graphing is to graph each of the equations.
Graph y = x = Landy =—x-+ 3.

Locate Once the equations are graphed, see if they

intersection intersect. In the example, the lines intersect at
(2, 1). The intersection is the solution.

26 Chapter R: Review
PRACTICE
a: Which ordered pair is the solution to the 6. Use the graph to determine the solution to
system of equations? the system.
poy oo, 10K by = 80)
Pe t0;0) Ca 2)
Be(5;.5) De (9,0)

Which ordered pair is the solution to the

system of equations?
vt OY = 4

Bessideile2) D. (-3 -)
- Which ordered pair is the solution to the Exercises 7-9: Solve graphically and label the
system of equations? solutions.
momen Y= 20127 —d0y = —22
7. x — 2y = 6; 3x + 2y = —6
A. (0,0) Cn i47)
B. (7,6) D. (4,0) 8. 8x + 20y = 3; 4x + 10y = 32

. When you graph the system of equations 9..-%—y = 0; 244 sy = =9

x + y = —6and y = ax + 3, they intersect
at (--3,,—3). What 15.4? 10. Ina video game, you move two androids on
ehpre 2? Gere a coordinate grid until they totally overlap.
One android is moving along the line
Boee Dene y = 6x + 5 and the other is moving along the
line y = 10x — 1. At what point do the two
. Use the graph to determine the solution to
androids meet?
the system.

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 27

Solving Systems by Elimination or Substitution
When solving a system of equations by elimination, you get rid of (or eliminate) one
of the variables by adding equations, or equivalent equations, together. The result is
a single equation with one variable, which you then solve.
Solving by substitution means solving one equation for a variable, then substituting
the expression for that variable into the other equation. Finally, solve for the
remaining variable and use that variable to find the other.
When solving by elimination or substitution, if the result is an equation that is not
true, such as 5 = 4, then the system has no solution. If the result is an equation that
is always true, such as 3x = 3x, then the system has an infinite number of solutions.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Solve 4x + y = 7 and —4x + 5y = 11 for y, using elimination by addition.
b_ Use the value of y to find x.
SOLUTION In a system of equations,
if two variable terms are |
a Add 4x+ y=7 The idea behind elimination is opposites, like 4x and
equations + -—4x+5y=11 to getrid of, or to eliminate, —4x, add the equations
together to 6y=18 one variable. Add the ") to eliminate the variable.
eliminate a equations together to Or if two terms are
variable achieve this. Line up the identical, subtract to
variables and the constants eliminate the variable.

equations. Since 0x equals 0, simplify the equation to

6y = 18. The x-term is now eliminated.
Solve for y=3 Solve for the remaining variable by dividing both
variable sides of the equation by 6, so y = 3.

b Replaceywith 4x+y=7 When we have solved for one variable, we can then solve for
3 to find x Aerio — 7 the other by substituting the solution into either equation.
We chose 4x + y = 7. Replace y with 3 in 4x + y = 7.
4x = 4 Solve for x by first subtracting 3 from both sides and then
x=1 dividing both sides by 4, so x = 1.
State solution (x,y) = (1,3) The solution to this system of equations stated as an ordered
pair is (1, 3).

Model Problems continue...

28 Chapter R: Review
 Model Problems continued
The system of equations here is not as
2. a Solve x + 3y = —7 and 3x + 6y = —9 for x using convenient. To eliminate a variable by Se

elimination by multiplication and then adding. adding the equations in this case, first
b_ Use the value of x to find y. multiply one equation by a constant to EN
Eee

create terms that are opposites. Then add ]

SOLUTION the equations.

a Multiply ~2(x + 3y) = (—2)(-7) The first equation has 3y and the second has 6y. Multiply
to make the first equation by —2; the result will have a —6y term.
coefficients The coefficients of the y-terms will be opposites.
opposite
—2x
— 6y = 14 Do the multiplication. Now —6y is in the equation,
which was our goal.
Add the 20 6y = 14 Add the equation from the previous step to the second
equations + 8x 6y = 9 equation in the system. The y-terms cancel.
a0

b Replace x with 5 to Kab

OY SZ Now solve for y by substituting 5 for x back
find y oh
OY 7 into one of the original equations, so y = —4.
Ve ees
Solution (; y) = (5, —4) Since x = 5 and y = —4, the solution to this system
of equations is (5, —4).

3. Solve y — 4x = 12 and 3x + y = —2 by substitution.

SOLUTION
Solve equation ne" te Solve this system using substitution. Solve
for one variable y= 40-12 y — 4x = 12 for y. Isolate y by adding 4x to both
sides.
Substitute SM aaa aie Now substitute the expression for y from the
expression into 3x + (4x+ 12) = —2 previous step into the second equation. To do
other equation this, replace y with 4x + 12. The result is an
equation in one variable, x.
Solve equation 7X +12
= -2 Solve the equation by combining like terms and
ae dividing by the coefficient.
ROLY
x= -2

Use value for YakAD Use the value of x to find y. Replace x with —2
variable to find ee
(= 2) 12 in the first equation in the system. Solve for y,
the other Ware
— V2 soy = 4.
y=

State solution (x, y) ce es 4) The solution is (—2, 4). There are other similar
ways to solve the system above. For instance, we
could have solved the second equation for y and
substituted.
Model Problems continue...

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 29

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
4. A bird flies the same distance in two hours with the wind as it flies against the wind in
three hours. If there is no wind, the bird flies at 25 miles per hour. How fast is the wind?
a Create a table to organize the information in the problem and create necessary equations.
b Solve the equations from part a using substitution to find the wind speed.
SOLUTION

a w= wind Downwind speed = 25 + w We use w to represent the speed of the wind.

When the bird flies with the wind, we call it
downwind. The problem says the bird flies at 25
miles per hour when there is no wind.
Add w, the speed of the wind, to 25.
Upwind speed = 25 — w We call flying against the wind upwind. Its
speed equals 25 minus the speed of the wind.
d=distance distance = speed - time We use d to represent the distance the bird travels.
bird travels in It travels the same distance both times. State
one leg the relationship of distance to speed and time:
distance equals the product of speed and time.
Downwind a= (254 Ww) = 2 Downwind, the bird benefits from the wind.
The product of speed and time equals distance
traveled.
Upwind d=(25—w)-3 Upwind, the bird fights the wind. The product
of speed and time equals distance traveled.

ae Speed | Time | Distance = Speed - Time

able
d= (25+ w)+2
25 = w
b Solve by d = 2(25 + w) Solve the equations. Using the commutative property,
substitution d= 3(25 — w) place the coefficients before the parentheses.
Set 2(25 + w) = 3(25 — w) Both the equations in the system are equal to d, so set
expressions these expressions for d equal. This is equivalent to
for d equal substituting.
Simplify 50 + 2w = 75-—3w Simplify the equation. On the left side of the equation,
distribute 2, and on the right side distribute 3. Then
perform the multiplication.
Solve 50 DU S79 Combine the w terms by adding 3w to both sides.
equation Sw = 25 Combine the constants by subtracting 50 from both
w=5 sides. Then divide by the coefficient, 5, to find w.
The wind’s speed is 5 miles per hour. This means the
bird flies at 30 miles per hour downwind and 20 miles
per hour upwind. The problem said it flew the same
distance downwind in two hours and in three hours
upwind. With a little multiplication, we see that it flew
60 miles in both cases, which checks our solution.

30 Chapter R: Review
PRACTICE
1. An airplane flies from Detroit to Seattle in 6 15. The sum of two numbers is 123. Their
hours against a headwind. The airplane then difference is 37. What are the numbers?
flies from Seattle to Detroit in 4 hours with
a tailwind. The airplane flies at a constant 16. The sum of two numbers is 91. Their
speed of 550 miles per hour when there is difference is 13. What are the numbers?
no wind. If x represents the speed of the 17. Two robots participate in a joke contest.
wind and dis the distance the plane flies, Each one is designed to produce a certain
which system of equations best models the number of jokes per day. The two robots
situation? write for two days straight and a quarter of
A. d= (550)(4); d = (550)(6) their jokes, 150, are accepted to the contest.
B. d= (550 — x)(4); One robot decides to keep working for an
d = (550 + x)(6)
extra day and increases their total number
C. d= (550 + x)(4); d = (550 + x)(6) of jokes written to 720. How many jokes did
D.- d= (550 + x)(4); d = (550 — x)(6) each robot write per day?
Samantha rides her bike 2.5 miles per hour 18. The same plane travels with the wind when
faster than Lindsey. The two airls start it flies from Seattle to Spokane and against
cycling at the same point. Samantha gives the wind on the return trip. What is the
Lindsey a 15-minute head start and catches speed of the wind?
up with her after cycling for 1 hour and
15 minutes. How fast did the two girls ride?
A. 7 miles per hour for Lindsey and
2.5 miles per hour for Samantha 3.5 hours

B. 15 miles per hour for Lindsey and 2.5 hours

17.5 miles per hour for Samantha Seattle 4 Spokane

C. 3.75 miles per hour for Lindsey and pe 350 mileset
6.25 miles per hour for Samantha
D. 18 miles per hour for Lindsey and
20.5 miles per hour for Samantha

Exercises 3-14: Solve each system of equations.

19. A pine tree is currently 9 feet tall and grows
3. Ax + 5y = 140; 3x — 5y = 105 6 inches every year. You plant a new variety of
tree next to it that is 16 inches tall and grows
4. Ax + 4y = 56; 3x —4y = 56 14 inches a year. When will the two trees be
» 44 '— by =.= 180; —4x — 4y = — 180 equal in height, and how tall will they be?
Round the values to the nearest tenth.
Pei 30, OX OY = —48
20. At a restaurant, you bought only
oa dasa alae
SY = =O hamburgers and sodas. Based on the bill,
5x + 2y = —40; 5x + 4y = —20 how many hamburgers did you buy?

oon
Ou
Ax Oy = 2974.—
oy — 87 Alans
Sunger
10. 6x + 4y = 88; x = 3y — 110 Hamburgers =

11. Srvc
Wi OLA aa Oy 171 Sodas =

12. 5x + y = 69; 8x — 3y = 46 Total items purchased: 14

13. 74+ 0 yrs 225 ser oy= —75 Total = $46

14. 60 7y = —328 arr Sy = -—328

Practice Problems continue .. .

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 31

Practice Problems continued...

21. 3 plates and 6 bowls cost $78.00, and 6 plates 25. A plane travels west from Chicago for
and 4 bowls cost $91.20. How much does 1 hour and 15 minutes before developing
one plate cost? one bowl? Express your electrical system trouble that forces it to turn
answer to the nearest tenth. around. Because of a west wind, the return
trip takes only 1 hour. The average ground
22 Is it possible to pay $100 usinga total of 30 speed of the plane is 450 mph without
$5 and $1 bills? If yes, explain how; if not, the wind. Find the speed of the wind in
explain why. miles per hour (assuming it stays constant
23 Sam is three times as old as Steve. In3 years, throughout the entire trip).
he will be twice as old. How old is Steve
26 You can shovel the snow off your driveway
today? in 2 hours by yourself. Your younger sister
24 As part of a charity event, you and your can do it in 3 hours by herself. How many
friend have been sponsored to make a total hours would it take both of you, working
of 912 free throws. You can make 8free together, to shovel the driveway? Round
throws each minute, and your friend can your answer to the nearest tenth.
make 5 free throws each minute. You start
shooting on time, but your friend is
10 minutes late. How many minutes will
it take to reach your goal?

Graphing Linear Inequalities

We show how to grapha linear inequality
in two variables, such as y > 3x + 2.

1. Graph boundary line Temporarily change the inequality sign to an equals sign and
graph the equation as aline. This is the boundary line.

2. Use test point to decide which side Shade one side of the line or the other. To determine which
side, choose a test point on one side. We chose the test point
(0, 0) to make the calculations easy.
3. Shade one side of line Substituting the point (0, 0) into the inequality and evaluating
e (0,0) not a solution results in a false inequality. This means the solutions are on the
e Shade other side other side of the boundary line. We shade that side.
4. Boundary line is If the inequality symbol is = or =, make the boundary line
e Solid for = or = solid to show points on the line are part of the solution. If the
e Dashed for < or > inequality is < or >, make the boundary line a dashed line to
show points on the line are not part of the solution.

32 Chapter R: Review
Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities by Graphing
A system of inequalities is two or more inequalities with the same variables.
In this section, we study systems of linear inequalities consisting of two linear
inequalities involving two variables. A solution to this system is any ordered pair
that makes both inequalities true.

In this activity, solve several systems of inequalities.

PCM ee©
Change to dashed
To solve a system of
inequalities, graph :
each inequality and find |
the region where the = |
solutions overlap.

MODEL PROBLEM
Solve y = ae + 3 and 3y — 2x < —6 by graphing.

SOLUTION
Graph Ppfirst Boundary Ys line is Yy = 21,
9 +3 Start with y
Y = elie
9 + 3 and grap
graph its boundary y: line
ii
inequality as a solid line, since the inequality symbol is S.
Test pointon OS =) +3 Since (0, 0) is a solution to the inequality, the
one side of solutions are below the boundary line. Shade this
boundary region.
Graph Boundary line is y = ae —2 Then consider 3y — 2x < —6 and graph its line,
second ; y= 2y — 2, as a dashed line, since the inequality
inequality 30% |
symbol is <. (We find the boundary line equation by
changing the inequality to an equals sign and solving
for y.)
Test pointon 3(0) — 2(0) <.=6 We tried (0, 0) and it was not a solution to the
one side of 0<t —6 inequality, so shade the other side of the line.
boundary
Solutions are The solutions to the system are in the region where
in region of the solutions to the inequalities overlap. Any point
overlap in this region is a solution to both inequalities.

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 33

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-4: Determine which ordered pairs Exercises 5-10: Write the inequality or system of
are solutions to the given system of inequalities. inequalities that matches the graph.
Select all that apply.

ay Se andy Soe 0
ee (070)
B. (6,0)
(COMERS)
De (4=2)
byez, 10)
F. None of these.

2. y< 6x —2andy=x+3
A. (1,4)
B) --(0;0)
@An(2,70)
5 (076)
Ee; 8)
FE. None of these.

Sey anid y= xe
As (—3,0)
Be = 1,1)
Gr 1070)
DaiQyk)
Bx (3,0)
FE None of these.

4. y>-—4x+5andy< —4x —-3

Awl (—45 0)
Boat)
ay O70)
DO 2)
Ejeo(hyh)
Bo. (272)
G. None of these.

Practice Problems continue...

34 Chapter R: Review
Practice Problems continued...

9. r 19. An algebra teacher is writing a 90-minute

i test. There will be two types of questions:
+ multiple choice and open-ended. The
5 multiple-choice questions each take
| ae 3 minutes to complete, and the open-
aaa 1 ended questions each take 12 minutes to
REEEGEEEae’ complete. There must be at least 3 open-
oe ~ ath ended questions, at least 10 multiple-choice
=] : pz | questions, and the test should take no more
~Ppere
Ea Cer yh
rizr 7 than 84 minutes.
pepe 40 a Write this scenario as a system of
inequalities, using M for the number of
multiple-choice problems and O for the
number of open-ended problems.
b Graph the system of inequalities that you
found in part a. Put M on the horizontal
axis and O on the vertical axis.
c List the possible combinations that the
teacher could use to write the test.

20. In the Algebra Hockey League, a team

receives two points for a win and one point
for a loss in overtime. There are no points
awarded for a loss during regulation time.
A team has 8 games to go in the season and
needs more than 10 points to earn a bid to
Exercises 11-18: Graph the inequality or system
of inequalities. een
3 a __ Describe this situation with a system of
oy = ioe 2 inequalities, using W for the number of
wins and L for the number of overtime
3 losses.
12. y= fs 1 b Graph the system of inequalities that
you wrote in part a. Put W on the
1 horizontal axis and L on the vertical
1S Wrst oy Sal axis.
4
c List the different possible ways (wins,
L 3
14, y=2x —5;y< —-—x+ es,
lososses, es ini overtitime)me) thatthatthe thetteam
loslosses
- could make the playoffs.

15. (yt 4
Ge 3 = OD

i7. yo 2x Dy = oa+ by =

1
i8. pase —4ya-Wet Lys -{x—4

R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and Inequalities 35

LESSON 4.) senanee erereeeeR

R.5 Polynomial Operations

Power Rules
We state the rules for multiplying and dividing powers and raising powers to a power.

Product rule
Rule [ample
°
___—‘[Deserption To multiply two powers with the same
base, add the exponents. For example, when
multiplying 2° by 27, add the exponents 3 and
2 to get 5. The product is 2°.
To divide powers, subtract the exponents.
When dividing x’ by x*, subtract 4 from 7 to
get x°.
Power of a (ey ee oe (5°)*= 59°4=5" | To raise 5° to the fourth power, multiply
power rule exponents. 5° to the fourth power equals 5”.

MODEL PROBLEM
Arete
Simplify ——* Remember
\that a = a’.
SOLUTION
Apply product of powers rule I Add the exponents to multiply in the numerator.
Restate a as a' to make the next step clearer.

Apply quotient of powers rule To divide, subtract exponents.

PRACTICE

1. Simplify 2° - 2° to a power of 2. $2)?

2. Simplify 7” - 7’? to a power of 7. 9. br 8h or
14
3. Simplify a to a power of 6. 10. 67-77" - 37°
438
12 11. 2
4. Simplify oo to a power of 11. a’
qv?
Exercises 5-14: Simplify. 12.
5. y'- 7? 75710
Sree ae
7.) 7yl2
Ws =
36 Chapter R: Review
Products and Quotients to a Power

Power of a product rule | (xy)" = x"y" The power of a product rule states that to raise a product
to a power, raise each factor to the power and multiply.

powe, OL qucHeat rule (2) ges When 7;is raised to the nth power, both the numerator
y y"
and the denominator are raised to the nth power.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Simplify (2x)*.
SOLUTION
Raise each factor to the Dap To raise a product to a power, raise each factor to the power
power and multiply them 16x* and multiply. Form 2 to the fourth power and multiply it by
x to the fourth power. 2* can be written as 16.
2
2. Simplify @
SOLUTION
w2
Raise numerator and a To raise a quotient to a power, raise the numerator and the
denominator to the power denominator to the power. Take the numerator, w, and square
it to get w*. Take the denominator, 5, and square it to get 5°.
Simplify the expression by writing 5° as 25.

PRACTICE
1. Write (6°)’ as a power of 6. aa (
4i
2. Write (7’)® as a power of 7. s
3. Write (3°)’ as a power of 3. 12. (
3)
4. Write (5’)’ as a power of 5. ‘
Exercises 5-15: Simplify. 13. (=)
5. (ab) .
oer 44. (20°b')?
7. (3t) 15. (25)
8. (2t)°
16. [YG A student simplified the expression
bd (2x*)* to 2x°. What did the student do wrong?
=/s
ES—. Justify your answer.

a)
R.5 Polynomial Operations 37
Zero and Negative Exponents
Any number (other than 0) to the 0 power equals 1. For instance, both 35° and
(—3.1)° equal 1. Zero raised to any positive whole number is 0, while 0° and 0 raised
to a negative exponent are undefined.
A number x raised to
A negative exponent such as x ” is the same as a positive exponent the power —n equals
in the denominator. Stated as an equation: x" = 4S » the reciprocal ofx '
n
raised to the powern. |

MODEL PROBLEM
What does 2° equal?
SOLUTION
Reciprocal of power xe A power with a negative exponent equals the
with positive exponent reciprocal of the power with a positive exponent.
In the example, De equals its reciprocal, = ;

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-4: Evaluate. 13. (xy)°
1. 388° 14. (xy)°
2. 402° 15. (x*y°)*
3. 396° 16. (x°y°)*
4. 392° Exercises 17-19: Write without a fraction.
Exercises 5-16: Simplify. Write without negative 6
exponents. 17. cu
5. 44°
18.
6. 3r°° ¢
yeh
rie
19.
c

8 aon 20. Cie What must be true about x and aif

sees
x x“ =i 0?
3x78 21. Cie What must be true about x and aif
9. ae x“=1?
2 DoE Exercises 22-23: Explain why the statement
Ox a
£0 pe
is incorrect.
22. = x
11. x
-2, x
15
23. 5x7! = =

ery ‘

38 Chapter R: Review
 Multiplying Polynomials
Since multiplying polynomials is a core skill in algebra, we review it before
moving to more advanced topics.

MODEL PROBLEMS
. 2 (a
1. Multiply 3x°(5x 7x + 8). To multiply a monomial, distribute the monomial to each
term in the polynomial. Then multiply the monomials.
SOLUTION = at eae ee eee eaten ee
Distribute the 3x7(5x* — 7x +8) Distribute the 3x”, which means
monomial (3x?-5x4) + (3x?-(—7x)) + (3x?- 8) multiply every termin the
polynomial by 3x*. (The term
being subtracted, 7x, is written as a
negative.)
Multiply 3-5 +x? -x443-(-7)-2?-x4+3-8-x Each term is now a product of
monomials dor Xe (21) a monomials. Rearrange the factors
in each term in each product monomial. Then
multiply the coefficients.
Multiply the Po reoeet (21x a OA To multiply the powers, add the
variables ion Ax 4 Ay exponents and keep the bases the
same for each multiplication.

2. Multiply (3x* + 4x)(5x — 2).

We multiply two binomials
SOLUTION using the distributive
Distribute (3x2)(5x — 2) + (4x)(5x — 2) Use the distributive arabia ce
property to multiply each Boe ee onthe
binomial, a polynomial
term of 3x? + 4x by the of two terms. Multiply by
other polynomial, 5x — 2. distributing each term in
Multiply 150) Gye Distribute the 3x? across the first binomial. .
Be 9analtiplieetereet SR
15x? — 6x".
15x° — 6x” + 20x* — 8x And then multiply 4x and 5x — 2 to get the last two
terms, 20x? — 8x.
Write in 15x? + 14x” — 8x There are two like terms, —6x* and 20x”, which combine
standard to 14x’. The answer is in the standard form of a
form polynomial.

Model Problems continue .

R.5 Polynomial Operations 39

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Multiply (3x — 2)(2x — 7) using FOIL. FOIL stands for First, Outer, Inner, Last. Multiply the :
*) first terms of each binomial, then the outer terms, then :
the inner, and, finally, the last terms.
SOLUTION

Multiply (Ox 22h) Start by multiplying the first terms of the

using FOIL: Se Danbrom( eines 22 -ica7) binomials, 3x and 2x. The result is 6x*. Next,
First, Outer, 6x? — 21x — 4x + 14 multiply the outer terms, 3x and —7. The
Inner, Last result is —21x. Now the inner terms, —2 and
2x, are multiplied to get —4x. Finally, multiply
the last terms of the binomials, —2 and —7.
Simplify and 6x* — 25x + 14 Simplify each product and combine like
combine like terms. The first term, 6x”, has no like term.
terms The two x-terms in the middle are like terms,
and combine them to get —25x. The last
term, 14, has no like terms.

4. Multiply (2x + 3) - (2x2 — 4x + 1).

SOLUTION
Distribute one 2x(2x* — 4x + 1) + 3(2x” — 4x + 1) The parentheses around
polynomial (2x* — 4x + 1) indicate
across the that we should treat it
other as one factor. Distribute
it across the other
polynomial, meaning
multiply 2x and 3 by
2x? — 4x + 1.
Distribute the 2x - 2x7 + 2x - (—4x) + 2x- 1+ 3(2x? — 4x + 1) Distribute the monomial
monomials 2x - 2x? + 2x + (—4x) + 2x-14+3-2x*4+3-(-—4x)+3-1 2x across 2x* — 4x + 1.
across the Multiply each term in
polynomials 2x* — 4x + 1 by 2x. Do the
remaining distribution.
Distribute the monomial
3 across 2x? — 4x + 1.
Multiply thes 4x =a 0. 6x9 "1203 Multiply the monomials.
monomials
Write in Ax? — 2x* — 10x + 3 The second-degree terms,
standard —8x* and 6x”, combine to
form —2x*. Similarly, 2x and
—12x combine to —10x.
The final answer is in
standard form.

40 Chapter R: Review
PRACTICE
Exercises 1-17: Multiply and state in standard 14. (6x — 4)°
form.
5a (OXerte2) (6X = e2)
1. (6x7)(9x°)
16) 7)
2. (6x’)(13x°)
17. (6x° — 4)(8x° — 3)
3. (5x°)(8x°)(—3x°)
: 18. The side of the rectangle labeled W has
4. 8x(7x" + 12) a length of 7x + 2, and the side of the
5. 5x5(9x3+8x) | rectangle labeled L has a length of
4x — 7. Write an expression for the area of
6. 2x*(7x* + 12x° + 4x) the rectangle.
7. 3x°(8x* + 12x + 4)
8. (7x* + 6)(6x? + 9) L
9. (2x + 5)(6x° — 5) a
10. (3x° — 7)(4x° — 6)
11. (6x + 7)(4x" — 7x) 19. The area of an equilateral triangle with sides

12. (4x* + 6x)(6x? + 9x) of length s isV3.2 Write an expression for

a3. 6x +4) the area of an equilateral triangle with sides
of length _

LESSON R.6

R.6 Parabolas
The graphs of functions of the form f(x) = ax*, such as f(x) = —2x*, are parabolas.
A parabola is a bowl-shaped curve. The variable a represents the coefficient of x*.
Every parabola has an axis of symmetry that passes through the vertex. The vertex
of a parabola of the form f(x) = ax’ is at the origin. The y-coordinate of the vertex is
the minimum or maximum value of the function. Each point on the parabola has a
mirror image point across the axis of symmetry.
The value of a does not change
The value of a determines the direction in which the parabola opens. the location of the vertex, but
it does change the shape and
| direction of the parabola.

i .

Seer cree cae ag ie eo at On

1-2

In the graph above, the coefficient of x? is 3. In the graph above, the coefficient of x? is —3.
If a > 0, the parabola opens up. If a < 0, the parabola opens down.

R.6 Parabolas 42
 MODEL PROBLEM
Graph f(x) = —2x?.
To graph a parabola use
peru lon some of its properties.
Vertex Vertex = (0,0) The vertex is the highest or lowest Start by plotting its
vertex, the highest
point of a parabola. When a parabola is
or lowest point of a
of the form f(x) = ax’, its vertex is at the

Axis of X= 0 For a parabola of this form, the axis of symmetry is the y-axis, or
symmetry the line x = 0.
Each point To graph the parabola, substitute
mirrored a value for x, evaluate and plot the
across axis point. For instance, if x = 2, the
output of this function is —8. Since
x = 2 and —2 are both 2 away from
the axis, the output of the function is
—8 for both inputs. We can calculate
other points in the same fashion.
Since f(—1) is —2, f(1) is also —2.

Translating Parabolas in Vertex Form

The function f(x) = x’ is the parent function of the graphs of parabolas. Any parabola
can be described with the function f(x) = a(x — h)* + k where a, h, and k are constants.
We call this the vertex form for a parabola.
The expression f(x) = a(x — h)* + k is a polynomial expression when multiplied
out. The constants h and k translate the function from the origin, and a changes the
shape of the curve. As with other functions, k translates the graph vertically, and h
translates it horizontally. The value of a and the location of the vertex determine the
maximum or minimum value of a parabola of the form f(x) = a(x — h)* + k. The axis
of symmetry is x = h.
To describe how the parabola translates, we locate its vertex using h and k.

fix) AE + 4y els
It

fix) = (« + 4 —2
Vertex is (2, 3) fix)=@—(-4) FED
Vertex is (—4, —2)
42 Chapter R: Review
> In this activity, experiment with translating a parabola.

| Go to www.amscomath.com
to use the activity. |

PRACTICE
1. Determine whether the parabola Exercises 9-13: Determine if the parabola opens

i
up or down.
y= =e + 8)* — 5 has a maximum or
minimum value. 9. y=
A. Maximum 10. y= =x
B. Minimum
41. y= 2(ve438)nael
2. Determine whether the parabola
y = —2(x — 8)’ + 16 has a maximum 12. Cee
or minimum value.
A. Maximum
13. y = —3(x
+12+8
B. Minimum Exercises 14-15: Identify the coordinates of the
vertex of each parabola.
Exercises 3-8: For each of the parabolas, write
the equation of the axis of symmetry. 14. y= 5(x— 67-5

3. y=x?
15. y= S(t
1 2%2 41
Ay = -—2¢
16. Determine the y-value of the vertex of the
Sy x 3 parabola y = —5(x — 9) + 14.
624 = "20.4417

Te ee et)
8. y =2(x—
17 +2

R.6 Parabolas 43
edly y

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

1.1 Functions G F-BE.3

Properties of Functions
Domain and Range of Functions
Translating Function Graphs
Scaling Function Graphs
Odd and Even Functions

1.2 Models ©
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Drawing a Scatter
Plot
Modeling Data with Trend Lines

Regression

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Linear Models

Multi-Part Problem Practice

N-Q.2; A-SSE.1a; A-CED.3; F-BF.1a

1.3 Working with Models SG ©
Linear Programming
Multi-Part Problem Practice

1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.2; A-REI.6

and Expressions
The Form of an Equation
Structure and Factoring
Systems of Equations with More than Two Variables

CHAPTER 1 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

44 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

i |
Vocabulary
asymptote line of best fit residual
coefficient of determination model scatter plot

end behavior objective function structure of an equation

even function odd function transformation

feasible region parent function translation
limit regression trend line

linear programming

LESSON 1.1 seecnen

ecre
E cesne

1.1 Functions
In Algebra 2, you will learn some additional functions, but you have a good
collection of them already. Some of the functions you may have learned about:
e Linear functions: f(x) = mx + b
Absolute value functions: f(x) = |x|
Quadratic functions: f(x) = x’
Exponential functions: f(x) = a*
Piecewise functions: f(x) has different definitions given the value of x
Along your mathematical journey, you may have learned additional functions,
but the list above gives us plenty to discuss. We will use graphs to discuss these
functions, since graphs provide a visual way to investigate the functions’ properties.

Properties of Functions
Functions with Constant Slope
An important property of graphs with straight lines is that they have a constant
slope. A linear function has one slope. Each straight line component of an absolute
value function has a constant slope.

Linear function f(x) = mx + b Absolute value function f(x) = |x|

1.1 Functions 45
Functions with Changing Slopes
The slopes of functions that are described by curved graphs are not constant. The
steeper the curve, the greater the absolute value of the slope.

Quadratic function f(x) = x? Exponential function f(x) = a*

Average Rate of Change Y Teele |

In later courses, you may learn how to compute the
exact slope at any point on a curve, but for now, you
can calculate the average slope (or average rate) by
connecting a pair of points on the curve. The diagram |
to the right shows how to calculate average slopes
for f(x) = x’. We compute them in three consecutive
intervals; the slope of each segment is the average
slope of the curve between the segment’s endpoints. | —0:2 —0.1 0.1 0.2
You can see how the average slope is steeper (greater) —-
in the rightmost interval, from 0.1 to approximately
0.19, than in the two intervals to the left of it.

Symmetrical Functions
Some functions are symmetrical. If the graph is symmetrical, a line can be drawn,
and for every point on one side of that line, another point can be found that is on
the other side of and the same distance from that line. Or, to put it another way,
the graph can be created by “reflecting” each point across a line, the graph’s axis
of symmetry.

Quadratic function f(x) = x Absolute value function f(x) = |x|

Axis of _,
symmetry 5
Axis of 4
i3
symmetry
2

1
fix) = |e]

The graph of the parabola above is symmetrical The same applies to the absolute value function.
about the vertical axis. You could create the side The side to the left of the vertical axis is a mirror
to the left of the origin by reflecting the side on image of the side to the right.
the right about the y-axis.

46 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Non-Symmetrical Functions
° ° — ea

The graph of an exponential function is not eeeanh Me a

symmetrical. There is no line that can be drawn
where every point can be paired with another
point an equal distance from that line. Put another
way, there is no way to create this graph by
a single reflection.

Continuous and Discontinuous Functions

Another property of a function that is shown by its graph is whether it is continuous

or discontinuous. With a continuous graph, every point on the graph is adjacent to
another point as you move in either direction. If it is discontinuous, there are gaps
in the graph between some points.

Examples of continuous functions:

Linear function Quadratic function Many of the

y functions you study
are continuous.
Move a bit to the
left or right on the
graph, and you
always find an
adjacent point.

Absolute value function

y

1.1 Functions 47
Examples of discontinuous functions:
Not all functions are continuous. Step function
One f(x) =
greetsway
S48to sient
create adate
discontinuous
the Stach vstheeu abgames teens Sey tleatat
not to be continuous, like the step creates a gap as shown.
function to the right. Later, you may The graph is not ;
continuous at x = :
study other functions with graphs
that are discontinuous, such as the
graph of the tangent function in x
trigonometry or rational functions. ee ace arcsec)
2 enh Pica

bd 3 SEES
4 fx) = 4Aifx=3
i_5 ;

2G

Piecewise Functions

Piecewise functions come in “pieces.” They are defined by different expressions on

different parts of the domain. Absolute value functions are continuous piecewise
functions because they come in two pieces, the left and right sides. Step functions
are discontinuous piecewise functions.

Domain and Range of Functions

Some functions have no restrictions to their domain (possible inputs) and range
(possible outputs), while other functions do have restrictions. We use the structure
and graph of the function to understand how this is possible.
The linear function f(x) = 2x — 1 has no limit to how positive or negative the inputs
are, and the same applies to the outputs. The function is defined for every real
number. The function has no restrictions.
Some functions have a restriction on their domains. For instance, the rational
function f(x) = - is not defined for 0 (since dividing by 0 is undefined), so 0 is
not part of its domain.

Other functions have a restriction on their range. Examining the

structure of f(x) = x’, we know it will always have an output of zero
or positive numbers since a real number squared cannot be negative.
Using the graph of f(x) = —x* + 3, the vertex of the graph represents
the greatest possible value of its range, which is 3 in this case.

The ranges of certain functions approach but never quite reach

another number. The line defined by this number, such as f(x) = 0,
is called an asymptote. Exponential functions provide an example
of this behavior. For instance, f(x) = 3* will approach 0 as the
values of x become increasingly negative, but never equal zero.
For example, if x = —10, then the function equals about 0.0000169,
and if x = —100, the function equals about 1.9 x 10~ “8. These are AS HN) Sp a
small and very, very small numbers, respectively, but they are
not zero.
_ Asymptote |

48 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

We can use the domain and range of a function to describe the end behavior of
graphs. In the graph of f(x) = 3*, as x becomes increasingly positive, f(x) becomes
increasingly large. In this case, we say the far right behavior of the graph approaches
positive infinity. As x becomes increasingly negative, f(x) approaches 0. In this case,
we say the far left behavior of the graph approaches 0.

Real-World Limits on Domain and Range

The real world can also impose limits (or constraints) on the domain
and range of functions. The parabola in the diagram to the right shows
the vertical position of a model rocket launched from ground level,
with time on the horizontal axis. Ground level is 3 meters above sea
level. The domain is the time in seconds. Time cannot be negative, so 1G
IO
Po
Aee
ea
SC

the domain is 0 and positive numbers. The range is the height; in this (meters)
Height
case, its minimum value is 3 meters (we will assume the rocket does
74 68 ea clone?
not plunge below Earth’s surface upon impact).
Time (seconds)

Translating Function Graphs

A parent function is the simplest form of a type of function and serves as a building
block for more complex functions. For instance, f(x) = x* is a parent function,
and f(x) = —2x* + 5 is an example ofa child function. Other examples of parent
functions include f(x) = |x| and f(x) = Vx. With parent functions, the variable has
no coefficient, and there is no constant being added or subtracted.
A change of a relationship is called a transformation. If the change moves
(shifts) the graph of a relationship without changing the shape of the graph, the
transformation is a translation.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Graph f(x) = x? + 3.
SOLUTION
Identify parent Given the original function f(x) = x? + 3,
function we identify the parent function f(x) = x*
and graph it.

“io =3'=7 = 2 4-3-2-1, 1 23° 4 5°67 8 9510 i

Constant is added to f(x) =x° +3 The original function equals 3 added to the
parent function parent function.
Graph translates pate ne Adding +3 to the parent function results
vertically by constant in translating the graph of the parent
function vertically upward 3 units.
J fl) =2+3

f x
(10-9 8-7-6
-54-3-2 -1, ol 2a
56) on O10
Model Problems continue...

1.1 Functions 49
 Model Problems continued

2. Graph f(x) = x? — 3.

SOLUTION
Identify parent fx) =x The parent function of f(x) = x* — 3 is f(x) = x’.
function
Constant is added _ f(x) = parent function + k Adding a positive constant k to a parent
to parent function function translates it up k units.
Translates by k fe) oe — 3 2 653) Subtracting a positive constant from a parent
function translates the graph of the parent
function downward that many units. For
example, subtracting 3 from the parent function
translates its graph downward 3 units.
Adding a positive constant to a parent :
function translates its graph up that |
many units. Subtracting a positive
constant from a parent function
translates its graph down that many
units.

3. Graph f(x) = |x — 3].

SOLUTION
Identify parent Start with the graph of its parent function,
function f(x) = |x.

Constant is {oa The function we wish to graph has 3

subtracted f(x) =|x - 3] subtracted from the input of the parent
from input of function.
function
Graph translates When a positive constant is subtracted from
horizontally by the input, the graph translates to the right by
constant that amount. In general, subtracting h from
the input of a function translates the graph
of f(x) to the right h units.

Model Problems continue...

50 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

 Cell) adcell Clim |Tree
4. Graph f(x) = |x + 3}.

SOLUTION

Identify parent f(x) = |x| The parent function of f(x) = |x + 3] is

function f(x) 1 eh
Constant is (Cee ht} Subtracting h from the input of the function
subtracted from translates the graph of the function h units to
input the right.
Translates by h f(x) = |x + 3] = |x — (-3)| Add the constant. Restate it as subtraction.
The graph moves —3 to the right, which is the
same as 3 to the left.

Subtracting a positive constant from

the input of a function translates its
graph to the right that many units.
Adding a positive constant to the input
of a function translates its graph to
the left that many units.
S. Graph f(x) = jx + 2) — 1.

SOLUTION

Identify parent f(x) = |x| The parent function of f(x) = |x + 2| — 1is

function f(x) = |x|.
Compare to parent f(x —h)+k Negative two is subtracted from the input of
function ie (= 2)) = 1 the absolute value function. One is subtracted
from the parent function.
Translates down 1, : Y____ 7g, Lhe graph translates down by I since k = —1.
translates left by 2 NO ep ZY Since the constant h is negative, the graph is
translated to the left, here by 2 units.

~9-8-7-6-5-4-3
We ae\ LB

1.1 Functions 51
eG In this activity, translate functions up, down, left, and right to match parent functions.

Go to
www.amscomath.com
to use the activity.
The graph is translated |
up or down depending on}
the value added tothe |
output. It is translated
left or right depending on
the value added to the
input.

Scaling Function Graphs

The last change we can make to a parent function is scaling. It is determined by the
coefficient, either f(x) = ax’, or f(x) = (bx)*. The coefficient changes the scale of the
graph, making it wider or narrower.
Examples of f(x) = ax’:
We show f(x) = x?, 9(x) = 3x’, and h(x) = ae A coefficient greater
than 1 stretches the function’s output in the y-direction. A
coefficient between 0 and 1 shrinks the output in the vertical Tt
direction. If a is negative, it reverses the direction of the graph and A(x) = 5
scales it.

Examples of f(x) = (bx)?:

We show f(x) = x’, 9(x) = (2x)?, and h(x) = (3x). A value

greater than 1 shrinks the graph along the x-axis, making the
graph steeper. A coefficient between 0 and 1 has the opposite effect.
Changing the sign of b will not change the direction of this graph. h(x) = &

Odd and Even Functions

Even functions are symmetric with respect to the y-axis. This means that
the graph coincides with a mirror image when reflected about the y-axis.
An even function always has the same value for an input and its opposite.
For example, if the output of an even function f(—3) is 5, then the output
of f(3) is also 5. In general, if f is an even function, then f(—x) = f(x) for all
x-values in the domain of f. The function f(x) = x’ is an example of an even
function.

52 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Odd functions are symmetric about the
origin. In other words, if it is rotated 180°
about the origin, the graph is unchanged.
With an odd function, if you input the One way to remember
opposite of a value, the output is also the this is that f(x) = x* has
opposite. For instance, if f(2) = 8, an even exponent, and
f(-2) = —8. In general, if fis an odd it is an even function (as |
function, then f(—x) = —f(x) for all is f(x) = x*, and so on).
x-values in the domain of f. The function Similarly, f(x) = x° has
ce an odd exponent, and it
f(x) = x° is an example of an odd function. © 9> is an odd function.

PRACTICE

1. What is the domain of the function 5. What does the graph of y = 3x* — 2 look like
fateh compared to the graph of y = 3x”?
A. All positive numbers and 0 A. Itis shifted up 2 units
B. All numbers that are greater than or B. Itis shifted down 2 units
equal to 1 C. It is shifted right 2 units
C. All negative numbers D. It is shifted left 2 units
Lin tie WeeLonbers 6. What does the graph of y = (x — 3)? look like
2. What is the range of the function compared to the graph of y = x’?
= x2+41?
ioe year walt It is shifted up P 3 units
A. All positive numbers and 0 It is shifted down 3 units
B. All numbers that are greater than or It is shifted right 3 units
equal to 1 >IN
. Itis shifted left 3 units
C. All negative numbers
a Ci) What is the domain and range of the
D. All real numbers
function 9(x) = 3 Justify your reasoning.
3. What does the graph of f(x + 4) look like
compared to the graph of f(x)?
8. IMP 3| What is the domain of the function
A. f(x + 4) is shifted up 4 units below? What is the range of the function?
B. f(x + 4) is shifted down 4 units Explain how you found the domain.
C. f(x + 4) is shifted right 4 units
D. f(x + 4) is shifted left 4 units
fe).
4. What does the graph of f(x) + 4 look like
compared to the graph of f(x)?
A. f(x) + 4is shifted up 4 units
B. f(x) + 4 is shifted down 4 units
C. f(x) + 4is shifted right 4 units
D. f(x) + 4 is shifted left 4 units

Practice Problems continue . .

1.1 Functions 53
Practice Problems continued...
Exercises 9-10: State each function described by Exercises 15-19: Determine how the graph of g(x)
the graph. The function is of the form is shifted compared to the graph of f(x).
BO sadn al 15. 9(x) = 10°; f(x) = 10"
9:
* 2 aaa ; "3 2.il
16. 9(x) = (2) f(x) =(2

17. 9(x) = 0.47** f(x) = 0.4"

18. 9(x) =a *"; f(x) =a"
19. 9(x) =a’ **; f(x) = a; assume b is positive.
10. Exercises 20-21: Determine the exponential
function of the form f(x) = a“ from each of the
graphs.

11. Find (0) for f(x) = bi ifx<-1

x ifx=—1

12. If fx) = |* onde what isf(—3)?

13. If f(x) = ve $2, what is (6)?

x-1ifx<3
14. What is f(—2) if f(x) = 0 ifx=3°
2h ix

LESSON 1.2 weer

or oe

1.2 Models
A model uses mathematical equations to describe the behavior of a system.
Typically, a model is trying to determine if there is a relationship between an
independent variable (typically on the horizontal axis) and a dependent variable
(typically on the vertical axis). Models use data, which is often best analyzed when
shown on a graph.
A scatter plot is a graph of a table of data. Scatter plots are a good starting point
for analyzing data.

54 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

© Example Model: Earnings and Education y Earnings and Education
We want to see if there is a relationship between how many 2000
1800
years a U.S. resident has studied and how much money he or
1600
she earns. We want to see if more years of education might 1400
have an effect on how much aperson earns. If a person has 1200
graduated from high school, we count 12 years of education. 1000
If the person has graduated from college, we count 16 years of 800
education, and so on. We think a possible effect of more 600
400
education is greater earnings. The possible cause is on the Weekly
Earnings
200
horizontal axis. We put weekly earnings on the vertical axis.
0 5 10 15 20 25
Years of Education

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Drawing a

Scatter Plot
A graphing calculator can be used to draw scatter plots and perform other
useful work. The first step is to enter data into the calculator. Use the table of values
below representing a girl’s growth.
Height (cm) 104
Mass (kg) _| 17.6 | 18.9

Spreadsheet
You can use a computer application called a spreadsheet to drawa scatter plot ——
of these data values. 46 21a
122
1. Enter your data in columns. Select data by dragging your mouse over the ie yo a
data in the columns.
2. Create the scatter plot. Using your spreadsheet program,
select Chart. Choose the XY (Scatter) chart type and then Helght and mass
click the Next button. Type a title for your graph and labels
for the x- and y-axes.

(kg)
Mass

Graphing Calculator
1. Set up editor. Press [STAT], scroll down to SetUpEditor and press
(or just press [5]), then press [ENTER] again. Press again, and press
ENTER] or[1] to select Edit. The stat list editor is displayed.
2. Enter data values. Use the cursor keys to move to the first row under
L1, type in the first data value, and press [ENTER]. Continue entering the
other values, with one variable under L1 and the other under L2. L1
and L2 correspond to x and y.

Directions continue...

1.2 Models 55
 Directions continued...

3. Set function graphing mode. Press [MODE], scroll down to FUNC, and
press [ENTER].
4. Choose graph type and set options. Press [Y=]. Press [STAT PLOT] (on
the top row of the calculator), select 1 under STAT PLOTS and then
press [ENTER]. Press to select On for Plot1. After Type: select
the first icon, which is for scatter plots, and press [ENTER]. Scroll to
the position following Xlist: and press [2nd] [L1] to select list L1 for the
x-values for the graph. Scroll to the position following Ylist: and press
[L2] to select list L2 for the y-values for the graph. Scroll to the + icon
after Mark: and press (ENTER).
5. Create scatter plot. Press and [9] (which selects 9:ZoomStat from
the ZOOM menu) to draw the scatter plot.

Modeling Data with Trend Lines

© Example Model: Speed versus Time

We completed an experiment to determine the relationship Speed (m/s)
between the speed of a bowling ball that is dropped and the
elapsed time. We organized our information in the table of
data, shown to the right. We measured the speed of the
bowling ball at specific times. Each row of data is an ordered
pair: (time, speed). Using the data, we created a scatter plot.

The trend line in the scatter plot 4 Speed versus Time

shows the relationship between A linear model shows
two variables. In this case, the positive correlation
relationship is linear. It passes as when the trend line
close to the points on the graph as slope is positive. If
possible. The trend line can be the slope is negative,
used to predict points not on the then the correlation
line. As with any experiment, is negative. If a line is
there is some error in our not a good model, then
(meters
Speed
second)
per
measurements. there is no correlation.
Time (seconds)

56 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Regression
How can we create a trend line? In the scatter plot to the _ 4
right, we believe the trend line y = 7x + 24canbe used “|
to predict the y-values for any x-values better than the
trend line y = 6.5x + 26. How might we test that
hypothesis? In other words, how do we evaluate a
trend line?
One way to determine whether a trend line is a good fit
for the data is to measure the differences between the
observed y-values (y(Data) in the table below) and the
y-values on the trend line (y(Model)). These differences
are called residuals. In other words, the residual tells us
how far the observed value is from the expected value.
When deciding between two trend lines, square the
residuals and sum them. The sum that is closer to zero
is a better choice.

y (Model) .41. | Residuals

oo

Computers (and calculators) can automate this process. They can use formulas to
predict the equation of the trend line that is closest to the data points. A process
for finding an equation that matches the data is called regression. If the model is a The coefficient of
linear equation, the process is called linear regression. determination has
values between O
In addition to providing an equation, a regression tool can state the coefficient of and 1. The closer r
determination, called r?. The coefficient of determination is a tool for determining is to 1, the better
the relationship between two variables. If the model is appropriate for the data, the model equation
this provides a measure of how well the model fits the data. describes the data.

1.2 Models 57
The graph on the right shows data y Resistance and Length A line of best fit
about the relationship between the 900 @
is the best possible
aes a TAS g
i
ae ae the ee ‘wire ire. ae800

600 data. It is the one with

ns sae
= ion :between
oe ae as an di
resistance 6§ ae the highest coefficient
= 400 of determination.
. .

ows
v

= 300 Calculating a line of best |

2 200 fit with pencil and paper
100 is time-consuming.
0 Most mathematicians
1 SED OR WEIe FS GseG H
leave it to computers or
Length (meters)
calculators.

The graph on the right shows the Dow Jones Average, an average Dow Jones Industrial
of stock prices, as the dependent variable against time as the s Average, 1918-1935
independent variable. This trend line has a very low coefficient
of determination, less than 0.1, so the year is a poor predictor of
stock prices. There is no correlation between the line of best fit WwWCSS
Nn Se

and the model. 200

—og oO

— S oO

Average
Jones
Dow gooO

0
1915 1920 1925 1930 1935
Year

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Linear Models

We show how to perform a linear regression to calculate the line of best fit and
to calculate the coefficient of determination. We use the data from the following
table, which shows the cost of an airplane ticket (in Chinese yuan) for flights from
Shanghai to five cities and the distances to the cities.

Distance (km) 1067

i1231 379) 5046
en 7852
Price (yuan) 1259 2009 4527 6028 10,426

Spreadsheet
1. Choose trendline, equation, and
coefficient. In your spreadsheet The instructions
program, make sure the chart is selected. start assuming
Then choose Add Trendline from the you have entered
Chart menu. The Linear option should the data and
be selected when the Trend/Regression created a scatter
type dialog opens. If not, select it. plot.

58 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

2. Add the equation for the line. Add the equation for the line
and the coefficient of determination, 17, by choosing the
Options tab and checking the boxes labeled “Display equation
on chart” and “Display R squared value on chart.”

3. Add trend line and format it. Click OK to add the line. Priceof Flights Gom
While the trend line is selected, you can choose Selected y Shanghai
Trendline from the Format menu to change its 12,000
y = 1.2851x — 31.4. e-
appearance. To the right, we have formatted the lineasa ¢ 12° . oe A

dashed green line. The spreadsheet program states the Ee ao ee

equation for the line as y = 1.2851x — 31.4 and gives the
value for r* directly on the graph. Notice that the (yua
Price
notation R* is used instead of ? for the coefficient of iin ae eee ks
determination. Its value here, 0.9882, indicates a good fit Distance (km)
of the line to the data.

Graphing Calculator
1. Turn on diagnostic option and choose linear A
regression. Turn on the diagnostic mode in egree a
the calculator. Press [2nd] [CATALOG] to list all the Rese raad k a eepece
operations available on the calculator, then scroll DerendAuto inked (axtbo
down to DiagnosticOn and press twice. freee Seti cee
Press and scroll right to the CALC menu rOiagnosticon artLReg
to see the regressions available on the calculator.
Scroll to 4:LinReg(ax + b) and press [ENTER].

2. Enter parameters for regression line. Enter the

parameters to tell the calculator what data to
perform the calculation on. Set up the calculator’s
L1 and L2 lists with the data from the table as part
of creating the scatter plot. Press [L1] (,] and
[L2] (,] to enter these two lists after the
LinReg(ax + b) command. You need one
more parameter. Press and scroll right to Y-VARS, then press [ENTER]. On the following screen,
press to choose Y1 and add it after the LinReg(ax + b) command.
3. Perform regression and plot line. Press to execute the LinReg(ax + b) command. Notice that
the calculator expresses the equation for the line as y = ax + b. That is, the slope is indicated as a, not
m. The equation for the line of best fit is y = 1.2851x — 31.4. Since ? = 0.9882, this line is a good fit for
the data. To see the scatter plot with the line of best fit drawn, press [GRAPH].

The slope of 1.2851 represents the increased

ticket cost in yuan for every additional kilometer
of flight distance. The change in the vertical
coordinates divided by the change in the
horizontal coordinates equals the slope.

1.2 Models 59
PRACTICE
1. Select all the statements that apply. A trend
line is a line that
A. Passes close to the points on a scatter
plot.
B. Shows the relationship between one
variable and another.
C. Is used to predict points not shown on
the plot.
D. Always has a positive slope. A. Positive
2. A positive correlation means B. Negative
C. None
A. All the points on the scatter plot lie on a
D. Not enough information
line.
B. As one value increases, the other
decreases.
C. As one value increases, the other
increases.
D. The trend line only crosses the positive
axes.

Exercises 3-7: A researcher gives you graphs of

data for various experiments. Based on the data,
what type of linear correlation, if any, would you
Ao 'Positive
suggest the researcher further explore?
B. Negative
3. C. None
D. Not enough information

This graph shows (a) correlation.

A. Positive
B. Negative Nn
8
v

C. None ie
Wn

D. Not enough information

0. 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Weight

A. Negative
B. Positive
C. None
D. Not enough information

A. Positive
B. Negative
Practice Problems continue .. .
C. None
D. Not enough information

60 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Practice Problems continued ...
8. The graph shows the relationship between 12. [TEA The equation y = 2.1x + 9.0 is used
the retail cost of a bag of Rainier cherries to model some data. A y-value of 16.1 is
and the weight. Approximately how much measured at an x-value of 3.0. What is the
would Tara pay for 6 pounds of cherries? squared residual at that value of x?
Exercises 13-15: Draw ascatter plot from the
data. Then sketch a trend line and decide if
the graph has a positive or negative linear
correlation. State the equation that represents
the trend line.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Weight (pounds)

$12
$14
$16
$18
ee
~ $20
9. Determine if there is a negative, positive,
or no correlation between a child’s age and
height.
A. Positive
B. Negative
C. None
D. Not enough information
10 If there is no correlation in the data of a
scatter plot, is it useful to sketch a trend
line? Explain your reasoning.
11. Use a graphing calculator to create a scatter
plot using the table of data below. Sketch the
results.
Number of Eggs Produced by Iguanas
of Various Body Weights

Practice Problems continue .. .

1.2 Models 62
Practice Problems continued ...

16. Use the table of data to answer the 18. An algebra class does an experiment in which
questions. they pass a hula hoop around the room. The
table shows the number of people and the
time in seconds required to complete a pass.

a Draw a scatter plot of the data set.

b Find a possible linear model for the data
using regression.
17. The table shows the heights of 10 fathers
and the heights of their adult sons in inches.

a Draw ascatter plot of the data and sketch

a trend line.
lees b The equation of the linear regression is
t = 2.85p + 3.5, where tis time in seconds
and p is people. Predict the time it would
take 20 people to complete the hula hoop
pass.
c Assuming the trend continues in a similar
manner for larger groups of people,
how long would it take for 100 people to
complete the pass? Round your answer to
the nearest second.
19 A student states: “A coefficient of
determination of r? = 1.02 was calculated
a Draw a scatter plot of the data, with the
heights of the sons on the vertical axis
for a model of the relationship between the
and the heights of the fathers on the students’ rating of the teacher and class
attendance.” Has the student correctly
horizontal axis.
applied regression to the data?
b Find a possible linear model for the data
using regression. 20. A group of high school students were
c Based on your model’s equation, what given two 20-point quizzes. The ordered
would you expect the height of the son to pairs that represent their scores for the two
be if the father is 76 inches tall? quizzes are:
d Based on your model’s equation, what (7, 14), (10, 8), (13, 13), (18, 18), (16, 18),
would you expect the height of the son to (15, 12), (20, 18), (15, 16), (17, 16), (20, 14),
be if the father is 58 inches tall? (14, 15), (14, 19), (10, 18), (15, 14), (19, 16),
e What do you notice about the predicted (17, 20), (11, 9)
heights of sons whose fathers are either
extremely tall or extremely short? a Create a scatter plot for the data.
f List at least two other factors that might b Does the relationship between the
also be relevant in predicting a child’s consecutive quiz scores appear to
final height. be linear? If not, give some possible
explanations.
Practice Problems continue...

62 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Practice Problems continued ...

21. Several farmers in the same area varied a Create a scatter plot for the data, with the
the amount of fertilizer on their fields and amount of fertilizer as the independent
obtained varied yields of their crop. The variable.
results are shown in the table.
b Calculate a linear regression equation for
the data.
c What is the meaning of the slope and
es y-intercept in the equation?

p75 | 33

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

CPE Maya’s class wanted to find out if different body

parts are proportional, so each student measured his or her
height and arm span. Their data is displayed to the right.
a Make ascatter plot, with height as the independent
variable. [226851.|e oe
b Find the equation for a trend line that best fits this data. 65.5
You may use a spreadsheet or graphing calculator to a
help you. eesa
c Is your equation a good predictor of arm span, given a aes
person’s height? Why or why not? 74.75
d What would be the predicted arm span of a person
who is 80 inches tall?
74.5
ODN D

NS 72
67
71
N SS

on)

1.2 Models 63
 LES SUN OL eee
REE

1.3 Working with Models

Real-world situations can be modeled with functions. We show several examples
of real-world models in the problems below. In this book, the globe icon indicates
that a problem is a real-world model.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Oe Cie) Economists use supply and demand curves. Supply increases with price, but demand
decreases. The law of supply and demand says the price will reach a level where supply equals
demand. The point where the two lines intersect is the price where supply equals demand, and it
is the solution to the system.
What is the consumption of peanuts in a country if the supply can be calculated with the equation
Q = 0.4P + 60 and the demand can be calculated with the equation Q = 420 — 0.2P? Q stands for
quantity (in thousands of tons) andPis the price per ton.
SOLUTION
Graph the
system of g The solution to the
equations re system of equations
q < is the point where 4
g (600,300) the graphs of the two |
ne equations intersect. |
g Q =04P + 60
o 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 ;
Price per Ton (dollars)

Intersection (600, 300) The graphs intersect at (600, 300). The price is per
is solution $600 per ton for 300,000 tons —_ ton while the quantity is in thousands of tons.

©@e [GER] Afield-goal kicker kicks a football that follows a parabolic path. The height of the ball
can be expressed as a function of the distance (expressed in yards) from where the ball was kicked
:
using h(x) = ——36ees
x?
x + =x,
3x

a The kicker is 57 yards from the goalpost. Assuming the kick is on target, will the kick be high
enough to make it over the goalpost? (The crossbar of the goalpost is 10 ft, or a.yards, above
ground.)
b_ Find the maximum height of the ball.
SOLUTION
a Given h(x) = se - = Start with the given function.

Substitute HX) = oe = 267) The kicker is 57 yards from the goalpost. In this
situation, x = 57. Substitute 57 into the function.

Evaluate h(x) = ~ 3,6249) + 267) Use the order of operations to evaluate the function.
At 57 yards, the ball is 4.75 yards above the ground,
hin) = 4.75 which 1s more than sufficient to clear the goalpost.

Model Problems continue...

64 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b The vertex of the function is at (30, 25). The ball reaches a

maximum height of 25 yards.

Linear Programming
Linear programming is a tool for solving problems with constraints modeled as
linear inequalities. We can use linear programming to decide how many pies and
cakes to make. There are constraints on how many pies and cakes we can make.
For instance, perhaps we can only use an oven for 3 hours to make these pies and
cakes.
Our goal is to make as much money as possible selling cakes and pies at a bake
sale. So our profit is our objective function, which we want to maximize. More
generally, we want to optimize the objective function, or find the best solution
possible. “Optimize” might mean minimize, such as a solution that has least cost.
When the constraint inequalities are graphed, the feasible region is the area on
the graph in which the variables obey the constraints. This set of solutions to the
inequalities represents all the possible choices we can make.
The vertices of the feasible region will always provide the maximum and minimum
values for the objective function. When the value of the objective function is the
same at adjacent vertices, it is also the same at all points on the connecting segment.

MODEL PROBLEMS

2e@ Cia] Your class is participating in a bake sale where every item on sale must be baked at the
sale. You sell cakes for $10 and pies for $6. Each class is allowed to use the oven for 3 hours. You can
bake one pie or cake at a time. It takes 45 minutes to bake a cake and 30 minutes to bake a pie.
a Determine the objective function and graph the feasible region.
b Optimize the objective function.
SOLUTION
a Identify S = sales State the objective function as an equation. Let s represent sales
variables x = cakes _ (that is, the amount of money we receive selling our cakes and
y = pies pies). Let x represent the number of cakes we sell. Let y represent
the number of pies we sell.
State as s = 10x + 6y Let’s say we can sell cakes for $10 and pies for $6. That means
equation our sales from cakes will equal 10x. That means 6y is our sales
from pies. The expression 10x + 6y is sales for both cakes and
pies.
Model Problems continue...

1.3 Working with Models 65

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Constraint The oven One limit is how long we can use the oven. We have 3 hours to
use the oven and can only bake one pie or cake at a time.
State 45x + 30y = 180 It takes 45 minutes to bake a cake and 30 minutes to bake a pie.
constraints as 45x is the number of minutes the oven is used to bake cakes. 30y
inequalities is the amount of time we use the oven to bake pies. We have 3
hours of time to use the oven. Three hours equals 180 minutes.
The amount of time we spend baking pies and cakes,
45x + 30y, must be less than or equal to 180.
x20, y= 0 The number of cakes, x, has to be 0 or positive. We cannot bake
a negative number of cakes. State this constraint as x = 0. The
same applies to pies. We can bake 0 pies or a positive number of
pies, but not a negative number of pies.
Determine Graph the constraint inequalities, shading To help you bake |
feasible the solution region. We have graphed a Asimuchias
region(s) system of linear inequalities. The solution | possible, map
to these inequalities is the feasible region. ) oyt a feasible
Any solution to the system is a possible‘) region. The
choice we can make. For instance, we diagram shows
have enough time to bake 2 cakes and a graph of your
1 pie. We show that point as A.Or we can | choices.
bake 0 cakes and 6 pies. We show that as al
Feasible: A and B
point B. That’s another solution to this system atCncdnialifies:
Not feasible: C
On the other hand, we cannot make 3 cakes and 4 pies. We
show that as point C. That is outside the feasible region. It takes
more time to bake them, 255 minutes, than we have.

b Optimize s = 10y + 6y We want to optimize the objective function. In particular,

objective we want to maximize the dollar sales of pies and cakes.
function This objective function reflects that we get $10 per cake
and $6 per pie.
Optimizing an objective
Substitute s=10-0+6-0=0 To optimize the function, function may mean
values at substitute the values of the finding the maximum
vertices: points at the vertices: or the minimum
Vertex (0, 0) Substituting the values for the value. For instance,
vertex (0,0), we have 0 cakes if the relationships
and 0 pies, giving us represented costs, then
s = 10(0) + 6(0)= 0 dollars. the solution would be
(0, 0) since that would
Vertex (4,0) s=10-4+6-0=40 Choosing another minimize costs.
vertex, (4,0), we have 4 cakes beeps
and 0 pies, giving us $40 in sales.
Vertex (0,6) s=10-0+6-6=36 Using the values for the last vertex, (0, 6), we have 0 cakes
and 6 pies, resulting in $36 in sales.
Model Problems continue ..

66 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Solution 4 cakes, 0 pies Since the vertex (0, 4) results in the highest value for
sales, the optimized (maximum) sales occur if we bake
4 cakes and 0 pies. If you are skeptical, you can try other
combinations of pies and cakes. For instance, how about
2 cakes and 3 pies? That is feasible since it is on the line
on the graph, which means it can be done in 180 minutes.
Sales for 2 cakes and 3 pies are $38. Our solution is better.

Oe MP 2,4| A factory can make two types of snowboards, the Air and the Podium. The Air requires
one employee-hour to manufacture and the Podium requires three employee-hours. The factory
has 450 employee-hours of labor available each day. The factory has enough supplies on hand to
build 300 Airs and 200 Podiums. Graph the daily manufacturing capabilities of the factory. Is it
possible to build 140 Podiums and 120 Airs in a day?
SOLUTION
Choose. A = Airs Choose variables to represent the number of Airs and
variables P = Podiums Podiums.
Write A = 300 The factory has enough supplies to make at most
inequalities P <=200 300 Airs and 200 Podiums. State these limits using
about supplies inequalities.
State State the restrictions that the factory cannot build a
restrictions negative number of boards as inequalities.
Graph the The factory is limited by supplies, so the
inequalities inequalities must reflect that. If the factory were
about limited only by supplies, it could build any
supplies and quantity of boards shown in the region A = 300
restrictions and P = 200.

—400 -300 -200: -100 100... .200...300....400

+ 100

Write A + 3P = 450 The problem says it takes 3 times longer to build a

statement Podium than an Air. Write an inequality for the total time
about workers it takes to make the boards.
Graph all The possible outputs of the factory are in the
inequalities shaded region, which is the feasible region for
this situation. The question asked if the factory
could build 140 Podiums and 120 Airs ina day.
That point is outside the solution region, so it is
impossible for the factory to do that. The factory
400 -300..-200 -100
P cannot build 140 Podiums and 120 Airs in a day.
t -100 It lacks enough employee-hours.

1.3 Working with Models 67

We show one of three similar activities below. In these activities, you must solve linear
programming problems. Graph them, identify the feasible region, and then select the
vertex that is the solution.

Add a line
Go to www.amscomath.com
Change to dashed
Shade region to use the activities.

PRACTICE
1. What is the maximum value of the function 3. In order to fence off a rectangular plot of
z = 10x + 7y on the indicated feasible land that is bordered on one side by a stone
region? wall, a wooden fence is built along the other
(40, 37 three sides. The contractor brought enough
materials to build 200 yards of fence. What
dimensions for the fence will make the
60, 30) largest area of the fenced plot?
4. Given the graph below, where do the two
x
lines intersect?
10-20-30 --40--50-+--60-

A. 400
B. 600
C. 800
D. 810
2. One of the spouts from a decorative fountain
needs to be replaced. The spout is 1 foot above
the water level. In order to match the other
spouts, water coming out of the spout must
reach a height of 15 feet at a distance of 5. You can split all the wood in a woodpile in 5.5
4 horizontal feet from the spout, and it should hours. Your father can do it in 7 hours. You
reach the water level 8 horizontal feet from the work for two hours together before you have
spout. Write the equation of the parabola that to go to work and leave your father to finish
describes the path of the water leaving the the job himself. How many more hours will it
spout. Use x for the horizontal distance from take your father to finish the job alone? Round
the spout, and y as the height above the water. your answer to the nearest tenth of an hour.

Practice Problems continue .. .

68 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Practice Problems continued...
6. To make a collage, Dina is placing a square 12. I’m twice as old as you were when I was as
piece of multicolored paper on top of a old as you are now. When you are as old as
square of cardboard, as shown in the diagram Iam now, the sum of our ages will equal 63.
below. The smaller square will be placed How old is each of us now?
so that each of its corners is a inches from
the nearest corner of the larger square. The 13. CL The following problem was first
side length of the larger square is 1 foot. suggested by the famous Russian novelist,
What value of a should Dina choose so the Leo Tolstoy: A team of workers has to mow
multicolored square covers the smallest area? two fields, one twice as large as the other. The
team has been mowing the larger field for half
of a day. Then the team splits in half: half of
the workers stay and work on the rest of the
larger field, while the other half starts mowing
the smaller field. By the end of the first day,
the larger field is done. The smaller field is
finished by one worker mowing all of the next
« With the wind, which adds to her speed, a day. How many workers were in the team?
cyclist travels 85 miles in 5 hours. Against
the wind, which subtracts equally from her Exercises 14-17: Each graph reflects the
speed, she travels 49 miles in 7 hours. How feasible region for profits, and the purpose is to
fast, in miles per hour, does she travel when maximize profits.
there is no wind?
14. The objective function is z = 6x + 5y. State
In the year 2004, it was estimated that there the values that maximize profits as an
were about 260 adult bald eagles in Maine. ordered pair.
In the year 2007, there were about 374 adult
bald eagles. In the same time period, the
adult loon population in Maine declined from
about 2900 to about 2540 adults. If these rates
remain the same, during what year would
you estimate the populations of adult bald
eagles to be the same as the population of fetes test
Q 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
adult loons? What is the population number
of each when this occurs? Round the values to
the nearest tenth. 15. The objective function is z = 8x + 10y.
State the values that maximize profits as an
. Arecipe calls for 2 cups of whole milk, which ordered pair.
is about 4% fat. You have only 2% milk and
half-and-half (which is about 11% fat). How
much of each liquid should you use to create
the correct amount of simulated whole milk?
Round the values to the nearest tenth.

10. How many liters of a 3% salt solution and a

12% salt solution must be combined to obtain
46 liters of a solution that is 9% salt? Round
the values to the nearest tenth.

11. One mixture of paint has 35% pigment.

Another mixture has 10% pigment. If you
want 11 gallons of paint that have 21%
pigment, how many gallons of each mixture
should you use, to the nearest tenth?
Practice Problems continue .. .

1.3 Working with Models 69

 Practice Problems continued...
16. The objective function is z = 7x + 2y. Exercises 18-21: Sketch the region determined
State the values that maximize profits as by the constraints. State the maximum and
an ordered pair. minimum of the objective function, and where
they occur.
18. Objective function: z = 5x + 2y
GEO
Constraints: 4 y = 0
icea a a=)
19. Objective function: z = 4x + 0.5y
New
17. The objective function is z = 5x + 8y. Constante =
State the values that minimize costs as an Py) aN
ordered pair. ox +92y = 10
20. Objective function: z = 4x + 3y
c= 0
f ZY =)
Constraints: CP yes
4x —y=16
21. Objective function: z = 0.5x + 0.35y
x = 0
_.
Constraints:
J y=
ee Oy 24
Un 2i = 8

22. The price of 82% nickel alloy is $11.31 per

Ib. The price of 92% nickel alloy is $12.80
per lb. Determine the blend of lowest cost
of these two alloys if the percentage of
nickel in it should be at least 90%. Hint:
Let x stand for the fraction of 82% alloy,
and y for the fraction of 92% alloy in each
pound.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

IMP 2,4 Hannah has 50 minutes to take an English test that has 20 multiple-choice questions and
20 short-answer questions. She knows she can answer a multiple-choice question in 1.5 minutes
and a short-answer question in 2 minutes. Each correct multiple-choice answer receives 2 points,
and each correct short-answer receives 3 points.
a Write the appropriate inequalities.
b Graph them to find the feasible region.
c Write the objective function for Hannah’s scores.
d What are the maximum and minimum possible scores Hannah can receive?

70 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

LESSON 1.4 sieesiss2:::2.:::noemummmenane
iseneemmneme
aenronsnsswet
amemesmaamen
nssans
1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations and Expressions
The Form of an Equation
An effective tool to solve problems is to look for the structure of an equation.
Structure of an equation means the properties that enable you to recognize it as a
form of an equation you know how to work with.
For instance, say you are asked to graph 6x — 3y = 12 and also asked if and where
the graph intercepts the y-axis. One way to solve this would be to graph points,
Simplifying
substituting values for x, and computing y. A faster method is to recognize it as
an equation
a linear equation. You can solve for y, getting y = 2x — 4. This matches it with or expression |
another equation with structure, y = mx + b. The slope of this line is 2, and its
may reveal its |
y-intercept is —4. Your knowledge of the structure of equations makes fora fast, structure.
efficient way to answer the question, and even tells you the shape (a line) of the
graph and its slope.

MODEL PROBLEM
Describe the graph of 8y* = 128 — 8x’.
SOLUTION
Simplifying ]
Identify 8y° = 128 — 8x*_ The key to solving this problem is to recognize ) coefficients can |
structure of the 8x* + 8y? = 128 this is the equation of a circle, which has the help you see
equation form x? + y° = 7°, with r equaling the radius. __| the form of an
_ pa ; equation.
Divide x*+y?=16 Divide the equation by 8.
Write in ery = 4? Write constant as a square. The equation is a circle with its center
standard form at the origin. Its radius is 4. This means the circle will intercept
for a circle axes at (4, 0), (0, 4), (—4, 0), and (0, —4), since all these points
and identify are 4 from the origin.
properties

Structure and Factoring

Seeing the structure of an equation can help with factoring it as well. For instance,
in factoring 3x? + 6x + 3, look at the coefficients and see 3 is a factor of them all.
Simplify the expression to 3(x*+ 2x + 1). The expression in the parentheses is a
perfect square, which can also factor to get 3(x + 1)?. This approach can enable us
to factor expressions we might otherwise struggle with.

1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations and Expressions 71

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Identify the structure of the expression, A4x* — Ay’, and then factor.

SOLUTION
Identify structure 4x* — 4y’ This is the difference of squares.
of the expression
Factor 4G? = 7) Factor out 4.
Identify structure 4(x? — y’)(x? + y’) x? and y’ are squared terms ina difference of squares.
of the expression
Identify structure 4(x — y)(x + y)(x? + y’) We also recognize one more structure: a sum of two
of the expression perfect squares, (x? + y’). That is an expression we
cannot factor, so we know we are done there.

2. Solve 13 + 6x? — 20x — x7 +7=0.

SOLUTION
Combine like terms 13 + 6x? — 20x — x7 +7=0
5x* — 20x + 20 =0
Factor 5(x? — 4x + 4) =0
Identify the structure of the B(x — 2)" = 0
expression: Perfect square
Apply zero product property Mma taal)
x=2

3. Factor x* + (a + b)x + ab in terms of x.

SOLUTION
From factoring, we know the constant is the product of two constants, and the
coefficient is the sum of those constants: (x + a)(x + b).

Systems of Equations with More than Two Variables

Systems of equations can have more than two variables. The solutions to these
systems are ordered sets of numbers, similar to ordered pairs. For example,
any solution to a system with three variables will be an ordered triple of the
form (47 y,Z):
Systems with more than two variables are usually solved algebraically by
elimination, substitution, or some combination of both. Solving by graphing is
rarely a practical solution technique because an equation containing three or more
variables is difficult to graph on a surface.
Like two-variable systems of equations, systems with more than two variables
can have a finite number of solutions, an infinite number, or no solution. In order
for a system to have a finite number of solutions, it needs to have at least as many
equations as variables.

72 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2 |

 MODEL PROBLEM
Solve the system of equations in three variables: 3x — y+7z=10;y-x=3;z=y-5
SOLUTION
Solve second Ye S93 We decide to substitute. We solve the second
equation for y Y= x43 equation for y.
Substitute OX Ye Za 10 We substitute the expressions for y and z into
for y and z Se 13) (ye) 10 the first equation.
Substitute 3x — (x + 3) + 7((x + 3) —5) = 10 In order to solve the equation, we need to
for y again eliminate all but one variable. We do this by
substituting for y again, which leaves x as the
only variable in the equation.
Solve for x 9x— 17= 10 Combine like terms, isolate the variable, and
9x = 27 then divide to find x.
x=3
Solve for y y-x=3 Substitute the value of x into the second
Wis).3 equation, then solve for y.
y=6
Solve for z oe SS) Substitute the value of y into the third
z=(6)-5 equation, then solve for z.
z=1
Solution stated (4, YZ). = 76,1) Solutions to systems with more than two
in ordered form variables can be stated in ordered form, as
we show. The solution to this example is the
ordered triple (3, 6, 1).

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following sequences could be 5. Could the equations y = 2x — 5 and
modeled by a linear function, f(x) = mx + b? 4x + y = —2 be written so they have similar
structure? Explain.
ome COmae ee 1s 3,6,9,12)-..
Die ome ee Od? 21, SO ne (i aikd Exercises 6-7: Compare and contrast
C773, 6,48; 72,9. the structure of each set of equations or
expressions.
2. Which of the following sequences can
6. y=x+landx+y=1
be modeled by a function of the form
g(x) = a(by"? 7. x?
— 81 and 144
—
A. 10,20, 40, 80, ... 8. Write the expressions 5 + x and 3 + x in
B. Ly ap Oy 10 fees the form x + a. What property allows the
C. 6,12, —24, AS, ... expressions to be written in this form?
De bg aig ais » Write the equation 2x + y = 9 in the form
y= mx + b.
(hae Exercises 3-4: What do the equations
have in common? 10. Identify the slope and the y-intercept of
2 PRESS Y=O6,
By =3x-2y=54t y= —5x-1
11. Write an equation that has a similar form to
Ay a ee ay Ok y = 3x + I.
Practice Problems continue...

1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations and Expressions 73

Practice Problems continued...

12. [TP 3E] Compare the graphs of the 16. Describe the solution to the system of
equations: y = a5 eo ok Oy — 1D
functions y = oe — Land —x + 24 =--2.
(lea Exercises 17-28: Solve each system of
13. Compare the structure of the two equations.
expressions.
; ; 17. a+ 36+ c=4,¢@=
—4);c = 5b

+ 1)| x? + 6(—2x + 1) — 3(7 + 2°)

3x — 4x + 9(2x 18. y= —z+1jxty=—32—-3,x=z+7
19iex = 1 7 er 2 = — Ay Se
14. Compare the structure of the two
expressions. 20. 2x + y — 3z = —6; x = 2z; y = —4z

24. x= yj2=2x+13x-y tz=21

22. 2a + 2b= 2;20+ 2b + c= -5;3a- 4 = 13
15. [EI Two students find the area of a circle 23. 3x = y; —2x + 2y +32 = 33x = —2
with radius 5 cm. The students each used a
24. 3x 432 = 07 20 ey + 323, 21 y= 6
different formula. Describe the validity of
each student’s work. 25. 2u=viutv=wt+l1;3u-vtw=7

SEL oor he aig

aaa
A = (r)(m)(r) 21.2275
=XN +2 = ey + 523
A = (5)(m)(5) 28. y = 2k — 2430 2y- 2 12 2

Chapter 1 Key Ideas messes. menemenoreeer

1.1 Functions
Linear functions have constant slope Absolute value functions have a constant slope in each
straight line component. Functions with changing slope include quadratic and exponential
functions.
Symmetrical functions include quadratic and absolute value functions. Non-symmetrical
functions include exponential functions.
Continuous functions include linear, quadratic, exponential, absolute value, and piecewise
functions. Non-continuous functions include piecewise and step functions, rationals, and
tangents.
Functions have a domain and range based on the possible inputs and outputs.
A parent function is the simplest form of a function, and can be translated up or down, left or
right, or be scaled.
Adding a positive constant to a parent function translates its graph up by that many units.
Subtracting a positive constant from a parent function translates its graph down by that many
units.
Subtracting a positive constant from the input of a function translates its graph to the right by
that many units. Adding a positive constant to the input of a function translates its graph to the
left by that many units.
Scaling a function increases or decreases the inputs and outputs compared to the parent function.
For example, a scaled function may look wider or more narrow compared to the parent function.

74 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

1.2 Models and 1.3 Working with Models
¢ Models are used to determine if there is a relationship between variables.
* Regression is used to determine the quality of a model’s fit to the data.

1.4 Seeing Structure in Equations and Expressions

¢ The structure of an equation can show the properties of an equation.
¢ Systems with more than two variables can be solved by elimination, substitution, or some
combination of both. Like two-variable systems of equations, systems with more than two
variables can have one solution, an infinite number, or no solution. Any solution to a system with
three variables will be an ordered triple of the form (x, y, 2).
RIG ELL AT NARS ARLE TL
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
1. What is the domain of the function 4. Determine if there is a negative, positive, or
f(x) = 2x? no correlation between the number of hours
A. All positive numbers and 0 someone spends practicing and their batting
average.
B. All numbers that are greater than or
equal to 2 A. Positive
C. All negative numbers B. Negative
D. All real numbers C. No correlation
D. Not enough information
. What is the range of the function f(x) = 2x*?
5. (27 Lucy’s mile run times versus the
A. All positive numbers and 0 weight of her sneakers can be modeled
B All numbers that are greater than or with a line with an r’ value of 0.8. Bill’s
equal to 2 mile run times can be modeled with a line
C. All negative numbers with an r’ value of 0.64. Assuming that a
D. All real numbers linear model is reasonable for both,
whose run times are best modeled by their
Choose the correct statement about the
respective lines of fit?
scatter plot of the data.
y Pe WUC.S
BB. Se Bilis
C. Not enough information
. Ascientist models the acceleration of a
cart as a function of the net force on it. She
obtains a set of data that is well-fitted by a
line. Which of the following could be the r*
value for the fit?
x

0' 5 10 15 20 25'30 35 40 Aa 96 red

There is no linear correlation B. 0.04 D. “0:96
There is a negative linear correlation . Aregression equation for predicting y from
There is a positive linear correlation x is found to be y = 1.25x + 84.5. What is
UOp>
There is a correlation, but it is not linear the estimated change in the mean value of y
when x increases by 3?
AS Cy 86.25
Bri Dos
Chapter Review continues . .

Chapter 1 Review 75
Chapter Review continued ...
8. What is the domain and range of the function 16. [EAA realtor wants to sell some
shown in the graph? riverfront lots. To set a fair price for them, he
studies several similar riverfront lots nearby
that were sold recently. The table shows the
area of the lots (in hundreds of square feet)
and their selling prices (in thousands of
dollars).

9. What does the graph of y = (x + 2)* — 3 look

like compared to the graph of y = x”?
10. What does the graph of y = |x — 1| + 2 look
like compared to the graph of y = |x|?
Exercises 11-13: Sketch each function by creating
a table with at least 5 data points.

41. f(x) =2"

12. f(x) = 2° a Create a scatter plot for the data. Does it
appear to have alinear trend?
13. 9(x) = 0.5"~? b The coefficient of determination for the
data is found to be equal to 7? = 0.673.
14. A function that repeats its values in Explain what that means in terms of
regular intervals is called periodic. Below is association of the price of the lot and its
an example of a periodic graph. You can see area.
that it repeats itself again and again. What is c Calculate a regression line for the data.
a relationship in nature that could be
represented with a periodic graph? 17. A car dealer is placing orders for the
delivery of next month’s vehicles. He has
made advance sales for 2 SUVs and 5cars.
Recent sales indicate he can expect to sell
no more than 32 total vehicles a month.
He makes a profit of $6400 on each SUV he
sells and $1600 on each car. How many of
each vehicle should he order?

18. An art studio has been contracted to

supply a gallery with 60 vases each quarter.
The studio produces two types of vases,
hand-painted and plain. They can make only
50 plain vases each quarter. Similarly, they
15. [ERP] A square is inscribed into a can create a maximum of 35 hand-painted
circle of radius R. Sketch the graph of the vases each quarter. The studio makes a profit
of $30 on each hand-painted vase and $10
relationship between the area S of the square
and the radius R of the circle. on each plain vase. How many of each vase
should they make to maximize their profits?
Chapter Review continues ...

76 Chapter 1: Themes in Algebra 2

Chapter Review continued...
19. A farmer wants to sell his produce in 24. [EZ A Christmas tree farm makes a profit
two neighboring towns, A and B. He can of $40 on each Blue Spruce they plant and
grow up to 700 pounds of vegetables, $30 on each Douglas Fir. They must plan
but the demand for vegetables is at most the number of each type of tree to plant this
400 pounds in Town A, where he sells his year. They are under contract to grow at
produce at $3.25 per pound, and 600 pounds least 120 trees. To ensure adequate
in Town B, where the price is $2.99 per variety, they must plant a minimum of 20
pound. How much should the farmer sell in of each tree. The farm has 3900 square feet
each town to maximize his profits? of growing space. The Douglas Firs require
30 square feet per tree, and the Blue Spruces
20. Write the system of inequalities that describe require 36 square feet per tree. How many
a parallelogram with vertices at the points of each kind of tree should they plant to
(0, 0), (0, —2), (2, 0), and (2, 2). Find the area maximize this year’s profits?
of the figure.
25. Jacob takes a part-time job at a computer firm.
21. Write a system of inequalities describing the He is paid $15 for fixing a computer on the
right triangle shaded in the graph. spot, which requires 20 minutes of his time.
He gets $60 for resolving computer problems
over the phone, which takes 1 hour and
10 minutes each time. Jacob works 24 hours a
week or less. What combination of activities
at work will yield Jacob maximum revenue?
Assume that he performs an integer number
of fixes.

26. A printing company makes hardcover and

paperback books. They make a profit of $8
for each hardcover book they sell and $3 for
each paperback book. Their records show
that they sell at least four times as many
paperback books as hardcover books. Their
22. Will the objective function z = x + y reach its printing presses can make a hardcover
maximum value on the region determined by book in 6 minutes or a paperback book in
the given constraints? Justify your answer. 4 minutes. If the printing presses can run for
55 hours this week, how many of each type
y=) of book should they produce in a week to
y=0 make the most profit?
Constraints:
ety=,1
vide
Jy 4
27. Identify a circumstance or circumstances in
a linear programming problem where a
vertex might not be a solution to a
23. You found a feasible region for the constraints real-world problem.
in a linear programming problem. It turned
out that the objective function reaches its 28. [EI A fellow student claims that linear
maximum value at the adjacent vertices (2, 5) programming is just graphing a system
and (7,3) of the region. Can you conclude that of inequalities. Do you agree or disagree?
the objective function also has a maximum Why?
value at the points (2.5, 4.8) and (6.5, Bi2ye
Explain your reasoning.

Chapter 1 Review 77
lh ay

Chapter Content
Lessons | Standards

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials A-SSE.2

Special Product Patterns
Structure and Factoring
Factoring by Grouping

2.2 Polynomial Patterns A-SSE.2

Factoring Sums and Differences of Cubes
Factoring Two-Variable Polynomials

2.3 Patterns and Equations © A-SSE.2; A-APR.4

Algebra 1 Review: The Square Root Principle
Algebra 1 Review: The Zero-Product Property
Using Structure in Expressions to Solve an Equation
Factoring and Identities

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula © A-REI.4a; A-REI.4b

Completing the Square
The Quadratic Formula
Graphing Calculator: The Quadratic Formula
Multi-Part Problem Practice

2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers N-CN.1; N-CN.2; N-CN.8

Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers
Multiplying Complex Numbers
Optional: Complex Conjugates
Factoring Identities and Complex Numbers

2.6 #£Solutions of Quadratic Equations N-CN.7; A-APR.3; A-REI.4b; F-IF.8a

Graphs and the Number of Solutions to a Quadratic
Graphing Calculator: Graphing Quadratic Equations
The Discriminant
Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations

2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions G © A-CED.2; F-IF.4; S-ID.6a

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator:
Modeling with Quadratic Functions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin © G-GPE.2

Geometric Definition of a Parabola
Graphing a Parabola at the Origin

CHAPTER 2 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-2

78 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 8
Vocabulary
complete the square focus of the parabola real numbers
complex conjugates imaginary numbers roots

complex numbers perfect square trinomial square root principle

difference of cubes Pythagorean triple standard form of the equation
for a parabola centered at the
origin
difference of squares quadratic equation sum of cubes

directrix quadratic formula zero-product property

discriminant quadratic trinomial Zeros

factoring by grouping
ree BS)
LESSON 2.1 memes ioe ,

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials

To factor a polynomial means to write it as a product of polynomials (called
factors) so that when the factors are multiplied together, they equal the original
polynomial. A quadratic trinomial such as x* + 7x + 12 can be factored as a pair
of linear factors: (x + 4) and (x + 3).
We will analyze trinomials like this by stating them in the form x* + bx + c:

In general, the product of x + mand x + nis x? + (m+ n)x + mn.

The coefficient of x is m + n, and the constant c is the product mn.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Factor x? + 7x + 12.

SOLUTION A table lets you list the

: : factors of the constant
Create table: : Factors of 12 Listist the 1agf Ons O82?
the fact f 12 ae the trinomtial
List factors column, and the sum of
: ‘ and sum them to
of trinomial’s those factors in the other.
determine what the
constant and sums etiam. | coe Tie factor sotleuare
constants in the
of constants in 3,4 1 and 12; 2 and 6; and binomial factors are.
factors 3 and 4.
Add the factors:1 + 12 = 13;2+6=8;3+4=7.
Middle term Middle term = 7x The coefficient of the middle term equals the sum
coefficient equals Coefficient = 7 of the factors. We use the factors 3 and 4, since their
sum of these (s + 3)(x + 4) sum equals the coefficient of the middle term, 7. The
constants polynomial factors are x + 3 and x + 4.
Model Problems continue...

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials 79

 Model Problems continued

2. Factor x* + 4x — 5. Unlike the first trinomial quadratic |

we factored, this one has a
SOLUTION negative constant, —5. The
factors of a quadratic trinomial of
Create table: Factaiiotes List the factors of this form will have constants with |
List factors —5 in one column opposite signs (or, if you like, one |
of trinomial’s —4 and the sum of those added and one subtracted).
constant and sums
The factors of —5 are a) andes Bae i a +5,
Add the factors: 1 + (—5) = —4;-1+5=4.
Middle term Middle term = 4x The coefficient of the middle term equals the sum of the
coefficient equals Coefficient = 4 factors. Since the coefficient is +4, we use the factors —1
sum of these Caradoc 5) and +5. This means the polynomial factors are x — 1
constants and x + 5.

3. Factor x* — 11x + 10.

SOLUTION The trinomial x? — 11x + 10 has

a negative coefficient for x and a
Create table Factors
List the factors of the
positive constant. Its factors will
|Factors |Sum_ constant, 10, in one
have two negative constants (or, |
column, and the sum if you like, both subtracted). ;
aD of those factors in the
other.
We want two negative numbers since we know their
product is positive and their sum is a negative number. We
therefore consider the factors —1 and —10, and —2 and —5.
Add the tactors: 1 -2(=10)e= 12 = (5) =
Middle term Middle term = —11x The coefficient of the middle term in this case is —11,s0 we
coefficient equals Coefficient = —11 choose the factors —1 and —10 since their sum is —11. This
sum of these (vil)@ s210) means the polynomial factors are x — 1 and x — 10.
constants

Special Product Patterns

When some binomials are multiplied, their products have a pattern. It can be
helpful to know these to speed multiplication.

The square of a binomial sum | (a + b)* =a’ + 2ab + b? | (x + 4)? =x? + 8x + 16

ee of a binomial —bP= ea th |) 3) = — 6x4 9

The product of the sum and

fe of two terms (GO GeOy a U. R(eaiL Dee

80 Chapter 2: Quadratics
Proving identities like those on the previous page is a direct
FOIL stands for First,
application of the FOIL method.
Outer, Inner, Last and}
provides a sequence |
Derive the square of a binomial sum. for multiplying terms. |

: Start with A + B

(A + BYA + B)
| | Multiply using FOIL A’ + AB+ AB+ B
Combine like terms to get a 2 2
perfect square trinomial fe Aadals

| Derive the product of the sum and difference of two terms.

Start with
i (A + B)(A — B) (Ata By (Alb)
Multiply using FOIL A - AB + AB + B*
Simplify to get a difference of
squares

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Simplify (2x? + x).
SOLUTION

Square of binomial sum (a + b)’ = a? + 2ab + (2x* + x)* follows the pattern for the square
pattern of a binomial sum.
Identify values = 20 Bia x To apply the pattern, identify the values of
a and b in this example: a = 2x* and b = x.
Substitute and simplify (2x?) + 2(2x’)(x) + (x’) Substitute the values for a and b into the
Ax* + 4x7 + x pattern and simplify.

2. Simplify (3x + y)(3x — y).

SOLUTION

Pattern for product of at b\a—-b)=a—- The pattern for the product of the sum and
sum and difference of difference of two terms can be applied here.
two terms
Identify values a = 3x,b=y To apply the pattern, identify the values of
a and b in this example, 3x and y.
(3x)’ — (y)’ Substitute the values of a and b into the
Substitute and simplify
Ox — ¥f pattern and simplify.
Model Problems continue...

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials 81

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3. Factor 4x? — 25. When you recognize a |
pattern, you can use it
SOLUTION
to factor. For instance, |
One square subtracted 4x? — 25 Difference of squares refers in model problem 3, |
from another to a polynomial that has two you can recognize
terms, one perfect square the expression as a
subtracted from another. The differen
polynomial 4x” — 25 is a aia 7
difference of perfect squares, since 4x’ is the square
of 2x, and 25 is 5 squared.
The factors are: (2x (2x) A difference of two squares is the product of two
binomials. The binomial factors start with the square
e The square root
root of the first term of the polynomial being factored,
of the first term
so 2x is the first term here.
e Plus and minus (2x + 5)(2x — 5) The square root of the second term is then added and
square root of subtracted, so 5 is added to and subtracted from 2x.
second term

4. Factor x? — 4x + 4.

SOLUTION
Perfect square 4x +4 The trinomial in this problem has the middle term
trinomial subtracted. A perfect square trinomial like this
factors as (A — B)(A — B).
Identify variables 4 = \/x? = x The expression A is the square root of the first
term, which is x. The expression B is the square
B= V4?
root of the last term, which is 2.
Substitute and 2AB = 4x Multiply 2, A, and B to get 4x, the middle term
simplify subtracted in the original expression.
State factors x? — 4x + 4 = (x — 2)(x — 2) The factors are both A — B, which here means the
factorization is x — 2 times x — 2.

Structure and Factoring

Now we consider slightly more complicated factoring problems. The key to
factoring them is to see within them the structure of a polynomial that we can
factor.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Factor —x* — 8x + 9.
SOLUTION
Factor out —1 —(x? + 8x — 9) How do we factor a polynomial where the term with the highest
degree is negative? It’s often easiest to factor out —1 and then
find binomial factors.
Factor remaining —(x + 9)(x — 1) Factor the remaining trinomial. We do not show the steps here,
polynomial but you could factor this by making a list of the factors of 9.
Model Problems continue...

82 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 Model Problems continued

2. Factor 4x* + 20x? + 24,?.

SOLUTION
Factor out greatest 4x?(x? + 5x + 6) The number 4 is the greatest
common factor common factor of all the Removing the greatest
coefficients, and x’ is the common factor from a
highest common power polynomial first can help you
of x. Factor out 4x”, which factor it. The greatest common
factor has the greatest
is the greatest common
common coefficient and the
factor.
greatest common power of
Factor remaining 4x*(x + 2)(x + 3) We do not show the steps each variable.
polynomial here, but the remaining
polynomial, x* + 5x + 6,
can be factored as x + 2 times x + 3. This completes the
factoring.

3. Factor 2(z — 12) + 27.

SOLUTION

Distribute first 2(z — 12) + 2 First distribute the 2 across the parentheses.
2z —- 24+ 27
State in standard z>+2z-—24 Rearrange the polynomial so that it is in standard
form form.
Create table Now this is looking like a trinomial that can be
factored. List the factors of the constant term, —24,
in one column, and the sum of those factors in the
=23 other column.

Choose correct —-4+6=2 To find which of these 8 pairs of possible factors is

sum correct, add them. Remember that they must add to
the coefficient, 2 in this case, of the middle term of
the trinomial. The correct pair is —4 and 6.
Write out factors (z — 4)(z + 6) The two binomial factors are z — 4 and z + 6.

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials 83

Factoring by Grouping
In factoring by grouping, you create groups of terms in a polynomial that you
can factor, so that the groups then have a common factor. Then you apply the
distributive property to factor out the common factor. This method is typically
used when there are four terms in the polynomial.

MODEL PROBLEM
Factor 4x* + 16x — 5x° — 20.

SOLUTION
Rewrite (4x* + 16x) + (—5x? — 20) Notice that there is a common factor of 4x in the
polynomial in first two terms and another common factor of —5 in
groups you can the last two terms. Since there are common factors
factor in both the first two terms and last two terms, we
rewrite the polynomial in two groups, so that each
group has a common factor.
Factor out Ax(x3 + 4) + (—5)(x? + 4) Factor out the greatest common factor from each
greatest common group. In the first group, 4x can be factored out.
factors And in the second group, —5 can be factored out.
The minus sign does not have to be factored out, but
by factoring out —5 we get a common factor, x° + 4,
in both groups.
Apply (4x — 5)(x? + 4) Since the common factor x° + 4 is multiplied by 4x and
distributive by —5, use the distributive property and multiply it by
property 4x — 5.

PRACTICE

Exercises 1-22: Factor. 13. 169x? + 26x +1

1. x?
-—25 14. x° + 3x
— 40
2. x” — 289 15. x? — 2x — 80
3. 4x? — 49 16. x° — 3x — 18
A252 = 36 17,2 8xy lby
5. 10077 = 121 18. x* — 10xy + 16y”
Gi 2 36 19,7 = 17xy +2007
7. x? + 14x + 49 20. —3x? — 15x + 18
8. x* = 20x + 100 21. —5x” — 20x + 60
9. x7 — 14x + 49 22. x? — 2(7x — 12)
10. 9x? + 42x + 49 23. [UGE Write as the product of
areas two binomials: x* + 4(5x + 16)
2 24. QUEM Write as the product of
myN
pee ek ee two binomials: x* + 5(4x + 15)

@ aS Chapter 2: Quadratics
LESSON 2.2 tenemse:cssaccsm
EIN
eReN
Ie URMeN
2.2 Polynomial Patterns

Factoring Sums and Differences of Cubes

The polynomial x° + 27 is the sum of perfect cubes, and x° — 8is the difference of
perfect cubes. A polynomial is called a sum of cubes if its terms are two perfect
cubes that are added, and a difference of cubes if it is one perfect cube subtracted
from another.

Sum of cubes ei tay geod | 2 The sum of two perfect cub equals]
perfect cubes
A’ + BS ( NS Oa ele ame two factors multiplied together.
Difference of cubes Ane 2 2 The difference of two Ppperfect cubes
( Saar aay equals the factors multiplied together.

MODEL PROBLEM
(GA Factor 27y° — 125.

SOLUTION
Identify cubes A® = 27y° = (y’)° 27y° — 125 is a difference of cubes, since each term is
A =3y a perfect cube. Use a formula to factorit. Set A® equal
Be = 195 = 5 to 27y°, which is the cube of 3y. Set B° equal to 125, —
Ba5 which is 5 cubed. B is equal to 5. oe
Substitute (A — B)(A? + AB + B’) State the formula and the terms just calculated, then
(3y? — 5)(9y* + 15y? + 25) substitute. Perform the operations.

PRACTICE
1. Three students attempt to factor the Exercises 4—22: Factor completely.
expression x*y? — m’n’. A Fie ote
Student 1: (x — y)(m + n)
Student 2: (xy + mn)(xy — mn) ~ 42x? — 147x’
Student 3: (xy — mn)(xy + mn) . x¢ + 10x*+ 21
Which best describes who factored the . x6 + 13x? + 22
— expression correctly?
P i ~ x? + 5x7 — 24x
A. Student 1 only
B. Student 2 only wo
oo
on
o . dix? ar 44x TOOX

C. Students 2 and 3 10. 125x° + 64

D. Student3 only 14. 2772 +512
Exercises 2—3: Write as a polynomial in standard
12. 343x° + 64
form.
13. 27x° + 1000
2. [(7x +3) — <7
14. 64,° — 125
3. [(6x + 8) — x*f Practice Problems continue...

2.2 Polynomial Patterns 85

Practice Problems continued...

15. 8y? — 125 23. [EE Md Show that

16. 216y° — 343 (a + by? =a? + 3a’°b + 3ab? + DB’.

17. 64y? — 729 24. [TPR If the sum of the squares of a

positive number and its reciprocal is equal
18. 64x° + 27 to 2, what is the sum of the cubes of that
number and its reciprocal equal to?
19. 216x? + 64
25. [PMA Jackie thought of two consecutive
20. 64x? + 125 natural numbers and told Yan that the
21. 125x° + 216 difference of their cubes was 331. Yan
figured out Jackie’s numbers. What
22, 22-27 numbers did he get?

Factoring Two-Variable Polynomials

In the model problems below, we show an example that requires us to factor a
polynomial with two variables. The key to our approach is to see how the structure
of this polynomial relates to a polynomial we already know.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Cid Exercises 1-4: Factor each as

@ x + 2x2y

SOLUTION
squ are x* + 2x*y* + y* _ The first step in factoring x* + 2x’y* + y' is to
Perfect
trinomial : A? +9 AB + B? recognize that it is a perfect square trinomial.
It happens that instead of x and y being the
ea.
_ ey - 2(x)(y?) + v7)
;
terms that are squared, it is x’ and y”. Write
the expression to emphasize that it is a perfect
square trinomial.
Ale Abs Bre
Use perfect Use the ice with Ain this case being x* and
square identity iy — 2(x")(y’) Je ne “2— vy B being y’.

@ 4m’ — n>
SOLUTION
Difference of (2m*)? — (n*) Factor 4m® — n® by recognizing that it is the
squares (A + B)(A —B) difference of two squares. In this oe the
two squared terms are 2m and n’‘.
A=2m' Bean’
Use difference A? — B* = (A+ B)(A — B) We take advantage of the fact that the result
ei
Lee (2m*)? a (n*)? — (2m* 4. n*)(2m* a n*) of raising a power to a power is the product
of those exponents of those powers. Use the
difference of squares identity, with A in this
case being 2m* and B being n*.
Model Problems continue...

86 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 Model Problems continued

© + Sey + 47
SOLUTION
Determine e+ Say + dy? = (x + ...y)(x + ...y) An important thing to observe is that this _
how to polynomial follows the basic pattern created
factor and by multiplying two binomials together: There
determine are three terms, the two outer terms include a
ao | variable squared, and the middle term has both
variables multiplied together. In this case, we
consider two binomials that each have an x-term
and a y-term. Since all terms are positive, the
two binomials are sums of positive terms.
Create table List the factors of the coefficient of the last term
in one column, and the sum of those factors in
l the other column. We only need to consider all
positive factors since all terms in the original
polynomial are positive. Make alist of the
possible positive factors of 4, the coefficient of
y’. Since the sum of the factors must equal the _
coefficient, 5, of the middle term of the original
trinomial, we use 1 and 4.
Write out (x + ly) (x + 4y) = (x + y)(x + 4y) Write out the factors.
factors

@ n' - 8? +15
Even though this polynomial
SOLUTION is not quadratic, we can
factor it into two binomials.
Determine m*— 8m? + 15 = (m? + ...)(m?+ ...) The polynomial We first recognize that it is
how to in the model — in the form x2 + bx + c with
factor problem is similar | , — me
to a quadratic that ‘eee aagemmane
is the square of a binomial :sum.1. We decide to tryto
factor this into two binomials, each with an m’ term
and a constant term.
Determine (m7? — ...)(m’ —...) Since the middle term of the expression is negative
signs and the constant term is positive, both constant
terms of the binomial factors must be negative.
List factors 15=—1-(-15) Make alist of the negative factors of 15.
of constant 15 = —3-(—5)
listsums =—1+(-15)= —16 Since the sum of the factors must equal the
Oi factors . 3 7+ (75) =.-8 coefficient, —8, of the middle term of the trinomial,
consider the sums of each pair of factors. The factor
pail, 3 and —95, add to —6.
Write out —(m? — 3)(m? — 5) Write out the two binomials with the pair of factors
factors whose product is the constant, 15, and whose sum
is the coefficient, —8, of the middle term.

2.2 Polynomial Patterns 87

PRACTICE
Tila Exercises 1-26: Factor. 14. x° + 9xy + 20y
1. x? + 8xy + 15y" 465 Ft 12a i
Ze iy 247 1G. ony oi
3. 24xy + 104x — 15y — 65 17. x? + 10xy + 21y°
4. 6xy + 26x — 15y — 65 18. x? + 7xy + 10Y
5. 10xy + 35x + 8y + 28 19. x° + 13xy + 42y°
6. 15xy + 35x + 12y + 28 20. x° + 15xy + 56y*
7. 8x? — 12x? + 34x — 51 21. 40xy 4 136x —3oy — 119
8. 16x° — 14x” + 152x — 133 22. 4xy + 26x — 10y — 65
9. 119x? + 136x* + 21x + 24 23. 6xy + 34x — 15y — 85
10.-65x° + 52x? + 15x + 12 24. 20xy + 35x + l6y + 28
Pieper ley + Oly 25: l6xy 56x + 6y 21
2 Ff icy + 28y 26. 21xy + 49x + 12y + 28
13. x° + 14xy + 487?

LESSON 2.2 seems

er

2.3 Patterns and Equations The square root principle

z oan applies when a squared quanti
Algebra 1 Review: The Square Root Principle ee io nee ee eT
The square root principle states that the solutions of x? = k are the Solve equations by taking the
positive square root and negative square root of the constant k = 0. \. positive and negative square
roots of the constant, provided
the constant is greater than or
equal to zero.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What are the two solutions to x? = 49?

SOLUTION

Square root lf = kethenx, = Vk orx = —Vk The square root principle says that if x?
principle equals a constant k, then the solutions are
the square root of k and the negative of the
square root of k.
Apply the square x* = 49 The solutions are the positive and negative
root principle Ki 7-7 square roots of the constant. Here, the
solutions are 7 and —7, the positive and
negative square roots of 49.
Model Problems continue...

88 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 Model Problems continued

2. Find the two solutions to 3x* = 39 using the square root principle.
SOLUTION

Put equation into form x* = k 3x" = 39 Divide both sides of the equation by 3 to
2=13 cancel the coefficient of x*. The result is the
equation x* = 13, which can be solved using
the square root principle.
Find square roots x =V13,-V13 The solutions are the positive and negative
square roots of 13.

3. Solve (x — 3)* = 25 using the square root principle.

SOLUTION
The square root principle can be applied :
Square root x-3=V25=50r The two any time one side of the equationisa |
principle ro 3 = —\/25=—5 solutions can constant and the other side is a perfect
be found by square expression.
taking the = AE ER eR RE
square root of the left side and the positive and negative
square roots of the right side. The result is two linear
equations.
Solve first Leas The first equation can be solved by adding 3 to each side.
equation ie The solution is 8.
Solve second 43-5 The second equation can also be solved by adding 3 to
equation Li each side. The solution is —2.
State solutions x=8,-2 The two solutions to the quadratic equation are 8 and —2.

Algebra 1 Review: The Zero-Product Property

The zero-product property states: If the product of factors is
zero, then at least one of the factors must be zero. For instance, if
5x = 0, x must be 0. The solutions are called the roots, or zeros,
of the equation. The zero-product property ’
states that when a product is 0,
at least one of its factors must |
Zero-Product Property
be 0. You can set each factor
If ab = 0, thena = Oorb = 0.
equal to O and solve to find the

A quadratic equation is one that can be written with a quadratic Reco 2 ie Sdas ue be = al
polynomial on one side of the equation and 0 on the other side.
The standard form of a quadratic equation is ax’ + bx + c = 0, where a # 0.

2.3 Patterns and Equations 89

 MODEL PROBLEMS
The solutions to the equation will |
1. Find the solutions to x* + 4x — 5 = 0 using the zero-product cause the expression on the left,
property. x? + 4x — 5, to equal zero. This is}
| why they are called zeros of that
SOLUTION expression.

Factor trinomial (x — 1)(x + 5)=0 Factor the trinomial.

Zero-product x-—1=Oor Since the product of the two factors equals 0, the zero-
property x+5=0 product property states that at least one of them must
equal 0. Set each factor equal to zero to find out what
values of x will make the factor equal 0.
Solve first x— L=.0 Solve the resulting linear equations. The solution to the
equation x=1 first equation is 1.
Solve second xe= 0 The solution to the second equation is —5.
equation x= —5
State solutions eSakiesD The solutions to the quadratic equation are 1 and —5.

2. Find the solutions to 4x? — 8x = 0 using common variable factors.

SOLUTION
Factor 4x*
— 8x =0 Factor out the common factor of 4x on the left side of the
Ax(x
— 2) =0 equation.
Zero-product 4x =Oor Using the zero-product property, set each factor equal to 0 and
property x-2=0 solve.
Solve first 4x =0 The solution to the first equation is 0.
equation x=0
Solve second v2 eH=0 The solution to the second equation is 2.
equation =
State solutions x=0,2 The two solutions to the quadratic equation are 0 and 2.

3. Solve x? + 4x — 6 = —1 by factoring.
SOLUTION
State equation Ce
ore ie alt IT To apply the property, zero must be on one side of the
in standard x7+4x-5=0 equation, so write the equation in standard form.
form for a
quadratic
equation
Factor (Ot 5)(Yeal)= 0 Factor the expression on the left side of the equation.
Its factors arex + 5andx — 1.
Zero-product x+5=O0orx-1=0 Since the product of the two factors equals 0, the zero-
property product property states that at least one of them must
equal 0. Set each factor equal to zero to find out what
values of x will make the factor equal 0.
Model Problems continue...

90 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 Model Problems continued

Solve first Mo. = 0 Solve each of the resulting linear equations. The
equation ee 5 solution to the first equation is —5.
Solve second x — 1 =) The solution to the second equation is 1.
equation Caan
State solutions oe = 5) 1 The two solutions to the equation are —5 and 1.

4. Solve (x — p)(x + m) = 0 for x. Which could be a solution to the equation?

ive ep)
Dae X
Cait
Down

SOLUTION
A. Substituting x = —p into the equation does not make one of the factors equal to 0.
B. The student does not understand how to solve for x.
C. Correct answer. Using the zero-product property, x + m = O0orx —p=0.
Therefore, x = —m or x = p.
D. Substituting x = m into the equation does not make one of the factors equal to 0.

PRACTICE
Exercises 1—20: Solve. 13. x? -—10x + 24=0

1. 4x(x— 12) =0 14. xe 19x + 78 = 0

2. (5f+ 4)(6f
— 5) =0 15. 7x? + 63x =0

3. b° + 9b +18
=0 16. x? -—8x +15=0

4 poxte— 11)=0 17. x? + 7x +10=0

5 . (7a + 4)(4a
— 8) =0 18. 3x7 + 18x
=0

6. x°+
8x +12=0 19. x? + 20x +99
=0

Woo VzAO ae 20. 4x* + 20x =0

8. 5x?
+ 55x = 0 21. (aed Write a quadratic equation which has
the solutions —1 and — 4.
9, x7 + 12x + 35 =0
(ae Md Could an even number be a
22.
10. x7 + 10x
+ 24=0 solution to the quadratic equation
ao ty 28 0 3x2 — 19x + 7 = 0? Why or why not?

12. x* —7x+12=0

2.3 Patterns and Equations 91

Using Structure in Expressions to Solve an Equation
When we recognize the structure of an expression, we can use some methods we
already know for solving an equation involving it.

MODEL PROBLEMS
You could try solving this equation by using the zero-product
4. Solve x7 + 8x + 16 = 11.
property, but after you write the equation in standard form,
you will get a trinomial that does not factor. One way to solve |
this problem is to notice that the left side of the equation is a
SOLUTION perfect square trinomial.

Factor and xo Bx 4 16 = 11 Factor the left side to write it as a squared expression.

write as ;
square Coa) = 11
Apply square x+4=V11lor Since the equation is in the necessary form, we may apply the
root principle Opti T square root principle to take the positive and negative square
roots.
Solve first x+4=V11 Solve the first equation by subtracting 4 from both sides. x is
equation ey ag by itself on the left side of the equation. On the right side is
sat Vs
Solvesecond x+4=-V11 Solve the second equation similarly.
equation ee TT

State solutions x=-4+V11 The two solutions are

stated in a compact form, The expression a + b is short
where the + symbol means * for the two expressions
to add and subtract the a+banda-— b.
square root of 11 from —4.

2. Solve (2x + 1)* — 3(2x + 1) -4=0.

SOLUTION

Substitute y’ — 3y —4=0 Substitute y for 2x + 1, and state the

quadratic equation using that substitution.

Factor (y—4)y+1)=0 Factor the trinomial.

Apply zero-product yA = Vory 10 Apply the zero-product property and solve
property y=-1,4 the equations.

Substitute 2x + 1 for y 2x+1=4 Substitute, returning to 2x + 1.

a2xt+1=-1
Solve fh 2 Solve the equations.
2
Saal
State solutions i Oe =F And state the solutions.
> /

Model Problems continue...

92 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 Cele Cel Cymer tt Tee

©@e IMP 1, 2,4| You are given a square picture and are curious how the area would change as the
same length is added to one dimension and subtracted from another. Hint: Use an identity to
answer this question.
SOLUTION
Area = $” Area = s” The area of a square is the length of a side squared.
Area = (s + b)(s — b) We want to calculate what happens if we take two
sides of the square which are opposite each other,
increase their lengths by the same amount, and
shorten the other two sides by that same amount. Use
b for the change.
Use identity (s+b)(s—b)=3-P? _ Use the identity to determine the new area. The area
3 The area shrinks by b* shrinks by b*. Whether the original square has sides
of 120 inches or 10 inches, if you reduce two sides by
2 inches and lengthen the other two sides by those
2 inches, the area will be reduced by 4 square inches.
The reduced area always equals b’.

Factoring and Identities A Pythagorean |

Polynomial expressions can be used to generate Pythagorean triples. To do so, use triple is a set of (
the equation (x* + y’)? = (x? — y’)? + (2xy)’. In short, the equation is of the form three integers
c =a +b’, where a = x’ — y’, b = 2xy, and c = x* + y’, which is to say, it is true ‘Sy that satisfies
for a Pythagorean triple. the Pythagorean |
theorem.
You can pick two integer values of x and y, such as 11 and 2, and substitute them
into the expression on the right of the equation. If you choose those values, you get
117 for x? — y* = a, 44 for 2xy = b, and 125 for x? + y* = c. It’s a triple!
How do we know this expression is true for any values (that it is an identity)?
We prove it below.

l Prove: (2+ Ye (ey) (2xy)?

(2+? — 2 — YP = 2-9? + ey? 2 -

(xt + 2x2? + y') — (x! — 222 + y') = (Oxy?

2.3 Patterns and Equations 93

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-26: Solve. 183° 1074 2515
eat Se Sone 7 19. x* + 18x + 81 = 34
2. x°+2x-41=2x+8 20. x? + 16x + 64 = 34
3. x7 + 4x —75 = 4x +6 21, 4 — 16x + 64 = 20
4.7°+ 7x -—45=7x+4 22. x? + 14x + 49 =5
6.15, = 320 23. x* + 24x + 144 = 100

6. 5x* = 80 24. x° — 10x + 25 = 8

7. 6x? — 12 = 90 25.0
18 ol =7,
8. 3x7 + 21 = 126 26. x7 + 8x + 16 =10

9. (x + 2)? =81 27. [LEME For which values of

nee m do the solutions to the equation
pO} 3x? + m*x — 4mx + m — 1 = Ohave the same
11. (x — 12)? = 25 absolute values, but opposite signs?
12. (x — 11)? = 25 28. [Fa] Find x in terms of b:
7x* + 17bx + 6b? = 0
13. x°+4x.+4=11
29. Ties Explain why the equation
» BS ~27+6x+9=10
x? — y? = 30 doesn’t have any integer
- ol . x? + 16x + 64 = 37 solutions.
- oO . x7 + 12x + 36 = 33
- mJ. 7+ 10x + 25 = 10

LESSON 2.4 sme ere

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula

Completing the Square
To complete the square means to add a constant to a binomial like x* + 6x to create
a perfect square trinomial. To do this, take half the coefficient of the x-term, square
it, and add. A perfect square trinomial is a polynomial like x* + 6x + 9 that results
from squaring another binomial, in this case, (x + 3)?.

94 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Add a constant to x° + 10x to make it a perfect square.
Note that the
SOLUTION coefficient of
Take halfof 10 the squared
on 5 To determine what to add to create a perfect term a eebe
coefficient of x square trinomial, first take half of the ellis ev ah icciee
coefficient of x. In this example, half of 10 is 5. me opposed ic,
Square it 5a 25 The square of 5 is 25. say, 3x’, for you
Add to x? + 10x + 25 Add the result of the previous step to the Peaed ee
binomial ' other two terms. This completes the square. ;
we will discuss ; |
Check your (+ 9)” = (x45) (rat) how to complete [|
solution (x +5)? =x? + 5x + 5x + 5? the square when
(x + 5)? = x7 + 10x + 25 the coefficient |
does not equal 1. :

perfect square?
SOLUTION
Find half the half the coefficient of xis —4 Start by finding half the coefficient of x. The
coefficient of x coefficient is negative.
Square it (—4)? = 16 Square —4. A negative number squared is positive.
Add to ioe 16 Add the result of the previous step to the original
binomial binomial. The resulting trinomial is a perfect square.
Check your (x — 4)? = (x — 4)(x — 4)
solution (x — 4)? = x* — 4x — 4x + (-4)
(x — 4)? = x? — 8x + 16
3. What constant added to x? — 11x makes the resulting trinomial a perfect square? Hint: The
constant is not an integer.

SOLUTION
Find half the _ half the coefficient of x is = Start by finding half the coefficient of x. The
coefficient of x coefficient is negative.
2
Square it (=) — 121 Square both the numerator and denominator of the
2 4 fraction. A negative number squared is positive.
Add to x alt BY Add the result of the previous step to the original
binomial binomial. The resulting trinomial is a perfect square.

Check your
solution

Model Problems continue...

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula 95

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

4. Rewrite 3x7 +x=2 by completing the square so that the left side is a In the equation
binomial square. 3x? + x = 2,
SOLUTION the poctiCer
term
Divide by 3, 2 To complete the square, the x? -Za at
coefficient of x? - 4 2 term should have a coefficient The coefficient
a kes of 1. Divide this equation by 3s0 | o6¢ 2 must be
that is the case. 4 in order to
bree Aisele 2 cxspel complete the
See Neoton a af OG ks 6 The coefficient of the x-term is - square.

3 Bor rts01 30 ee 6 ;
wae bg LS of a is oe We add a to each side of the equation so the
3 36 =—-36
left side is a perfect square trinomial.

Factor («+ 1) =e
Does Factor the left side of the equation to write it as a
binomial squared.

PRACTICE

Exercises 1-17: What constant should be added 15. x? — 9x

to each expression to complete the square? .
16. x =x
1. x? — 10x
17. x° — 11x
2. x°+4x
Exercises 18-26: Rewrite the equation by
3 x2 + 16x completing the square so that the left side is a
binomial squared.
4 xe
18. x° + 4x = 12
5 Bea loes
1903 — 8x = -7
6. x° + 3x
20. x*- 10x =11
7. x° + 8x
21. x? + 2x =3
8. x? — 14x
22. x* + 14x = —40
9. x° + 2x
23. x* — 16x = —48
10. x* + 18x
24. 2x7 —5x —-7=0
11. x* + 20x
25. 2x7 + 12x +9=0
12. x? — 22x
26. 3x7 + 4x — 12 =0
13. x? — 16x

14. x? + 30x

96 Chapter 2: Quadratics
The Quadratic Formula
The quadratic formula can be used to solve any quadratic equation. The formula
requires that the equation be written in standard form. It can be derived by
completing the square, as you may recall from Algebra 1.

Quadratic Formula The quadratic formula

x= “VF
rb ae for ax? + bx +c =0,whena #1
contains the + symbol,
which means you add and {|
2a
subtract the square root. [|

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve 3x* + 2x — 1 = 0 using the quadratic formula.

SOLUTION

Identify a, b, and c 3x7 ++2x-1=0 The quadratic formula uses

a@=3,b=2,c=-—1 a, the coefficient of x’; b, the
coefficient of x; and c, the
constant term. The constant
term, c, is —1 because of the
subtraction, a = 3, and b = 2.

ea TOE VES Ane

Apply the quadratic formula Substitute a, b, and c in the
2a
quadratic formula. Replace b
with 2 in all cases; replace a with
eae DLE V2
4B)ED
= 3; and replace c with —1.
2(3)

Evaluate
g HP BANG#4 Start under the radical, which
6 6 simplifies to the square root of
16, which is 4.

Add
ee ema Now deal with the + in the
Z Cone numerator. It means add and
subtract 4. First add —2 and 4
to get 2 in the numerator.
Simplify the fraction to get =
=
ape = —
ieee =-] Subtract 4 from —2 to get —6.
Subtract
- 6 6 Simplify = tO Seta 1s
1
esetare There are two solutions, *
State solutions
an 3
and —1;

Model Problems continue...

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Solve 10x? — 12 = —7x.

SOLUTION
State in 10x? + 7x - 12 =0 Restate the original To apply the quadratic
standard form equation in standard form formula, the equation |
by adding 7x to both sides. must be in standard
The trinomial is now set form.

Identify a, b, a=10,b=7,c=-12 Identify a, b, and c for this quadratic equation. c is

and c negative since it is subtracted.

Substitute x=
-beo+ VP= tae
ere ca Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.

pol —7 + V7* — 4(10)(—12)

2(10)

=e Nao (—4
Evaluate x= ae Multiply under the radical, subtract a negative, and
then take the square root of 529.
ee 7 ey 0
20
ae ANS
20

State solutions x= ~,= Add and subtract 23 and simplify the fractions to get
|N
the solutions.

3. Solve 2x + 4Vx —1=0.

SOLUTION
Substitute y for Vx 2y* + 4y-1=0 Substitute y for \/x, and state the quadratic
equation resulting from that substitution.
—4+V24
Solve with quadratic me a. of Solve the equation using the quadratic formula.
formula
ie a V 24
s 4
Y= e220 225
Substitute Vx for y using Vx ~ 0.225 Substitute and solve.
the first solution x = 0.505

Substitute Vx for yusing Vx ~ —2.225 No real number has a negative number as its
the second solution No real solution square root, so Vx ~ —2.225 does not result
in a real solution to the original equation.
State solution x = 0.505 The equation has only one real solution.

Model Problems continue...

98 Chapter 2: Quadratics
 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
& Q |MP 2, 4| A bank pays interest
compounded annually on savings The formula for compound interest calculations is
accounts. If the amount in a savings A = P(1 +n)", where Pis the principal, or original
account grows from $1000 to amount; r is the interest rate for a period of time; and
$1060.90 in two years, what is the
interest rate?

SOLUTION
Compound A=P(1+n% Start with the formula for compound
interest formula interest.
Substitute 1060.90 = 1000(1 + r)? Enter the values stated in the problem.
values P is the original amount in the account, _
$1000; A is the current amount, $1060.90;
and N is the number of years, which is 2.
Expand square 1060.90 = 1000(1 + 2r + 1’) Square the binomial and distribute 1000.
and distribute 1060.90 = 1000 + 20007 + 100072
Write in 10007? + 2000r — 60.90 = 0 Swap the sides of the equation, put the
standard form terms of the polynomial in descending
order, and subtract 1060.90 from each
side to put the equation in standard form.
hh + Ape
Use quadratic. ~ r= eee Restate the quadratic formula here, using
2a
formula r instead of x, since r is the variable in the
= = 2000 20007 — 4(1000)(—60.90) equation. Substitute and simplify.
ou 2 - 1000
_ = 2000 = 2060
2000

Evaluate and 7 = —2.03 or 0.03 Evaluate two possible values. Add and
state solution r=3% subtract 2060. The negative solution does
not make sense since negative interest is
not what you expect a bank to offer. The ©
solution is 3%.

Graphing Calculator: The Quadratic Formula

1. Naming the program. Press [PRGM). Scroll over to the NEW tab. Press
and name your program by pressing the keys below the green letters on the
keypad. For this example, we named the program QUADFORM.

2. Move to screen to write program. Press [ENTER] once more to go to the screen FRUGRF
where we will be writing the body of the program.

Directions continue...

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula 99

Directions continued...

3. Find catalog of symbols and functions. The next The catalog has
step is writing the program. The full program is Bee ee all the symbols
shown in step 4, so you can refer to it to check e and functions that
DiagnosticOff
whether your program will work properly. The DiagnosticOn the calculator can
first line is Disp Ax? + Bx + C = 0. Disp can be interpret, so if you
found by pressing then the number zero. fa eGeorh forget where one
Scroll down until you reach Disp then press is located, you can
[ENTER]. When the calculator comes to the word Disp in a program, it will always look in the
display whatever follows on the same line. If there are quotes around some
text, it will print the text. Otherwise, it will interpret the rest of the line as a
math problem, and will print the solution of the problem.

4. Write the program. Press followed by[+] which will create the first
quotation mark around the text that will be displayed. The Ax* + Bx + C
can be written by pressing followed by the keys corresponding to
the various letters in the equation. The equal sign can be found either in the
catalog or by pressing then [MATH]. This followed by the number zero and
another quotation mark will end the first line of code. This line will display the
equation on the screen when the user executes the program.
Press to get to the next line, where we will be writing Prompt A,B,C. [Promet A>B:C
This line of code will ask the user for three inputs that correspond to the
coefficients of the different terms in the quadratic equation. Prompt can be
found in the catalog, and the letters can be written using the key.
The [.] key can be found above the [7] in the keypad.
The next line in the program is B* — 4AC > D. This part of the quadratic eBe-dArsD...sSd
formula is called the discriminant, so we store it as the variable D. You can
write the program without calculating D first, but doing so makes the code
easier to read later. The two new symbols are ? and —, which can be found on
the[x2] and keys on the left side of the keypad.
The next line in the program is Disp (—B + V(D))/(2A). To find the square
root symbol, press then [x2]. Notice that there are not any quotation
marks surrounding the expression in this line because we want the calculator
to print a single number instead of the expression.
The next line in the program is Disp (—B — V(D))/(2A).

The next four lines are DelVar followed by A, B, C, or D, which deletes

the variable from the calculator’s memory once the program has finished
running. DelVar can be found by scrolling through the catalog.

5. Execute the program. Press then to quit out of the program.

Press to access the programs menu where you can choose which
program to run. If you have more than one program stored, scroll through
using the up and down arrow keys until you get to the QUADFORM
program and press twice to start running the program.

100 Chapter 2: Quadratics

6. Using the program. In order to test the program, we have picked a
quadratic equation x° —2x — 3 = 0 that we know has two different real
answers. Since we already have the program running, we can just put
the three coefficients into the calculator, with each followed by pressing
[ENTER]. After entering the final number and pressing [ENTER], the two
answers, 3 and —1, should be displayed in the bottom right corner of
the screen.
7. Answers that are not real. Not all quadratics have real We discuss |
answers. The calculator shows an error if there are no real answers that
are not real
answers. The next step covers how to adjust your calculator
in the next
settings so that you won’t see this error.

8. Fixing the error message. If you get the error above, as you would if you
plugged in the quadratic equation —x? + 4x — 13 = 0, perform the following
steps: Press to quit the program. Press and scroll down and to the
right until the cursor is blinking over a + bi and press [ENTER]. This allows the
calculator to print imaginary numbers as answers to the program.

Press then to get out of the settings menu and run the program
as you did before. Try plugging the quadratic equation above back into the
program. This time, the answers should be 2 — 3i and 2 + 33. If the solutions
are irrational, the calculator will approximate the solutions as decimals rather
than their correct radical counterparts. You can now have your calculator
solve quadratics, even if they do not have real answers.

PRACTICE
1. What is the sum of the solutions to the 6. x* — 13.5x + 38 =0
i
equationza=
— 80z + 1200 = —0;(? ene te oe a

See
B: “80 Dit
ahd
100
8. 4x7 + 13.5x + 11=0
bd 9. 10x + 108.5% + 85 = 0
2. If the sum of two consecutive positive
integers is 29 smaller than their product, 10. 27x* — 63.75x + 28.875 = 0
then the smaller of the numbers is 11. 56x2— 104.75x + 44.625 =0

ioe mag 42. 3x2 +7x+3=0

Beg Der a7
13. 4°°+ 15x +3=0
3. If the equation ax* + 9x — 2 = 0 has only one :
real solution, then a is equal to 14. 5x°+ 11x +5=0
yeaa: ee 3 15. 4x7+ 14x +5 =0
, 3] 16. 60?+ 12x +4)=0
B. ao D. eS 17.
(x4 A ball is launched vertically upward at
19.6 meters per second from a 102.9-meter-tall
Exercises 4-16: Solve. building. The height of the ball is modeled
4. 24+ 11x + 28=0 by the function f(t) = —4.9P + 19.6t + 102.9.
How many seconds after launch does the ball
5. x + 11x + 18 =0 strike the ground?
Practice Problems continue...

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula 101

Practice Problems continued...

18. ix A pumpkin is launched vertically 21. A field-goal kicker kicks a football that
upward at 24.5 meters per second by a follows a parabolic path. The height of the ball
catapult mounted on a 29.4-meter-tall wall. can be expressed as a function of the distance
The height of the pumpkin is modeled by the (expressed in yards) from where the ball was
function f(t) = —4.9f + 24.5t + 29.4. How kicked using h(x)= nplivg2 —2
many seconds after launch does the pumpkin 36 Be
strike the ground? a Find the maximum height of the ball.
19. Cir) The perimeter of a rectangle is b He is 57 yards from the goalpost.
40 yards. Find the lengths of its sides if the Assuming the kick is on line, will the
total area of the squares constructed on two kick be high enough to make it over the
adjacent sides of this rectangle is equal to goalpost? (The crossbar of the goalpost
208 square yards. is 10 ft, or . yards, above ground.)
20. IMP 2, 4| Two roads come out of a village
at a right angle and lead to two train 22. Cie One of the spouts from a
stations. The direct distance between decorative fountain needs to be replaced.
the stations is 37 miles, but it would take The spout is 1 foot above the water level. In
47 miles going through the village. How far order to match the other spouts, water
is it from the village to each of the stations? coming out of the spout must reach a height
of 15 feet at a distance of 4 horizontal feet
from the spout, and it should reach the
water level 8 horizontal feet from the spout.
Write the equation of the parabola that
describes the path of the water leaving the
spout. Use x for the horizontal distance from
the spout, and y as the height above the
water.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

|MP
2,4 uate height of a ball, at any time, t, thrown vertically upward into the air is determined by
s(t)= —16f? + vot + so, where vp = initial velocity in feet per second, so = initial height in feet, and
t = time in seconds. Mark is standing on the edge of a 50-foot-high cliff when he throws a ball into the
air with a vertical speed of 35 feet per second. Assume that Mark releases the ball about 5 feet above the
ground.
a Write an equation to represent the height of the ball at any time.
b After how many seconds does the ball hit the ground? Round your answer to the nearest tenth
of a second.
c You should have gotten 2 answers for part b. How did you decide which answer was the correct
one, and what is the meaning of the second answer?
d After how many seconds will Mark see the ball pass him going down, at the same height he
released it? Round your answer to the nearest tenth of a second.

102 Chapter 2: Quadratics

LESSON 2.5 siasu:2c020) RS
2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers
Real numbers are numbers that can be found on the number line. So, what other
types of numbers are there? The answer comes in discussing the square root of
negative numbers. We start with the opposite case—the square of any real number,
either positive or negative, is positive. For instance, (—3)? = 9. This means the
square root of a positive number is a real number.

But what about the square root of a negative number? For instance, there is no
number equal to the V —1. In other words, there is no real number x where
x° = —1. This means negative numbers do not have square roots in the set of real
numbers. However, in the set of complex numbers, negative numbers do have
square roots. Use 7 to represent the square root of —1, soi = V-1.

We summarize these ideas below:

One imaginary number is the Imaginary numbers

square root of —1. Its symbol Examples: i = V1
is i.
—i=-V-1

Multiplying 7 by any real Products of real number and i

number other than 0 results in Examples: 7i, —7i, iV2, 7
another imaginary number.

Represent the square root of Used to express roots of negative numbers

any negative number using 7. Example: \]
Te Nae

V-17 = iV17
Radicals with negative Simplifying an imaginary number
radicands can be simplified Example: V—16 = V16-V-1
using imaginary numbers. ty aa aR pers Dy

V-16 = 4i

If an imaginary number is added to a real number, such as 3 + 21, Imaginary numbers combined
the result is a complex number. Real numbers are part of the set of | with real numbers make the
complex numbers, with imaginary numbers, that produce a number system complete,
negative number when squared, another part of that set. The since they handle the case of
complex number system is important because the solutions to any _ the square roots of negative
equation studied in algebra can be written as complex numbers. numbers, similar to how
irrational numbers handle the
square roots of numbers which
are not perfect squares.

2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers 103

 Complex numbers contain all the real numbers like 4, and all the | © Complex numbers
“pure” imaginary numbers like 7. The sum of a real number and Examples: 4, 1,2 + 31
a “pure” imaginary number, such as 2 + 33, is also a complex
number.

e Standard form: c =a + bi
Every complex number can be written in a standard form as a
Example: 2 + 31
sum with a real part and an imaginary part. The standard form
real part = 2
is c = a + bi where a and Db
are real numbers, with a being the real
imaginary part = 3
part and b the imaginary part.

¢ Real numbers are a subset of

A real number can be stated as a subset of complex numbers.
complex numbers
Since the imaginary part is 0, just write 4.
Example: 4 = 4 + 01

Adding and Subtracting Complex Numbers

To combine complex numbers, combine the real parts and imaginary parts. All of
the properties of numbers, such as the associative, commutative, and distributive
properties, can be applied to complex numbers.

MODEL PROBLEMS
qo Add(3 4+ 4) + 2 43).
SOLUTION

: i mfaga: so he We state the addition of complex

aaa
P Pr the tirct numbers using variables. The real
Lanes ee numbers are summed, as are the
complex number coefficients of i:
is 3, and 2 is the i
Eee ecwae) eo as Eee
real part of the etter
second complex number.
Add imaginary (3+2)+(4-—1)t Now add the imaginary parts as coefficients of i. The
parts coefficients are 4 and —1, since i is subtracted in the second
complex number.
Simpli
P See OL Simplify
party the expression.
P The real numbers sum to 5, and 4 — 1
equals 3. The sum is 5 + 33.

2. Subtract (847.30)-— (2 +31).

SOLUTION
suotract like’! $37 = 2" GF Like adding, We use variables to summarize the
terms and (82) 7G "3)i “subtracting process of subtracting complex
simplify 6 + 01 complex terms numbers:
is an exercise in (a + bi) — (c+ di) = (a—c) + (0 - d)i
combining like oe - mee meet
terms. Subtract the real parts, getting Gi Then subtract the
imaginary parts by subtracting the coefficients of i. In this case,
we get 07, so the result is 6.

104 Chapter 2: Quadratics

Multiplying Complex Numbers
You multiply complex numbers as you would multiply binomials. For example,
use FOIL to multiply complex numbers.

MODEL PROBLEM
Multiply (4 + 27)(5 + 33).

SOLUTION

Multiply 4:5 + 4-3i + 2i:5 + 2i-3i Multiply these two complex numbers as binomials. Use
using FOIL =. 20. + 121 + 10i + 67 FOIL to write the products and do the multiplications.
Apply the 20+ 12i + 10i + 6(-1) Replace i* with —1.
property ofi 20+ 121+ 10i —6
Combine like 14 + 22i Subtract 6 from 20 and Th donvor
terms add the coefficients Se Eee aaa ae ae
rare ne =<. numbers a + bi andc a di is

is 14 + 224 es
PRACTICE
Exercises 1-5: Describe each number using 18. (6 + 3i) + (i — 4)
the terms real, imaginary, and complex. Some 19. (81 + 9) + (2 + 3i)
numbers may be described by multiple terms.
ae 20. (8 + 7i) — (5 + 3i)
»2
21. (13 + 61) — (4 + 31)
ma 22. (7 + 8i) — (7 + 21)
3.4+iV7 23. (4 + 31) — (1 — 41)
Swe 24. THO (5 —
= 3i)Biles—(6 +i)i
De Veeco
25. (14+ 3i)) - (5-71)
Exercises 6-11: State with i. Remove perfect
squares from radicals when possible.
26. (11 — 5i) — (10 — 11i)
27. (8i — 1) — (12 + 61)
6. V—81
= 28. (9 — 5i — (ili ‘ 7)

Stat ie x:i aie

ore 31. (6 — 2i)i
10. V—10 32. (5 + 31)
11. V—-17 33. 2i(5 + 6i)
ITE Exercises 12-39: Simplify. 34. (6 + 2i)(1 + 81)
12. (5 + 4i) + (2 —2i) 35. (3 + 4i(5 + 21)
13. (2+ 51) + (1+ 31) 36. (4+ i)(3 +51)
14. (4 — 6i) + (2 + 3i) 37. (5 — 2i)(6 + 3i)
15. (1 + 4i) + (3 — i) 38. (10 + 3i)(1 — 5i)
16. (2 — 7i) + (5 — 101) 39. (7 — 5i)(3 — 2i)
DeOat ete 7ita (be)
2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers 105
Optional: Complex Conjugates
Complex conjugates are complex numbers with the same real
parts, and imaginary parts that are opposites: a + bi, a — bi. Complex conjugates occur as a
result of the quadratic formula. If the
For example, the complex numbers 5 + 27 and 5 — 2i are discriminant of the quadratic formula
complex conjugates because they have opposite imaginary (b? — 4ac) is negative, the solution
parts. The expressions are identical except that the imaginary will be a complex conjugate pair. Why? |
part is added in one expression and subtracted in the other. The Because the \/b? — 4ac term is added
product of complex conjugates is a real number equal to a* + b’, :
since both a and b are real numbers. e

Derive: a* + b’ (Formula for Multiplying Complex Conjugates)

Formula for complex conjugates

Multiply the expressions using FOIL
Combine like terms
Replace i* with —1
Simplify
MODEL PROBLEM
Multiply 5 + 2i by its complex conjugate.

SOLUTION
Identify complex 5 — 21 Take the opposite of in a + bi to find the complex
conjugate (6 — 205 +21 =? conjugate a — bi. In this case, the complex conjugate of
Det gis) 20
Multiplying (SZ (Ser 27) The product of a pair of complex conjugates equals the
complex 524 92 sum of the square of their real part and the square of
conjugates either imaginary part. Apply the rule here. Square
2 te a = 5 and b = 2 and add the results. The product of the
99 complex conjugates is the real number 29.

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following pairs are complex S317
conjugates? Select all that apply. 6. 25 — 253

A. 59+ 4tand —5 — 4 GWG Exercises 7-13: Multiply each expression

Boe2 and 2 +4 by its complex conjugate and state the result.
Car 6" 3) and 61-6 7.3+4+51

ero 92)21 and Ot9-27 ena

Exercises 2—6: Find the complex conjugate of
each expression. 9.3 + 6

2. 15 + 7i pee
3.2 +61 ae
4. 8 —4i ee
iso
106 Chapter 2: Quadratics
Factoring Identities and Complex Numbers
Factoring identities can be extended using complex numbers. For instance,
2 Je ;
x" — y= (x + y)(x — y). With complex numbers, we can extend this to
e+ y= (x — yi)(x + yi).

MODEL PROBLEM
a Factor 9x? — 4.
b Factor 9x* + 4.
c Compare the factors for parts a and b.
SOLUTION
a Difference of squares Oye 4 This is a difference of squares. Factor it with all
(3x + 2)(3x — 2) real factors.

b Sum of squares 9x? + 4 This is a sum, not difference, of squares. Factor

(OX Zire 21) it using complex numbers.
Check (xe21) (8x = 22) Check the factoring. Multiply the terms.
Ore Gre Gri ae The 6x7 terms cancel out. Square 1, which is
a ama —1. Subtracting the product of 4 and —1 is
2 A(ssl) equivalent to adding 4. Note that the factors are
Oy and complex conjugates, as they must be. It checks.

c The factors of 9x* — 4 are real factors. The factors of 9x” + 4 are complex.

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following expressions is equal 8. 3x + 7i is one factor of the expression
to 16x” + 64? 9x? + 49. What is the other factor?
A. (8x + 41)(8x — 41) 9. 3x + 87 is one factor of the expression
B. (16x + 4i)(x — 4i) 9x” + 64. What is the other factor?
C. (4x + 81)(4x — 81) 10. 4x + 37 is one factor of the expression
D. (4x + 4i)(8x — 8i) 16x” + 9. What is the other factor?
2. Factor the expression 4x* + 81 using 11. a Complete the table by multiplying and
complex factors. simplifying the expressions. Write the
products in standard form.
3. Multiply and simplify (x'+ 57)(3x — 51).
4. What are the complex factors of the Sayeed
\._ eth Foducr
ee eae
expression 100x? + y”? Cea 7) <= =e
5. x + 7iis one factor of the expression (¢ Die 74) ein
x2 + 49. What is the other factor? (2x + 31)(2x — 31)
6. 3x + 3iis one factor of the expression (2x + 3)(2x — 3)
9x* + 9. What is the other factor? b Compare the products for the expressions
7. 5x + 107 is one factor of the expression that have complex numbers to the
25x” + 100. What is the other factor? products that do not have complex
numbers.
Practice Problems continue...

2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers 107

Practice Problems continued...

Exercises 12-16: Factor using complex numbers. 16. 72 + 2y°

12. 2572 +4 17. [GEM Dan factored x* + 121 into
1S 1 1 (x + 11)(x — 11). Describe his mistake and
ay
a One give a correct factorization using complex

14. —
eeeeeiligks
+ —
factors.
ee ee as. [ER Show that the factors of 49x* + 225
15. 3x2 +27 are (Fie 15i)\ (Ziel 52):

LESSON 2.6 meee

ee eer

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations

Graphs and the Number of Solutions to a Quadratic
We show two methods to determine the number of solutions to quadratic equations:

Number of x-intercepts
4x7 +5x+1=0 Since the graph has The factors of 4x? + 5x + 1 = Oare
two x-intercepts, the (4x + 1)(x + 1). Using the zero-
equation has two real product property, the equation has
solutions. two solutions.

4x? ++4x+1=0 The graph shows the 4x* + 4x + 1 = 0, is the perfect

equation has one square (2x + 1)*. Setting 2x + 1
solution, since there equal to zero results in only one
is one x-intercept. solution to the equation.

4x? + 3x+1=0 The graph shows the The polynomial, 4x* + 3x + 1=0
equation has no real cannot be factored. If you use the
solutions, since it quadratic formula to try to solve
never intersects the it, you will see that it has no real
x-axis, which means it solutions.
has no x-intercepts.

108 Chapter 2: Quadratics

Graphing Calculator: Graphing Quadratic Equations
1. Enter the equation. Use [YJ to get to the Floti Plot? Flote
equation entry screen. We want to graph wy 2h e-12K4+19
y = 2x? — 12x + 19. Enter the equation Y2=
wY3= If we complete the
into one of the Y variable lines, in this sYu= square, y = 2x? — 12x + 19
case, Y1. sYe=
wYa= can be written as
wes y = 2(x — 3)? + 1. That
represents a parabola with
2. Graph the equation. To get an image, \/ vertex at the origin that is
graph the function using the standard
translated 3 to the right and
graphing window of —10 < x < 10 and up by one, which matches
—10 <y< 10. Press 6:ZStandard. the graph. The graph does
If the graph does not display correctly, not cross the x-axis, so there
change the window using the or are no real solutions to this
other commands. quadratic equation.

The Discriminant
If you want to determine the number and type of solutions to a quadratic equation,
=b = Vb" = aac
you can use the discriminant. With the quadratic formula x =
2a ,
the expression under the radical, b* — 4ac, is called the discriminant of the quadratic
equation. The expression under the radical determines if solutions are complex
(if the expression is negative) or real (if the expression is zero or positive).

Discriminant
4x7 + 5x+1=0 b* — 4ac >0
If the discriminant is positive, -
there are two x-intercepts and _
therefore two real solutions.
For example:
4x? + 5x+1=0
b? — 4ac = (5 —4°4-1=9

4x? +4x+1=0 b* — 4ac = 0

If the discriminant equals 0,
there is one solution.
For example:
Ax? + 4x +1=0
b? — 4ac = (4? -4-4-1=0

Ax* + 3x+1=0 b* — 4ac <0 . ,

This can be explained using
If the discriminant is negative, —--\-- complex numbers. Remember
there are no real solutions. that the discriminant is under
For example: a radical, \b? — 4ac. In this
4y7+3x+1=0 pa a case, we have Vb? — 4ac =
WP= dac = (3) —4°4°1=—-7 VST aV7V=1=1V7.

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations 109

Complex Solutions to Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation may not have real numbers as solutions. There are several
algebraic ways to determine the complex solutions to quadratic equations: the
square root principle, factoring, and the quadratic formula.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Determine the complex solutions to the quadratic equation x? + 1 = 0 using the square root
principle, factoring, and the quadratic formula. Compare and contrast the solutions for each
method.
SOLUTION
Square Root Principle
Isolate the variable x? = —1 Subtract 1 from both sides to isolate the variable.
Take square rootof x=WV-lor-—V-1__ Take the square root of both sides, and consider both
both sides positive and negative roots.
Use definition of x =ior-i Substitute using the definition of imaginary numbers.
imaginary number Check the solutions: 7? + 1 = 0, -1 + 1 = 0. And
checking the second solution: (—i)* + 1 = 0,-1+1=0.
Factoring
x° + 1 = Ois the sum of two perfect squares and factors as (x + i)(x — i) = 0. The solutions are
= 1.0r =1.
Quadratic Formula

Identify a,b, a=1,b=0,c=1 Identify a, b, and c for this quadratic equation. b is 0

and c since there is no x-term.

eA ee
Substitute x= 7S Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.

2) = VO =4OW
2(1)

O= V0-—4 :
Evaluate SEE age Do the operations and remove the perfect square from
the radical.
+V-4
x= — All three methods arrive at the same answer: x = i or —i.

eV —1
a
2
r= £V-1
arti
Model Problems continue...

110 Chapter 2: Quadratics

 Model Problems continued

2. Solve 2x* — 4x +7=0.

SOLUTION
Identify a,b, a=2,b=-4,c=7 Identify a, b, and c for this quadratic equation.
and c b is negative since it is subtracted.
eee _ —b+ Vb* - 4ac
ubstitute x= PERU Ge TESTY Substitute a, b, and c into the quadratic formula.

Ae —— EN
2(2)
ito 16 56
Evaluate ee aa
er Multiply under the radical, subtract, and then pause.
The equation has the square root of a negative
es 4+ V-—40 number. V —40 is not a real number. This equation
- has no real solutions.
i
Simplify
tans ee
4+ V4V-10 Factor out the perfect square in the radicand and
express the square root of — 10 as imaginary number.
bd 1 2V 10
4

ae al gee Ay
ys
gt oe Te aan

3. Is —1 + 2iasolution to x* + 2x +5 =0?
SOLUTION

Substitute and (—1 + 2i)? + 2(-1+ 21) +5=0 To see if —1 + 27 is a solution, substitute and
evaluate (1—41-4)-2+41+5=0 then evaluate. The two sides of the equation are
0=0 equal, so —1 + 27 is a solution to this equation.

4. Write an equation with 2 + i and 2 — ias solutions.

SOLUTION
State solutions x=2+iorx=2-1 These two complex numbers are solutions to
the equation, so set them equal to x.

Use the x—(2+i1)=Oorx-—(2-1)=0 The zero-product property says that each factor
zero-product [y—(24+ )][(x -—(2—-—i)] =0 of the left side of the equation consists of x
property minus one of the solutions, for both solutions.
State two factors, and multiply them.
Perform Oa = )e 2D) So Do the multiplication. Multiply each term in the
multiplication v—4x+4-7=0 first factor by each term in the second, and then
7 -—4x+5=0 combine like terms.

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations 111

PRACTICE
1. The equation x* —5x + 2p = 0 has only one . If the discriminant is zero, how many times
real solution. What is p equal to? does the graph of a quadratic equation
intersect the x-axis?
A. Nosuchpexists C. =
A. 0 Cie 2
25
beat3 DP2 5 Bal D. More than twice

. Graph the equations y = 3x* — 5x — 2 and . How many real solutions does
y = —7. What do the graphs indicate —9x? + 6x — 1 = Ohave?
about the solutions to the equation (AU af) Gre «?
ke Deel D. More than two
A. The horizontal line intersects the
parabola in two places, so there are two . How many real solutions does
3x* — 12x + 2 = 0 have?
real solutions to the equation.
B. The horizontal line intersects the A= 0 Cr 2
parabola only at the vertex, so there is Bs an D. More than two
one real solution to the equation.
. How many times does the graph of
C. The horizontal line does not intersect
f(x) = 3x* + 2x + 7 cross the x-axis?
the parabola, so there are two real
solutions to the equation. Zoe Ca 2
D. The horizontal line does not intersect Deak D. More than twice
the parabola, so there are no real
10. Which of the following is true about the
solutions to the equation.
equation 4x* + 4x +1=0?
. Sara is solving a quadratic equation where
A. The discriminant is zero.
ax’ + bx + c = Oand b* = 4a. Sara says that
if c is less than or equal to 1, the equation B. The discriminant is positive.
has two real solutions. Which statement best C. The discriminant is negative.
describes Sara’s explanation? D. Not enough information to tell.
A. She is correct because the discriminant 11. Find the number of solutions by calculating
will be real. the discriminant of 5x? + 4x + 2 = 0.
B. She is correct because the discriminant A. No real solutions
will be a perfect square.
B. One real solution
C. She is wrong because the discriminant
C. Two real solutions
can be imaginary.
D. Not enough information to tell
D. She is wrong because the discriminant
can be zero. 12. What are the solutions to x? — 2x + 3 = 0?
. Which of the following is true about the AL ear
ie
equation x* + x + 2 = 0? Be 2a ee
A. There is one real root. Ce eee
B. There are two distinct real roots. Daw 427 a
C. There are two distinct complex roots. 13. Find
a such that (4 — 31)a = 1.
AS44323 . 4 nelig
D. There is one pure imaginary root.
Cee,
. If a quadratic equation’s discriminant is —2, f 25) a
how many real solutions does it have? Byres ts fo
Digg ie 3
(ee 5 oS
a0 Cw
lnyon al D. More than two
Practice Problems continue...

112 Chapter 2: Quadratics

Practice Problems continued ...

14. Cie On the graph of the function 30. How do we use the value of the
y = x’, find the point with the smallest discriminant to determine the number
sum of coordinates. of real solutions of a quadratic equation?
State the rule.
15. Ci Find the length of the longest
segment parallel to the y-axis and lying 31. Write a function f(x) for which the equation
inside the figure that is bounded by the f(x) = 0 has no real solutions.
graphs of y = 5 — x’ andy = x? — 3. 32. Find all k such that the function
Sketch the figure. y = x* — 2(k — 1)x + 2k + 1 has two
16. The graphs of the functions y = x? + 4x — 2 x-intercepts.
and y = (x + 2)? — 7 are each intersected by
the line x = c. What is the distance between 33. Find 1 such that the equation
the points of intersection of this line with the (2n — 1)x? — 2(n + 1)x + sn = 0 has only
two graphs? Sketch the graphs. one real solution.
1\2
17. Solve (x=i) = a(x=i) — 4=0, letting 34. Show that if a and c have different signs,
the equation ax* + bx + c = 0 always has
ye RR
different real solutions.
35. Solve x* + 10x + 29 = 0 using the quadratic
1s. [FRY Can different quadratic equations formula.
of the type ax? + bx + c = O have the same
solutions? If not, explain why not. If so, 36. [EM Give a general form of a quadratic
explain what the graphs of the equations equation that has only one real solution.
will have in common and sketch the graphs. Explain your reasoning.
19. State the x-intercepts of the quadratic Exercises 37-40: Determine if the complex
funehon, f(x), =.2-, + 12x +32. number is a solution to the quadratic equation.
If it is, determine the other solution.
20. State the x-intercepts of the quadratic
function f(x) = x? + 5x + 6. 37. Equation: x? + 4x + 8 = 0; Root: —2 + 2i

21. State the x-intercepts of the quadratic 38. Equation: x” — 12x + 37 = 0; Root:6 + i
function f(x) = 28x” — 51x + 20, to the 39. Equation: x? + 8x + 21 = 0; Root: 4 — iV5
nearest hundredth.
40. Equation: x* — 9x + 25 = 0; Root: B + mae
22. How many times does the graph of
fix) = 4x7 + 20x + 25 intersect the x-axis? Exercises 41-45: State each quadratic equation
Exercises 23-24: Find the discriminant. with leading coefficient 1 and the complex
numbers as solutions.
23. y = 4x” + 8x — 6
41. 31,4 — 31
24. y=4x°+
7x —5
A264 + 21 2
Exercises 25-29: For each equation, find the
discriminant and identify the number of real 43.5 + 13,5 —i1V3
solutions. 44. 8+ 151,8 — 151
25. —4x? + 24x — 36 =0 45. —-3 + 4i,-3—-4i
26. 5x4 5x—12=0 Exercises 46—49: Find all solutions to each equation.
46. x* — 81 = 0. Hint: First find the real solutions,
27. x? -—7x +15=0 then use them to write binomials that you
28. —4x7
+ 3x +3 =0 can factor out of the original polynomial.
Find the complex solutions to the quotient
29. 64x” — 49 =0 polynomial using the quadratic equation.
Practice Problems continue...

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations 113

Practice Problems continued...
47. x —8=0 51. [PAR Consider the equation
48. °° +1=0 -3x$3.
y=
49. x + 8 =0 a Use the discriminant to determine how
many roots there are to this equation and
50. [ae Med What clues might you look for in
what kind they are.
a quadratic equation to determine whether
there is/are: b Find the exact roots to the equation.
c Find the roots to the nearest hundredth.
a One real root?
b Two real roots?
c Two complex roots?

LESSON 2.7 ‘eammerseweceec menace a

2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling
with Quadratic Functions
Some scatter plots suggest relationships between variables that are not linear.
Using a spreadsheet or graphing calculator, you can determine a best-fit
quadratic equation model for this set of data using quadratic regression. Quadratic
regression determines the best values for the constants a, b, and c in the equation
y= ar Jbe aC.
Spreadsheet a Annual income vs age, US females, 1999
40,000
1. Create scatter plot. Ina
spreadsheet, start by g
entering the data £°
®

=
2

and creating a scatter plot.

2. Use quadratic regression.
Make sure the chart is
selected, and then choose
Add Trendline from the Chart menu. To do a quadratic regression, choose
the Polynomial option under Trend/Regression type and leave the Order
set at 2 (for quadratic). You can add the model equation and the coefficient of
determination 7” using the Options tab.

Graphing Calculator
1. Create scatter plot. Start by entering the data and ySax?tbxtc
creating a scatter plot. See the directions in chapter 1. Be iean eattaSe
2. Use quadratic regression. Choose quadratic gears (433
regression instead of linear regression. To do this,
press and then scroll right to the CALC menu.
Scroll down to 5:QuadReg and press to set up the QuadReg command.
Then enter the parameters and do the regression as for linear regression. The
calculator displays the results as shown. The regression equation is
y = —14.301x* + 1346.6x + 4773.9, and the coefficient of determination is
r = 0.9675. Since r’ is close to 1, the equation might be a good model for this
data.
114 Chapter 2: Quadratics
S In this activity, you can work with both quadratic regression and artillery. What
equation describes the range of a cannon as a function of the elevation angle?
Create a table and then use a spreadsheet or graphing calculator to determine a
quadratic equation in the form y = ax? + bx +c and the value of °.

MODEL PROBLEM
MP 2,4| Use the data of age and income earned by U.S. females
in 1999 to answer the following questions. | Age |Income_
a Create a scatter plot.
b Use the scatter plot to describe the relationship between age $33,108
and income.
c Determine the function model that best fits the data.
d Use the function model to determine the maximum amount of
money females earned in 1999? _
SOLUTION $37,815
a
$45,000 Mt ata

$40,000
v
5
z $35,000

$30,000

$25,000 ened
20 50 60
Age (years)

b : The scatter plot relates annual income and age. In 1999, income increased as age increased,
up until about age 50. After the age of 50, income decreased.
c It does not look like a line would make for a good linear model because the data points
rise and then fall back again. This suggests a quadratic equation like y = ax? + bx +c
would make a better model than a linear equation. The equation from the regression is
y = —11.96x? + 1242.4x + 6064.4. The ’ is 0.966, which is high.
d___ To find the maximum value for the function, we need to find the vertex of the parabola.
According to the quadratic regression model, the maximum amount females earned in
1999 was approximately $38,300 at around age 52.

2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions 115

PRACTICE
1. Find the best-fit quadratic equation for 5. The data in the table show the number of
the data in the table and the coefficient of people riding a commuter train at different
determination. times of the day. Find a quadratic equation
of best fit for the data.
a |i as ae ae
(mime [4] 5[6 [7[8|9 [00]
Bu berei
of People
ean 70 70 | 50 | 30
2. (JE which type of equation most
closely models the data in the table: linear
or quadratic? Explain. Then use a graphing 6. Cie The table gives the population
calculator or spreadsheet to find a best-fit of Hawaii for different years. Determine
equation. the best-fit quadratic equation for the
population of Hawaii for a given year.
(Use 0 to represent 1900.)

3. Find a quadratic model that best fits the data

using a graphing calculator.

x [0.2/0.4]0.6/0.8]10/12/ 14|16|1.8|
y |4.7|65]68]7.1]79/8.1/123] 16.1]20.9| 7. (UGX The table states the price of
4. Find a linear and quadratic model of best fit gold for the first 20 trading days of 2009.
for the data in the table. Using the coefficient Determine the best-fit quadratic equation for
of determination, decide which model best the price of gold on a given trading day.
fits the data.

| 0 |$874.50|
|
1|$853.50 |
| 2 |$848.25|
|3|$848.50 |
| 4 |$855.75|

Practice Problems continue . .

116 Chapter 2: Quadratics

Practice Problems continued ...
8. The table shows the number of toy block 9. Use the tables to answer the questions.
sets sold over several weeks.
Table 1: The path of a football thrown in the
Week air for two seconds.

|Time(s) |0 [0.4/0.6]1 [1.2/1.6]1.8]2.0|

Table 2: The path of a football thrown in the
air that meets a gust of wind at 1.6 seconds.

|Time(s) |0 [0.4/0.6]1 [1.2/1.6]1.8]2.0

Mae
| 2800-7 [Height(m)|2 [4.5/5.3 /5.8/5.6|58|
6.0]53
__ a Find the best-fit quadratic equation for

ee
Table 1.
b Find the best-fit quadratic equation for
Table 2.
c For which table does a quadratic model
a Find the best-fit quadratic equation for better fit the data? How do you know?
the data. d Graph the equations of best fit for both
b Find and interpret the coefficient of tables. Compare and contrast the graphs
determination, r*, for the quadratic with relation to the path of the football.
model.
c Astudent says a linear model would 10. ie) Consider the data in the table.
better fit the data because for the first
seven weeks, the number of toys sold |x|2]4]6]8| 10|12|14|16|18
increases. The linear model of best fit has
a coefficient of determination of 0.558.
Based on this, does a linear equation Meredith says the equation of best fit for
appear to best model the data?
the table is y = x? because more than half
of the data points fit this equation exactly.
April uses a graphing calculator to find a
quadratic equation of best fit. Find April’s
equation and decide which equation better
fits the data. Explain your reasoning.

2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions 117

 e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

(TERI The students in Ms. May’s physics class launched air rockets at various angles to
determine the optimum angle for reaching the farthest distance. Here is one group’s data:

(degrees) (yards)
L0® 58
L5*
30° 126
oD. 136
141
141
139
az

a Make ascatter plot of the data.

b Find the equation of a quadratic equation that best matches the data.
c Is your equation a good representation of the data? Why or why not?
d_ Use the equation to predict the distance a rocket launched at an angle of 75° would travel.

LESSON 2.8 sueusememeemmeneennes cee

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin

Geometric Definition of a Parabola

A basic type of parabola can be described by a quadratic equation of the form
y = ax’. A parabola of this form has its vertex at the origin, opens up or down, and
has the y-axis as its axis of symmetry.

y=-p + be He Directrix

118 Chapter 2: Quadratics

A parabola can also be described geometrically using a line and a point:

Set of points equidistant Ra A parabola is the set of all points in a plane

from a fixed point as it is where each point is the same distance from
from a fixed line a point as it is from a line. We call these two
distances 1, and 1.
Point is focus (0, p) The point the distance is measured from
is called the focus of the parabola. With
a parabola that opens up and with its vertex at
the origin, the focus is at (0, p).
Line is directrix Y= The line is called the directrix. With a parabola
that opens up and with its vertex at the origin, it
is the line y = —p.

We derive an equation for a parabola from its geometric definition. We start with
a parabola that opens up with its vertex at the origin.

faa —1--+ e+» Directrix

The definition of a parabola says that the

of parabola distance from any point on it to the directrix
equals the distance from the point to the
focus.
Distances Focus: 7p) =-V(0' =x)" + yy Find the distances from the point (x, y) on the
from point parabola. The directrix is the line y = —p. The
Directrix: r. = y — (—p) = yp
(x, y) on distance to the directrix is the difference in the
parabola y-coordinate of the point on the parabola and
the point directly below it on the line.
Substitute Ve+(p-—yr=yt+p Substitute the expressions found above for
expressions the two distances. Simplify a bit on the right,
for r; and r, since adding 0 has no effect.
Square Square both sides of the equation and expand
both sides the expressions.
Simplify Simplify. To do so, subtract common terms
from each side of the equation.

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin 119

SG The activity shows the focus and directrix, which define the parabola. The
parabola can open up, down, left, or right.

The distances to
DISTANCES the focus and to the
directrix are always
To focus 4.3 |
equal for any point on
the parabola. 1
To directrix 4.3

Gerais

Dir
trix
ec

Graphing a Parabola at the Origin

The equation for a parabola, y = x’, can be used to

determine some of its important properties. The constant p

can be positive or negative. Its sign determines whether the

parabola opens up or down (iory= oTor right or

aD oH I
left (for = ae These equations are in the standard
'
' i
form of the equation for a parabola centered at the origin. ro
t

, “is , ~ Directrix.
G In this activity, you will move the focus, and you will see the
equation and the value of p change.

trix
Direc

120 Chapter 2: Quadratics

> In this activity, enter the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix
nerssee how they affect me parabola’ S graph.

Focus

u hee rant Directrix

4% Graph It!

~~ ~
a ~
se
~ ee~
oy Se
oe me
ee,

Axis of Symmetry

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Parabola His defined by the equation y = —x’,
16, and parabola Gis defined by the
equation x = —y’. Select the true statement.
A. Parabola H would have a vertical axis of symmetry, and parabola G would have a horizontal
axis of symmetry.
B. Parabola H would be steeper (more rapidly changing curve) than parabola G.
C. Both Aand B are true.
D. Neither A nor Bis true.

SOLUTION
The answer is A. With y equal to an expression with a squared x-term, it is a vertical parabola, and its axis
of symmetry is vertical, which makes the first half of answer A true. With x equal to a squared y-term,
parabola G would be a horizontal parabola (opening to the left due to the negative sign). Its axis of
symmetry would be horizontal. Parabola His not steeper than parabola G, since its coefficient has a lesser
absolute value, so statement Bis false. That makes answer C false, and Dis false since statement Ais true.
Model Problems continue.

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin 121

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
es CLA Graph x = i using properties determined from its en

SOLUTION : : S
ap = ~8,p =? - shied term ismultiplied .
Calculate p —
: ae es —s, B09 = 32.

a ot symmetry x-axis since y issquared _y is squared so this ee horizontal

Dog parabola. :

Calculate directrix and focus directrix:x=—p=2 Thevertex is A ae chen The

focus: (p,0) =(—2,0) _ directrix is a vertical line since the —
parabola is horizontal. Write the =
equation for the directrix. It is
x = —p, which is x = 2.
Plot points and then draw the curve.
Note that we can use the symmetry of
_ the parabola to help us. The x-values
are the samefory=4andy— 4

With this problem, we can see

y=3 <-- po . |Directrix where the focus and directrix
are. We use that information to
calculate p and then state the
parabola’s equation.

SOLUTION
Focus (0, p) The focus is at (0, p) for a vertical parabola. Since the focus of this
p=-3 parabola is at (0, —3), p = —3.

Substitute into odeuilig esp Since the parabola is vertical, the x-term is squared. Substitute the
equation 4p value of p. Then simplify by multiplying.
2
u 4(=3)"
1
apace
Model Problems continue...

122 Chapter 2: Quadratics

 eet
PB QOCw An antenna, like the one to the right, reflects signals from distant
sources such as orbiting satellites to a receiver ona pole in front of the dish.
A cross-section of the antenna is a parabola. The parabola causes the
reflected signals to concentrate at the focus of the parabola, where the
receiver is located. Parabolic antennas are superior to spherical ones,
which focus the signal less precisely.
Reflectors with parabolic cross-sections, including parabolic
troughs, are also used to concentrate solar energy in order
to generate electricity. In the photo to the right, you see
one being assembled. The stated goal of the company
financing the system is to build 20,000 reflectors, each
capable of producing about 150 kilowatts of power.
Use the graph to state an equation for the ae y The focal length
reflector and calculate the reflector’s
is the distance
diameter, which is its horizontal distance
a oe ose eee ee ee gy from the vertex
across the reflector at its focus. The
to the focus.
diameter
ee of a parabola is also called ETE
mf Donn oe 6 wt Bmw LO Ted

SOLUTION
Substitute p y= a 2 State an equation for the parabolic
into parabola 4p reflector described by the graph.
equation io 1. 1 :
Y — Le Se Xe

Ap 4-6 24

To find radius, 24y = x? The radius at the focus is the horizontal

solve equation OG distance from the focus to the reflector. To
for x 7 le calculate the radius, solve the equation
for x.
Substitute x= 2\/ by = 2V6- 6 = 12 Substitute. The radius at the focus is
diameter = 2x = 24 units 12 units. Double the radius to calculate
the diameter, which is 24 units.
Model Problems continue . .

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin 123

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
© cp IMP2,3,4|The function f(t)= —0.5(t — 9)* + 12 describes the vertical position ofaballonthe
moonr’s surface over time, with t representing time in seconds, and f(t) the position in meters. The
function is only used to describe the time when the ball is at the level of the moon (0 noe: or
higher.
a Graph this function, showing only the time the ball is above the surface of the moon
(which is at 0 meters).
b What are the approximate domain and range of the function?
_¢ Show howaline can be used to estimate the times when the ball is 5 meters high.
d Using the concept of an inequality, highlight the parts of the graph that represent when the
ball is 5 meters or lower. Explain your reasoning.
SOLUTION
a

b The domain is from about 4 seconds to about 14 seconds—that is when the ball is above
the earth. The range is 0 to 12 meters. The maximum height 12 is the vertex, which can be
determined from the k, the +12, that is added to the function.

c Jae

d The ball is 5 meters or lower when 4 = x = 5.2 and

eT T TET er 12.8 =x < 14. Between 5.2 < x <12.8, the ball is
above 5 meters.

124 Chapter 2: Quadratics

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-6: For each equation, determine in
which direction the parabola opens. 11. A parabola has an equation y = ae Where
is its focus?
a Ue
oe
12. A parabola’s focus is at (0, 2) and its directrix
Opens up C, Opens left is at y = —2. What is the equation for the
Opens down Dp. Opens right parabola?

13. A parabola’s focus is at @ -+) and its

Opens up Opens left
Opens down Oo Opens right directrix is at y = = What is the equation
2
Qoc= for the parabola?
Opens up Opens left 14. A parabola has an equation y = 2x*. Where
®D>Opens down Opens right is its focus?
2
15. [E71 A parabolic trough collects solar
Opens up Opens left energy. The mirrored trough has a
Opens down Opens right parabolic cross-section. Its focus is shown
on the graph. Write an equation for the
—2x? trough with its vertex at the origin.
Opens up Opens left
Opens down Opens right
ots
Opens up G, Opens left
SH
eS
o>Opens down
we D. Opens right

The receiver of a parabolic television dish

antenna is located at the focus. The cross
section of the reflector is modeled by
ie a (in feet). What is the distance
from the lowest point on the reflector to the
receiver?

me att ce 14 ft 16. What is the vertex of the parabola described

Be eS St DD: 28 ft by y = —ax*?
Exercises 17—20: Find the vertex, axis of
. Aparabola’s focus is at (0,-5)and its symmetry, and directrix of the parabolas.
directrix is at y = > What is the equation 17. y = 4
for the parabola? State your answer in the 18. y = 3x7
standard form of an equation for a parabola
at the origin. 19. ye
. A parabola has an equation y = a Where 20. x = 3y"
is its focus?
A
10. A parabola has an equation y = ee Where
is its focus? Practice Problems continue .. .

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin 125

Practice Problems continued...

Exercises 21-22: Graph the equations. Draw and eee

label the focus and directrix for each parabola. BF Tne ee Oar Y 4”
ped yes 28. [EJ Does any parabola intersect its
aa ee directrix? If so, give an example of such a
22.x=-y parabola. If not, explain why not.
Exercises 23-24: State the equation for each 29. [EI Dina wants to find the directrix of a
parabola. parabola which has its vertex at the origin
and its focus on the horizontal axis. She
23. Focus at (—9, 0) and directrix is x = 9.
writes the equation for the directrix in the
24. Focus at (0, 8) and directrix is y = —8. form y = a. Will this be a correct equation for
the directrix?
Exercises 25-27: Each parabola described has its
vertex at the origin. State the equation of each 30. Ties Prove that the equation for a
parabola in standard form and graph it.
horizontal parabola can be written x = —_y’,
5
25. The focus of the parabola is (0,3) where (p, 0) is the focus and x = —p is

26. The focus of the parabola is (—3, 0). the directrix.

Chapter 2 Key ideas mammarere

2.1 Algebra 1 Review: Factoring Polynomials
e To factor a polynomial means to state it as a product of polynomials.

2.2 Polynomial Patterns

e A polynomial is called a sum of cubes if its terms are two perfect cubes which are added, and a
difference of cubes if it is one perfect cube subtracted from another.

2.3 Patterns and Equations

e If you know that the product of two numbers is 0, you know that at least one of the factors must
be 0. This is called the zero-product property.

2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula

e One technique for solving quadratic equations uses a method called completing the square. To
complete the square means to add a constant to a binomial to create a perfect square trinomial.
e Any quadratic equation can be written in the standard form ax” + bx + c = 0. The solutions to a
quadratic equation in standard form can be calculated using the quadratic formula,
i —b+Vb* — 4ac
2a

126 Chapter 2: Quadratics

2.5 Imaginary and Complex Numbers
Because the square of a real number is never negative, negative numbers do not have square roots
in the real numbers. However, real numbers are a subset of a set called the complex numbers, and
negative numbers do have square roots in the complex numbers. In the complex number system,
V—1 exists and mathematicians use the symbol i to represent it.
Adding and subtracting complex numbers is like adding and subtracting binomials in that you
combine like terms. You combine the real parts and the imaginary parts (the coefficients of i)
separately. To multiply Square roots with negative radicands, restate the factors using i.
Complex conjugates are complex numbers with the same real parts, and imaginary parts that are
opposites.

2.6 Solutions of Quadratic Equations

The expression under the radical in the quadratic equation, b* — 4ac, is called the discriminant of
the quadratic equation. It determines how many real number solutions the quadratic equation
has.
The x-intercepts of the parabola f(x) = ax* + bx + c are the real solutions to the quadratic equation
ax? + bx + c = 0 because these are the points representing the real numbers for which the value of
the function is zero. We can find the x-intercepts by setting f(x) equal to 0 and solving.
Equations can have complex numbers as solutions. If the discriminant of a real-coefficient
quadratic equation is negative, the equation has complex solutions.

2./ Modeling with Quadratic Functions

To check if a model is sufficiently adequate, use quadratic regression.

2.8 Parabolas at the Origin

A parabola is defined geometrically as the set of points which are equidistant from a point called
the focus and a line called the directrix.
A parabola with the y-axis as its axis of symmetry, a focus at (0, p), and the directrix of y = —p,
is defined with the formula y = = . If p is positive, the parabola will open up. If p is negative,
it will open down. If the variables x and y are switched, the parabola is horizontal rather than
vertical and has the x-axis as its axis of symmetry, its focus at (p, 0), and the directrix of x = —p.
In this case, the parabola will open right if p is positive and left if p is negative.

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
i Tid Solve the equation (x, + 3)* = a using 2. Wi To solve a quadratic equation, a
the square root principle. If it is given that student graphs the function. Determine the
ais a positive real number, which best discriminant of the quadratic equation.
describes the solution(s) to the equation? y

A. One real solution

B Two real solutions
C. Only negative solutions
D Only non-real solutions
6 &. =0
Beto Do 16
Chapter Review continues .. .

Chapter 2 Review 127

Chapter Review continued .. .
Exercises 3-6: Factor. 19. For which values of m do the graphs of the
functions y = x? — mx + 4and
3. x® + 12x* + 36 y = x* — 19x + 9 not intersect? Graph if
4. x° + 8x° + 16 necessary.
5. 343x° + 216 20. Show that the quadratic equation
ax? + bx + c = 0, where a # 0, has two
6. 125x° + 216 different real solutions of the same sign
7. Find the formula for the square of a sum ifa-c>Oand
b* — 4ac >0.
of three numbers 4, b, and c. Justify your Exercises 21-22: Multiply.
answet.
21. (5:+4i)(7 —2)
8. Cio The square of the sum of two
consecutive positive numbers is 112 greater 22. (6 + 2i)(2i — 4)
than the sum of their squares. What are Exercises 23-24: Determine the complex
those numbers?
conjugate of each expression.
Exercises 9-12: Solve.
23. —3+ 41
9. 7x? + 70x + 147 =0
24. —12 - 31
10. 9x7 - 16 =0
25. Multiply —6 — i by its complex conjugate
11. 4x* - 64=0 and state the result.
42. 9x7 -— 25=0 Exercises 26-27: Solve.
13. [QE] Explain why the quadratic equation 26..5 =.2x — ix
3x* — 18x + 10 = 0 cannot have a negative 27..13. = —3%— 21x
number as a solution.
28. Draw a diagram showing the relationships
14. For which values of m are the solutions to the between the following types of numbers:
equation x? — (5m? — 4m)x + 25m? — 16 =0 complex, imaginary, real, rational, and
equal to zero? irrational.
15 Dorothy says she found solutions to the Exercises 29-30: For each equation, find the
quadratic equation 3x? + 18x + 10 = 0. “Are discriminant and identify the number of real
they positive or negative?” asked her friend solutions.
Xavier. “Both are positive,” said Dorothy.
“Sorry, but there must be some mistake in 29. —4x? + 24x — 36 =0
your calculations!” Xavier exclaimed. How
did he know that? 30. preset
16. IMP 4| Two riders start at the same point 31. A parabola’s focus is at (0, 5) and its
and begin moving away from each other directrix is at y = —5. Find the y-coordinates
along two roads that form a right angle. of the points on the parabola with the
The riders’ speeds are 12 mph and 16 mph. x-coordinates 10 and —10.
When will the distance between the riders
be equal to 80 miles? 32. A parabola’s focus is at (0,
-3) and its
17. Find the value of a such that the equation directrix is at y = 7 What is the equation
(a + 1)x? + 6x + 3 = Ohas only one real
solution. Find this solution. Graph if for the parabola? State your answer in the
necessary. standard form of an equation for a parabola
at the origin.
18. Graph the points (x, y) such that the
equation 2¢? + 4(x — 3)t + 2y = 0 has only
one real solution for t.

128 Chapter 2: Quadratics

Cumulative Review
for Chapters J = 9

1. This graph shows___correlation. 4. Researchers found that there was a negative

5 correlation between the mean SAT scores
F 1400 ~ of high school seniors in each state and the
1200 8 percentage of graduates in each state who
& < e took the test. Which of the following must
ee ". . be correct?
5 bb 800 0] 109 Siti,
§ gee A. The SAT scores are higher in states
a ae a where the percentage of graduates who
took the test is higher.
° 8 ee eh nad 80 100 B. There is no association between the SAT
és scores in the state and the percentage of
A. Negative graduates who took the test.
B. Positive C. The SAT scores tend to be higher
<4 .NO in states where the percentage of
graduates who took the test is lower.
2. The graph shows the relationship between
D. The SAT scores tend to be lower
the retail cost of a bag of Rainier cherries
in states where the percentage of
and the weight. Approximately how much
graduates who took the test is lower.
would Tara pay for 9 pounds of cherries?
5. If its discriminant is positive and real, how
$35 y many times does the graph of a quadratic
$30 function cross the x-axis?
$25 5
4 $20 A. Zero times
O s15 B. Once
$10 C. Twice
$5 D. More than two times

Shive Piast od?)

Weight (in pounds)
ogi 6. The solutions to x* + 4x + 5 = Oare
NoeG Aust ot
Baa ei Beir Fe2eeeey 2a
Gs wh24 CC. 4-27
27 D. oS 2 et

E. $30 7. What is the domain of the function f(x) = x?

Justify your reasoning.
3. Determine if there is a negative, positive,
or no correlation between the number of 8. What is the range of the function f(x) = x?
siblings someone has and their grade in Justify your reasoning.
school.
A. Positive
B. Negative
C. No Correlation

Chapters 1-2 129

 9. What does the graph of f(x — 4) + 2 look like 14. a Given the constraints x + 3y = 15;
compared to the graph of f(x)? 2x +y = 10; x = 0;y = 0; and that
the objective function z = x + y has a
10. What does the graph of f(x + 3) — 7 look like maximum value of z = 7, graph the
compared to the graph of f(x)? corresponding relationship between x and
11. (PRE Alejandro is collecting data to y for this maximum.
make a scatter plot. He wants to collect data b Use the graph from part a to determine
that will show a negative correlation. If one the point in the feasible region that yields
of his variables is daily temperature, name the maximum value of the objective
another variable that could result in a scatter function. Explain how you arrived at
plot with a negative correlation. your answer.
12. [GA Calculate the linear regression 15. CEFF A juice plant produces apple juice
equation for the data. Round all values to and applesauce from 70,000 pounds of
the nearest thousandth. apples per day. To produce a can of juice,
1 pound of apples is needed, while only
one-third of a pound is needed to produce a
Height | Height can of sauce. The cans are packed into boxes,
24 cans per box. The storage facilities only
allow for 2000 boxes of juice and 6500 boxes
of sauce a day. The plant sells a box of juice
id POAegis Ped for $18, and a box of applesauce for $9. How
many pounds of apples should be used for
each type of product to maximize the plant’s
revenues?
16. Tina counts on her energy bars to provide
some calories and vitamins in her diet. She
wants to get at least 400 calories, 60 units
of vitamin A, and 70 units of vitamin C per
day from the bars. She likes two types of
energy bars: Coolbar, which costs
$1.15 per bar, and Extrabar, which costs
13. Cie A researcher analyzed data on the $1.05 per bar. The Coolbar provides 80
costs of producing an online test preparation calories, 10 units of vitamin A, and 30 units
program. She found the line of best fit to be of vitamin C. The Extrabar provides 80
c = 90,000 + 15.95 , where c is the total cost calories, 15 units of vitamin A, and 10 units
(in dollars) of serving n students. Interpret of vitamin C. How many bars of each kind
the meaning of the two numbers in this should Tina eat to minimize the cost and
equation. meet her dietary requirements? How much
will her bars cost per day?
Exercises 17—22: Factor.

17. zi? — 64
18. zi? = 125
19. z?—8
20. 20x* + 100x? + 120x?
21. 5124? — 343
22. 644° — 125

130 Cumulative Review

Exercises 23-24: Solve. 29. Find the discriminant and identify the
23. 8x 916 = 64 number of real solutions: x7 — 7x + 15 = 0

9A 19s 86 = 14 30. A parabola has a vertex at the origin and

opens upward. What is the equation of the
25. What is the complex conjugate of —5 + 6i? directrix if the focus point is (0, 7)?
Exercises 26-28: Graph each function. 31. A parabola’s focus is at (0, —2) and its
26. y = 6x —1— 3x directrix is at y = 2. What is the equation for
the parabola?
27. y = (2 — x)(x
— 6)
28. y=x?-—4x+4

Chapters 1-2 131

Ogre]
oht=)

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials A-SSE.2; A-APR.1

Combining Like Terms in Multivariable Polynomials
Evaluating Multivariable Polynomials
Operations with Multivariable Polynomials
3.2 Dividing Polynomials A-APR.6
Long Division of Polynomials
Long Division of Polynomials with Remainder
Synthetic Division
Dividing Expressions Using a Computer Algebra System
3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems A-APR.2
The Remainder Theorem
The Factor Theorem
3.4 Solving Polynomial Equations Algebraically A-SSE.1a; A-APR.3
Solving Cubic Equations
Solving Quartic Equations
3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions SG N-CN.9; A-APR.3; F-IF.7c
Graphing Polynomial Functions by Plotting Points
Graphing Calculator: Graphing Polynomial Functions
Graphing Polynomial Functions Using Zeros
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Linear Factorization Theorem
Summary of Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions
3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs
3.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions F-BE.3
: : ; : A-CED.2; A-CED.3; F-IF.4; F-IF.6;
3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions © F-IE.7c; F-IF.9
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling Polynomial
Functions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations A-REI.7; A-REI.11

Solving Polynomial Systems Graphically
Graphing Calculator: Solving a System of Polynomial Equations
Solving Polynomial Systems Algebraically
Multi-Part Problem Practice

CHAPTER 3 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-3

132 Chapter 3: Polynomials

i ee
Vocabulary
cubic equation fundamental theorem of algebra quartic equation

Descartes’ rule of signs linear factorization theorem remainder theorem

factor theorem multivariable polynomial synthetic division

LESSON 3.1 mencosnccc ee

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials

A polynomial like 3x* + 2x has just one variable, x. In chapter 2, you factored
polynomials such as 5x°y? + 2x*y + yz, called multivariable polynomials. In this
section we add, subtract, and multiply multivariable polynomials.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is the degree of the multivariable monomial 5x°y*?
Many of the same principles
SOLUTION discussed for one-variable
polynomials still apply. What is
Degree = sum of powers of — 5x°y’ The degree of ) different? To calculate the degree
all variables 342=5 a multivariable | of a monomial, you have to add
Degree is 5 monomial is the powers of all the variables.
the sum of the
powers of all the variables. The power of the
variable x is 3, and the power of the variable yis 2.
The sum of these powers is 3 + 2 = 5. The degree
of the monomial 5x°y’ is 5.

2. What is the degree of the multivariable polynomial 5x°y* + 2x*y + yz?

SOLUTION

Compute degrees 5x°y* degree is3 + 2=5 Calculate the degree of each term in the polynomial
of each term to 2x*y degree is4+1=5 by adding the powers in each term. The degree of
determine largest yz degree is 1+ 1=2 the first term is 5, since the sum of the powers is
3 + 2. Calculate the degrees of the other terms by
summing their powers.

Largest degree Degree is 5 The largest degree of The degree of a polynomial '
is degree of any term is 5, so the _ is the largest degree of :
polynomial degree of the any of the terms.
polynomial is 5.

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials 133

Combining Like Terms in Multivariable Polynomials
Like terms must have exactly the same variables and the same power of each variable.
When there is more than one variable, compare the exponents of each variable.
Both single and multivariable polynomials can be simplified by combining like
terms. To combine, you add or subtract the coefficients of the like terms.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Which terms of the polynomial 5xy” — 2xy* + 3x°y + x°z are like terms?
SOLUTION

5xy? and —2xy’ are like Like terms have the same variables to the same powers. Apply the test
terms to the first two terms, 5xy* and —2xy’. Both have x to the first power,
and y to the second, and no other variables. Since they have the same
variables to the same powers, they are like terms.

3x°y has no like terms The term 3x°y is the only term with x? in it. Other terms have the
variable x, but not to the third power. This means it has no like terms.
x’z has no like terms The term x’z is the only one with the variable z. This means there are no
like terms to this term.

2. Combine the like terms of 5xy” — 2xy* + 3x’y.

SOLUTION

Identify like terms 5xy* — 2xy* + 3x*y_ The first two terms have xy’ as their variable factors,
so they are like terms. The third term has no like
terms, since 3x°y has the same variables x and y, but
to different powers than the other terms.
Combine like terms SKY" + 3x7y Combine the like terms The standard form of
Sxy* and —2xy* by adding | a polynomial is written
the coefficients. Since in descending degree
DF \(=2))/= 3, the order. In a multivariable
combined term is 3xy*.__‘) polynomial, write the
The simplified terms in descending
polynomial is written degree order of one of
in standard form. the variables.

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-3: For each polynomial, determine Exercises 4-9: Determine the degree of each
which type of polynomial it is: monomial, expression.
binomial, or trinomial. 5
4. 2x*y
Xd
Aion Bold 2
2ul2ez, 6. 24223

Sear + xy — S
: 2,
7. 14x39 + 3y? + 5x2y!
Practice Problems continue...

134 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Practice Problems continued .. .

Bey tae, Oey 19. lxy? + 6xy°

9. 5y°z — 13z + 10 20. 5x + 7x*z — 2x7z
Exercises 10-16: Determine whether the 20 ey ay
monomials are like terms. Then add the
monomials and write the sum in standard form. 22. 9xz° — 3xz? + 22°
10. 3x°y and x’y 23. 4y°z* + 5y?z? — 17
11. 4x°z and 4x° 24. 13xyz + 2xyz — 3yz
12. 11xz° and —2xyz* 25. 512 tI a
13. 5x4y°z and —2x*y%z 26. —2xly? + 13xy — 7x#y?
14. 27yz and 37yz 27. Sx°y* + 5x°y?
15. xyz and xyz” 28. 9xy + 3yz + 3xz
16. 15x°y2z and 7x®°yz* 29. 4x° — 2xy — 2xy — y?
Exercises 17-30: Combine any like terms. 30. 3x° + xy — 6xy — 2y’
17. 7xy + 5xy
Seo

Evaluating Multivariable Polynomials

To evaluate a multivariable polynomial, replace each variable with that variable’s
value. Then follow the order of operations to evaluate the polynomial.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Evaluate 5xy? + 2x’y + 3xy when x = 3 and y = ~1.
SOLUTION
Substitute for x 5G) — 26)y + 3C)y We choose to substitute for x first.
Substitute for y 5(3)(—1)? — 2(3)*°(—1) + 38)(-D Substitute for y.
Do the operations 5(3)(1) — 2(9)(—1) + 3(3)(-1) Using the order of operations, first apply
15 — (—18) + (9) exponents. Next multiply, then add and
15te6h8 9 subtract left to right to get 24.
24
2. Simplify 5xy* when x = 2.
SOLUTION With multivariable polynomials, only some of =f
2 iiss the values of the variables may be known. You |
ee ee nee can evaluate or simplify the polynomial using |
paluce Oy ae the known variables. The values we do not —f
Multiply povamian 2pUE Se ee ge |

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials 135

PRACTICE
Exercises 1—28: Evaluate and simplify. 14. x’y + 2yz forz = 8
1. x — 4xy forx =2,y=5 15. 8x — 2x +.xz forx =5,y = —4
2. 2xy — x*z forx =1,y =3,z=—2 16. 5+ 2xz*+xforx
=3
3. 5xyz — 3xy’ forx = 5, y =2,z=3 17, 4x — 2xy + 7yz forx = —3,y=4
A. Oxy “2xz for.= —2 p=
4 a6 18. 11z* + 8y + 10xyz for
y =5
Six = yt xz =O four = 2 = 32 = 10 192-8 oxy zy forx 9-2 — —2
6.82 — 4x 62> for x = 5, y = —2,z = 10 20. x? + 3xy? + 3x*y +? for y =5
Tox = 6y 4324 — 7otorxs =0,y =4,27 = —5 21. 3x + 7xy* + fory = -1
8. xyz — xy—xz+
yzforx =3,y=4,z=5 22. 7xyz — 3xy forx = 3,z = —2
9. Tz —Syz + xy? + 5forx =3,y = “1 23. 4x°y — 5yz? + 2 forx =5,z2=2
ets 24. 6xy* + 3xz — yz forx = 2,y = —2
10. 4x22 — 3yz — xy forx =5,y = -2,2=7 26h ay or ton x 3
11. 3x°y for x = 10 26. 4xyz — 6xz + +:1fory =2
12. x + 3yx forx
=3 27. 4x°z + 5yz — yx forx = -1y=4
13. —9xy + 6z+1forx=2,z=4 28. xy — xyz — 6xy + 8y forx = 3

Operations with Multivariable Polynomials

You can perform operations with multivariable polynomials the same way you do
polynomials in one variable.

MODEL PROBLEMS
(Wd Exercises 1-2: Simplify.
& xy Bx 79) + Cayy © Gy = 2x 1) You can subtract
SOLUTION multivariable polynomials
by determining the additive
Write (2x°y + 3x + 9) + (—x*y + 5y — 2x — 11) Remove the 4 inverse of each term of the
polynomial 2x°y — xy + 3x — 2x + 5y + 9-11 parentheses subtracted polynomial, and
in / and write the j| then adding the resulting
descending polynomial polynomials.
order for x in descending ‘eeyeeee =
order for the variable x.
Combine” xy +i by 2 Combine like terms, 2x*y and —x’y to get xy.
like terms Combine the like terms 3x and —2x to get x.
Combine the constants 9 and —11 to get —2.
The resulting polynomial has no like terms
and is in descending order, so we are done.
Model Problems continue...

136 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

@ (62° + ab)(3a — 2ab)

SOLUTION ariable |
To multiply mulngtivFOI ‘
binomials usi L,
Multiply (5a? + ab)(3a — 2ab) Start by multiply the First,
using (5a”)(3a) + (5a?)(—2ab) + (ab)(3a) + (ab)(—2ab) multiplying the Outer, Inner, and Last
U first term of each terms of the binomials.
binomial, 5a? and Simplify the monomial
3a. Multiply the products by multiplying |
outer terms 5a” the coefficients and the |
and —2ab and variables in each term, |
add their product and combine like terms.

Do the same with the inner terms and the

last terms of the binomials, adding their
products to the expression.
Simplify 15a? — (10a°b) + 3a*b — 20°? Simplify the result by multiplying the first
products terms, (5a7)(3a), the outer terms, (5a*)(—2ab),
the inner terms, (ab)(3), and the last terms,
(ab)(—2ab). Add the products and simplify.

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-8: Simplify. 12. (3yz + 5z)(2x + 4y)

1. Cae eng ox oh) 13. (yz + 6xz)(2xz + ¥°)

(xz + xyz — 3x7? + y) + (Bz + 5xz — 2xyz + 4y) 14. (yelOz)\ (xy ez)
. (4ab + 722 + Bac — ab) + (3b + ab + ab — B) 15. (4y — 15x)(2yx + 6x)

» (6xy? — 5x’y + 3x + 4) + (8x? — 4xy* — 3x + 6) 16. (XZ SUZ XZ eZ)

(3xz — 4x? — 6yz — 1) — (1 + 6yz + 2x° + 3xy) 17. (7x°y — z)

» (5u2 + 30 — 6u + 11v) — (wv + 3uv — 2u + 11) 18. CoE Mark was given the expression
(3xz* + x)(yz — 2y) to simplify in standard
PF
8 = (xyz + 3xz — 10z + 1) + Aryz + 7xy + 32 + y)
DNNO
WO form. Review his work and correct the errors
he made, with an explanation as to what he
(Giyez TZ oy) — (yz? + 3x? + 4y + z) did wrong. Write the correct answer.
Exercises 9-17: Multiply and combine like terms. (3x2? + x)(yz — 2y)
9. (xy + yy
—2) Bxifz> xyz lyn OXY
10. (2x + yx
— 2y) Bayz" + xyz — 2yx
11. (2xy — z)(x°z + y’)

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials 137

LE Gente ©)2 Cuceteee RS ag Ce ee ee

3.2 Dividing Polynomials

Long Division of Polynomials
In this section, we divide polynomials using long division. It parallels the method
used with the long division of numbers, and many of us use calculators these days
instead of long division, so we provide a quick overview of the process.

MODEL PROBLEM
Divide 288 by 12.
SOLUTION
Divide 12 into 28 12)288 Start by dividing 12 into 28, the first two digits of 288.

Multiply divisor by 2 We can divide 12 into 28 twice, since 2 times 12 is 24. Write 24
partial quotient 12)288 under 28.
24

Subtract Z Subtract 24 from 28. The result is 4, which is smaller than 12.
12)288 Bring down the next digit, the second 8, to create a new
—94 number, 48 (which happens to be divisible by 12 in this example).
48

Repeat 24 Now, repeat. Dividing 48 by 12, the result is 4, this time with
12)288 no remainder. Write 48 under 48 and subtract. The result is 0 of
Eon course, since there is no remainder.
48
48
0

The same process is applied in polynomial division, where you start with the
leading term, the one with the greatest power. This means you should also write
the polynomials in standard form.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Pe Divide2: Fox + 3 bya 1
When a fraction has a
SOLUTION piace
polynomial in its numerator
Dividex+1linto x+1)2x7+5x+3 Write the problem or denominator, it is called a
2x? + 5x +3 in the long division rational expression, which is a
format. topic in chapter 4.

Model Problems continue...

138 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Divide leading a Start by dividing the leading terms, x divided into 2x’, and
terms x +1)2x?+5x+3 write the quotient 2x above the division bar.

Multiply divisor 2x Multiply x + 1 by 2x to get 2x* + 2x.

by partial quotient x + 1)2x7+5x +3 : i
2x? + 2x

Subtract 2x Next subtract like terms to get 3v.

x + 1)2x?
+5x +3
— (2x? + 2x)
ox

Repeat 2x +3 Bring down the 3, then divide the leading terms, x divided
x + 1)2x7+5x +3 into 3x, to get 3. Multiply x + 1 by 3 to get 3x + 3. Subtract,
—(2x* + 2x) and get a remainder of 0. With a remainder of 0, we are
3x +3 done. This completes the long division.
SOMERS)
0
2.) Dividex —1 by x— 1. Remember to insert terms with
SOLUTION zero as coefficients for “missing”
powers, such as the Ox? term in
Divide x Use 0 asa placeholder our ora
x — 1)x? + Ox? + Ox —1 for terms not present in " i _ —
the oe. Start by dividing theleedineree ferms. Bayle x
into x° and write the quotient x” above the division bar.

Multiply x
aie 7 OeOr =1 Multiply x — 1 by x*. Write the product below the terms with
the same degree. You can see why the 0 terms help.

a e+ 00-1
by partial —(x3 — x2)
Subtract these terms, then bring down the next terms.

subtract

Repeat are atthe 2

untisbivibylerenom
2Ord
done ~(x3 — x2)

x Ox = 1
—(x* — x) Divide the leading terms. Divide x into x’ to get x. Then
multiply x — 1 by x, and subtract.
je aed
epernl), Divide x into x to get 1. Then multiply x — 1 by 1. Subtract,
0 and get a remainder of 0.

Model Problems continue...

3.2 Dividing Polynomials 139

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

S..Divide2x7 = 512+ 5iby. g—:

SOLUTION

Divide leading ox” Start by dividing the leading terms. Divide 2x° by
terms, multiply x — 5)2x° + 0x? — 51x +5 x and write the quotient 2x” above the division bar.
divisor by — (2x? — 10x”) Multiply x — 5 by 2x”. The first term is 2x. This is
partial quotient, 10 Sie
then subtract
written below the 2x° term of the dividend. Next
multiply —5 by 2x’ and write that product below
the Ox? term.
Subtract and bring down —51x.

Repeat an ee The division is continued by dividing the

peel leading terms, multiplying, and subtracting. The
= (2%7.= 1077) remainder is 0, which means the polynomial
divides evenly.
10x? — 51x
— (10x? — 50x)
ere
= (to)
0

PRACTICE
1. (UGE if 2x7 + 2x — 8 is the quotient when » (9x7 + 42x + 49) + (3x + 7)
x + 3 divides P(x), which of the following is
» (x4+ 18x? + 116x? + 312x + 288) + (x + 6)
the quotient when 2x + 6 divides P(x)?
Ae ae 4
11. (x4 + 18x? + 119x? + 342x + 360) = (x + 6)
[Bhs Pata Ors 12. (x* + 18x? + 71x? — 258x — 1512) + (x — 4)
C. 47+ 4x — 16 13. (x*+ 15x? + 33x? — 371x — 1470) + (x — 5)
D. There is not enough information
14. (36x? — 36) + (6x + 6)
. IMP 7| Which of the following could be the . (16x? — 81) + (4x + 9)
value of k if x — 2 divides 3x° + kx* — kx — 2
evenly, with a zero remainder? 16. Use long division to factor
x° + 8x* + 5x — 14. The polynomial
oe tO
has a factor of x — 1.
be =5 Fell
Exercises 3-15: Divide. 17. [ERE] Suppose ax + b evenly divides
the polynomial P(x). Explain how to find a
3. (x2+ 7x + 12) + (x + 3) solution to the equation P(x) = 0.
4. (x2 + 14x + 48) + (x + 6) 18. If d(P) is the degree of a polynomial P,
5. (x? — 11x + 28) + (x — 7) write an equation that relates d(Divisor),
d(Dividend), and d(Quotient).
6. (x2— 15x + 50) = (x — 10)
19. id Write a 4th-degree polynomial in
7. (x? — 14x + 33) + (x - 11) standard form ax* + bx? + cx* + dx + e that
8. (20x? + 64x + 48) + (5x + 6) divides by x + 9 evenly (with a remainder
of 0).
Practice Problems continue . .
140 Chapter 3: Polynomials
Practice Problems continued ...

20. oe a Seas that 2x + 5 will be a factor of 22. A rectangle has an area A of

a ee 5x5 — 19x! — 36x? + 36x? — 39x + 45 and
21. Ifx — 1isa factor of x! + Ky — Bena a length L of x — 5. What is the width of
the value of k? the rectangle?

"a |

iE

Long Division of Polynomials with Remainder

The remainder can be expressed as a fraction, such as . It is the remainder
divided by the divisor. 2x +1

MODEL PROBLEMS
@ (TEFF Divide 2x° 4 5x by 2x = 1.
SOLUTION .
Divide until roe This is the result of the first two steps in the long
degree of Ox + 1)2x2 + 5x division. The quotient is x + 2.
remainder —(2x2 + x) as ;
less than a2 +0 Here, the division has a
degree of . : ] remainder that is not 0.
divisor —(4x+2) — There is no like term } Wren the degree of the
remainder —2 for 2, so add a 0 to remaining terms is less than |
subtract from. the degree of the divisor, the |
Subtract, and get a divisionprocess stops. |
remainder of —2. The beens EE SNS
degree of this constant is50, which is less than the oe,
of the divisor 2x + 1, which is 1. This completes the long
division.

Remainder 2° + 5x 2 We can write the result of the division using a rational

is rational Oe ei expression to represent the remainder. The numerator is
expression the remainder, —2, and the denominator is the divisor,
2x + 1. Another way to write the result of the division
would be (2x + 1)(x + 2) —

2. Jan divides a quadratic polynomial using long division with a divisor of x — a. Which remainder
indicates that x — a is a factor of the polynomial?
Ae Cru
Baa DZ
SOLUTION
A. Any remainder means that x — a is not a factor.
B. Again, any remainder means the x — a is not a factor.
C. Correct answer. When performing long division, a remainder of 0 indicates that the divisor is a
factor of the dividend.
. Any remainder meaas that x — a is not a factor.

3.2 Dividing Polynomials 141

Synthetic Division
Synthetic division provides an efficient way to divide polynomials. It can be used
when the divisor is of the form x — c, such as x — 5. To introduce the concept of
synthetic division, we show how to divide 2x° — 51x + 5 by x — 5 using both
synthetic and long division. This model problem is intended to give you a sense of
how synthetic division works.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Use synthetic division and long division to divide 2x° — 51x + 5 by x — 5. Are the answers
the same?
SOLUTION
Synthetic Division
Use additive 5
The synthetic divisor is 5, the opposite of the
inverse of 5 constant term in the binomial divisor.
constant term as
synthetic divisor

Write coefficients 2x + 0x7 =51x4+5 Write the coefficients of the polynomial dividend
of dividend Ne aE to represent the synthetic dividend. Remember
pathutiedortol 5 to put in zero as a placeholder for any power of x
not present in the polynomial dividend.

Bring down first Bring down the first coefficient, 2.

coefficient 5 ; Vemma 20?

Multiply Multiply the first coefficient, 2, by the synthetic

synthetic divisor 5 Sensis a bine divisor, 5, to get 10.
by first term in al
quotient Eager Oe

Add Add the result to the next coefficient, 0, to get

Boned 08 519.45 0+ 10 = 10.
1) nee
Ze 10
Model Problems continue...

142 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Multiply | 6 51 Repeat the process, multiplying the synthetic

synthetic divisor - divisor by 10 to get 50 and add it to —51 to get
by second term in 10 50 rd.
quotient +5a aera

Multiply ia » 9 os, 5 Multiply the synthetic divisor by the third term

synthetic divisor 3 in the quotient, —1, to get —5. Add that to 5 and
by third term in 10 50 -5 get 0.
quotient eeaeareata

Note that this

Terms are Gl 9 All the terms in the bottom eeaoa
coefficients of eae row, except the last one, are ae are linear
dividend and 104, 50ee—5 the coefficients of the polynomials
remainder a a eee dividend. The last term, 0, is with a leading
OS Tr the remainder. ‘iiaefirst coefficient of 1,
2x? + 10x — 1, remainder 0 Dee 2, is the coefficient as inx — 5.
of x*; 10 is the coefficient of x; _eenneenenne
and —1 is the constant term in the quotient.
(The highest power of x in the quotient is one
less than the highest power of the dividend.)
Long Division

Divide using long Cg eget Divide the leading terms, multiply,

division x — 5)2x3 + Ox? — 51x +5 subtract, and repeat. Both synthetic
— (2x? — 10x?) division and long division produce
10x? — 51x the same expression.
She 0)
eee i
= eteac))
0
Model Problems continue...

3.2 Dividing Polynomials 143

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Divide 4x* + 11x? — 19x* + x — 14 by x + 4 using synthetic division.

SOLUTION
Additive inverse is 4x* + 11x° — 19x? + x -14 The divisor is x + 4, so use the
synthetic divisor; i | additive inverse of +4, which is —4,
write coefficients of —4| Agvet -19'. 1 =14 as the synthetic divisor. State the
dividend coefficients of the dividend.

Multiply synthetic Bring down the first coefficient, 4.

divisor by first term in See tipsy: 114 Multiply 4 by —4, get —16, and add
quotient ap —16 that to 11 to get —5.
4 -5

Multiply synthetic Multiply —5 by —4 to get 20. Add

divisor by second term =| ce aa alata ha that to —19 to get 1.
in quotient 1620
SS
4 -+5 1

Multiply synthetic Multiply 1 by —4 to get —4, add that

divisor by third term Sslae ee eli to 1, and get —3.
in quotient =O 20, 4

Multiply synthetic Multiply —3 by —4 to get 12, and

divisor by fourth term A) Ee ae add that to —14 to get —2.
in quotient =16%820.°=4) 92

Remember the first

Terms are coefficients All the term of the quotient
of dividend and -4| 4 11 -19 1 -14 terms but must be ai degree
eee io) 20) 24) 1 the last lower than the dividend.

An 5 1 =3) +2 coefficients, and the last term is the

remainder.
4x° — 5x? + x —3, remainder —2

Model Problems continue...

144 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Divide 3x* + 10x° + 5 by x + 3 using synthetic division.

SOLUTION

Additive inverse is 3x*+ 10x? + Ox? + 0x +5 The divisor is x + 3, so use the

synthetic divisor; +r Hiqdudbrakes additive inverse of +3, which is —3,
write coefficients of
dividend
=3| 5 10: =o Ort as the synthetic divisor. State the
coefficients of the dividend. Note
that there are two 0’s, since 0 is the
coefficient of the x? and x-terms.

Multiply synthetic Bring down the first coefficient in the

divisor by first term divisor, 3. Multiply —3 by 3, get —9,
in quotient and add that to 10 to get 1.

Multiply synthetic Multiply —3 by 1 to get —3. Add that

divisor by second to'0'to' get —3:
term in quotient 9 3
a
3 1 -3

Multiply synthetic Multiply —3 by —3 to get 9, add that to

divisor by third term 0, and get 9.
in quotient

Multiply synthetic Multiply —3 by 9 to get —27, and add

divisor by fourth thatto to geh—22.
term in quotient

Terms are coefficients All the terms but the last are
of dividend and |e: S10 SPIO e75 coefficients, and the last term is the
remainder Kg WOEGRT 49407 remainder.

S it Te-32 9 = 22
3x3 + x? — 3x + 9, remainder —22

3.2 Dividing Polynomials 145

Dividing Expressions Using a Computer
Algebra System
A computer algebra system is a software program that solves algebra problems.
These tools can also solve more complex mathematical problems and are used by
engineers and scientists around the world.
Below is a computer algebra system showing the input and output for dividing
two polynomials: 8x’ — 24x° + 38x° + 44x° — 60x? + 90x — 40 divided by
Ax? + 3x° — x? + 7x — 5. It shows first the quotient as Out[1] and the remainder
as Out[2]. The remainder can be written as a rational expression, the remainder
divided by the divisor. All it takes is a few brief commands, and the program does
the polynomial long division that would take a good amount of time to do by
hand.

In{ij]:= PolynomialQuotient[
8x*7-24x%*6+38x%*5+44x%*3-60x*2+90x-40, 4x*5+3x*3-x*%2+7x-5, x]

Out{1]= 8-6x+2x?

In(2]:= PolynomialRemainder[
8x*7-24x%*%6+38x%*5+44x*%3-60x*%2+90x-40, 4x*5+3x*%3-x%2+7x-5, x]

Out(2J= 4x+20x*

PRACTICE
1. What is the remainder when x° + 8x? + 7x is 10. In the context of the division of polynomials,
divided by x + 6? what can you say about the degree of the
remainder compared to the degree of the
A. —546 erent)
divisor?
Be 30) D. 546
11. [VFA Dividing a polynomial by x - 1 gives
2. Which of the following polynomials has a x? + 8x + 1 with a remainder of 7. What is
remainder of 1 when divided by x + 2, this polynomial?
eo ani 5?
12. Dividing a polynomial by x — 1 gives
A. x°4+ 10x? + 31x + 29 x? + 4x + 1 with a remainder of 8. What is
B. x? + 10x*+ 31x + 30 this polynomial?
C. 2x°+ 10x*+ 31x + 31
Exercises 13-17: Use synthetic division.
D. None of the above
13. Divide 64° —3%a 40 — bbyx
Exercises 3-9: Find the remainder using long
division. 14. Divide =4%) —Sx44 2c 2 byoaaah.
3. (x7 + 14x + 42) + (x + 6) 15. Divide 2x° + 3x° = x° +x + 4byx 42.
» (x7+ 13x + 31) + (x + 9) 16. Divide —2x° + 30x° — 140 by x + 4.
» (2+ 14x + 43) + (x + 9) 17. Divide =2x° 50% = 3 by x — 5.
» (x2+ 16x + 57) + (x + 9) 18. aed An important note for the synthetic
division algorithm requires that the
«(Xe 6X15) ee + A)
coefficient of the linear divisor is 1. How can
«-(x?-+ 10x + 32) + (« + 6) we modify the linear divisor ax + b so that
we can use synthetic division?
sb » (x7 + 8x + 23)
oanrnroea
o + (x
+4)
Practice Problems continue .. .

146 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Practice Problems continued . ..

19. From the synthetic division, write the 20.Cie Keith used the synthetic division
polynomials that would replace P. D, Q, and algorithm to divide the polynomial
R in the equation P = QD + R. expression 2x° — x? — 20x + 3 by the linear
divisor x + 3. His solution steps are shown
Pere. 5 3 ey, below:

6 3 18 P| oa 90 183
6 15 -15
2 1 Ga ait
Z Diy sO egal

DNL OON Te es
He concludes
XS
2x* + 5x — 5 with a remainder 12. Is his
solution correct? If not, explain.

LESSON 3.3 oman

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems

The Remainder Theorem
In other words, if you |
The remainder theorem states: evaluate a polynomial
P(x) forx = 5, the
For a polynomial P(x), the value P(c) equals the remainder when P(x) is result equals the
divided by x — c. remainder when the
same polynomial is
divided byx — 5. :

We prove the remainder theorem:

Divide P(x) byx —c | P(x) = Q(x): (x —c) + R(x) | Write the dividend, P(x), asa
product of the quotient, Q(x), times
the divisor, x — c, plus a remainder
polynomial R(x).
Degree of R(x) is less | P(x) = Q(x): (x —c) +R To be a remainder, R(x) must have a
than degree of x — c degree less than that of the divisor
x — c, which has degree 1. That
means the degree of R(x) is 0, so it is
a constant. Let R represent this
constant remainder, and we replace
R(x) with R.
Evaluate P(c) P(e) Qos) (eae) eta Substitute c for x to evaluate P(c). The
P(c) = Q(x) :0+R factor x — c becomes 0, and the result
P(c)=0+R is that P(c) equals the remainder R.
This proves the theorem.
P(c) =

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems 147

 MODEL PROBLEMS
& ied a Evaluate P(x) = 3x° — 13x? + 15x — 7 for x = 2.
b Calculate the remainder of 3x° — 13x* + 15x — 7 divided by x — 2 using synthetic
division.
SOLUTION
a Substitute P(x) = 3(2)? — 13(2)? + 15(2) -7 Substitute 2 for x and evaluate. When x = 2,
and evaluate P(x) = 24 — 52+ 30-7 the value of the polynomial is —5.
PX) = -5

6b Use 2 28 1. 4 Use synthetic division to divide. The

synthetic (a remainder is —5. This is the same value as
division to ee evaluating the function for x = 2. The value
calculate oe 7-7 1 5 of the polynomial for x = 2 is —5, which is the
remainder remainder when the polynomial is divided
by x = 2.

2. Evaluate P(x) = 5x* + 10x° — 7x + 1 for x = —2 using the remainder theorem.

en Remember, ifx =c |
Use With x = —2, the . isa zero, thenx —c |
synthetic | SS. divisor isx + 2,so the | ‘Sa factor.
division 10 0 O 14 synthetic divisor is.2 a rr nn
to find the Me ae oS The remainder is 15. This means the value of
remainder 5 0 Ole 2 the function is 15 when x = —2.

Check P(—2) = 5(—2)* + 10(—2)? — 7(—2) + 1 Check by evaluating the function for x = —2.
P(—2) = 80- 80+ 14+1 As the theorem states, the value of the function
P(-2) = 15 is the same as the remainder just calculated.

The Factor Theorem

The roots of a polynomial function are the values that make the function equal to 0.
The root (or zero) of f(x) = x — 2 is 2, since that value of x makes the function equal
0. It turns out there is a relationship between the roots of a polynomial function
and the factors of a function. We state this concept with
the factor theorem:
The factor theorem makes explicit the
A polynomial P(x) has x — r as a factor if and link between roots and factors. The factor
only if P(r) = 0. theorem follows from the remainder
theorem because whenever the remainder
is O, the divisor is a factor of a polynomial.
Exaiiples:m? |VX guylewe ft +43) cassette) «Setanta

e If P(3) = 0, then x — 3 isa factor of P(x). If the value of a polynomial function is 0 when x = 3,
then x — 3 isa factor of that polynomial.
e If x — 3isa factor of P(x), then P(3) = 0. The converse is also true. If x — 3 is a factor of the
polynomial P(x), then P(3) = 0.
e If P(4) #0, then x — 4 is nota factor of P(x). If a polynomial is not equal to 0 for the value 4, then
x — 4is nota factor of that polynomial.

148 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Find the roots of x? — 2x? — 15x = 0.
SOLUTION

Factor AW adiaee Otros) pt=A) To solve a polynomial equation,

such as x° — 2x* — 15x = 0, factor the
polynomial and then use the zero-
product property. First, factor the
polynomial on the left.
Zero-product x=O0Oorx+3=0O0orx-—5=0 Set each factor equal to 0 and solve for
property RL) x=-3 x=5 x. The solution to the first equation is
0; the solution to the second equation
is —3; and the solution to the third
equation is 5.
State solutions A Uo The solutions to the polynomial
equation are 0, —3, and 5.
Solutions are roots P(0) = 0° — 2(0)? — 15(0) = 0 The solutions to the equation
of polynomial P(—3) = (—3)3 — 2(-3)* — 15(-3) = 0 wis 2x alot Orarenite
P(6) = 5° — 2(5*) — 15(5) = 0 roots of the polynomial
PQ) =a 1 Ip you
substitute a solution into the
polynomial, the value of the
polynomial is 0.
Relationship of Since 5 is a root, x — 5 is a factor As our example demonstrates, if ris a
roots and factors root of the polynomial equation, then
x — ris a factor of the polynomial.

2. Use the factor theorem to determine if x — 4 is a factor of P(x) = x° — 3x7 -—x +5.
SOLUTION

Evaluate polynomial P(4) = 4)? —34% -—445 The factor theorem says that if
forx = 4 P(4) = 64-48 -4+5=17#0 x — risa factor, then the
x — 4is not a factor polynomial should equal 0 when
x =r. Here, r is 4, so evaluate the
function for x = 4. Since the result
is not 0, x — 4is not a factor.

3. Is x + 6 arfactoriof P(x) = 6x? + 31x* — 27x + 18?

SOLUTION -

Evaluate P(—6) = 6(—6)° + 31(—6)* — 27(—6) + 18 r is —6, so evaluate the function for
function for P(—6) = —1296 + 1116 + 162 + 18 =0 x = —6. Since the result equals 0,
x + 6is a factor.
BO x + 6 isa factor
Model Problems continue...

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems 149

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

4. State a polynomial equation that has solutions 3, 2, and —1.

SOLUTION
Apply factor (x — 3), (x — 2),(x« — (—1)) The factor theorem states that these three polynomials
theorem must be factors of the polynomial in the equation.
Multiply and (x — 3)(x — 2)(x +1) =0 Write a polynomial equation with the product of the factors
set equal to 0 8 — 42 +x+6=0 onthe left and 0 on the right. Restate the subtraction of a
negative number as addition in the third factor, and then
multiply. There are more possible solutions to this question.
If we multiplied the original polynomial by a constant such
as 4, the equation would have the same solutions.

If a number is a solution, such as —3 in

model problem 5, then it can be used as
5. Solve the equation x° + 7x? + 16x + 12 = 0. the synthetic divisor to help factor the :
polynomial completely. Why? We can restate |
One solution is —3.
X = -—3 asx + 3 = O, withx + 3 a factor
SOLUTION of the equation. The opposite of 3 is the
; , synthetic divisor, which means —3 is the
use 3) 1 te pLO-- 12 Since —3 is a | synthetic divisor.
synthetic freatilaaiys tps SOL UTELOT SWC re
division use —3 as the synthetic divisor. Use synthetic division.
1 4 4 0 Since the final term is 0, there is no remainder, which
confirms that x + 3 is a factor.

State (x + 3)(x? + 4x + 4) =0 Use the quotient coefficients from the synthetic division
quotient (x + 3)(x + 2)? =0 to factor the polynomial as the product of x + 3 anda
and factor quadratic polynomial. Factor the quadratic as a perfect
square.
State Ke 3,2 Setting each factor equal to 0, state the solutions.
solutions

PRACTICE
1. Isx + 2a factor of P(x) = —3x? + 4x — 16? 4. What is the remainder when
aes fx), bx? 4? — 12 —15 is divided
by. xi 22
B. No
C. Not enough information to tell A, —17 CY
Bera De-%S2
2. Is x — 4a factor of P(x) = 5x* — 12x? — 128x?
Exercises 5-12: Use the remainder theorem to
INES state the remainder.
B. No
5. (x* + 10x + 5) + (x + 2)
C. Not enough information to tell
Seid Pri tee!
3. Which of the following is a factor of 6. (20° — Sx" + 3x — 1) + (x — 3)
Ax) = on een 187 802 7. (44 = 29° — 52x7— 15x) + (x
=4)
As 344-2 Ch == '8 8. (x° + x64 2° + 1) + (+3)
Bae 8 D. x +80
9. (ox 44x Bex Oe + x) = (x1)
Practice Problems continue...

150 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Practice Problems continued ...
10. (=29? = xP + 2x? + 4x + 8) + (x — 2) Exercises 27-30: State a polynomial that has the
roots given and 1 as the leading coefficient.
ae ee aA): (x — 3)
27. Roots: 1,7,and —4
12. (2x* + x7 — 1) + (x — 2)
28. Roots: 3,4, and 5
13. Use synthetic division and the
remainder theorem to find P(—9) if 29;Roots)—7, —4,,and —3
P(x) = —x° — 8x* — 82x? — 11x — 11.
30. Roots: 2,3, and —3
14 Use synthetic division and the
Exercises 31-32: State the solutions to the
remainder theorem to find P(3) if
equation.
P(x) = —x® + 5x* — 2x + 10.
31. 7° +47°4+%x-6=0
15. Determine the remainder when
6x° — 3x + 20 is divided by x + 5 by 32. 3x° — 8x7 —5x +6=0
applying the remainder theorem (in
other words, do not use long or synthetic 33. ox You are told that the function
division). P(x) = x° + 10x? + 29x + 20 has three real
roots and are asked to factor it.
16. Determine the remainder when a What coefficient or constant in the
—2x° + 42° + 8x? + x is divided by x + 3 polynomial will be most useful in
by applying the remainder theorem (in determining possible factors? Explain
other words, do not use long or synthetic your answer.
division).
b What can you conclude about the signs
Exercises 17-18: Determine whether the (positive or negative) of the roots of the
expressions are factors of the polynomial given function? Explain your answer.
function. c Based on your answers to parts a and
b, make a chart of all potential factors,
Jai + Bx 2x-— 3 expression.x + 1
and their corresponding roots, of the
18. f(x) = x° — 3x? — 24x — 28; expression x — 7 function.
d Choose one possible factor from your
19. For the expression x° — 7x — 6,ifx — 3isa list and determine if it is a factor of the
factor, what is P(3)? polynomial.
Exercises 20-24: State the other solutions to the
34. [TERRA Polly says the expression
equation. x + 3 isa factor of the function
20. x° + 9x?+ 6x — 56 = 0;x = 2is one root P(x) = x? — 11x* + 4x + 60 because when
she evaluated P(3), the result was 0. What
21. x° — 8x* + 11x + 20 = 0;x = —1 is one root mistake did Polly make?
22. x° — 4x* — 4x + 16 = 0; x = 4is one root 35. oe) Explain two different ways to
determine if the number 5 is a root of
23. One solution to x° + 4x7 — 19x + 14 = Ois 2. the polynomial P(x).
24. One solution to x° — 4x? — 37x + 40 = 0is 8.
Exercises 25-26: State a polynomial equation
for which the leading coefficient is 1, given the
solutions in each problem. Expand and simplify
the polynomial.
25. Solutions: —3, 4, and 1

26. Solutions: 5, —3, and —1

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems 151

 LESSON 3... sccmeeree ee

3.4 Solving Polynomial Equations Algebraically

Solving Cubic Equations
A polynomial equation where the highest value of a variable is a cube is called a
cubic equation. Although there is a formula for solving any cubic equation, it is
very complicated and we will not show it. However, some cubic equations can be
solved by factoring, as we show in the model problems.

MODEL PROBLEMS
es [dkd a Factor 2x? + 3x? — 2x = 0.
When the terms of
b Use the zero-product property to create equations, then
a cubic all have a
solve them.
common factor of x, |
SOLUTION solve the equation :
a Factoroutcommon x(2x*+ 3x —2)=0 The terms on the left side all / by factoring out the |
factor x have the common factor x. x and then factoring |
the remaining '
Factor resulting 2X 1a + 2) = 0 Factor the remaining polynomial or
quadratic quadratic polynomial. applying the

b Zero-product x = 0Oor The equation states that the product of oe Sabla on

property 2x-—1=0O0or _ three factors is equal to 0. Use the zero-product property to
vi = 0 solve the equation, by setting each of the three factors equal to 0.

Solve first x0 The first equation already states that x is 0.

equation
Solvesecond 2x — 1=0 To solve the second equation, add 1 to each side and divide by 2.
equation ox =1 The solution to the second
1 oc Agonic i You might think that
Ce 2 ‘ 2. | a faster way to solve
2x? + 3x? — 2x = Ois
Solve third x+2=0 The solution to the third by dividing both sides

equation Le equation is —2. by x first. If you did this,

Solutions 426 2 The cubic equation has you would then miss one
OM of the solutions,x = 0. [|
three solutions: 0, = and —2.

2. Solve 2x7(x + 1) = 6x.

SOLUTION
Multiply 2x° + 2x? = 6x To start, multiply out the left side.
Standard 2x° + 2x°-6x=0 Then subtract 6x from both sides, leaving 0 on the right.
form
Factor 2x(x7 +x -3)=0 Factor out the common factor, 2x. What remains is a quadratic
trinomial, which cannot be factored.
Zero-product 2x =Oor Apply the zero-product property, by setting each factor equal to
property e+x—-3=0 0. The result is two equations, one linear and one quadratic.
Model Problems continue...

152 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Solve first 2x = 0 The solution to the linear equation is 0.

equation x=0
rite al
N/16 = ae)
Solve second x=St Vi G38): Since the second equation cannot be factored, we use
equation 2-1 the quadratic formula instead.
x -1+V13
2

: —-1+V13 -1-VvV13
Solutions x= 0,Samer aie aWe ea The cubic equation has three solutions.

Solving Quartic Equations

A polynomial equation where the highest power of the variable is four is a quartic
equation. As with cubic equations, there is a general formula for solving quartic
equations, but it is even more complicated than the very complicated formula for cubic
equations.
Some quartic equations can be solved by reducing them to quadratic equations, and
solving them as you would any quadratic equation. This approach is worth trying
when the quartic equation does not contain terms to the third or first powers (x° or x).
By substituting y for x* temporarily, the equation can be treated as a quadratic equation
in y. This approach works when the x is raised to powers where one is double the other.

MODEL PROBLEM
(iG a Write in standard form and factor x* — 3x? = 4.
b Solve the equation using the zero-product property.
SOLUTION
a Write instandard form _ x* — 3x2 4=0 Subtract 4 from each side of the equation.
Replace x? with y | y’ — 3y -4=0 Substitute x? = y, so x* = y’. The result isa
quadratic equation in y.
Factor polynomial in y (y + 1)(y — 4) =0 Factor quadratic equation in y.
Put x? back in place of y (x? + 1)(x* — 4) =0 Now that the polynomial in y has been
2 factored, put x* back in place of y.
_ Factoragain ~ (x? + 1)(x — 2)(x + 2) =0 Factor the difference of squares.

b Zero-product +1=00rx—2=0 Seteach factor equal to 0 separately.

property ory + 2-0
Solve first -+1=0 There is no real number that solves the first
equation = -1 equation. Remember that the square root of —1 is —
~2Li equal to 1.

Solve secondand x-2=0 x+2=0 _ Solve for x in the second and third equations.
third equations x= 2 y= 2

Solutions L128 The only real-number solutions are 2 and —2. The
imaginary solutions are —1 and 1.

3.4 Solving Polynomial Equations Algebraically 153

PRACTICE
Exercises 1—24: Solve. 24. (x? — 2x)2 — 3x2 + 6x = 4
p2 5x? + 37x? + 42x =0 25. [We Med Solve x* — x? + ax + 16 = Oif
one of the solutions of the equation is equal
- 5x? + 47x? + 84x = 0 to —4.
» 8x° — 46x7 + 63x =0 26. Solve x* + x° — 4x? + x + 1 = 0 by dividing
15x? — 70x? + 80x = 0 both sides by x’, and letting y = x + ra
. 3x° + 13x? + 3x =0 Exercises 27-29: Justify each answer.
~ 40° + 9x? + 5x =0 27. If mis a solution to the equation
7. 3° 4 Te + 3x = 0 ax* + bx* + c = 0, then explain why
—m is also a solution to that equation.
8. 6x° — 7x? + 2x =0
28. Cie If m is a nonzero solution to the
9. 4x° — 8x* + 3x =0 equation ax* + bx? + cx* + bx + a = 0, then
10. 5x? — 8x2 + 3x =0 explain why a is also a solution to that
11. x* = 20x? = 125 equation.
420° = 5x* = 36
29.(ied Explain why the equation
Bae Ox = 112 2x* + 3x2 + 1 = Ohas no real solutions.
14. x* — 3x7 = 54 30. [EAA The sum of the squares of a
15 932 = 468 positive number and its reciprocal is equal
to a Find the number.
16. x* — 27x” = 324
31. The solutions to the equation
age 145° = 275 x4 + bx? + c = Oare 2 and 2V2. Write the
18. x* — 40x* = 441 equation with possible values of b and c
(there is more than one possible answer).
1905 — ox = —250x
32. MP 1, 2| The product of 4 consecutive
20. 3x° — 48x° = —180x
positive integers is equal to the difference
21. 5x° — 45x° = —70x between 10 times the product of the
smallest and the greatest of them and 16.
22. 3x° — 27x° = —54x
Find the smallest of these integers. Hint:
23. [IGM
x + 9° + 8=0 Combine the first and the last terms in the
product and substitute with a new variable.

LESSON 3.5 nematic

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions

In this section, we focus on the graphs of cubic polynomials, such as
P(x) = x° — 2x* — 6x + 6, and quartic polynomials, such as P(x) = 5x* — 3x? + 1.
The domains of these functions are the set of real numbers. The graphs of these
functions are continuous—they have no gaps—and like the graphs of all functions,
they pass the vertical line test.
The graphs of cubic and quartic functions are curves, not straight lines.
Polynomials of the first degree (linear equations), P(x) = ax + b, have
straight-line graphs. Polynomials of the second degree (quadratic equations),
P(x) = ax* + bx + c, have parabolic graphs. The graphs of higher-degree polynomials
have more complicated shapes.
154 Chapter 3: Polynomials
Graphing Polynomial Functions by Plotting Points
To graph and analyze a polynomial function by plotting points:

1. Graph by plotting points. y

A polynomial function, such as P(x) = x° — 2x? — 5x + 6, canbe

graphed by plotting points. Calculate some points, plot them, and draw
a curve through them.
2. Identify x-intercepts. The x-intercepts are at —2, 1, and 3. The x-intercepts of the graph are
the real zeros of the polynomial, since at these locations the value of the
function is 0. We can use graphs to approximate zeros. When the graph
crosses the x-axis, the value of the function must change from positive
to negative, or vice versa.
3. Describe end behavior. As x goes toward negative infinity, y also goes toward negative infinity.
As x goes toward positive infinity, y also goes toward positive infinity.

The polynomial above has three distinct real zeros because it intersects the x-axis
at three points. Cubic equations are not required to have three real roots. If the
graph above intersected the x-axis once, the polynomial would have only one real
zero, and if it intersected the x-axis twice, it would have two real zeros.

In this activity, graph polynomial functions to calculate roots.

1 Segncen
|resem ae
Be ——}—[?]
(ns |ec |
Oe een|
ee On|
Scaling

0.1 0.5 1

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 155

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Determine the number of real zeros of each quartic poynomial. Quartic equations
can have up to four
Graph A Graph C 4 real zeros.
y

GraphB { Graph D
¥

SOLUTION
Graph A One real zero. The number of x-intercepts of the graph of a polynomial equals the number
of distinct real zeros of the polynomial. Graph A has one x-intercept, so the polynomial has
one real zero.
Graph B Two real zeros. Since Graph B has two x-intercepts, the polynomial has two distinct real
zeros.
Graph C Three real zeros. Graph C intersects the x-axis three times, so it has three real zeros.
Graph D Four real zeros. Graph D crosses the x-axis four times, so it has four real zeros.
P(x)
2. Find the positive real zeros of P(x) =x° +27 -2x-2. 0 | “TAL

SOLUTION

aa i Ol
megannaecerewnee [Tog vaten aa
and use them to determine the next noting. when Mess
trials. values cause the
value of the function |
'

“1232
oo When it changes sign, we have found to change sign is
two points between which the graph one way to estimate |
—0.713 must pass through the x-axis. The graph zeros.
crosses the x-axis between 1 and 2.

Employ the same idea with the tenths, and find that the value of
the function changes sign between 1.4 and 1.5, and closer to 1.4.
The process above could be continued, with values between 1.4
and 1.5 evaluated to determine the root to the nearest hundredth.
The estimate above is close, and shows both the benefits and limits
of estimation.
Model Problems continue...

156 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

4.)
CLE Graph A and Graph B both represent the polynomial function P(x) = x° + 15x* + x + 15.
They are viewed through different windows, showing different ranges and domains. Explain
how the Graph B view changes one’s view of the nature of the function’s graph.
Graph A Graph B
y y

SOLUTION
Graph A displays the function from —5 to 5, while Graph B displays the function from —30 to 30.
Graph Alooks like a parabola and seems to have no zeros (since it does not cross the x-axis).
In Graph B, we showalarger domain of the same function and see a different shape for the
graph. We see a zero where the graph crosses the x-axis at —15. It also seems like there might be
a zero near x = 0. x = Ois not a zero of the polynomial since P(0) = 15. It can be shown that the
polynomial’s relative minimum near x = 0 is at x ~ —0.03345, and the value of the polynomial
there is P(—0.03345) ~ 14.98. Graph A shows the region near x = 0 in more detail and indicates that
the relative minimum is above the x-axis.
We also get a more accurate view of the end behavior of the graph to the left of the origin in
Graph B; it will become increasingly negative as x becomes more negative, since the cube term will
be negative, and it will dominate the output.

Graphing Calculator: Graphing Polynomial Functions

We use a calculator to analyze y = 4x° — 41x* — 551x — 260. In Graphing a polynomial
addition to finding its Zeros and describing end behavior, we also fincHGnan boctear|
analyze the function for its relative minimums and maximums. way to determine its zeros,
Relative minimums and maximums are low and high points on a even when the sorocara
section of the graph. irrational. This is particularly
true in the era of graphing
1. Enter function. Press [Y=] to get to the OTE quests 2-55 calculators, which can
equation entry screen, and type the above a 268 quickly produce a graph of a
polynomial into a Y variable line. polynomial.

Directions continue...

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 157

Directions continued .. .
2. Graph the function. To graph, press 6:ZStandard, |lJTHDOW
and graph the function using the graphing window tae
of —20 < x < 20 and —8000 < y < 4500.

3. Find the intercepts. Press TRACE] 2:Zero. Use the [«] and [>] keys to
move the cursor to the left and right of each x-intercept. Press [ENTER]. Move
the cursor so it is close to the same x-intercept and press [ENTER].

4. Finding the relative minimums. Press 3:Minimum to find the

relative minimum of the polynomial. Use the [4] and [>] keys to move the
cursor so it is to the left and right of each relative minimum. Press [ENTER].
Use the [4] and [>] keys to move the cursor close to the relative minimum.
Press [ENTER].
H=11.005491 [Y= -SS58.005

5. Finding the relative maximums. Press 4:Maximum to find the

relative maximum of the polynomial. Use the [4 and [>] keys to move the
cursor to the left and right of each relative maximum. Press [ENTER]. Use the
(<] and [>] keys to move the cursor close to the relative maximum. Press [ENTER].

MODEL PROBLEM
Cie Now that we have graphed the function
y = 4° — 41x* — 551x — 260 ona graphing calculator, complete an
analysis based on the end behavior, x- and y-intercepts, domain and
range, relative minimum and maximum, and the intervals the function
increases and decreases. (We show one image of the graphed function to
the right, but you should graph it on your own to complete your Haximum
he ~4irei 61 1¥%=1034.6787
analysis or use the images above.)
SOLUTION
End behavior: As x goes toward negative infinity, y also goes toward negative infinity. As x goes
toward positive infinity, y also goes toward positive infinity.
x-intercepts (zeros): x ~ —7.33, x ~ —0.49, x ~ 18.07
Domain and range: All real numbers
y-intercept: —260
Relative minimum: x ~ 11 and y ~ —5958
Relative maximum: x ~ —4.17 and y ~ 1034.68
Increases on about x > 11 and x = —4.17
Decreases on about —4.17 =x = 11

158 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Graphing Polynomial Functions Using Zeros
Another way to get an accurate view of a polynomial exists if you can calculate y

its zeros. We use P(x)= 3x° — 12x as an example. Factor the expression to get (50 rte
(3x)(x* — 4). Recognize the second factor as a difference of squares, (x + 2)(x — 2). P(x)= ox = 12 a
Using the zero-product property, the roots are 0, 2, and —2. Plot those 3 points,
some adjacent points and the points in between, to arrive at the graph to the right.
Considering the structure of the function, we would expect the function output to
become increasingly negative as x becomes more negative, since the cubed term
will dominate the output. For instance, if we substitute for x = —1000 into the two
parts of the function, 3x° > 3(—1000)’ is far greater than 12x > 12(—1000). And as —
x becomes more positive, the output will become more positive, if we use similar |
analysis. So the directions of the endpoints in the graph will be maintained.

MODEL PROBLEM
(CLF Graph f(x) = —(x* + 2x + 1)(x* + 9) and analyze the end behavior of the function.
SOLUTION
Analyze f(x) = —(x* + 2x + 1)(x? + 9) Analyze the structure of the expression. It
structure = —(x* + 9x7 + 2x9 + 18x + x7 +9) isa quartic expression (multiplying the two
of = (x4 + 2x3 + 10x? + 18x + 9) x? expressions will yield x*). Then factor the
expression expression.

Factor = —(x + 1)(x + 1) + 9) Factor the expression. The expression

(x? + 2x + 1) is a perfect square.
Use zero- 5 Using the zero-product property for the
peda eo et first two factors, we obtain from each
property -x-—1=0 x= a1 x= -9 that —1 is a zero. The third factor does
Ga a4 x = —3i, 3; not contribute real zeros. Veile the
zero-product property, x° = —9, and no
real number when squared equals —9.
Analyze ee yee We consider the appearance of the graph at its
end endpoints: the leading term is —x*, and as x
behavior becomes increasingly positive or negative, that
ae term will become more negative. So we would
Hay expect the endpoints to point down as we
= move from the origin.

Graph When we graph the function from x = —3 to x = 3,

we get a graph that meets our description.

S20 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 159

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
The fundamental theorem of algebra states:

Every single-variable polynomial function of degree n = 1 has at least one Remember, the
zero in the set of complex numbers. set of complex
numbers includes |
This theorem says that a function like P(x) = x* + 2x + 1 has at least one complex | real numbers. :
zero. The function has one zero at —1 since P(—1) = (—1)* + 2(-1) + 1 = | For instance, the
Le a. number —1is a
complex number
The fundamental theorem can be shown to be true for a general degree-two
polynomial, P(x) = ax* + bx = c,a # 0, by considering the quadratic formula, (~1 +0).
Apis Ape eae Similarly, the
x = ———_———__.. The formula shows that there are two zeros when the | number 3/ is
bol aes Ane a 2 eaten! complex (0 + 3)).
discriminant, b“ — 4ac, does not equal zero and one zero when the discriminant
equals zero. But in no case does it lack zeros altogether.

Linear Factorization Theorem

The linear factorization theorem states even more information than the
fundamental theorem of algebra:
In other words,
A polynomial of degree n = 1 has n complex zeros. A zero that occurs k
the number of
times counts as k zeros.
zeros = degree
of polynomial.
For example, P(x) = 3x° + 30x? + 75x will have 3 zeros since the degree of the
polynomial is 3 (its leading term has a power of three). It turns out that it has three
zeros (0, —5, and —5), which means (x — 0), (x + 5), and (x + 5) are factors. Note
that —5 appears twice as a zero. A zero that appears k times has a multiplicity of k.
The zero —5 has a multiplicity of 2, and the zero 0 has a multiplicity of 1.
We provide a table below of some polynomials, their degrees, and zeros. We also
show the factors of the polynomial. Each zero corresponds to a linear factor of the
form x — r, where r is a number in the form a + bi.

2
3
ete te as os|Pe Say

160 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 MODEL PROBLEM

Thx Consider the polynomial P(x)= Ax” + Bx. Which statement best describes the
polynomial P(x)?
A. The polynomial has 2 zeros because there are two terms, Ax” and Bx.
B. The polynomial has m factors because the degree of the polynomial is m.
C. The polynomial has degree A because the leading coefficient is A.
D. The polynomial’s graph can cross the x-axis a maximum of (A + B) times.
SOLUTION
A. The number of terms does not determine the number of zeros in a polynomial.
B. Correct answer. The linear factorization theorem states that the degree of the ee
indicates the number of zeros, which is the same as the number of factors.
C. The leading coefficient does not indicate the degree of the polynomial.
The graph can cross a maximum of m times because the degree of the polynomial is m.

Summary of Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions

You now have several ways to think about polynomials and their factors, solutions,
zeros, and x-intercepts. We provide a summary below of the tools that you have to
determine the zeros of a polynomial function.

Factors and x7+3x+2=0 Pactorr ox

zero-product property (eet 2) + 1) = 0 Use the zero-product
property to find that
(x
+ 2) =
the solutions are —2
(x +1)= and —1. We could
Solutions are —2, —1 also think of this as
an application of the
factor theorem.

Zeros follow from Factors: (4 —_1(— 2) |x (=) Use the factor

factor theorem Lesos.are —2) —1 theorem to say that
if (x — r) is a factor,
then r is a zero of the
polynomial.
x-intercepts are solutions Graph the polynomial
and its x-intercepts;
the zeros of the
function are where it
crosses the x-axis.

Linear factorization POH tone 2 The linear

theorem factorization theorem
Must have 2 zeros
tells us how many
zeros a polynomial
has.

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 161

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following statements best 4. The graph of a polynomial function never
describes the zeros of the quartic polynomial passes through the x-axis but passes through
function graphed? the y-axis once. How many real zeros does
it have?
5. The graph of a polynomial function passes
through the x-axis three times and the y-axis
once. How many real zeros does it have?
Exercises 6-9: Use each graph to determine the
number of real zeros of the function.
There are 4 real zeros.
There are 4 complex zeros.
a There are 3 real zeros and
1 complex zero.
D. There are 2 real zeros and
2 complex zeros.
2. Which of the following polynomial
functions does this graph best represent?

wes y aeggomnnnannonagen

: : oe

/-10-9 -8 -7-6 5 4-3-2-1, 2 34 °5-6.17 8 9 10

~-2

Desi 0 x aD
Bee (ayaa oe 42x al
Cfo. Por 2
Def) ==. 1 or 4
3. (YGF Mark analyzes a polynomial P(x) and
makes the following table of values.

::
Which of his statements is true about P(x)?
A. The polynomial has a zero at x = 3 and
4.
B. The polynomial has a zero between
x =3andx = 4.
C. The polynomial has factors x — 0.12 and
Neots 1.6;
D. The polynomial has at least 2
x-intercepts. Practice Problems continue...

162 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Practice Problems continued . . .

10. Use Meera of the polynomial function 14. Find the cubic polynomial with leading
f(x) = x° + x° — 3x — 3 to approximate its coefficient 1 that has the zeros shown in
real zeros, to the nearest tenth. the graph.

Exercises 11-13: Use iteration to determine the 15. Find the quartic polynomial with leading
real zeros, to the nearest tenth. coefficient 1 that has the zeros shown in the
41. P(x) = x'- 62-7 opiate
y

16. A student sees a graph of a cubic polynomial

that passes through the x-axis three times.
She then factors the polynomial and
concludes it has the factors x? + x + 1 and
x — 1. Can she be right? Why?
17. A polynomial whose graph is a straight line
can have how many real zeros? Give an
example for each answer you state.
18. A local maximum is the point where the
graph of a polynomial function reaches its
highest value within a restricted area
or domain. For the polynomial
P(x) = x3 + 8x? + 12x — 6, a local maximum
occurs between x = —5 and x = —4.
a_ Use iteration to find the coordinates of
the local maximum, to the nearest tenth.
b Graph the function for the domain
—6 =x = —2, and label the local
maximum.
Practice Problems continue .. .

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions 163

Practice Problems continued...

19. a_ Given the function y = x° + 6x? — 5x — 4, 29. f(x) = 2° 13 52x = 3 fromx ='-2 to
make a table of values of y for integer x=2
values of x in the domain —3 = x $3.
b_ Based on the values in your table,
30; fs) =x 2 or 4 Sirom x — —310
how many times will the graph of the x=3
function cross the x-axis in the given SL. fa) 20 Hl 16x? — "= 6 from
domain? x=—4tox=4
c Graph the function for the stated domain
and use it to check your answer to 32. f(x) = 4° + 4° — x = 1 from
x = —2 to
part b. x = 2.

20. (LE) Explain how to find a zero of the 33. What are the zeros of P(x) = x° + x° — 4x — 4?
polynomial function P(x) if you know
P(1) = —2 and P(2) = 5. 34. What are the zeros of P(x) = 2x° — 5x* — 2x + 5?
Round to the nearest tenth.
21. Write a polynomial that has no real zeros.
35. What are the zeros of P(x) = 2x° + 3x° — 11x — 6?
22. Eric says because the graph of a polynomial Round to the nearest tenth.
function crosses the x-axis three times, it has
three real zeros and must be a third-degree 36. Investigate the properties of the graphs of
polynomial. What mistake did Eric make in fifth-, sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-degree
his reasoning? polynomials. How are these graphs
related to those of third- and fourth-degree
Exercises 23-24: Find the real zeros of the polynomials?
polynomial, to the nearest tenth over the interval
given, using a calculator. 37. A quartic polynomial can have zero real
roots, and its graph will never cross
28F A) apo a eS from x = —3 the x-axis. Is this also true for a cubic
tox =3 polynomial? Explain your reasoning.
24 j= te 7 8 — 2 from. = =3 38. [YUP A third-degree polynomial has
tox =3 three real roots. The roots are consecutive
Exercises 25-32: Use a calculator to graph the odd integers, and their sum is three.
function and state its real zeros. a Find the roots, and write an equation for
the polynomial function with these roots
25 y= 2c x x 1 from x — —2 tox
=2
and a leading coefficient of 1.
26.40) = — el frome — —2 to x= 2 b Graph the polynomial function you wrote
in part a for the domain —2 =x = 4.
27. f(x) =x? + 3x7 — x —3 fromx = —4tox =4
28. fix) =x° — x*— 4x + 4fromx= —3 tox =3

164 Chapter 3: Polynomials

LESSON 3.6
PATA ee

3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs

René Descartes was a French philosopher, writer, scientist, and mathematicia
n.
He contributed a theorem about the number of zeros of a polynomial with
real
coefficients called Descartes’ rule of signs.
To illustrate the rule, consider the polynomial, P(x) = 3x5 — 2x3 — 2x2 + 7x — 5, in
standard form. You then count the number of times the sign changes from “plus”
to “minus,” or from “minus” to “plus.”
There are three variations in signs. The eZ 3 The number of variations
of sign between adjacent
first variation in sign is between the 3x5 — 2x3 — 2x2 + 7x —5 terms of P(x) is used in
positive sign for the first term and the
minus sign for the second term. There is no variation between the second ———=Descartes’ rule.
and third terms, since they are both subtracted. There is a change between
the
third and fourth terms because the third term is subtracted, and the fourth term
is added. And again between the fourth and fifth terms there is a change in sign.
Note that there is a “missing” term, that there is no term to the fourth power. This
is fine. You just skip any terms that are not present.
Descartes’ rule also requires us to consider the variations in sign for the polynomial
P(—x).
Calculating variations in sign for P(—x) given P(x):

1. Substitute P(x) = 3x° — 2x3 — 2x? + 7x — 5 Replace x with —x and simplify.

—x for x and AO SILC) SS Aah Zens WEL eines Rwy In this example, we use
simplify ee A 8) Lick iat ae P(x) = 3x° — 2x3 — 2x7 + 7x — 5.
P(—x) = —3x° + 2x3 — 2x7 — 7x —5
2. Determine 1 2 There are two variations in sign.
number of fo
variations in P(—x) = GoW 2A ae in
sign

With variation in sign explained, we state Descartes’ rule of signs for a

polynomial P(x):

The number of positive real zeros of the polynomial P(x) equals

the number of variations of sign, or is fewer by an even integer. Descartes’ rule enables you
to calculate the number
To calculate the number of. negative zeros, first write the of possible positive and
polynomial P(—x). Then the rule is the same as for the positive negative real zeros of a
real zeros: The number of negative real zeros equals the number polynomial function.
of variations in sign, or is fewer by an even integer.

Sometimes Descartes’ rule, combined with the linear factorization theorem about
the number of zeros, can give quite specific information about the nature of zeros.

3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs 165

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. How many positive real zeros can P(x) = 5x* + 2x° — 4 have? How many negative real zeros?
How many complex zeros?
SOLUTION
Variations in 1 There is one variation in sign for P(x). Since there must be
sign of P(x) that number of positive real zeros, or that number minus
P(x) = 5x4 oat 4 an even integer, there must be exactly one positive real
zero. (There cannot be 1 — 2 = —1 positive real zeros.)

Variations in 1 Apply Descartes’ rule for P(—x). Again, there is one

sien of P(—x laaNY variation in sign. This means there is exactly one negative
a bit) Pex] 51° 2x — 4 real zero.
Roots One positive real The polynomial has degree 4. The linear factorization
One negative real theorem states there must be 4 zeros. One zero is a positive
real, one is a negative real, so the other two must be a
Two complex
conjugate pair of complex numbers.

2. How many positive real zeros does P(x) = x* + x° — x* + x — 2 have? How many negative real
zeros?
SOLUTION
Variations in fo There are three variations in sign for P(x). Since
sign of P(x ( W™ there must be that number of zeros, or that number
a ) eee 5 minus two, there can be three or one positive zeros.

Variations in 1 Apply Descartes’ rule for P(—x). There is one

sign of P(—x (ame variation in sign. This means there is exactly one
a 7) a Nee a negative real zero.

Zeros Three positive real and one There must be four zeros. There can be three
negative real positive real zeros and one negative real zero,
or or one positive real zero, one negative real
One positive real, one negative zero, and two complex zeros. It turns out the
real, and two complex polynomial P(x) = x* + x° — x* + x — 2 factors as
(x —1)(x + 2)(x + 1)(x — 1), so there is one positive
real zero, one negative real zero, and two complex
Zeros.

166 Chapter 3: Polynomials

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-6: How many positive zeros can the 10. How many zeros does
equations have? How many negative? P(x) = (x° — 4)? + 7x have?
1. eeee 0 11. How many zeros does
2. 4x4 + 2°—x+1=0 P(x) = 7x — 3x* + x° have?

3 5x* + 4x3 + 3x7 + 2x +1=0 12. How many zeros does

P(x) = (x + 2)? — x° have?
4 ~7—-P4+x7°4+7727-7=0
13. Write a fourth-degree polynomial function
5. —3x*
— 3x7 -5=0 that has zeros of 5, —3, 2, and 0.

6 2x* — 3x3 + 4x7 + 5x —-6=0 14. CPR Carlotta says the polynomial
function P(x) = (x° — 4x)? — 3x + 11 will
7 . Fill in the table describing the possible have three zeros because the largest
combinations for the zeros of exponent in the function is three.
P(x) = —x® + 2x° — 3x 4+ 2.
a What mistake did Carlotta make in her
Number of Zeros reasoning?
Positive Negative b How many zeros does the polynomial
Complex actually have?
Real Real
U 4 U 15. lara The product of four consecutive
integers is 7920. Use x to represent the
U U : smallest integer.

Fill in the table describing the possible a_ Write a polynomial function in standard
combinations for the zeros of form to model this situation, where the
P(x) = x8 — 42° — 3x9 + 2? — 7x + 12. zeros of the function are the possible
values of x.
Number of Zeros b Determine the minimum number of
Positive Negative real solutions for x, and explain your
Complex
Real Real reasoning.
U a : 16. Write a polynomial expression of degree
z UI LU three, which can be shown by Descartes’
rule of signs to have exactly one negative
: U UT and two complex zeros.

Fill in the table describing the possible 17. MP 1, 7 Buse polynomial

combinations for the zeros of
P(x) = x* — 16x° + 94x* — 240x + 225 has 2
P(x) = —3x° + 9x4 — 7x3 — 3x” — 19. distinct, real zeros, each with a multiplicity of
two. Find the zeros.
Number of Zeros
Positive Negative Complex
Real Real
LI [ 2
L l L

3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs 167

LESSON 3.7
3.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions
With transformations of polynomials, we can Soa

apply the same rules as for functions of the form ne ae

po 1 oe Wega 0
and g(x) = x° — 20x + 7. As expected, 9(x) is |
obtained by translating f(x) up by 7, since k = 7.

The leading coefficient of a polynomial, f(x) = ax”,

determines the end behavior of the function.
For example, if the leading coefficient is positive,
such as f(x) = x°, the function decreases as x goes
toward negative infinity, and increases as x
goes toward positive infinity. If the leading
coefficient of a polynomial is negative, such
as 9(x) = —x°, the graph is flipped about the y-axis.
The function increases as x goes toward negative
infinity, and decreases as x goes toward positive infinity.

MODEL PROBLEM
Graph f(x) = x*and g(x) = (x + 2)* + 3. Compare and contrast the graphs.
Identify i and k and use them in your comparison.

SOLUTION
g(x) yf)
In the transformation from f(x) to g(x), h = —2 and k = 3. Ph bd
The graph of g(x) is shifted 2 to the left (because h = —2)
and up 3 (because k = 3) compared to the graph of f(x).

168 Chapter 3: Polynomials

PRACTICE
1. A graph of a polynomial function is shown. » What is the value of k that will translate
Which of the following statements is true of Si 2x + ox — 6x — 4 + kup 4 units
the graphed function? from f(x) = 2x* + 3x* — 6x — 9?
» Graph f(x) = x* + 5x? +x +7 and
g(x) = x* + 5x* + x + 4, then describe the
transformation from f(x) to 9(x).
. Sketch the graphs of the functions y = x’
and y = x* on the same set of axes. What
=10-9'-8-7-6 5 453-9
are the differences and similarities in these
4567 8 910
graphs?
. Sketch the graphs of the functions y = x°
and y = x’ on the same set of axes. What
are the differences and similarities in these
graphs?

A. The degree is odd; the leading - Sketch both sides of the equation as separate
coefficient is positive. functions and solve graphically:
x* = 2x — x*. State the solutions.
B. The degree is even; the leading
coefficient is positive. 10. IMP 7| Describe what happens to the
C. The degree is odd; the leading graph of the polynomial function
coefficient is negative. f(x) = x° — 2x? — 5x + 6 when the sign of
D. The degree is even; the leading each coefficient is reversed.
coefficient is negative. 11. (ided Describe what happens to the
2. What does the graph of x° — 5 look like graph of the polynomial function
compared to the graph of x°? f(x) = x + x° — 17x + 15 when xis replaced
With: x;
A. x — 5is graph of x° translated left 5.
ae Consider the parent function y = x° and the
B. Not enough information to tell.
function y =(x — h)° + k. Describe the kind
C. x° — 5is graph of x° translated up 5. of values of h and k that move the parent
D. x —5is graph of x° translated down 5. function to the right and down.
3. The function 9(x) = x° + 7x* +.8x° — 16x* + 2 13. Consider f(x) = (x + 2)(x + 9)(x — 8) and
has five x-intercepts. If the graph is shifted 2 h(x) = (x — 1)(x + 6)(x — 11). Describe the
units to the left, how many x-intercepts will transformation that occurs from f(x) to h(x).
there be?
14. Describe three transformations that change
ao Tie]: y =x into y = —(x
+2)? +3.
Bo Dy 0
15. Kaitlin wants to write a function that is
4. Astudent wants to shift the function shifted 6 units vertically down from the
f(x) = x? + (x — 3) vertically up 4 units and function f(x) = x° + 3x* + 2x° + x. She writes
left 3 units and write it in standard form. the function 9(x) = 6x° + 3x* + 2x° + x. Is
Identify in which step the error occurred. Kaitlin correct? Explain your answer.
Step I: f= a wae a) = 2 Ox 9 16. The function 9(x) = x* + 17 has no
Stepi2/9(n) = 20 — 3) 60 = 3) + 9+4 x-intercepts. State a single transformation
Step 3: ier eet 18 6x 18 + OP 4 that will produce a function h(x) with two
x-intercepts.
Step 4: g(x) = 2x? — 18x.+ 49
Practice Problems continue...

3.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions 169

Practice Problems continued .. .
17. The function g(x) = —(x — 5)? — 6 has no 19. Find the cubic polynomial with leading
x-intercepts. State a single transformation coefficient —1 that has the roots shown in
that will produce a function h(x) with one the graph.
x-intercept.
18. A student wants to shift the graph of
f(x) = 2x° + 2x up by 1 unit and obtains the
function 9(x) = 2x + 6x? + 8x + 4. What
did the student do wrong, and what is the
correct 9(x)?

LESSON 3.8
: a . . Time Height of
3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions Elapsed Waterin Tank
(minutes) (meters)
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator:
Modeling Polynomial Functions
Polynomial functions can be used to model real-world situations. As a
water tank is being emptied, the height of the remaining water is
measured every ten minutes. The table provides the numbers and the
scatter plot gives you a visual sense of the data.

The scatter plot does not appear to be linear. Since the points do
not rise and fall (or fall and rise), it also does not appear to be se een OARPEN NCARTae
quadratic. It turns out that this data can be modeled by a 9
cubic regression. In a cubic regression, the data points are modeled
with a cubic function. You can use a spreadsheet or a graphing Lac
calculator to do the cubic regression. £
5 3
=
0
Spreadsheet 3
-30 30 60 90
In a spreadsheet, start by entering the data and creating a Time (min)
scatter plot. Make sure the chart is selected, and then choose
Add Trendline from the Chart menu. To do a polynomial
Measure of Height of Water in Tank Over Time
regression, choose the Polynomial option under
Trend/Regression type. Choose 9 By = -0.0001186x* + 0.01118x? — 0.3608x + 7.005

an order of 3 to reflect the

cubic polynomial. You can add
the model equation and the
coefficient of determination, 1’, (m)
Height
using the Options tab.
0 30 60 90
Time (min)

170 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Graphing
i Calculator ED
tt ure Cubickes
See ea cla
Start by entering the : data and creating § a scatter P plot. Then, , |13tMed-Med
:fled@Med’? "=
choose cubic regression. To do this, press [STAT] and then Seate esac a eee Geer e
scroll right to the CALC menu. Scroll down to 6:CubicReg pres epes Oat FIIBES PAD?
and press [ENTER] to set up the CubicReg command. Then
enter the parameters and do the regression as for linear regression.
The calculator shows an 1 of 0.9998037497. For comparison, a linear regression
of these points results in 7? = 0.881, and a quadratic regression gives 17 = 0.889.
The cubic regression is a better fit for the data since the r* value is the highest.

MODEL PROBLEM
IMP 2, 4,5,7| A student is choosing between two animal population models. The numbers
used are in thousands of animals, and the time is in years. One model uses the population formula
p = 0.18 + 0.25¢ — 0.9t + 2. The other model sets the population equal to one plus the
absolute value of time minus one. The models are for zero to 2.5 years.
a Graph the models.
b What population do the models start with?
c At what time(s) do the models show identical populations?
d Which model has the population closest to extinction?
e Which model shows the greatest rate of change?
f Which model shows the largest population at the end?
g Discuss the constraints of the domain and range of the model.
SOLUTION
a Graph First, graph the absolute value expression
w oO _d=|t— 1|+ 1. Ithas values of 1 fork and1
for k, so we translate the graph one to the right and
N
one up from the origin compared to the
parent function. The domain is 0 to 2.5 years.
Next, graph the polynomial function
as
a= O01 40.257 - 091 22.
meao
oO a
thousands)
(in
Population
oO
0 Osmel dB5t) pes Ole
Time (in years)

b Starting 2000 animals The models show identical populations at 0 years. Both
populations have 2000 animals then.
c Graphs show O years, The model graphs show identical populations three times:
identical about 1.6 years, at 0 years, about 1.6 years, and about 2.1 years.
populations about 2.1 years
d Population extinct The population is closest to extinction when it is closest to 0. The absolute value
when p = 0 function has the lowest value, 1000.

e Rate of change The polynomial function has a greater rate of change than the absolute value
function between about 1.5-2.5 years. The average slope is greatest between
those points.
Model Problem continues...

3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions 171

 MODEL PROBLEM continued
f Greatest value? The polynomial function has a greater value at 2.5 years.

g Domain and range Both expressions have a value of 2 when t = 0. You can see this from the
graph or evaluate the expressions. The domain of the function is from 0 (since
time cannot be negative) to 2.5 years, since the model is described as having
that upper limit. The theoretical range has to be zero or positive—there
cannot be a negative number of animals. The models predict a range from
about 1000 to 2900 animals.

PRACTICE
1. A researcher is comparing two 3. The functions p = —5|x — 2| + 5 and
different models, p = 2|t — 2| + 2 and
p = 0.2# — 0.3# — 1.7t + 6, for representing (rs is — 3)(x + 3) represent possible
a population of prairie dogs over a four-year models showing the population of gray
period. The two models, which express the wolves in a state park over the course
prairie dog population in thousands, are of about three decades. The absolute
shown on the graph below. In both models, value model has a domain 1 < x <3
the starting value for t is 0 and the ending and the polynomial model has a domain
value is 4. 0 <x <3, where x is the number of
decades since 1960. The population, p, is
given in tens of wolves. For example,
p = 4represents 40 wolves. Which function
depicts the highest population of wolves
during the given time period? Explain how
you know from looking at the graph.
A person dives off a springboard 7 feet
above the surface of the water into a pool.
Two possible models to describe the
10-9 8-7 6-5 -4 3 —2 1234567 8 910.. height, y, of the diver above the surface of
the water are y, = 2x° — 12x” + 16x + 7 and
Y = —2|x — 1.5] + 10. The domain for both
a What is the starting population for both models is 0 = x S$ 3, where x is the time in
models? seconds, and the height is measured in feet
b What is the lowest population predicted above the surface of the water. Decide which
by the absolute value model? of the models better describes the height of
c Which model predicts a larger the diver over time. Explain your reasoning.
population after three years?
. The models P, = x° — x? — 2x + 3and
d After four years, which model predicts a
Ps = x’ show the population of two species
larger population?
of animals from x = 0 to x = 2 years. The
The polynomial function y = x° — 4x* + 13 populations are in thousands. At one point
models the number of students requesting during the two years, the populations of
tutoring at a university during a six-month the two species were the same. What was
period. The model is appropriate for x = 0 the population of each species when this
to x = 6, where x is the number of months occurred?
and y is the number of students in hundreds.
How many students requested tutoring
when x = 1? Practice Problems continue...

172 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Practice Problems continued. . .
6. The function p(x) = —2x3 + 6x? + 2 models 11. The price of gold fluctuates each month, as
the price of a stock over a four-month period shown in the table.
of time.
a Sketch the graph of the function. Choose
Price ()
an appropriate domain and range.
b Describe what happens to the price of the
stock between months 2 and 4.
A student plots the data of a population of
animals housed in shelters over a period of 4
years, as shown below. The student will use
her graphing calculator to find an equation
that best fits the data. She has the choice of
finding a linear, quadratic, or cubic equation.
Which model do you think the student
should start with? Explain your choice.
y

QOLG)

WN=oOoO
Population
thousands)
(in
a_ Create a scatter plot of the data using a
spreadsheet or graphing calculator.
LU SAA SER Boge a)
Time (in years)
b Find a polynomial model to fit the data.
12. The equation p = x° + 2x? + 5 gives the
The population (in hundreds) of honeybees population of a rural town over a 20-year
in an experimental hive can be modeled by period, with x in years, starting at x = 0. Use
the function p = 0.01x° — 0.02x* + 1.55 for the model to find the population of the town
0 to 10 months. What is the population of after 15 years.
the hive at the beginning of the experiment
13. Cie An investment banker records
and at 10 months?
the price of two different stocks over the
. The graph of a data set from an experiment course of 5 months. The prices are in dollars
is shown below, along with two possible and the time is in months. The first stock
models. Katie is unsure which model best is modeled by p = 2|t — 3| + 4. The second
fits the data, so she plots another value from stock is modeled by p = # — 5# + 4t + 9.
her experiment, shown by the “X” in the a_ Sketch a graph of the functions to
figure. Knowing this, which model best fits show the price of the stocks. Choose an
the data? Explain. appropriate domain and range.
b Att =O months, which stock had a lower
value? What was the value, in dollars?
c During the first 3 months, which stock
reached a higher value?
d During the first 4 months, how many
times were the prices of the two stocks
10. Consider the graphs below of linear and equal? How can you tell this from the
polynomial models for the data points in graph?
an experiment. Which model is best for the
e An investor purchases both stocks
data points? Explain your answer.
when the prices are the same just after
3 months. Based on the future trends
shown in the graph, which stock appears
to be the better investment? Explain your
Gens Practice Problems continue... .

3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions 173

Practice Problems continued .. .
14. The functions represent the distances from 15 ‘ Cie A realtor tracks the price of
home for two people during a day. The two houses over two years. The models
distance, y, is in miles and the time, x, is in represent the prices of the two houses from
hours. x = 0 tox = 2 years and the prices, y, are in
tens of thousands of dollars.
Marlen: y = x(x — 4)(x — 5)
Truman: y = —3|x — 2| + 8 House 1: y, = 4x° — 12x* + 8x +4
House 2: yy = 8x° — 24x7 + 16x + 5
a Sketch graphs of the functions together
on the same set of axes. Choose an a When the realtor started tracking
appropriate domain and range. Consider the prices, which house had a higher
only this part of the graphs for the next price? What was the price of the more
three questions. expensive house?
b Atx =0, how far is each person away b Two times during the two-year period,
from home? the prices of the houses were the same.
c Over the course of the day, who travels Find the approximate number of months
farther from home? How do you know? when the prices were the same. Give
d Who returns home first? Explain how your answer as a whole number between
you know from the graph. 0 and 24.
c Which house price fluctuated the most
during the two years? Explain your
answer.
d According to the models, which house
would have been a better investment?
e Sketch a graph of the models on the same
axes, using an appropriate window for
the two-year period of time.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

Cir) The population of a bacteria sample is represented in Numberor

the table on the right. Bacteria
Make ascatter plot of the data.
b Find a polynomial equation that best fits the data.
Use the r-squared value to decide which degree
polynomial is the closest fit. Discuss possible solutions.
c Use your equation to predict the number of bacteria
that will be present after 6 days and after 10 days.

174 Chapter 3: Polynomials

LESSON 3.9 sessu:nunc ERR RS
3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations
Solving Polynomial Systems re ome
A system of equations can be solved The solution
graphically by noting the location of the to a system
intersections of the graphs of the of equations,
equations. We solve the system whether it is a
per ey pe complex system |
fen O54 Land x" + y" = 16 by graphing. or not, is always |
the point(s) of =|
intersection. :

x2 oy?
1. Graph hyperbola. He ost 1 Graph the hyperbola. The hyperbola intersects the
x-axis at 4 and —4.
2. Graph circle. x? +? = 16 The circle is centered at the origin with a radius of 4.

3. Solutions are (4,0) and (—4,0) Note the intersection points. These are the solutions.
intersection points.

MODEL PROBLEM
Solve the system x? + y? = 25 and y = a [oleic
given the graph of x* + y* =
SOT ea ya ha
Lessee

SOLUTION
ee emi a a
[. Y= 25 _ : 3

Solutions (3, 4pand:(=3)-4) Note the intersection points. These are the solutions.

3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations 175

Graphing Calculator: Solving a System of Polynomial
Equations
We can use a calculator to solve a system of polynomial equations,
y = x° + 8x" — 101x — 468 and y = 2x* + 6x — 108. We do this by graphing the two
equations and noting their intersection points.
Plotd Plote Flot?
1. Enter equation. Use [Y=] to get to the equation entry screen, and type the ee -161%
polynomials into separate Y variable lines. 63
VY 2B2K2+6%-168
oa =

2. Graph the equation. To graph, press (ZOOM) 6:ZStandard,/WINDOW

and graph the function using the graphing window of eee
= 135 lovand —1000 < y < 500.

3. Find the intersections. Use

5:Intersect to find the solutions. You can use
the [J and [>] keys to move the cursor so it is near
the intersection point, and then press [ENTER]. The
intersection points for y = x* + 8x? — 101x — 468 Intersection
and y = 2x” + 6x — 108 are x ~ —12.31 and h= "3.103736
y ~ 121.42; x ~ —3.10 and y ~ —107.36; and
x = 9.42 and y ~ 125.93.

MODEL PROBLEM
[TE Solve y = 3x — 5and x7 + y? = 25 using a graphing calculator. (This is a line and a circle.)

SOLUTION
We must first solve the x +f = 25
second equation for y in y -2b-y
terms of x. y= \/05 oe
Enter equations Floti Flote Plot
2
“V3 -fe35- ae)
SY y=
Graph the equations. Find
the points of intersection.
The solutions to y = 3x — 5
and x? + y* = 25 are x = 3,
y = 4,andx =0,y= —5.

176 Chapter 3: Polynomials

 Solving more complex systems
Solving Polynomial Systems Algebraically of equations by substitution
or elimination uses the same
You can also solve a complex system of equations process as solving less
algebraically using substitution or elimination. complex systems of equations
by substitution or elimination.

MODEL PROBLEMS
2 2
1. Solve the system y = 4x and ra =ae = 1 by substitution.
SOLUTION
Substi arb >(Gx)2 ; ;
ubstitute ‘eae Substitute 4x for y in the quadratic‘ equation,
:
based
on the equation y = 4x.
Sol f Xe 16x? 2 one
olve for x ter = Cee i Solve the resulting equation. x equals positive or
negative 4.
2x" _ x? L
16 26516
2
aes
x —_—

x? = 16
i a
Substitute and y = (4)(4) = 16 Substitute the values for x back into the first
solve for y equation and see that y equals 16 or —16.
Yen) eee LO
State solutions (4, 16) and (—4, —16) State the two solutions. The two solutions mean the
graphs intersect at two points.

2. Solve the system 3x? + 4y’ = 91 and x’ + y’ = 25 by elimination.

SOLUTION

Eliminate one 3x? + 4y = 91 Multiply the second equation by 3, and then

variable — (3x7 + 3y* = 75) subtract the equations.
y = 16
Solve y= +4 There are two solutions for y, +4 or —4.

Substitute and solve x7 + 4 = 25 Substitute +4 or —4 into one of the equations,

for x x? + (-4)? = 25 and see that x can equal +3 or —3.
x =9
x= 23

State solutions (3, 4), (3, —4), (-3, 4), (—3, —4) State the solutions as ordered pairs. Note that
both values of x are assigned to each value
of y. The four solutions mean the two graphs
intersect in four locations.

3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations 177

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-10: Solve by graphing. State the 15. 2 -y=9;y= ds ar 3
solutions. ’ ‘ 2 2
2
Le yaxiy=4x—-3 NO ee
y=2-5:y = 6x15
i a 17. y= 2; + =8
ety =169;y=5
18. x? + 41?
= 45; 40°
+ y? = 45
Xoc y= 255 oy Oo 9
19. xP -—-yY=16+y
=34
2x? + y° = 36; 4x7 + y? = 144
20. — 7 =4x=y-4
di
wWN&ao =—-— y= —4x
4 a 21. [ERP When a two-digit number is
7 :;e+ ya? divided by the product of its digits, the
quotient is ee The sum of the number and
8. ae y=2-4.2+
ey : y
¥ = 16 :
the number written with the same digits, but
2 DMR sr. in the reverse order, is 110. Find the number.
eee HOLY eee (Hint: Write the number as 10x + y, where x
10. IMP 2,6| x2 i 16y* = 64; p= a and y are itsdigits.)

Exercises 11-20: Solve algebraically. 22.Cie A two-digit number is 22 more

F peer than the difference of the squares of its
11. y= x? + x; y= 11x 35 digits. Also, the difference of the number
A , and the number written with the same
12. x+y = loyy=—x digits, but in the reverse order, is equal to 54.
13. 24+ 4° =25;y= oc ae Find the number.

4. y=4+4°+y=1

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

(Rd Consider x? + y*? = 169 and y = . ee

a Describe the graph of each equation.
b_ By observing the characteristics of each graph, what point do you know will be a solution to this
system of equations? Why?
c Graph both equations on the same coordinate plane, by hand.
d Algebraically find the point(s) of intersection of the two graphs (i.e., the solution(s) to the system
of equations). Explain why you do not need to use the quadratic formula to solve this equation.

178 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Chapter 3 Key ideas same

3.1 Multivariable Polynomials

e Add and subtract multivariable polynomials by combining like terms.

3.2 Dividing Polynomials

e Polynomials can be divided in a fashion similar to long division of numbers.
¢ Synthetic division provides an efficient way to divide polynomials. It can be used when the
divisor is of the form x — c.

3.3 Remainder and Factor Theorems

e The remainder theorem states that fora polynomial P(x), the value of the function P(c) equals the
remainder when P(x) is divided by x — c.
¢ The factor theorem states that the polynomial P(x) has x — ras a factor if and only if r is a root of
the equation P(x) = 0.

3.4 Solving Polynomial Equations Algebraically

¢ A polynomial equation where the variable appears to the third power and no higher is called a
cubic equation. Some cubic equations can be solved by factoring.
¢ A polynomial equation where the variable appears to the fourth power and no higher is called a
quartic equation. Some quartic equations can be solved by reducing them to quadratic equations,
and solving them as you would any quadratic equation.

3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions

e The real zeros of a polynomial can be estimated from the x-intercepts of its graph.
e The fundamental theorem of algebra states that every polynomial function of degree n = 1 has at
least one complex zero. The linear factorization theorem on the number of roots follows from the
fundamental theorem of algebra, and states that every polynomial function of degree n = 1 with
complex coefficients has n complex zeros.

3.6 Optional: Descartes’ Rule of Signs

¢ Descartes’ rule of signs enables you to calculate the number of possible positive and negative real
roots of a polynomial function using the number of variations of sign of the polynomial.

3.7 Transformations of Polynomial Functions

e Like other functions you have seen, polynomial functions can be translated horizontally or
vertically, or rotated.

3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions

e Polynomial functions can be used to model situations.
¢ Cubic regression can be used to determine if a cubic polynomial model is the best fit.

3.9 Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations

e Systems of polynomial equations can be solved both algebraically and graphically, just like
systems of linear equations. The intersection point(s) on the graph are the solutions to the system.

Chapter 3 Key Ideas 179

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
st Divide fix) = 3x° + 6x7 — x + 4 by x + 2 15. Write a polynomial function with three
distinct prime zeros.
he Gone 5
6 Exercises 16-21: Determine how many linear
B. 3x7-1+
: Lore factors there are for each polynomial.
C. 3x7-x+6 16. + 3x -1
Deewana A768 =exeex
ae

2. Isx + 6a factor of P(x) = —x* + 4x° + 432? 18a —3F iy = Bae

PLaYes 19. 2°
Bs No
C. Not enough information to tell 20. uw -— 2u*+u-1

3..1s xX— a + Jafactor

of 21." —- 97% + 7°43
x? + (b — a)x? — a’x — a’*(b — a)?
22. Factor x° + (b — a)x? — a*x — a*(b — a).
A. Yes
B. No 23. a Evaluate the function
C. Not enough information to tell P(x) = x° — 3x? — 6x + 8for all integers
from —3 to 5. Record your answers in a
Exercises 4-6: Divide. table headed with x, P(x).
b Based on your table, what are the zeros
4. (—3x* + 5x? — x — 4) + (x + 3) of the function?
5 « (x?+ 11x + 30) + (x +5)
c What happens to the sign value of the
function on either side of each zero?
6 » (x* + 15x? + 33x? — 371x — 1470) + (x — 5)
24. Use the graph of the polynomial function
7 . Find the remainder: (x* + 9x + 25) + (x + 6) fix) = 2x? — x* — 10x + 5 to approximate its
real zeros, to the nearest tenth.
8 : Tied Write a fifth-degree polynomial in
standard form ax? + bx* + cx? + dx? + ex + f
that divides by x — 3 evenly (witha
remainder of 0).
Exercises 9-12: Use the remainder theorem to
state the remainder.

9. (x° — 25x? + 7) + (x +5)

10. (x4 — x? + x%-—5)+(x-1)
11. (4x° + x4 +2741)
+ (x -2)
12. (x° — 2x* + 3x? — 4) + (x - 1)
Exercises 13-14: State a polynomial that has
the zeros given below and 1 as the leading
coefficient.
13. Roots: 6, —2, and 3

14. Roots: —5,1, and —1

Chapter Review continues...

180 Chapter 3: Polynomials

Chapter Review continued . .
25. [A Consider a polynomial of the form 26. DUGQEMd Two zeros of a polynomial are
P(x) = Ax? + Bx? + Cx + D. 3 — 2iand 1 + i. What is the lowest possible
a State which value(s) would need to be oe othe po norual and ae ee
changed, and by what amount, to shift oN
the graph of the polynomial up by 27. QUQEWEA Is it possible to have a polynomial
5 units. of odd degree that has no real zeros? Explain
b State which value(s) would need to be yo ae
changed, and by what amount, to shift 28. [Led Consider the polynomial x" — 5",
the graph of the polynomial to the right where 71 can be any positive integer. Without
by 2 units. knowing the value of n, state a factor of the
polynomial.

Chapter 3 Review 181

me a CC
. for Chapters 1-3

1. Which of the following is equivalent to 5. The solutions to x* — 4x + 5 = Oare

(x + y)’? Ae tt
Ae OO Rye ye Be 2k, 2
Bee GC =—4+421,4-21
Cry eee eee De 204 2 et

2. BIG i622 + 2x2 — 3x —5 =Oandx=m Exercises 6-10: Write as a polynomial in standard

is a solution, which is true about the form.
polynomial P(x) = x° + 2x? — 3x — 5?
6. (5x + 2)?
A. P(m)=0
7. (5x — 8)
B. P(m)=m
Ci ~@ + m) is a factor 82. (7x + 3)\/x—3)
D. (x — 0) isa factor 9. [(6x + 6) — xf
3. Astudent analyzes the graphs of two 10. (62’x — 3x4z°)
polynomials from a system of equations.
Exercises 11-14: Factor.
44. x? -— 22x + 121
P(x)
12. l6xy + 104x — 14y — 91
13. 16x° — 20x? + 68x — 85
14. 33x° + 44x? + 12x + 16
Exercises 15-19: Divide.
Q(x) 15. (x2 + 13x + 40) + (x + 5)
16. (x? — 11x + 24) + (x — 8)
Which of the student’s statements is 17. (25x* + 65x + 40) + (5x + 5)
incorrect? 18. (20x? + 53x + 35) + (4x + 5)
A. The circles and rectangles together 19. (36x? — 81) + (6x + 9)
represent the zeros of P(x).
B. The circles represent the solutions to the 20. Use synthetic division and the
system of equations. remainder theorem to find P(—5) if
C. The triangles represent the zeros of P(x) = 2x4 + 7x? + 70x + 8.
Q(x). 21. Determine the remainder when
D. The rectangles represent the y-intercepts —3x* + x + 19 is divided by x + 7 by
of P(x) and Q(x). applying the remainder theorem (in
other words, do not use long or synthetic
4. Which of the following could be the
division).
coordinates of an x-intercept of the graph of
a function? 22. State a polynomial equation for which the
Aa (al; 2) C416) 0) leading coefficient is 1 and the solutions
are —4, 9, and 1. Expand and simplify the
Bag (On =) Deke) polynomial.

182 Cumulative Review

23. Under what circumstances will 30. Diz Yummy Flakes Breakfast Cereal is
evaluating a polynomial function for increasing the size of the boxes it uses to
P(x) produce the exact same polynomial package its cereal. The formula V = lwh is
function as evaluating for P(—x)? Why does used to calculate the volume of a box with a
this occur? given length, width, and height.
24. How many real solutions does the quadratic a_ The existing boxes have a length of
equation 7x* + 4x + 10 = 0 have? 10 inches, a width of 6 inches, and a
Exercises 25-26: Solve. height of 8 inches. Sketch one of the
existing boxes and label the dimensions.
25. [GEMS (4p — 2)" — 10(4p — 2) +21 =0 Then calculate the volume of the box.
b_ For the new boxes, each dimension
26. p* — 4p?
—45 =0
will be increased by some unknown
27. Solve the system of equations. y = x — a amount, represented by x. Make a sketch

Pee i=
ie

ry 1 of one of the new boxes. Using x, label

each dimension with an expression
representing its length.
28. Find the x-intercepts of the graph of c Write a polynomial function that could
fx) = 27 + 7x + 12. be used to calculate the volume of the
29. Tie) Show that the quadratic equation new boxes for any value of x.
ax* + bx +c = 0, wherea + 0 has two d The company decided the volume of
different positive solutions if a-c > 0, each new cereal box will be 936 cubic
a-b<0,andl*— 4ac>0. inches. Explain how you could use the
function you wrote in part c, and the
factor theorem, to find the value(s) of
x. (Note: You do not need to factor the
function, just explain the steps you
would follow.)
e Based on the scenario above, should you
consider values of x that are negative to
be valid solutions? Why or why not?

Chapters 1-3 183

 Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational A-SSE.1a; A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.2;

A-APR.6; A-APR.7
Expressions
Simplifying Rational Expressions
Multiplying Rational Expressions
Dividing Rational Expressions

4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions A-SSE.1a; A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.2;

A-APR.7
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with
Common Denominators
Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with
Different Denominators
Least Common Multiple

4.3 Rational Equations eG © A-CED.1; A-REI.1; A-REI.2

Algebra 1 Review: Evaluating Rational Expressions and

Equations
Rational Equations
Extraneous Solutions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions @ A-REI.11; F-IF.4; F-IF.5; F-BE.3

Translating and Reflecting Rational Functions

Solving a System of Rational Equations by Graphing
Multi-Part Problem Practice

CHAPTER 4 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-4

184 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

A
AT
Vocabulary
closed system least common denominator rational expression

complex rational expression least common multiple reciprocal function

extraneous solution

LESSON 4.1 =e
neseueeeeor

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

Simplifying Rational Expressions
A rational expression is an expression that can be written as the quotient of
4 ee
two polynomials. They can be written with a fraction bar, such as Ntey ee
x
or division symbol, such as (x* + 2x — 5) + (4x + 7). Remember, the
horizontal bar
As with numeric fractions, you can simplify, multiply, and divide rational of a fraction
expressions. To simplify a rational expression means to perform operations so that is a grouping
there are no common factors in the numerator and denominator. symbol. Do the
operations in the
Operations with rational expressions are part of a closed system. In a closed numerator and in
system, the result of an operation is of the same type as the initial terms or factors. the denominator
In other words, adding, subtracting, or multiplying any two rational expressions before the
results in another rational expression. Dividing a rational expression by any division.
rational expression other than zero also results in a rational expression.
A common error in simplifying rational expressions involves canceling incorrectly.
5x? -1
For example, in , 5x? is in both the numerator and denominator, but it is
5x7 + 4
not a common factor. 5x? is a term added to —1 in the numerator and to 4 in the
denominator. You can only cancel common factors, not terms that are added.

MODEL PROBLEMS
eK 2 LL
1. Simplify Tar
SOLUTION
Factor x2—2x—8 _ (x +2)(x—4) Factor out the common factor x* in the denominator.
eae Ae)
Cancel > Qie—s) (x + 2) Cancel the common factor of x — 4. Since we canceled
common Ce a eet 7 out the common factor x — 4, the simplified expression
factors is equivalent to the original expression, except for x = 4,
since that value of x makes the denominator 0 (which
would make the original expression undefined).
Model Problems continue...

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions 185

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

“0
SOLUTION
Write xxv + 7) (2x 6) Simplify the numerator to write it as a polynomial.
numerator as —x7 +9 Factor out —1 in the denominator.
polynomial ee
= 9) From this point
Factor the (e2 2% = 2) Factor the numerator and denominator. forward, when we
numerator —(x — 3)(x + 3) simplify a rational
and expression, we
denominator will assume the
variable does not
Cancel the (e+ 2)3) Cancel the common factor. The equal a value that
common —(x — 3)\(c+3) simplified expression is equivalent causes the original |
to the original expression except when
aes we? 2 x = —3, which would result in an
expression tobe |
(3), Y-— > undefined, unless
undefined expression. we say otherwise.

© (aed For what values of m and p does the rational expression,

(x2 + m)(x
oe — tep) simplify to 1%
Se 4

A. m=-2,p=— -15
Bm —3,p =)
C. me-3,p——-5
D. m=5,p=3

SOLUTION
A. The denominator does not factor into (x — 2)(x + 15).
B. Correct answer. The denominator factors into (x + 3)(x — 5), therefore if m = 3 and p = 5,
+ 5
the rational expression is a =
woe bo . 7
C. Form = —3and p = —5, the rational expression iseee = 2a = a :
+ seks
D. For m = 5 and p = 3, the rational expression is of #1

PRACTICE
Pefe Ze) amie Exercises 2-18: Simplify.
ete) > 20 be Tle
ae Cae "x2 + 2x —3
ox OX
TS) 3x? + 15x? + 18x
B. + 2
ee =
1D) o— ee =o
r+x-6

eae
x? — 3x-—4
Practice Problems continue ...

186 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Practice Problems continued ...

5, 2% = 3) ee ees
(ota) : x +3
SOkere ae
a poolatekts
Out LD a. 7(x — 3)
A0(4x — x) i
‘dn ALeUOs Boy 16. 2
5(—8x — 2x’) TX 22)
g, 220° = 576x a7, ox + 56x + 80
8x — 64 SX. 4116

9, 4x0 + 8x | ag ce Arh eb
z 7x + 14
10 7x? + 9x Exercises 19-21: For what value(s) of x is each
? a expression undefined?
11. 49x? 3 + 21x 19. Axor 2 6x 13
Tae tirars
42, 100x" 3 + 40x 20, 2 2 toe +9
10x Mo)

—— x? + 8x + 12 3x°
2h ee
r x+2 —24x* — 141x° + 18x?

Multiplying Rational Expressions

The process of multiplying rational expressions is the same as multiplying numeric
fractions, such as _ ; . = ae = = Multiply the numerators together for the
numerator and multiply the denominators together for the denominator.
When multiplying, you should multiply the constants and variables; for
instance, 3x - 2x* = 6x’. In some cases, you may choose not to multiply binomials
Sey 2d)
or expressions; for instance, you can multiply TE aoe and end witith

6x7 (x + 1)
This is called the factored form, and it makes later operations,
ose ON eee
such as solving an equation, easier.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Leo 4
1. Multiply x eZ
x-2°
SOLUTION

Multiply numerators x+3 Ae Dia ecto)a Multiply the numerators and

and denominators x2 x—-2 x(x—2) denominators.

Distribute Gar See 4c 12 Distribute the 4 in the numerator, and

e(x—-2) x - 2x distribute the x* in the denominator.
Model Problems continue...

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions 187

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
ae 8x
2. Multiply ~— - >.
PURER a co
SOLUTION

Multiply Meal eon When multiplying rational expressions, check for common
Ay A factors and cancel them before multiplying.
Sx(x. 1)
4x(x? — 1)
Cancel common Dieta ves |)) The factor 4x is common to both numerator and
factors Ae + (x2 — 1) denominator, so we cancel it.
D(xtae ih)
x? -1
Factor 2 xia A) The denominator is factored as the difference of two squares.
denominator (x + 1)(x — 1)

Cancel common 2-1) The expression has a common factor in the numerator and
factors (x-4+-T(x — 1) denominator; cancel it.
Zz
xk

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-18: Simplify, if possible. 6x? + 6x? 8x
10. —\—_——_
- ———
4 x7(x
+ 1)
5 aeae
Ts 3x — 11x 5x? + 5x? 6x
11. —\—_——_
- ———
v9 8x 3 x?(x
+ 1)
2.
e+6x x-9 A ee
6x Vato
3, 2-3
—_.
4x
f=
Dio
x%+5x
13 Paros 5x?
Mee OM RIB, xD "47 +10x 2x7- 6x — 40
x7 — 25 x+3
Dy 2 ; 4x 2
Noone pee cers x” + Bx Xe — Ox 40
x? — 16 x-3
i MOK
Meee 8 15. —.-
5 x+6
Enns haf
Coe mn tO
aee eae 16. —— -
CG One
. ent

LOG to) x-5 17. LOCH) 6

x+9 2(x'— 3)
x+9 2(x.— 3)

10x 295) x—8 7x? + 7x? 6x

is. —\—_——_
- ———_
rE 7 2(x
— 5) 3 x7(x
+ 1)

188 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Dividing Rational Expressions
Dividing rational fractions starts with the concept that division by a fraction is
equivalent to multiplication by its reciprocal. This is often stated as “invert the

divisor and multiply.” For instance, the quotient f += 5is equivalent to

the product aa? which equals The same process can be used to divide
Ott
rational expressions. For instance, to perform the operation , invert the

12 )
oe De ah) a2 (
divisor and multiply to get pou el
oe se bees 5)
In a complex rational expression the numerator or denominator, or both, contains

a rational expression. The expression is a complex rational expression

(y=)
since the numerator or denominator contains a rational expression (in this
example, both do). When we simplify these expressions, we convert them into
rational expressions.

MODEL PROBLEMS
a 2 5
1. Divide
ener — = I:
SOLUTION
Invert divisor and multiply x* . 5 Invert the divisor (second fraction) and multiply.
2? ae
pie cael
2 5
Stated with one fractionbar x*(x + 1) Multiply the numerators and denominators.
Des
Perform operations i chk Distribute x* through (x + 1).
10
=
2. Divide ae + 2x.
SOLUTION
Invert and multiply 1D Best Dx
rete Invert the divisor and multiply.

Ie eyes
Oo De
Simplify 2x(6x-— 1) Factor 2x in the numerator, and then simplify.
SESZK.
Oye
5 Model Problems continue...

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions 189

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© [GH Divide
\ x1
= 7.
x +1

SOLUTION
Invert divisor and a oe Invert the divisor and multiply.
multiply ori gl
; a ED
i! 2 2% + 41)
Cancel common factors 2x « 2(x-+t) Cancel the common factors x + 1 and 2.
ee
Zeer1)

3x ;
4. Write 5 as a rational expression.
aL
xe
SOLUTION
Restate denominator 3x First write the denominator as a single rational
Ys expression.
sarod
x
Ox

Fa ye
we
Invert denominator and 3x - ee To simplify, invert and multiply.
multiply e
3x"
2
ca
5. Simplify es
ona
SOLUTION
Restate asdivision 3 . 1 Rewrite the complex rational expression as a
2 he
division statement; the numerator a8 is divided
x
il
byy thethe d denominator,
tor, -~ |

Invert divisor and pues A To divide the fractions, invert the divisor and
multiply 2x 1 multiply.
Omael2
2x Model Problems continue...

190 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions -

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2 @ MP 2,4| The focal length of a camera is the distance from the center
of the lens to the film (or digital sensor). A typical focal length Calculating q willletus |
might be 50 millimeters. The focal length L of a thin camera lens have an expression that |
states how close the ,
is given by L = i i i where pis the distance between a lens should be to the
=. + cs
film for a picture taken
Eo 4 at a distance p.
photographed object and the lens, and q is the distance between
the lens and the film. Write the expression for q in terms of L and p.
SOLUTION
Eliminate fractions pet! To eliminate the fractions in the denominator,
in denominator ok + i : : : oo PY
peg multiply the right side of the equation by Pq"
2h!
Gy

Eliminate Lq +p)=@-pP) - a Multiply both sides of the equation by (q + p)

denominator +P) toeliminate the denominator. .
Combine like terms Lq+Lp=pq Distribute L, combine like terms of q, and
and solve Lp = pq ~ Lq solve.
Lp = q(p
—L)

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-17: Simplify, if possible. ( 4 )
2 Gee)
Ste oe 1 ae
ae (2 )
Dy
LEGO) | x +6
5-x 4(5-x)
(=)
: (e+)
O(06)" x +6 8.
5-x 2(5-x)
6x(x? +6) (x? + 6)
Ma ee7) 3X
leer,

(+1)
6107 30)” (ae 8)
x(x +7) — 4x

x +7
eat
6... 10
(
Practice Problems continue...

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions 191

Practice Problems continued...

(228) 18. [JER Louis divided the rational

11 ie expression using the steps below:
(BY) 2 Cees
Ag? (x -37-36 x+9
(-2,) ¢- 3G) xs
12. [oy]
~ le -3)-36 x+9
— 3)\(x
( De ) 4 See
x?.+ 15x+ 54 (x —3)—'36 x9
et Se
( 30 ) , 20S
13. Epi ee e+3 x49
+

(a8) x= 20 es
x* + 12x
+ 35
x+9
fa) x — 39

7-x 3(7-x)
a_ Explain his mistake.
2
15. 6x" + 4) cs ae b Show how to correctly divide these
x(x + 9) 2x expressions.

16. —— +=
cad ee

17.
Deol > eS
21 y

LESSON 4.2 =
o_o:

4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with
Common Denominators
When two fractions have a common denominator, such as 7and = their sum is

found by adding the numerators and keeping the same denominator. The same
concept applies to rational expressions. To add rational expressions with a
common denominator, add the numerators, and keep the same denominator:
ar :
aap 2 =ate In other words, the numerators a and b are added, while the
denominator c stays the same.
Subtracting rational expressions is also similar to subtracting numeric fractions.
To subtract rational expressions with a common denominator, you subtract the
Ue a0
numerators and keep the denominator the same: ie = eee UY Oller Words,
subtract b from a in the numerator, while the denominator c stays the same.

192 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEMS
i) Kageaeet
Pe ee 2:
SOLUTION
Add numerators and keep _3x_, x +1 _ 4% +1 With acommon denominator, just add the
denominator the same x—-2 x-—2 x-—2 numerators. The denominator stays the
same, x — 2.

2. Subtract ee ee ;
PO). 2x NG
SOLUTION
Subtract numerators 28 yeti 1 To subtract rational expressions with
and keep denominator 2s One. 2616 a common denominator, subtract the
the same ~ 9x — (2x + 1) numerators, keeping the same denominator.
29570
Tawa) li
2x6

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-17: Simplify, if possible. 10 Dee O eae
peer ets i <xct 11 © ered

x+3 x+3 a 2x27+8 x2-3

eee eto Soa bi se et

3. = ae
: i fae ee
oe Seat
x7-8 xt+4 x a
4. 5 Barc.
Ppa i
=. Seay eth i is
y35 35
oe 15 Look = Oe 9
Gg. SEO A De ; xe x?
45x 45x oe
16 Kasia Oe Ape Aye 6
7 3x47 , 7 ~ 3x : ac xo
a2 x 2x
17 0 ee Oe aD
8 Sx£6 , 6=5x ; x? ua
= 30% 30x

TES 8 Tx
56x 56x

4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions 193

 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions with
Different Denominators
When two fractions have different denominators, such as =and = they must be
written with a common denominator before they can be added or subtracted. The
same concept applies to rational expressions.

MODEL PROBLEMS
eed AS
et
SOLUTION
Multiply to create pero | k.O Multiply the first term by a fraction
common denominator * %* x-5 equal to 1 that contains the denominator
Oe 0 of the second term.
x(x==5)
Multiply to create Teel eX Now multiply the second term by a
commondenominator x-5 x-5 % fraction equal to 1 that contains the
x denominator of the first term.
=o)
Add numerators ONE) x _ 3x —15+x Add the numerators and keep the
TO) (0) fa(eee 8), same denominator.
Simplify Gans lon od Gor 15 Simplify the numerator by combining
Be = 5) KG) like terms.
y 2
€5 (EMEA Perform the operations and simplify : =5 + ae
= to ee
:7 “== 3:

SOLUTION
Factor 3 Bx ax 10 To find a common denominator,
denominatorto (¢+2) (x+4) (x+2)(x+4) first factor the denominator
identify factors of the expression on the right.
It turns out to be the product |
of the expressions in the other
denominators. :
Multiply to Bx + 4) Prey ay? 10 Multiply to create a common
create common (x+2)x+4) (t+4)(x+2) (x +2)(x+4) denominator. The common
denominator denominator is (x + 2)(x + 4).
Desttivuteand 3x + 12 45x" + 10x — 40° 3 10 Add the numerators, multiply,
add (x + 2)(x + 4) then combine like terms in the
ye + 137 490 numerator.

(x + 2) + 4) :

Factor and +2)(x + 11) Factor the numerator. Since

simplify (e+ 2)(x + 4) there is a common factor, we
on can cancel it to simplify the
—— expression.
x+4

194 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions -

Least Common Multiple
The least common multiple (LCM) of two or more numbers or algebraic
expressions is a number or expression that contains as a product all the factors of
all those numbers or expressions, with no extra factors. For a numeric example,
the LCM of 8, 6, and 12 is 24. 24 factors into 2° - 3, and 8 (2 Gt) eand
12: (=:27%3) are the products of some or all of these factors, with no unnecessary
factors. The least common denominator (LCD) is the least common multiple of
the denominators of two or more numeric fractions or rational expressions. The
LCD is very useful for adding or subtracting rational expressions.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Find the LCM of the monomials 4x4 and 10x.

SOLUTION
Factor each monomial 4x* = 2? - x4 First factor each monomial. This includes
LON 2D x factoring the coefficients, which are 4 and
10 here.
List each factor toits 2? from 4x4 The factor 2 appears to the power 2 in 4x’.
greatest power 5 from 10x The factor 5 appears just once, in 10x.
x* from 4x4 The highest power of the variable x is 4
in 4x*,
Multiply LCM = 22-5-x* = 20x4 To calculate With rational expressions, 1
the least the LCM is the term with the |
ROINTNOn smallest constant and the = [|
multiple, we variable to the least power
multiply the that isa common multiple — |
ee seen cs eR
LCM is 20x*.

2. Find the LCM of the polynomials 2x — 6 and x* — 6x + 9.

SOLUTION
Factor each polynomial 2x =6= 2% = 3) To find the least common multiple, first
x? — 6x +9 = (x — 3)? factor each polynomial.
List each factor to its 2 from.2(%4-=-9) The factor 2 appears just once, in the first
greatest power (x — 3)? from (x — 3)? polynomial. The factor x — 3 appears
once in the first polynomial, but it’s
squared in the second polynomial.
Multiply 2(x — 3) To calculate the least common multiple,
multiply the powers listed. The LCM is
2(x — 3).

Model Problems continue...

4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions 195

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Subtract = = using the LCD.

2x° + 2x
SOLUTION
Factor each Dee =!2K (x24 1) To find the least common multiple,
denominator 5x =5-x first factor each of the polynomials in
Factors: 2,5,x,x7 +1 the denominators. List the factors.

Multiply LCD = 10x(x? + 1) To calculate the least common

denominator, multiply the powers
listed. The LCD is 10x(x” + 1).
Multiply first 1 - i 5 5 The only factor of the least common
fraction by fraction 2x°+2x 2x°+ 2x 5s 10x(x? + 1) denominator missing from the first
equivalent to 1 denominator is 5. Multiply the first
fraction by 2

Multiply second 1 ee ee ea +d) The only factor of the LCD missing

fraction by fraction 5x 5x 2(x2+1) 10x(x? +1) from the second denominator is
equivalent to 1 2(x? + 1). Multiply the second
2(x? + 1)
fraction by2x2 + 1)"

Subtract with WANS

5 E! nebo Ly Write the rational expressions with
common 10x(x2 +1) 10x(x?2 +1) their common denominator.
denominator
Perform operations 5 — 2x* - 2 Subtract the numerators and combine
10x(x? + 1) like terms.

ple
10x(x? + 1)

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-4: Find the least common multiple.
1. 8x‘ and (x + 4)®
2. 7x and 49x + 147
3. (8x)? and 64x + 640
4. 49x and 16x + 112
Exercises 5-23: Simplify, if possible.
10.
Q2xn+7 . 6x7+4
eeeaeey, x+4
11.
Ay ilies Saute
6
Se x +4
12.
x+5 Practice Problems continue...

196 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Practice Problems continued...

13.
Coton edie x+8 Dee Peers TD
x?+7x +12 x24 117x424 22.
2x*-13x+21 7+x*-9 x-3
36x + 28 i) 4x +4
14. 23.
Ax* — 64x +252 x2- 16x + 63
il ce 1 p 4 4 8 16
24x + 21 a 3x +5 es
15. 1-x l1+x 1+x? T+x4 14+x% 142%
3x7 — 45x +168 x2-— 15x +56
(ae RE] A student says that a rational
24.
16. Erte ai eet. expression doesn’t change if we add the
7x x? + 6x same term to its numerator and its
denominator. Is this a correct statement?
17.
MeO. 4x Explain why or why not.
6x x? + 5x
25. [3 Mr. Trickmonth says the number
18. el: ee ae of the month in which he was born is equal
7 Obese x(4x +. 16)
eee
19. Le Sea to
1
PD
ie 1
LT
b
ene
1976-70, 2x(4x + 16)
a+b a-b
20. De Mieke oohcack 8 Could he be correct, or is he tricking you?
x? + 15x + 56 13x + 104 Explain.
J ee 26. Show that
21.
x? + 13x + 36 9x
+ 36 vz, Y-HE-%) , y-dE-D_,
bd Dbl 0) AG 0) ‘

LESSON 4.3 ee
uence
4.3 Rational Equations
Algebra 1 Review: Evaluating Rational Expressions
and Equations

MODEL PROBLEMS
x°+5
1. Evaluate = when x = —2.

SOLUTION

Substitute x7 +5 Substitute —2 for x in the expression.

cel
(=2)" 5
a
Simplify numerator and =32+5
_-27 In the numerator, calculate (—2)? and then
denominator ee subtract. In the denominator, subtract 1 from —2.

Divide eG With the numerator and denominator

=6) simplified, now divide.
Model Problems continue...

4.3 Rational Equations 197

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

& (RY Amy takes 6 days to dig a hole. Beth takes 4. How long does it take them to do it
together? There is a general equation for rate questions like this, as we show below. The two
terms sum to 1, since they are completing one task.
1 1 The equation states that the amount of work done by the first worker in
on ih
jit le j= 1 . ; in the
a b t units of time, plus the amount of work done by the second worker
ue 1 same time, equals 1, which means the entire task is completed. The equation
;. B .
ne ;one can be used to solve many rate problems that ask how long it willtake ttwo
oo. _to. accomplish a task together.
t = time together
SOLUTION
Write equation (3) + (4)= 1 The amount of work Amy does in ¢ days, plus the
: b amount of work Beth does in t days, equals 1, which
1 es means the entire task is completed. Substitute
er a 7 a = Amy’s time = 6; b = Beth’s time = 4; and
t = time working together into the equation.
Simplify by 124) + 12$F = 12-1 Multiply all the terms in the equation by the least
multiplying by common denominator, 12.
LCD 2i + 3 3t = 12
Solve equation i= ~ Solve the equation by adding like terms on the left
side and then dividing by 5. The number of days to
oe dig the hole is =

eG In this activity, use the rate equation from the model problem to calculate how long it
will take two beavers to eat a log together.

198 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

> In this activity, use the rate equation from the model problem to calculate how long it
would take each beaver to eat the log alone.

PRACTICE
1. Hero Dan can save the world in 110 years, The beavers are working together to eat a
while his teacher, Hero San needs only fallen log. Tiffany takes 180 seconds per log
70 years to do it. How soon can they save and Michael takes 130 seconds per log. How
the world if they work together? long will it take them to complete their task?
Round your answer to the nearest tenth.
180
A. 180 years = 7700 Year
1 7700
B. 10 D. hoes

Evaluate, to the nearest hundredth,

3x7 + 6x + 11
mA when x = 4. 6. [PRE] Riding with the wind at her back,
a cyclist takes an hour less time to cover
80 miles than without any wind. Riding
Evaluate, to the nearest hundredth,
with the wind increases the cyclist’s speed
9x°
— 6x? — 2 by 2 miles per hour. What is her speed
whenx = 5.
PD when riding with the wind?
Ralph takes 5 hours to clean the house,
4. [UGXZI The equivalent (total) resistance of and Janice takes 6 hours to clean the house.
two resistors in parallel can be calculated If they work together, how long does it
1 take them to clean the house? Express
with the formula R; = . If resistors
ot PD! your answer to the nearest minute.
Rosey te Jamie takes twice as long as Luke to take
A and B are in parallel and have resistances out the garbage, and together they take out
of 30 ohms and 100 ohms, respectively, what the garbage in 26 minutes. How long would
is the equivalent resistance of this circuit, to it take Jamie to take out the garbage by
two decimal places? himself?

Practice Problems continue...

4.3 Rational Equations 199

Practice Problems continued...

9. One plane travels 35 miles per hour faster 13. Two hikers leave their base camps at the
than another. The faster plane can travel same time and walk with constant speeds
2425 miles in the same amount of time that toward each other, aiming for each other’s
the slower one can travel 2250 miles. What is camps. When they meet on the trail, the
the speed of the faster plane? faster hiker still needs to walk for another
4 hours to reach his new camp, while the
10. A hiker walks north at 7 kilometers per slower hiker needs to walk for another
hour, takes a 15-minute break, and walks
9 hours. Draw a diagram and find how
back to her starting point at 12 kilometers many hours they walked on the trail until
per hour. The trip takes 85 minutes. How far they met.
was the trip north, to the nearest tenth of a
kilometer? 14. Sam takes 50 minutes to take out the
; aah
a4 EWEN Glos much zincrieonnectito garbage in a dormitory, and Sara takes
110 minutes to take out the garbage. If
sede iea Oba CORDS ago) Ula’ they work together, how long does it take
contains 16% copper so that the resulting ‘
; them to take out the garbage? Round your
alloy contains 10% copper? answer to the heme ate ‘
12. The Snake River flows at about 6 miles
per hour. A kayaker paddles upriver a
distance of 6 miles, then downriver the
same distance, taking 4 hours for the entire
trip. What is the speed of the kayaker in
still water, to the nearest hundredth?

Rational Equations
A rational equation is one that contains at least one rational expression. The equation
5 _ -.is an example. The key to solving rational equations is the idea of clearing
the denominators. To do this, we multiply both sides of the equation by the least
common denominator (LCD).

MODEL PROBLEMS
ae
1. Solve ipa 5 by clearing denominators.

SOLUTION
Find LCD LCD = 2(x + 3) Find the least common denominator (LCD)
of the two denominators, x + 3 and 2. In
this case, it is just the product of the two
denominators.
Multiply both Det (23) =2(x + 9(Z) Multiply both sides of the equation by the
sides by LCD Aa 2 LCD = 2(x + 3).
Cancel common 2+ a(==) = 2(x + (2) Cancel common factors on both sides of
Lao pee :
factors the equation.
2CRs Or= 7 3)
Solve equation 4x —6=7x+ 21 Solve.
3x = 27
c= 9 Model Problems continue...

200 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3
2. Solve eee 6
+ < = L using the zero-product property.

SOLUTION
Find LCD LCD = x(4 + x) Find the least common
denominator.
3
Multiply both x(4 + x) +x(4 + x)2 = x(4 + x)- 1 Multiply both sides of the equation
sides byx LCD oe by the LCD =s x(4 + x).
Cancel ea+ay( ° (6
)+ x(4+ (8) = x(4 + x) Cancel common factors.
common factors a+ Z
Simplify 3x + 24 + 6x = 4x + x? Simplify.
Write equation ta 24) Write the equation as a quadratic
as quadratic equation equal to 0.
Factor E308) =) Factor.
Solve x+3=O0orx—8=0 Apply the zero-product property.
C36 Solve each of the resulting
equations.

Extraneous Solutions To eliminate extraneous solutions, you

should check all solutions in the original
An extraneous solution is a solution to a derived equation
equation. (It is always a good idea to
that is not a solution to the original equation. We show
check your work, but it’s essential with '
how an extraneous solution can arise as an equation is
rational equations to check for extraneous |
solved in the model problems.
solutions.) If a possible solution fails to 1
make the original equation true, it is an
MODEL PROBLEMS extraneous solution.

pe eae o 1
0! =
hee es aA
SOLUTION
Multiply by x°+3=19 Since the two denominators are the same, the LCD is
LED x + 4. Multiply both sides of the equation by x + 4 and cancel
common factors.
Solve x* = 16 - Subtract 3 from both sides. There are two candidates for
equation x= -4,4 solutions to the resulting equation, —4 and 4.
Check: ACT 3 ee Substituting x = 4 into the original equation results in a true
Substitute 4 Aaya A statement, so 4 is a solution.
19 _ 19
8 8
Check: (—4)?+3 , 19 Substituting x = —4 into the original equation results in a 0
Substitute —4 (-4) +4 ~ (—4) +4 denominator, so —4 is an extraneous solution.
ig _ 19
0 0 Model Problems continue...

4.3 Rational Equations 201

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Solve 2 += Z :
x+- 1 Late

SOLUTION
Multiply both LCD=x+1 Since the two denominators are the same,
sides by LCD
and solve e+n(2o48)-(2
9
x +t ar
5
jer the LCD is just x + 1. Multiply both sides of
the equation by x + 1 and solve.

2+5x+5=2
eS =

Check: eae Substituting x = —1 into the original

Substitute —1 —-1+1 -1+1 equation results in a 0 denominator.
Therefore, —1 is an extraneous solution.
2
Sets: 2.oe = Since —1 was the only possible solution, the
0 0
original equation has no solution.

©OeCLE Wy Fred and Jesse both drive 300 miles. Fred drives 10 miles per hour slower and
takes one hour longer to drive the 300 miles. How fast do Fred and Jesse drive?
a_ Write a rational equation to describe the problem.
b Solve the equation by finding the LCD.
c Are there extraneous solutions to the problem? Explain.
SOLUTION
a Expressions x = Jesse’s speed Use x to represent Jesse’s speed. Fred drives
forspeeds. x= 10 = Pred’s speed 10 miles per hour slower than Jesse, which we
represent with the expression x — 10.

State Fred’s time = Jesse’s time + 1 The problem states that Fred takes one hour
equation longer to make the trip than Jesse. To make the
quantities equal, add 1 to Jesse’s time.

Distance i= 4 Use the distance equation: time equals distance

equation divided by speed.
300 0
Substitute a
Lu een +
Substitute the expressions for time. 300
Fred’sspeed Jesse's speed
divided by Fred’s speed is how long it takes
300_ _ 300 be
him to travel. Jesse’s travel time is 300 divided
by his speed. Then, substitute the expressions
x10 x
for speed.

b Find LCD LCD = x(x = 10) Start by finding the least common
denominator.
Multiply by ] ( 300 )- . (20 3 1) Multiply both sides of the equation
LCD GS iG) x by the least common denominator.
Simplify 300x = 300x — 3000 + x* — 10x Cancel the common factors.
Model Problems continue...

202 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

State as 0 =x* — 10x — 3000 Combine like terms.

quadratic
Solve O = (% = 60)(x + 50) Factor the equation, and solve it.
equation x -— 60 =—0orx + 50 =0 There are two solutions, but only 60
xX = 60, 50 makes sense in the problem. A speed
of —50 miles per hour does not.
State Jesse’s speed = x = 60 Jesse’s speed is 60, and Fred’ s speed
solution Fred’s speed =x—-10=50 - is 10 less than Jesse’s. The solutions
check: Jesse would take 5 hours, and
Fred 6 hours, at these speeds.
c The solution x = —50 does not apply to the situation. The solution of 60 is not an extraneous
solution (it causes no division by 0).

PRACTICE
1. How many real solutions does the equation 11 OE SON I
x7 +2x4+2 " 3x-12 3x +54
SEE art U have?
fe) qos vee
A- 0 Cn:D Ghat, One O
ed D. Infinitely many : ieee, dae)
j ay 3x — [20> ie
2. Which of the following are the solutions to ‘s 6
-— 14. -
the equation =$— — 474-42 Sx 6) Oxia?
4x Th Oe
A. land -—1only 1G coh Rae
B. 2and —2 only ae 8
Gy = only
Vend —2 162
6 men ee = 4
D. 2only - ay Toe 7
Exercises 3-25: Solve. “x +3 x+4
pees Le,
Bey S58
18) pam ey 2 ia
4. Sys = 76 19. _ 6x as ope 6
eee en NS AMON
sek 6 20g ey
LB ee ae x—3
eS 4 e eee 21 Nom OXee aT =

x-21 x+18 oni

= 6 2 5 a2, x ox — 40 _y

eros sav , a+ 4
8. lea pee 23. Me Oe 18 4
x+9 x-18 ire
Feteet eS 24, XK 22
aes x+2
% 3 42
BL
10. 25. x + — 1S
ae eat Practice Problems continue...

4.3 Rational Equations 203

 Practice Problems continued...

Exercises 26-30: Solve. Justify your reasoning. 33. I think of a whole positive number. If I write
24 “5” to the right of my number, subtract the
26.x+ >= 11 square of my number, divide the difference
by my number, and then subtract my
a 13 number from the result, I get 1. What is my
$ number?
p28
=aed )
34. [PRE] Can a rational equation have
|
28. CS ears f 5 more than one extraneous solution? Explain
= why not, or give an example of a rational
equation with more than one extraneous
29.Cie solution.

(; ) (: ) (: ) 35. For which values of y is the sum of the

She ee Bere eS5 he saya 14 :
ae (x (x ) 2x fractions ay and yes equal to their

1+x ie 1+x product?

30. Be 98 36. Give an example of a rational equation
Cex 2x — 2 with infinitely many solutions. Justify your
[aed Your team has won 26% of its first
31. pane
50 games. It then goes on a winning streak 37. [ERP] For what values of m does the
and wins the next y games in a row, which eyes ee oi mx+3
raises its winning percentage to 38%. How equation ye are a
many games did the team play in total? have solunene?

32. Sarah wants to solve the equation

:o :=e ee After converting the

left side of the equation to a fraction with

the common denominator, she determined

eel) = a The numerators are the

‘ogarate 4 ae
same. Sarah concludes the denominators
should be equal as well.So8 —x =7— x,
and 8 = 7. What went wrong?

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

Cae aed Emmett and Solomon are working on physics homework together, but both have forgotten
their textbooks, so they decide to look online for the Doppler effect equation they need to complete
their homework. Emmett finds f’ = oe f, while Solomon finds f’ = i .

ia v
a Show that both equations are correct, that is, that they are equivalent expressions.
b Emmett realizes that they need an equation to find v,, not f’. Find an equation for v, by solving
one of the above equations for that variable.

204 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

LESSON 4.4
4.4 Graphing Rational Functions Rational
functions are
We show you how to graph rational functions of the form f(x) =Lo We start also called
q(x) reciprocal
with the properties of the graph of the parent function f(x) = +.It is the parent functions: .
function of rational functions because it is the
simplest rational function. Its graph helps you
graph other rational functions. These graphs
have asymptotes. Remember, asymptotes are
lines that are approached but never reached.

Domain is real Since division by zero is _ Horizontal |

asymptote
numbers except undefined, the domain of
ee ae |
zero the function is all real
numbers except zero.

Range is real The range of f(x) = ~

is
numbers except 0
all real numbers except zero. There is no value of x that
will cause this function to equal 0.

Asymptote at The graph has a vertical asymptote at x = 0, which is

value excluded the y-axis. This asymptote occurs at the domain restriction,
from domain that x cannot equal 0.

Asymptote also When xis positive, :-is also positive. As x gets larger,
at value excluded
from range ~ gets closer and closer to zero. Since f(x) = ~never
equals zero, the graph has a horizontal asymptote at
y = 0, which is the x-axis. When x gets close to 0, the absolute values of y get
larger and larger.

Two symmetric The graph of .has two symmetric branches. One branch is in the first
branches quadrant, and the other is in the third. The graph is symmetric about the
line y = x. It is also symmetric about the origin, which makes it an odd
function. There are two symmetric branches that approach but never reach the
asymptotes.

End behaviors The asymptotes define the end behaviors of the graph. As the absolute
value of x increases, f(x) approaches 0. And as the absolute value of x
approaches 0, |f(x)| becomes infinitely large.

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 205

Translating and Reflecting Rational Functions

Horizontal Translation
| Vertical
Bly asymptote
We show the parent function f(x) = bas As a3
— 3)
S| aR ee The graph of f(x) =

in gray compared to f(x) = ae The — : | is the graph of f(x) =

function is translated (shifted) translated horizontally to |
horizontally. In the example graph, | Horizontal the right by positive h and :
h=3. asymptote to the left by negative h. It |
y=0 has an asymptote at x = h. |

e Domain is all real numbers except The domain of f(x) = - i is all real numbers
h
except h. If x = h, there is division by 0. The domain

of f(x)= ~ is all real numbers except 3.

e Vertical asymptote at value The graph of f(x) = = h has a vertical asymptote

excluded from domain
at x = h. The dashed vertical line at x = 3 indicates
that it is an asymptote of the function.

e Range is real numbers except 0 The range of f(x)

= wr
4 is all real numbers except
Zero.

e Horizontal asymptote at value The graph of f(x) = - i has a horizontal

excluded from range ; f
asymptote at y = 0. The dashed line on the x-axis
indicates that it is an asymptote of the function.
1
¢ Graph of :translated to right by h When his positive, the graph of f(x) = is the
ib
same as the graph of .except it is translated to the

right by h. f(x) = : 3 is translated 3 units right

1
from x: AS you see, this translation locates the
graph correctly relative to the vertical asymptote.

206 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Vertical Translation

The graph of fix) = 2 +k

We show the parent function f(x) = —
is the graph of f(x)
=
in gray compared to f(x)= —1+ k.The translated up if k is ee
and down if k is negative. It |
function is translated aaa has an asymptote at y = k. |
ox 1 a Horizontal
vertically. In the example graph, k = 2. FON ~ asymptote
a

e Domain is all real numbers except 0 The domain of f(x)= —~ kis all real numbers
except 0 because ie x is 0, the denominator is
zero, and division by zero is undefined. The

domain of f(x) = 1 + 2 is all real numbers except 0.

e Asymptote at value excluded from The graph of f(x)= —+ k has a vertical asymptote
domain at x = 0. We draw a oes line on the y-axis of our
graph to indicate ea it is an asymptote.
e Range is all real numbers except k The range of sieoa
i k is all real numbers except k.

If f(x) = k, then ‘ = 0. The range of the example

function f(x) = - + 2 does not include 2.

e Asymptote at value excluded from The graph of f(x)= —1+ k has a horizontal
range
asymptote at y = k.We draw a dashed horizontal line at
y = 2 on our graph to indicate that it aan asymptote.

e Graph is the same as usbut When kis positive, the Pin of f(x)= =1+ kis
translates up by k
the same as the Sane atsx except it is translated

up by k. f(x)= —y+ 2is translated 2 units up

from L.As you can see, this translates the graph

to the correct position relative to the horizontal
asymptote.

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 207

Reflecting Rational Functions

We show the parent function f(x) = tin gray compared to f(x) = -2.
Compared to the graph of the parent function, the graph of this
function is reflected about the x-axis. This is because a is negative.
We restate the expression to emphasize a in both functions:

fx) = (a) and fx) = (-a)

Stretching and Shrinking

Rational Functions If0 < a < 1, then the
as graph of f(x) = = is the
We show the parent function f(x) = a t same as the graph of =
ci
pee aT Stee Tas except it is vertically
in gray compared to f(x) = The
oy eae ie compressed by a. Ifa > 1,
absolute value of a is less than 1 (in the graph is the function
this case, a = 0.5), so the function is vertically stretched by a.
vertically compressed by half
compared to the parent function.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Graph f(x) = 2 Identify the domain and range and asymptotes. Compare the graph to the parent

function f(x) = +

SOLUTION
Domain and range are The domain and range of f(x) = = are
] b t0
poe eee both all non-zero real numbers. f(x) is
undefined when x = 0, and the value of
f(x) is never zero.

Asymptotes at x = 0 Similar to ‘,the graph of f(x) = <has a

and y = 0 3
vertical asymptote at x = 0 anda
horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

Same as parent function The graph of f(x) = = is the same as the

but stretched by a 1 ne ;
graph of x except it is stretched vertically by a. The graph of f(x) = 2is
stretched vertically by 2.
Model Problems continue...

208 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
2. For the reciprocal function f(x) = a =, which statement is true about the graph ifa> 1?
a
A. Ifa increases, the horizontal asymptote moves vertically upward.
B. If a increases, the domain and range remain the same.
C. Ifa decreases, the vertical asymptote moves horizontally to the left.
D.Ifa decreases, the domain and range become smaller.
SOLUTION
A. The value of a increasing stretches the graph vertically and does not change the asymptotes
of x = O0and y = 0. 7
B. Correct answer. The value of a increasing stretches the graph vertically and does not affect
the domain and range of the function, which are all real numbers except 0.
C. Changing a does not move the vertical asymptote from x = 0.
D. Changing a does not change the domain and range of all real numbers except 0.

3. Graph f(x) = — 5. Determine the domain and asymptotes. Describe the function compared
Cate
to the parent function.
SOLUTION ;
Determine domain For this function, the denominator is zero a
when x = —1,s0 the domain is all real
numbers except —1. ant,
x
Asymptotes The graph of this function has a vertical a
asymptote at x = —1 and a horizontal ee
asymptote aty = —5. oie!
Determine Since the denominator is x + 1, the graph is
translations based on translated to the left by 1 compared to the
(= I : +k graph of ‘ To put it another way, h = —1.
~s
Translate down by5__ Since the fraction has 5 subtracted from it, the graph is translated down by 5.
In other words, k = —5. Note that the horizontal asymptote is also translated.
It is y = —5.

4. Travis translated the graph of a reciprocal function, g(x), vertically

up by 2 units and graphed the new function, h(x). Which could
be Q(x)?
1
A 8) = 7» a eC Serres

B30) aaa D.g@) == 5-5

SOLUTION
A. This does not have a horizontal shift as indicated in the graph.
B. The vertical asymptote of this function would be at x = 2,
notx = —2.
C. This is the function of h(x), not g(x).
D. Correct answer. This function, when translated vertically 2 units, gives the graph shown.
Model Problems continue...

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 209

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
Oe (RY The Doppler effect is a demonstration of
relative motion. You experience the Doppler effect
when atrain races past you while sounding its
whistle. As the train is approaching, you hear one
frequency, and as it moves away, you hear a lower
frequency sound. The motion of the train changes
the frequency of the sound that reaches a person.
We calculate this perceived frequency with the
ww Vili
760f,
equation f, = The variable f, represents the sound you hear, f, is the frequency of the train’s
760 = 0
whistle when the train is stationary, and vis the velocity of the train, in miles per hour, relative to
the person listening to the whistle. v is positive when the train approaches the listener and negative
when it is moving away.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. The unit for cycles per second is hertz, abbreviated
Hz. A sound with a frequency of 528 Hz is about the frequency of the musical note C above
middle C.
760f,
a Graph the rational function f; =
700-0
b_ What is the perceived frequency for a sound at 528 cycles per second (Hz) when the train is
approaching at 85 miles per hour?
c What happens to the perceived frequency if the velocity of the train were negative? To answer
this, you can use the formula, or you may want to think about how sounds change for objects
moving away from you.
SOLUTION

a y f= ae Graph the function. Use a very large range of

7000 velocity, from 0 to 700 miles per hour. The problem
6000 concerns the train approaching us, so we only
5000 use positive velocities.
4000 We used a large range of data to point out that at
3000 lower velocities, the graph could be approximated
2000 byaline. It is only at speeds starting at about
(Hz)
Frequency
1000 400 miles per hour that the graph starts to become
less linear. Its asymptote will be v = 760, since
0 200 400 600 800 that value makes the denominator equal 0.
Velocity (mph)

b Evaluateat85mph f,= eo oe The question asks for the frequency of the train’s
on Oe whistle if the train was approaching you at
f, = 594 cycles per
85 miles per hour. It would have a frequency of
second 594 cycles per second for the listener. The
frequency 594 cycles per second is close to the
musical note D. The train’s motion has changed
the sound you hear from about a C toa D.
c The perceived frequency will be lower than the frequency of the whistle while stationary.
Model Problems continue...

210 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

»}e MP 2, 4| A standard beverage can has a volume of 355 cm®. We want to determine the height and
radius of a can that uses the least amount of material. From a business standpoint, the question
of finding the dimensions that use the least amount of material is an important one. Using less
material means spending less. Using the least material conserves resources. In the equations, V is
volume, r is radius, h is height, and S is surface area: V = mr7h; S = 2ar? + 2arh.

a Use the equations to write a single equation for surface area in terms of the radius.
b Graph that equation to find the minimum surface area required, and use that information to
find the radius and height of the can.
SOLUTION
a Solve volume V =aorh Use equations for the volume and surface area of the
equation IOC 3be 2), can. There are two variables, h and r. State the equation
in terms.of r 355 for surface area in terms of one variable. To do so, solve
h= on the volume equation for h in terms of r. Substitute the
known value of 355 cm? into the formula for the volume
of a cylinder. Dividing both sides by wr’ solves for h in .
terms of r.
Eliminate h S = 2nr* + 2arh Start with the equation for surface area. We have an
from surface 55) expression for h. Substitute that into the equation.
areaequation S = 2ur° + 2m
Tr 2
2 * 20D) Tr
Simplify S =2nr + aes We now have surface area as a function of one variable,
710 . the radius.
S = 20r + so

b Graph function for y S=2ar+ a We use a graph of the function as a

surface area way to decide what dimensions will
minimize the amount of material
used. We assume the can has uniform
thickness, so minimizing the surface
area for the desired volume will
minimize the amount of material
Surface
(cm°)
Area used.
0123 45 67 8 9 101112131415
Radius (cm)

Find minimum r=~4cm The minimum of the graph is the least

amount of material. The x-coordinate
of this point is the radius of the can that
uses the least amount of material.

Substitute h= Once we have an approximation for

8 the minimum radius from the graph,
h= 710 we can substitute this value for r
into the equation for the volume of
a cylinder to solve for the height.

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 211

 Solving a System of Rational Equations by Graphing
Asystem of equations that includes a rational expression can be solved by graphing,
in the same way that simpler systems can be solved.

MODEL PROBLEM

© Cirr One model rocket’s velocity is modeled with the function v(s) = V 20s. Another rocket’s
velocity is modeled with the function o(s) = (+) + 8. The variable s represents the height
above Earth’s surface and is never negative. The functions use meter and meters per second as their
units for s and v, respectively. At what height will the two model rockets have the same velocity?
a Graph the two functions and find where they intersect, since that point represents the altitude
_and velocity that are the same for both rockets. Interpret the v-intercept for both graphs and the
horizontal asymptote.
b _Iterate to find a closer approximation to the intersection point.
SOLUTION —
a Y We estimate the graphs intersect at (3.7, 8.6). In this situation, that
eee ee means the rockets intersect at a height of 3.7 m and at a velocity of
8.6 m/s.
The velocity of the rocket modeled by the square root function has
a v-intercept of 0, which means at the ground, where s = 0, it has
0 velocity. Its velocity would seem to increase forever.
(m/s)
Velocity The velocity modeled by the rational expression,
o 1
+ 8, has a v-intercept of 11. This means at Earth’s
faa a(-+ 1
CO
a
OrRPNWHOIDAN
surface, its initial speed is 11 m/s. Its velocity will approach
012345678910 8 m/s. That is the horizontal asymptote, and it equals the constant
Distance (m) added to the rational expression.

We calculate the functions from 3.700 to 3.750,

ae v=V20s_ | v(s) = a( ==)+ 8] in increments of 0.005 meters, since that is
near the intersection point we estimated from
the graph. The table shows us that a closer
3.705 approximation to the intersection point is
(3.725, 9.63).

3.715
(3.720 .

212 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

PRACTICE
1. What is the domain of f(x) = e a ean 5. The two branches of the parent reciprocal
A. All real numbers function f(x)= 1are symmetric about what
B. All real numbers line?
except 0
C. All real numbers except 11 6. What is the domain of f(x)= — — 8?
D. All real numbers except —
1
E. All real numbers except 13 7. What is the domain of f(x) = Poe
eee.
F All real numbers except —
8. What are the domain and range of f(x) = —
- What is the domain; of off(x) = Z
a6 = 28?28%
9. What are the domain and range of the
A. All real numbers
B. All real numbers except 0 function f(x)= aan ait)’
C. All real numbers except 25
D. All real numbers except —25 10. How do the graphs of f(x)= —“and
E. All real numbers except 28
F. All real numbers except — f(x) = -1 differ, and why?

- What is the domain of f(x) = = i152 11. The graph of a reciprocal function has a
vertical asymptote at x = —5. What is the
A. All real numbers domain of this function?
B. All real numbers except 0
Exercises 12-15: For each value esa, explain how
C. All real numbers except 15
D. All real numbers except —15 the graph of the function f(x)= —+will differ
E. All real numbers except 32 from its parent function f(x) = is
Use terms like
F. All real numbers except —32
stretched, compressed, and reflected in your
1 descriptions.
. How does the graph of f(x) = eh as
122
compare to the graph of f(x) = —
it
13. a=—=
sae
A. f(x)= =o
is 12 units to the left
14. a=-1
1
of f(x) => 15. a=-4

16. What are the asymptotes of the graph

B. f(x)= Farr is 12 units to the right
flx) = 3
?
1
of f(x) = > 17. What i. the asymptotes of the graph
fx)= 1+ 12?
C. fx)= aD is 12 units up from
18. What are ia asymptotes of the graph
fa) =4 f(@) = — 42
cet=
D. f(x)= ay is 12 units down from 19. What are ae asymptotes of the graph
een
fx) =~ Practice Problems continue...

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 213

Practice Problems continued ...

Exercises 20-23: Use the parent function, f(x) = ~, 26. oo

to write expressions based on the descriptions, and
then graph the expression that results.
20. An expression for the function with the
graph shifted right 6 units.
21. An expression for the function with the
graph shifted up 4 units.
22. An expression for the function with the
graph shifted down 2 and left 7 units.
23. An expression for the function with the 27. Write the reciprocal function that represents
graph shifted up 5 and right 6 units. the ji
graph. ee >

Exercises 24-26: Match each graph by finding

the values for h and k in f(x) = e(-: 7 se
Note that a is 1 in this case.

ein re corre
-10-9 -8 -7 6 -5 4-3-2

Exercises 28-30: Match the graph by finding the

values for a,h, and k in f(x) = e(-a =)PUK.

28. Note that a is 1 in this case.

} x
111234567 8 9\101112131415.,

Practice Problems continue. . .

214 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Practice Problems continued .. .

36. Explain how the asymptotes of a reciprocal

function are related to its domain and range.

37. oF The ratio of the circumference of a

circle to its area can be expressed by the
formula T = gis where Tis the ratio of
Tr
circumference to area, and r is the radius of
the circle. Find the radius and area of a circle

with a T-value of =

38. The formula I = eoalso known as Ohm’s

Law, is used to model the relationship

between electrical current (J), voltage (V),
and resistance (R) ina circuit. If the voltage
is held constant at 12 volts, what will
happen to the amount of electrical current
10-9 -8 -7-6 -5 4-3 - 1 2530405 6-78" 9 104
ns when the amount of resistance is increased?

39. iz Melissa is working as a caterer at a

wedding. She will be paid a flat fee of $100,
plus part of a bonus of $600 that will be
divided among the catering staff. Melissa’s
pay for the evening can be modeled by the
Exercises 31-34: Use the parent reciprocal equation P = = + 100, where P represents
function f(x) = +to write a function equation for pay and C represents the number of catering
staff who will split the bonus.
each problem based on the description of each
graph. Then make a graph of the equation you a How much will Melissa earn if there are
wrote. 8 people on the catering staff?
31. Stretches the graph by a factor of 3 b If Melissa made $125, how many people
were on the catering staff?
32. Compresses the graph byafactor of i c Graph the function used to calculate
5 Melissa’s pay for all positive values of C.
33. Reflects across the x-axis and then shifts the State the equations of the vertical and
graph down 2 units horizontal asymptotes.
34. Reflects across the x-axis and then shifts the
graph up 1 unit and to the left 4 units

35. ia The functions v(s) = (- 27)+ 3 and

v(s) = V6s model the velocity of two different

projectiles, where v(s) represents velocity and
s represents position above the ground.
a Graph the functions for the domain
OO
b Find the intersection point of the graphs of
v(s) = (2) +3 and v(s) = V6s.

Round the coordinates to the nearest

hundredth.
4.4 Graphing Rational Functions 215
 e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

|MP 2, 4| Art’s boat cruises at 8 miles per hour in still water. It takes him 8 hours along the river
to make the 26-mile round-trip from his dock to his favorite fishing spot and back. How fast is the
river’s current?

a Make atable to organize the data, with entries for distance upriver and downriver and
expressions for speed against the current and with the current.
b Write an equation for time, t, as a function of current speed.
c Substitute for time and solve the equation for current speed. Round your answer to the
nearest tenth.
d How long does it take Art to make each one-way trip? Round your answer to the nearest tenth.

Chapter 4+ Sey [deas aemesecs=c meses

4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

e Arational expression is one polynomial divided by another. The quotient is often stated as a
4
NSN
fraction. For example, the rational expression a7 tePresents yer Dk = 5 divided
by 4x + 7.
e To simplify a rational expression, you may first have to factor its numerator, its denominator, or
both. You then cancel any factors that are common to both the numerator and the denominator.
e The process of multiplying rational expressions is the same as multiplying numeric fractions
like “ ; =. You multiply the numerators, and multiply the denominators. You may need to

simplify the result by canceling any common factors in the numerator and denominator.
e Division by a rational expression is equivalent to multiplication by its reciprocal.

4.2 Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

e When adding or subtracting rational expressions with the same denominator, you add or subtract
the numerators based on the operation you are asked to do, and keep the denominator the same.
e To add or subtract rational expressions with different denominators, two steps are required:
Multiply each rational expression by a fraction equal to 1 to create a common denominator, and
then add or subtract.
¢ The least common multiple (LCM) of two polynomials contains all the factors of the polynomials,
and no additional factors. You may need to factor polynomials to find their least common
multiple.
e You can add or subtract rational expressions by first finding the LCM of their denominators, and
using that to create a least common denominator (LCD).

216 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

 A complex rational expression like (ae6-3) is an expression written as a fraction where the

esre 1)
numerator or denominator contains a rational expression. One way to simplify a complex rational
expression is to invert the fraction in the denominator, and multiply it by the numerator.
A rational expression is undefined when its denominator equals 0. You can determine when it is
undefined by setting its denominator equal to 0 and solving that equation.

4.3 Rational Equations

; : ; 6 Ao. : : :
A rational equation, like aes a eae is an equation that contains at least one rational

expression. The key to solving rational equations is the idea of clearing the denominators. To
do this, you multiply both sides of the equation by the least common denominator (LCD). The
desired result is to remove all terms containing the variable from the denominators. You then
solve the equation as usual.
After you solve a rational equation, it is important to check for extraneous solutions. Extraneous
solutions do not hold true in the original equation. To eliminate extraneous solutions, check all
solutions to the derived equation in the original equation. If a possible solution does not make the
original equation true, it is an extraneous solution.

4.4 Graphing Rational Functions

Rational functions can be graphed. Their vertical asymptotes are vertical lines, like x = 5, where
the denominator equals 0. The graph of the rational expression approaches but never reaches
a vertical asymptote. Horizontal asymptotes, such as y = 0, represent values that functions
approach, but never reach. A rational function can be graphed using asymptotes, and by plotting
points and connecting the points with curves.

Chapter 4 Key Ideas 217

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
1. Acube has side length s. If the side length Exercises 5—12: Simplify, if possible.
increases by p units, what is the ratio of the Ap 2288
surface area to volume of the new cube, in 5. aE
simplest form? ee
A : Cre 6 48 — 8x
aes
stp p = 6
Step 6
B 6 P. s+p 7 at
LO een)
ye aoe (ree
Oe a 10188
2. The area of a triangle is + 3 j Se ae 2(9 — x)

and its height is equal to are . Which of CoE x t EEE

ie 3
the following represents the ee of the 9 6x2 60x ad xt dy”. Oe)
base of the triangle? ; Ke 7) iG. ogy Alaa)
Gain)
6(x-= 3) 2 C. (x + 4) 8x? + 88x +192 A x?+3xany, CE
OhcE 8(xpee
+3)
AC ed io 5) x+8 35 =)
ae D. 12x - 48 7 ;
11. Nin ONE eee LU
ISLES ox tas Sacks
3. Which function does the graph represent? . ‘ ‘ :
6 x
12.
iySis tO axes DYE35

13. [SERENE] Show that if # = = alo

~

then.a— b= c.

14. [IPRA The volume Vof a cylinder is

V = w?’h, where ris the radius of the base,
and h is the height of the cylinder. If the
radius of the cylinder is decreased by 25%,
by what percent should its height increase
so that the cylinder has the same volume V?
Be fx) =2ton C4 Lk)= Sea + 8 Round your answer to the nearest tenth of
1 a percent.
B. f(x)= Ha WD. of)= raAG
i x+2 15. [FRE] “Do you want to know how many
books I read this summer?” Harry asked.
4. Which of the following lines is a vertical plas x y x sy
ee of the graph of the function? It's (€ . z)a (zesr ))es

lls wes ? (1 + z) peer

= 3) How many books did
A, x=3 ee Harry read?
By eo Dini =5

Chapter Review continues...

218 Chapter 4: Rational Expressions

Chapter Review continued . .

16. Perform the operations. Assume that all 24.

numerators and denominators are non-zero:
sine it i ©OGeF 1) 2)
8x7 -20+8 — 6

17. Fill in the blank cells in the table with

expressions such that the sum along each
row, column, and diagonal is equal to zero.

Exercises 25-27: In each problem, the asymptotes

are given for a reciprocal function of the form
fice) = — 1
i + k. Write the equation of the
function, and then graph it.
Exercises 18—22: Solve.
ae a3 25. x=3,y=—-5

ot oS 26. x = -3,y=1

19. 2 A 27.x=4,y=0
x—30 x+20
28. [EI Explain why the output of the
6 2 1
20. = function f(x) = — + 3 can never be equal to 3.
° x+A4 bee eS fix) x q
29. Reciprocal functions are useful for modeling
ee a0 situations where a constant amount is
ee ee a divided by one variable to produce the
ee other variable. Make upasituation like this,
48 then define variables and write a reciprocal
22. x + apanen 0 function that describes it.

30. [FAIA eroup of friends are going on

Exercises 23-24: Write the reciprocal function
vacation together. They plan to rent a large
represented by each graph.
house for $3000 and share the cost. They also
23. ae estimate that buying food for the week will
cost $150 per person.
a Write a reciprocal function to calculate
the cost per person for the trip (C), based
on the number of people (P) who decide
to come on the vacation.
b Use your function to calculate the cost
per person for 5, 8, and 10 people.
c Cassie has a budget of $400 for the trip.
How many people must attend in order
for her to participate?

Chapter 4 Review 219

Cumulative Review
for Chapters ‘ne |

1. Paula went to the grocery store and only 9. (x* + 17x? + 102x* + 256x + 224) + (x + 7)
bought 7 cans of corn, some bags of candy, 10. (x* + 20x° + 149x” + 490x + 600) + (x + 5)
and a few cartons of milk for exactly $33.
It costs $1.25 for a can of corn, $2.75 for a bag 11. Use long division to factor the polynomial
of candy, and $3.50 for a carton of milk. If x* — 6x? — 24x* + 64x. The polynomial has a
Paula bought a total of 15 items, how many factor of x — 2.
of each did she purchase?
Exercises 12-13: Solve.
A. 7 cans of corn, 3 bags of candy, and
3 cartons of milk oe Sox
12. 8
tae
B. 7 cans of corn, 4 bags of candy, and
4 cartons of milk xt [eS
C. 7 cans of corn, 5 bags of candy, and 13. 8
x6
3 cartons of milk
14. One solution to x? — 12x? + 5x + 150 = 0
D. 7 cans of corn, 6 bags of candy, and
is 10. List all the solutions.
2 cartons of milk
i
15. A parabola has an equation y = er
2. How does the graph of f(x) = Where is its focus?
XO

compare to the graph of f(x) = =? Exercises 16-18: State the other solutions to each
equation.
A. Itis shifted up by 3. 16. x° + 3x* — 13x — 15 = 0;x = —5is one root
B. It is stretched horizontally by 3.
C. Itis shifted to the right by 3. 17. «° + 17x? + 59x — 77 = 0;x = 1 is one root
D. It is shifted to the left by 3. 18. 3x° — 27x? + 69x — 45 = 0; x = 1 is one root
3. What is the line of symmetry for the graph 19. [FF A parabola’s focus is at (0, 5) and its
directrix is at y = —5. Find the
of the function f(x) = ~2 y-coordinates of the points on the parabola
A, &y=0 with the x-coordinates 10 and —10.
BB. x=0 20. How many real solutions does
Crys —3x%° 42 12120 have?
D. y=x
Exercises 21—22: Find the number of real
Exercises 4-10: Simplify. solutions for each quadratic equation.

aie ee ee TT 2 245 27 oxo

bee
4 a ox 12 22. 3x7 — 4x + 12=0
6Xifat 2x? + 10x
Exercises 23-25: State each quadratic equation
ase
with a leading coefficient of 1 and the complex
12574 + 6xy = 18x77 numbers as solutions.
6xy 23. i, -i
8xz7 + 6yz* + 4z* 24. 2i, —3i
7.
2a.
25. iV/2, -iV3
8. (9x? — 36) + (3x + 6)
220 Cumulative Review
26. Use the graph to determine the number 29. [TEN] The number of days that the
of real roots. patients with a certain illness spent at the
hospital, and a particular bacterial count
(in thousands) found in their blood at
admission, are shown in the table.

Count Hospital Stay

(thousands)

27. (LEW) Find an objective function that has

a maximum value at the vertex (3, 5) of the
feasible region shown.
y

a Create a scatter plot and calculate a

regression line.
b Predict the length of the hospital stay for
a bacterial count of 6. Round to the
nearest whole number of days.
c Predicting the length of a hospital stay
for a bacterial count of 20 gives the value
of about 21 days. Do you think it is a
valid prediction? Explain.
30. Lilideeeg Did you know that 2 = 1? Look at
28. [MA Write the simplified expression
the calculations:
for the ratio of the difference of the squares
of two numbers, x and y, to the sum of their Pick some
cubes. Evaluate when x = —11 and y = —1. non-zero
numbers
Multiply both
sides by n
Subtract m? ie
nm — m*
from both sides
Factor both sides | m(n — m)= (n — m)(n + m)
Divide both
m=n+m
sides by n — m
ae n=m,we
m=2m

Deh
Don’t believe it? Find the mistake in the
calculations!

Chapters 1-4 221

Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

5.1 Radical Operations N-RN.2

Review: Roots
Simplifying Radical Expressions
Product Rule for Radicals
Quotient Rule for Radicals
Multiplying Square Root Radicals with Negative Radicands

5.2 More Operations with Radicals N-RN.2

Adding and Subtracting Like Radicals
Multiplying Monomial and Binomial Radical Expressions
Rationalizing the Denominator
Summary: Simplifying Radical Expressions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

5.3 Exponent Notation N-RN.1; N-RN.2; A-SSE.2

Exponent Notation for Roots
Derivation of Roots as Powers
Rules of Exponents and Fractional Exponents
Multiplying and Dividing Radicals with Different Indices
but Same Radicand

5.4 Radical Equations A-REI.1; A-REI.2

Squaring Principle
Extraneous Solutions
Power Principle
Multi-Part Problem Practice

5.5 Radical Function Graphs eG © A-CED.2; F-IE.5; F-IE.7b; F-BE.3

Graphing a Square Root Function
Graphing a Cube Root Function

CHAPTER 5 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-5

222 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

Vocabulary
base principal root radical expression
exponent notation for roots product rule for radicals radicand
index quotient rule for radicals rationalizing the denominator

like radicals radical equation squaring principle

power principle

LESSON 5.1 =mew-osnee

5.1 Radical Operations

Review: Roots
Roots and powers are inverse operations because one operation “undoes” the
other. This relationship provides the definition of a square root:

a is a square root of b if and only if a” = b.

In general, if a” = b, then a is an nth root of b. The numbers a and b have to be real

and n must be a positive integer. In the expression a”, a is the base and n is the
index, which represents what root is being taken of b.

MODEL PROBLEM
Find the fifth root of 32. Then write an equation in the form a” = b, and identify the index.
SOLUTION

Identify 5th root 2 is the fifth root of 32 The number a is called an The nth root of b
De Di) 6D i De RD nth rootof b if a” = b. The is a number that
5 = 32 number 2is a fifth root of 32 equals b when it
because 2 to the fifth power is raised to the
= is.02 power n.

Identify index Index is 5 The number n is called the index of the root. For
instance, for the fifth root, the index is 5. The index
must be a positive integer.

When written as a radical Wb, the radicand is b and the index is n. The exponent
in a" = b is also the index of the radical. If the index is odd, a negative number can
have a negative root. If the index is even, the radicand must be positive to have a
real value.

5.1 Radical Operations 223

 MODEL PROBLEM
Simplify V/—27. Identify the index and radicand.
SOLUTION
Identify index —-—27 is the radicand
and radicand 3 is the index
Simplify —3 is the cube root of —27 —3 is the cube root of —27 a is the )
(—3)° = (—3) - (—3) - (—3) = -27 since (—3)° equals —27. S., cube root of ;
v= 3 b ifa®? =b.

The principal root of a number b is the positive root. To state the negative root,
put a minus sign outside the radical sign. Principal roots only apply to radicals
with even indices, and it is typical to state the principal root when asked for the
even root of a number. If both the positive and negative roots are desired, the
plus/minus sign is placed outside the radical, +V‘x.

MODEL PROBLEM
Give the principal root and the negative root of V/16.
SOLUTION
Principal root = positive root WW, 16 = Wr =» The principal root is the positive root.

4=2-2-2-2=16 ForW16, itis 2, since 24 = 16. Another

fourth root is —2, but —2 is not the
principal fourth root since it is negative.
—V/b = negative root -V/16 = -2 To find the negative root, place a minus
sign outside the radical. In other words,
multiply the principal root by —1.

An expression that contains one or more radical signs is called a radical expression.
The expressions V7, Vy + 1,and4 + Vx + 2 are examples of radical expressions.
The radical sign can act as a grouping symbol, similar to parentheses.

MODEL PROBLEM
Simplify V2 — 10. To evaluate a
radical, first
SOLUTION evaluate the
adi ;
Evaluate radicand 2 -—10=V/-8 To evaluate a radical, first ke cane enue ;
; pression under |
first evaluate the radicand. 7
the radical, and
Subtract and get —8. then simplify
Evaluate radical V2 210 = 6 = Take the cube root. The cube the radical, if
root of —8 is —2. possible.

224 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals’

PRACTICE
1. What is the value of ¥/—64? 10. V/(-6)
A. —16 C4 11. V/—64
B. —4 :
ase 12. \/—125
2. Which of the following represents the real 13. */=1
square root(s) of V —16?
14. ¥/1000
A. —4 Gy —4and 4 i
Bowe D. No real roots 15. V81
5
3. Which of the following equations has more 16. V—32
than one real solution? 47. 5V23+2—4
a
eevee2 18. 2\/23 42-5
an y> 14. ea

A. Lonly C. IMonly oO Oe
B. Il only D. ILand II 21. Write a definition in your own words
of what it means to be the nth root of a
4. If V represents the volume of a cube, what is
penx
the area of one of the cube’s faces? ee
A. W/V Cc. WV Exercises 22-24: The surface area of a sphere is
B. (WV/ Dy WV A = 4ur*. The volume of a sphere is V = at
Exercises 5—20: Evaluate.
22. What is the radius of a sphere whose
5. V4 _ 500 '
volume is oo 2
6. V81
—= 23. [PR What is the volume of a sphere
Le Nes whose surface area is 324m cm??
ae 24. What is the surface area of a sphere whose
Or 4/3) ne 4er
volume is 37 in??

Simplifying Radical Expressions

Simplifying a radical expression means writing an expression whose radicand
contains no factor that has a simple root or is a fraction and has no radical
expressions in the denominator. The radicand for square roots, and for other roots
with even indices, must be positive.
We can use the rule Va? = |a| when simplifying radicals. The same simplification
process can be applied to roots of any index, although for odd roots, the absolute
value is not appropriate. Why is absolute value not used with odd indices? Because
negative radicands simplify; for instance, V—8 = —2.
In the case of a square root, for example, whenever the radicand can be written as a
perfect square, the radical expression simplifies to an expression without radicals.
We can apply the concept of perfect squares to a real-world problem. Let’s say we
have a square picture that starts with sides of length x. If the area of the picture
increases by a factor of 16, how much did the length of a side change? The new
area is 16x*. The perfect square factors are 4x, so the new length is 4x.

5.1 Radical Operations 225

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Simplify V4x°.
SOLUTION

Write radicand as Vie ie) Factor the radicand, looking

Since 2x? is
perfect square a” for pairs of identical factors.
negative if x
Then restate those pairs as a
is negative,
square.
the absolute
Identify a and VOX 12 The radicand is (2x°)*, so a value symbol is |
apply rule Va? = |a| must be 2x°. Apply the necessary in the |
absolute value sign in expression.
case x is negative. The square
root must be positive.

2. Simplify V8y".
SOLUTION

Write radicand as V(2-2-2)- YP y¥) To simplify the expression, We do not need

perfect cube first rewrite the expression
Vayy with 3 factors of 2 and 3
to take the
absolute value |
factors of y”. of the root since |
2y° nth roots with :
Apply rule Taking the cube root, the
odd indices can |
expression simplifies to 2y”.
be negative. /

3. Simplify Vx™.
SOLUTION
Divide powerby 32+8=4 To simplify the expression, divide the power of the radicand
index by the index.
Quotient is power 8/922 = x4 The quotient, 4, is the power. We can check the answer:
(xA848 x. The absolute value symbol is unnecessary
since x* is never negative.

4. Simplify Vx.
Divide power by 32 + 5 = 6 remainder 2 To simplify the expression, divide the power
index of the radicand by the index and rewrite the
radicand.

Quotient is power Vx? = (xW37 The quotient, 6, is the power outside the radical.
outside radical The remainder is the power inside the radical.

226 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals ©

Product Rule for Radicals
As the name suggests, the product rule for radicals can be used to multiply radical
expressions. The product rule for radicals states:

The index must be

Va:-Wbo=v ab, with W/a, Vb real numbers. . the same to apply the :
product rule.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Multiply V/11y8 - V/2y’.
SOLUTION
Product rule applied to W/11y? - 2y? Apply the product rule to any two radicals
radicals with same index / xy with the same index. Here, the index is 7. The
product of W/11y° and ¥/2y? is ¥/22y™.
Simplify the radical V/22y = V/22y’y3 ~~ Write y'° as the product of y’ - y°. The radical is
y/2p simplified.

a. Multiply Ver Vx — 1.
SOLUTION
Product rule applied to Vadis Pod VX earn Multiply the expressions under the radical sign.
radicals with same index + Iix—1)

WP

3. Multiply V3x - V/2x7.

SOLUTION
Product rule applied to 3x + W/2x? Multiply the expressions under the radical sign.
radicals with same index ¥/3x - 2x2 Add the exponents to multiply the variables.
TE
6x

4. Simplify V75 using the product rule.

SOLUTION
Factor radicand V75 = V25- The radical V75 can be stated more simply because
OIA Se its radicand contains a perfect square factor. To
simplify, state the radicand, 75, as the product of 25
and 3. Choose these factors because 25 is a perfect
square.
Apply product rule VE -V3 Use the product rule to rewrite the square root as a
product of two square roots.
Take square root 5V3 Take the square root of the perfect square. When
simplified, V75 equals 5V3. Model Problems continue...

5.1 Radical Operations 227

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
5. Simplify V/48 using the product rule.
SOLUTION
Factor W48 = V/8-6=V23-6 The radicand, 48, is the product of 8 and 6. We choose these
radicand factors because 8 is a perfect cube, so we state it as 2°.
Apply V2 -W6 Use the product rule to rewrite the cube root as a product of
product two cube roots.
rule
Take cube 2V6 The cube root of 2° is 2. The radicand 6 has no perfect cube
root factors, so we are done. When simplified, V/48 equals 2V6.

6. Simplify 64x".
SOLUTION For the remainder
of the chapter,
Factor W16x8 + 4x7 = V/24(x?)? - 4x? Begin by factoring out the largest we will assume
perfect fourth power. In this case, that no radicand
it is 16x°. is the square of a
Apply VO) Vie Apply the product rule for . Big ee
product radicals to write the expression as a eae ae
exclude absolute
rule product of two separate radicals.
value signs from
Simplify (2x°)W/4x? Take the fourth root of (2x’)*, which | the simplified
radical is the principal
problem, it is notfourth root.forIn 2210
possible this solutions. i

be negative, so the absolute value signs are not necessary.

Quotient Rule for Radicals

The quotient rule for radicals states: The index n has to
be the same for the
Nig. quotient rule to apply.
Wh =ae with b # 0, and Va, Wb real numbers. Also, b cannot equal O,
to avoid division by O.

The quotient rule can also be used to simplify radicals. A radical expression
involving fractions is considered to be simplified when there is no fraction under
a radical sign, and no radical in a denominator.

MODEL PROBLEMS
ae
1. Simplify Ee

SOLUTION

Quotient rule applied to ae “15 The quotient rule applies to radicals with the same index.
radicals with same index 3 Here, the index is 4. The quotient of 45 and 3 is 15. The
expression cannot be simplified any further.
Model Problems continue...

228 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

jot t ZZ
implify
2. Simpl 35
ena
SOLUTION

Apply quotient rule V 12z By the quotient rule, a is equal to the square root of the
V25
numerator, V 12z, divided by the square root of the
denominator, V 25:

Apply product rule V4 + V3z Apply the product rule to simplify the numerator.
V25

Evaluate square roots 9 2V3z Take the square roots of 4 and 25 and state the simplified
5 expression.

von
MP MY 2
3. Simpli ‘

SOLUTION
Apply quotient rule pox To simplify, rewrite the quotient as a single radical,
12x using the quotient rule for radicals.

Cancel common factors pombe ie After canceling the common factors x and 3, the
es Oa ae 4 ’ x
expression becomes a.

Apply quotient rule We The expression tehas a perfect square in the

V4 denominator, which means it can be simplified
further.
Simplify Bae Simplify the denominator. The expression is
2 simplified.

4
3
4. Simplify Woy

SOLUTION

Apply quotient rule 4 by” ; Rewrite the quotient as a single radical, using the quotient
16y rule for radicals.

Cancel common factor 4 5y* Cancel out the common factor.

Apply quotient rule VW5y4 The quotient rule can be applied again.

Simplify yV5 Simplify the numerator and denominator.

5.1 Radical Operations 229

PRACTICE
1. Which are equivalent to 4V’2? Select all that 9. V/162x°
apply. 10. W/16K
A. V32 C. V2-V8 A127
3
B. 2V8 Da 2V2e2 ud
12. V/81x"°
2. Which are equivalent to 10x° V 2x? Select all 2
that apply. 13. V/125x"8
A. V200x” C. V2000x” 14, V/216x”
B.
\/ 0x7
20x Do
N/a
5V 2%"
AGE
V 4x 15. 5 100,000x*°

3. eee the correct simplification of 16. 49x58)

Aly 17. 25x48

I Coy ins
B. a9 D. xi8y'8 18. V64x"°y"
\/49 714,28
4. Simplify W/2:2 - ¥/16x°. a
AY,A0, 50
eee, 8/2. Gy 22 ae ey
B 22/2 D. 47 21. V/x%y/"
" 22. Vx" + 6x +9
5. Donald is simplifying ,/—>. His solution
.. y 23.Ee
Vx" + 16x + 64
fare salary 24. Vx" — 14x + 49
eee ey 25. 9x2 — 18x +9
26. V/16x? + 16x + 4
Step 2: 5 ~ SH =.
y Yy 27. \/4x* + 40x + 100
Step3: 3 wirie Vx Exercises 28-37: Multiply and simplify.
; 5 8/6
ae 28. V2 -V17
3
Step 4: : anna 29. V3-V7
5 2
Heels. vt 4 ; 30. V2 -V15
ich is the first incorrect step?
eas: ean, : 31. V18- V2
« (tep = otep
Bayastep 2 D. Step 4 32. Vix -V8x
33. V6x - V216x
eae V8x% + 12x4 ‘
ee eee aims 34. V/125x-V5
4 vw/10) . 8/9573
A Ve 3 G eres Seg
é 36. V9- V/12x7
Be ee D. ee 37. W/4- W16x°
x
Exercises 38-48: Divide and simplify.
Exercises 7-27: Simplify.
14a8
7. V208 38. aS
8. V 20x Practice Problems continue. . .

230 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals ©

Practice Problems continued ...

S900 3a”
ag, Viet V 8x

40 V100a7" 49. [TE] Investigators measure the lengths of

: 5a’ skid marks to determine the speed of a car
3/35 . ¥/5 or truck. The equation s = 2V/5L represents
41, ——-— the speed of the vehicle in miles per hour as
V7 a function of the length L of skid marks in
3/36 . 8/5 feet. Estimate the speed of a vehicle that left
S75
42. skid marks of 20.7 feet, to the nearest tenth.
P ; 50. [FY How far you can see out if the
43. ED 2 horizon is dependent on how high above
20 the ground you are. The distance can be
8/36,15 described by the equation d = 3.5Vh,
44. —, Z 7 where h is the height in meters above the
4x ground and dis the distance visible in
7 kilometers. Find out how high above the
45. 236 ground, to the nearest tenth of a meter, a
person must be in order to see a distance
- 7 of 22 kilometers.
N25 51. [YE] Explain what is wrong with the
eee statement: V.4x? = 2x.
47. —_ =
V 2x

Multiplying Square Roct Radicals with

Negative Radicands
The properties of radicals for square roots, such as the product rule and the quotient
rule, require that all radicands must be 0 (unless they are in the denominator) or
positive. With square roots of negative radicands, special care must be taken. To
multiply square roots with negative radicands, restate the factors using 1.

MODEL PROBLEM
Multiply V—-3 - V —2.
Note that we did
SOLUTION not simply apply
the product rule
Write each factor \/—3-1/—2_ State each radical as an imaginary number,
and multiply the
in terms of 1 iY IND. ee —3 equal to iV3 and V—2 equal
negative radicands.
OWN 2: We need first to
express each factor
Reorder factors j7\/3-V2 Reorder the factors so that the 7 factors and as an imaginary
the square root factors are next to each other. number, and then
multiply the factors.
Apply product PV 6 Simplify V3-V2 by using the product rule.
rule for radicals
Simplify i* -V6 Simplify this further, since i? equals —1, to end up with —V/6. Note
that the minus sign is outside the radical.

5.1 Radical Operations 231

PRACTICE
1. Which of these is equivalent to —2V/6? 10. V-2-V-13
ais. all that apply. pps 44 ep a

Dae De BA See
Exercises 2-22: Multiply and simplify. State your Seal
answers with 7 when necessary. 140/108 V5
2. V-6-V=2 15. V/-14-V-14
325 AVE 10 16. V/—16 -V-15
A 30 bic 000 =e
5. V0 - V3 18. —V/-14- V-6
6. V8 -V—-9 19..i\/-7--V/10
Z-ealon 3/2 20. iV15 -V—15
Se on 5 21. iV4-V-8
OO al Vl, 2254540 = 15-5

LESSON 5.2 eeeeeueer

ee

5.2 More Operations with Radicals

Adding and Subtracting Like Radicals
Radical expressions can be added or subtracted only when they have the same radical
It is important to
factor. Radical expressions with the same radical factor are called like radicals. For
3 3 : : ’ ‘ 3 note that only
example, V5 and 7W5 are likeBn
radicals since both
f
include
; the factor V5. Both the terms with
: ;
radicand and the index must be the same to be like radicals. See comnmonadical
Combining terms with common factors requires you to combine the coefficients of factors can be
the factors, as we show in the model problems. combined. The
sum of V2 and |
V3 is V2 + V3, |
MODEL PROBLEMS not V5. You
cannot combine
1. Add W5 4+ 71/5. radicals when the |
SOLUTION radicands are not |
the same.
Determine if terms W5 +705 Both terms have V5 as their radical factor,
are like radicals so these are like radicals and can be combined.

Apply distributive 1V/5+7v/5 ___ By the distributive property, we can state this sum as the sum
property (a 2/5 of the coefficients times W/5.

Combine the 8v/5 Add the coefficients.

coefficients
Model Problems continue...

232 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
2. Simplify 9xV5 — 3/2022.
SOLUTION

Simplify the 9xV5 —3-V4x2- V5 There are no like radicals at first, but we can simplify
radical 9xV5 —3-2x-V5 V 20x”. Using the product rule, we restate it as V4x"
9xV'5 — 6x5 times V5. The square root of 4x” is 2x, so now we have
a factor of 2x for the second term.
Apply distributive (9 — 6)xV5 Now that the terms have been written with a common
property 3xV5 radical factor, the distributive property can be applied.
Simplify, and the result is 3xV5.

PRACTICE
1. Which of these equals 67? Select all Exercises 7-11: Subtract and simplify.
that apply.
oe 7. xV/3x2 — 11V/3x7
SEN OPN Gi
B. V7+V28 8. xW/4x0? — 11V/4x8
C. 4V28 —V28 9. 14/245 — 7V5
Ds VASE rey
10. 11/45 — 3V5
2. Which of these equals 4V/5? Select all
that apply. 11. V/27x — 4V 3x?

A. 7V5-3V5 12. (UFR) An edge ona cube is the line

B. V5+V60 segment joining two vertices. What is the
C. anos 420 sum of the lengths of the edges if each edge
Dr "way Lows measures 12 + 106 inches? Write your
answer as a radical expression.
3. Which of these equals 53? Select all
that apply.
POY 50 +3
Bean weve
Cay V Abe VAD LAr of
D. V300 - V48 aoe
Exercises 4-6: Add and simplify. | 13. What is the perimeter of ssquare with each
side having length 7 + 4\/5 centimeters?
4. 5Wx + 16x Write your answer as a radical expression.

5. 8/5 + 6V5 14. Explain what is wrong with the statement

34/2 1/5.
6. 19V/x + 14V/x
15. Explain what is wrong with the statement
7W/14 — 3V8 = 4V6.

5.2 More Operations with Radicals 233

Multiplying Monomial and Binomial
Radical Expressions
The distributive property can be applied to radical expressions, as we show in the
model problems.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Multiply the monomial radical expression by the binomial radical expression: W11(5 + Ae)

SOLUTION

Apply the distributive V11-5+W11-Wx? — Apply the distributive property, multiplying each
property term of the binomial by V/11.
Multiply 5V11 + V11x? Do the multiplications. The product of V/11 and
5 is 5V/11, and by the product rule for radicals,
Ve Cis WU ie,

2. Multiply (5 + V3)(11 — V13) using FOIL.

SOLUTION Here we multiply two
radical expressions,
First 5-1 Start with the first term of << each with two terms
each expression, 5 and 11, that cannot be
and multiply them. combined. Use FOIL
to multiply them, as
Outer (5)(—V/13) Next, multiply the two outer we would with any
terms, 5 and —V13. two expressions that

Inner V3-11 And multiply the inner terms, osCease aulGehing

V3 and 11. radical expressions is
Last (V3)(-—V13) Multiply the last terms, V3 Dgieoca ce gay
and —\V Io:

Simplify 55 — 5V13 + 11V3 — V39 _ Simplify. Multiply constants, and state negative terms as
subtraction. Simplify the radicals if possible, but in this
case the answer is already simplified.

3. Multiply (3 + 5V7)(2 + V7).

SOLUTION

Multiply using FOIL 3:2+3-V7+2-5V7+5V7-V7 — Multiply using FOIL.

Multiply terms 6+ 3V7 + 10V7 + 35 Simplify terms by multiplying.
Combine like terms 41 + 13V7 Combine the like radical terms
and the integers.

234 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

PRACTICE
4. Which expression will have three terms in 10. 0/5(8V/2 — W/14x)
its final simplified form?
chLeCLOVE) Paes atae
A. Vin(Vn + Vin) . Sian
ee aa a 12. 13(V/11 + 3) — 3(V11 + 3)
C. (Vat Viny(Vn + Vin) 13. V5(x - V17)
D. Vm(Vn + Vin + 2Vn) 14, V/5(x — V13)
Exercises 2-14: Multiply and simplify, if possible. Exercises 15-17: Add and simplify.
2. V5(V5x
+ V10) 15. 9b +:27+ Vie + 30?
3. V8(V2y
— V6) 16. V/4x — 8 + Vx? — 2x?
4. V7y(V7
+ V3y) 17. V/25y +50 — Vy? + 2y4
5. 3+ 2V5)(3 = 2V5) 18. Explain what is wrong with the statement
6. (4 + 2V/5)(4 — 2V5) V3-(V2 + 5Vx) =6 + 15x.
7. (5 + 2V3)(5 — 2V3) 19. ee is ne area of a saute ey each

8.9. (V7 3) VB 6
(V7 — 4)(V17 — 6)
ee
Rationalizing the Denominator To rationalize a denominator, |
Rationalizing the denominator is the process of removing a radical in multiply by avrecton equate os
the denominator of an expression. The expression a is not simplified in both the numerator and
; denominator. You know you |
because it has a radical in its denominator. In the model problems,
have multiplied by the correct '
we show how to rationalize the denominator, starting with square
fraction if the denominator i
roots.
simplifies to an integer.
MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Rationalize “

SOLUTION
Multiply by a fraction AD V7 To rationalize the denominator, multiply by ve,
ling 1 containi
ews - eee sans) V7 7g a fraction equal to 1 that has V7 in the denominator.
(Because the fraction las multiply by is equal to 1,
the value of the original expression does not change.)

Apply product rule WN 7 Apply the product rule in the denominator.

in denominator VW49

Simplify NO ee V7 The square root of 49 is 7. We have rationalized the

denominator 4G 7. denominator, since it no longer contains a radical.

Apply product rule OLE ion Oe Apply the product rule in the numerator, multiplying
in numerator 7 ey. 2 by 7 to get 14 in the radical. We have now simplified
the radical expression. Model Problems continue...

5.2 More Operations with Radicals 235

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Simplify /—.
SOLUTION
Change fraction 45 _ V45 First, restate the radical using the quotient rule.
to quotient x Vx

Rationalize V45. yen To rationalize the denominator, multiply by ,

denominator ae A a
a fraction equal to 1 that has Vx in the denominator.
Simplify V45-Vx V45 > Vx We have rationalized the denominator, since it no
denominator Woe gs x longer contains a radical.

Simplify OSV ie. BV-5e Simplify V'45 to get 3V/5 and apply the product
x x rule in the numerator. We have now simplified the
radical expression.

Ber onalize a
SOLUTION
To rationalize a
Write radicand 8=2 The process of rationalizing a denominator that is
as power 1 1 denominator with a higher index an nth root, multiply
Wg 0/23 root is similar to that for a square the radicand by
root. Take 8, the radicand in the factors that will
denominator, and write it as a ~. Produce exponents |
power, 2°. } that are multiples of
Determine erat To take the fifth root, we need a the index.A. nother
oe ‘ words, the resulting [|
additional fifth power of 2. We need 2 more ihrer fect F
f ea £ £2.Multiply by 22 5 | tadicand is a perfect |
actors neede actors of 2. Multiply by2° to get e th
for nth power Eos ea
Multiply by Iai Ve Multiply by a fraction whose
radical fraction °/93 0/92 numerator and denominator are the fifth root of the
containing additional factors (2*) needed.
additional
factors

Use product V2 Simplify the numerator and denominator. Add the exponents
rule 0/28 to multiply.

Simplify W4 Simplify. In the denominator, the fifth root of 2° is 2. The

D denominator is now rationalized because it is no longer a
radical.

236 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

Summary: Simplifying Radical Expressions
Simpler is better. It is sometimes difficult to tell what is simpler. Is V8 simpler than
22? There are three requirements that mathematicians agree on for simplified
radical expressions. We state them using square roots for simplicity. Similar ideas
would apply to cube roots, and so on.

1. No perfect powers BE The expression V5? is not simplified. There

in radicand. is a factor of t? under the radical sign that is a
perfect square.
VbP= VP. V5t = 1V5t The product rule can be used to remove the
perfect square factor. State the expression as the
product of two square roots, the first of which
contains a perfect square. Take the square root
of t?, which is t. That still leaves a factor V5t,
but there is nothing we can do to simplify that.

2. No fractions in Az Lie Pieene

The expression 9 fails to be simplified
radicand. 9
because there is a fraction, = under the radical.

a7 VA aaa The quotient rule can be applied to write this as

9 ~ V9 3 a fraction of radicals. In this case, conveniently
enough, the denominator is a perfect square.

3. No radicals in St The expression A is not considered simplified

denominator. A/D
because the denominator is a radical.

Bt st pip ps 3tV2 Rationalize a by multiplying by the fraction

a2) Vane 2
—. This causes the denominator to be a
72)
rational number.

PRACTICE
1. [TF Rationalize the denominators to 2. GULF Rationalize the denominators to
determine which radical expression is not determine which radical expression is not
2W/5x2 5/42
equivalent to equivalent to
d 2x
;
5x?
fee2x c, 5V2
Sa) 3

2x Ax
V'25x°
5 W/100x 5W/2x
2V5 QW 25x
D.
W4
p. /25x4
Practice Problems continue...

5.2 More Operations with Radicals 237

 Practice Problems continued...
3. Rationalize the denominators to determine 4/3,
which radical expression is not equivalent il. v/s
to AV 3H
we 12. W4
W3
ae
2/16
3 D (eS
4v3
3 D
2
18x Pali 8
13. =-
4 AN/3x Vx
BR On Se 9x? A
14. Wx
Exercises 4-18: Simplify and rationalize the
denominator, if necessary. 32 V2
15. —— -- =
4 foil 21 V3
Vil

5
; 16, V2. ¥2
aot
V3
Bo
N/ TT ai: 2° :
6 Veo. 78
8
VON oe
V/ 18. 2-
eeeo Vol Ve
a 19. [JE] Frank states that another way to
8. ay rationalize the denominator in a is to
square both the numerator and
9. = denominator. Does Frank’s method work?
%

2
10. Gas
V7
e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

eS [EF A 30-60-90 triangle has legs with lengths of x and \V3x centimeters. Find exact expressions for
a The perimeter of the triangle.
b The area of the triangle.

The short leg of the same triangle is increased by 1 centimeter, while the triangle remains
a 30-60-90 triangle. Find exact, simplified (no parentheses) expressions for
a The lengths of the other two sides of the triangle.
b The perimeter of the new triangle.
c The area of the new triangle.

238 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals —

LESSON 5.3 eens REN
5.3 Exponent Notation
Exponent Notation for Roots
The expression 4’ is a power of 4. In this expression, 4 is the base and 2 is the
exponent. Exponent notation for roots is the use of fractions as the exponent in To see a 7
expressions. When writing a root, the exponent is the reciprocal of the index: proof of this |
notation,
1 see the
LoVe table in
The index n must be apositive integer. The nth root of x equals x to the reciprocal the next
of n. section,
“Derivation
Expressions with fractional exponents can be simplified. Stating them as of Roots as
radicals can help. To evaluate roots stated as powers, you have to be careful Powers.”
with signs. F
e When 1is odd, every real number has exactly one nth root, (a")" = 4.
1
e When 7is even, the principal root is the positive root, (a”)" = |a|.

Exponents can also be rational numbers with numerators that are not 1. These can
3
also be written as radicals; for example, 54 = W5°. Use the rule:

m
x" = (Wx)" = Vx", with Vx a real number

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. State 81 with exponential notation.
SOLUTION
1
The exponent is the WS aoe To state a root as a power, take the reciprocal of the index
reciprocal of the index and use it as the exponent. Here, the index is 4, since
we're taking the fourth root of 81.

i
2. Simplify 27°.
SOLUTION
A
Reciprocal of exponent 27° = V27=3 First restate the power as a root by taking the reciprocal
is index of root of the exponent and using it as the index. Here, the
exponent is a so the index is 3. State the expression
as the cube root of 27. The cube root of 27 is 3 since 3°
equals 27.
Model Problems continue...

5.3 Exponent Notation 239

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3
3. State 5* using a radical.
SOLUTION
io i
Apply power rule 5 (a) To state the expression as a radical expression, use the
to split numerator ; il
power rule for exponents. First, factor 7as 3 times —4
and denominator
and write the expression as a power of power.

Denominator is 6? 5/125 Put 5° under the radical sign, and take its fourth root,
index and simplify
since the exponent of 5° is e State it even more simply,
by noting that 5° equals 125.
4
o CULFREA Simplify (—8)° using two different methods.
SOLUTION
Method 1
- 2.
Apply power rule to (—8)° = ((-8))° Write .as 2 times :and state the expression as a
split numerator and
power of power.
denominator
Denominator is index (—8) Put (—8)? under the radical sign, and take its third
root, since the exponent of (—8)? is -
Simplify V/(—8)? = V/64 = 4 State it even more simply by squaring —8, which
equals 64. The cube root of 64 is 4. The expression
2
3) equals 4.

Method 2
2 .
3. 3y2\ 3
Apply powerruleto (—8) = (((- 2y) ) Write —8 as (—2)°, since —8 We apply the
split numerator and is a perfect cube. power of power
denominator rule to simplify,
and then apply
Apply power of So2- a=2 To simplify a power of < the exponent. '
power rule power, multiply exponents. This demonstrates |
Multiply all three exponents. that the rules of =|
exponents apply
Simplify (-2/ = The result of multiplying the to fractional
exponents was 2. Raise —2 to exponents as well
that power. It is the same
answer as above.
Model Problems continue...

240 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3
5. Simplify 16°.
SOLUTION
a
Write as a power of a root 16* = Ca) = (6/16) Write the fraction as [times 3. Using the
rules of exponents, write the expression
as the 4th root of 16, cubed. State the 4th
root as a radical with an index of 4.
Take 4th root of 16 iG The 4th root of 16 is 2.
Raise 2 to the 3rd power = The cube of 2 is 8.

Derivation of Roots as Powers

We show below why we can state a root as a power. We start by stating the nth
root of x as some power m of x, and then show that m must be the reciprocal of n.

if!
- n ae
Derive: Wx = x"

Solve for m Assume Vx equals some

power of x, x”. We want to
solve for the exponent m.

Raise both sides to (W/x)" = (x™)" Using the power principle,

power 1 x}ce xin raise both numbers to the nth
power. We get x on the left,
which we state as x’. On the
right, the exponents m and n
are multiplied.

Equate exponents Since x' equals x””, the

and solve for m exponents must equal each
other, since the bases are
the same. Then solve for
m and find that m equals the
reciprocal of n.

Substitute We showed that m equals the

reciprocal of n. Substitute that
back into our first equation,
replacing m, and we have
shown that the nth root of x
1
equals x”.

5.3 Exponent Notation 241

 Rules of Exponents and Fractional Exponents
Note that all bases must
The rules of exponents also apply to expressions with fractional S..., be the same for the rules
exponents. : to apply.
Multiplying fractional powers:
Multiplying exponents
with fractional powers
Apply product rule By the product of powers rule, we can write
the expression with the same base, 2, and add the
powers.
Dividing fractional powers:
Dividing exponents i This expression is the quotient of two powers with the
with fractional powers same base.

Apply quotient of By the quotient of powers rule, we can write the

powers rule expression with the same base, 5, and the difference of
the exponents as the power.
Simplify exponent

Multiplying and Dividing Radicals with Different

Indices but Same Radicand
Stating radicals with different indices in exponential form with fractional powers
allows you to multiply them, if they have the same base. You can also apply other
exponent rules to radicals, after writing them as powers with fractional exponents.
For example, you can take a power of a radical by applying the rule that (x”)" = x”.
3
For instance, (V/2x)> equals (2x)”.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Multiply V5V5 using fractional exponents.
SOLUTION
1
State W5=5° State the radicals as powers. The exponent in each case is the reciprocal of
radicals as 1 the index of the root.
powers V5=5
be
Multiply 5°.5° State the multiplication using the radicals stated as powers. To multiply, add
£4
52 5 the exponents. The sum of =and 7 is = We could state the answer as V5?
3 if asked to state it as a radical. We could also use a calculator to check that the
5 5
product V5 - W/5 and the power 56 give the same result, approximately 3.82.
Model Problems continue...

242 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3

2: Divide a
SOLUTION
1
: 3 eo
State radicalsas V7 _7 Restate the division by stating the radicals as powers.
powers 0/7 if
76
a
ef, 6 6
Divide 7 To divide powers, subtract exponents. To do the subtraction, restate
1
=. ill :
7° = ds & to get a common denominator, and then subtract to get ee
3 ha

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-14: Simplify. Write your answers as Exercises 15-21: State each expression as a
fractions, if necessary. simplified radical expression.
- 2.
1. 64° 15.5"
Ee ss
2. 125° 16. 4°
eo eo
3. 16" 17. 3°
© S
4. 81° 18. 10°
s ie
5. 32° 19. 4°
- us
6. (-27)° 20. (x +6)”
2 Z
Tee?) 24. (x +3)°
1 z Exercises 22-26: State each radical expression in
8. 16 exponential form.
1\3 22. Vx°
4 (-2) 23. W5
2
ae (-hs y 24. Vx!
125 Es 25. Wx +9
2
a (-243 i 26. V(y — 4)’
ie Exercises 27-35: Multiply and simplify.
25 ae eeeee:
12. (36x") 277,
= eeOa
43. (25x°) 2510 “10.
Be 2 3
44, (9x2) 29. V0 - ¥/10
30. 6/11 -W/11
Practice Problems continue...

5.3 Exponent Notation 243

Practice Problems continued...

31. W/x - Vx “\5

48. | y
32. Vz -Wz ()
33, 07-07 52
34. 2-2 Bi (3
bm 8
35. V3 V3 50. [ed What condition(s) must be satisfied
Exercises 36—44: Divide and simplify. in order for the equation Va* + b* =a + b to
W/6q2 be true?
36. >
6a" 51. Cie What condition(s) must be satisfied
5/E3 inorder
in order for
forthe Va +
equation Va‘
the equation =a + b
0° =a
+ bt
W5a
37. Ta to be true?
W/3g2
S 52 . Complete
omplete thethe table.
tabl
a
3335
Vi3a" The nth Roots of a Real Number
= Real Radical nth
aa 7 numbera| indexn | root(s)
omae
[ a>0
& is even
As b° nis even
ee nis odd
-ale or even
41. vat nis odd
dtl
42 OE Exercises 53-56: Simplify the following
" {AY 98 expressions by changing the exponent to a
ie fraction. Write your answers in exponential
43 3b notation with positive integer exponents.
" A¥3 52
= 53. 81!”
3 5
44, a 54, 121°°
28n
55. 243°*4
Exercises 45-49: Simplify. 1975
56. 256 ~
prety

y> ~ 57. Sam captures insects. In 2008, he captured

45. —y a 1
Ue 64° jars of insects. Each jar contained 64°
: insects. How many insects did Sam collect
ee ed: in 2008?
as. —-y°
ee 58. [TF] An equilateral triangle has sides of
ie length x. Write a formula for the area of the
; equilateral triangle in terms of x.

47. ie el
ye 24
y*

Practice Problems continue. ..

244 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 Practice Problems continued ...
59. What are some common mistakes that can 62. IMP 3| Let m and n be positive integers and x
occur when working with exponents? Give be any positive number. To simplify the
several examples. ae
expression x", one can either compute by
60. [E) Gerald states that for any positive
raising to the m™ power first, then taking the
number x, x” = x” whenever m = n > 0. Is
nth root of the result, or vice versa. That is,
his statement necessarily true? Explain your 1 1
answer.
(x")" or ca . Compare the differences in
61. [TEM Explain how V2 - Vx can equal
xW/x when there are no 6th roots in the these methods. Which method is generally
original problem. easier to compute?

LESSON 5.4 siememecsmesrsn

soc

5.4 Radical Equations

Squaring Principle
When solving a
An equation with the variable under a radical sign, such as Vx + 3 =8,isa radical radical equation,
equation. The key to solving these equations is the squaring principle, which if there is one
states that if an equation is true, so is the equation that results from squaring both radical expression, |
sides. isolate it. If there
are two radical
expressions, put
lta aS=, then a DD:
=. one on each side
of the equation. :
If a and b are equal, then their squares are equal. The variables a and b can represent
numbers or expressions. For example, if x = 4 then x” = 4”. We assume that x equals
4. This means that x squared equals 4 squared. In other words, we can square both
sides of an equation.

MODEL PROBLEM
Use the squaring principle to solve 13 + NZ
SOLUTION

Isolate radical Vx =4 Subtract 13 from both sides to isolate To use the

the radical on one side. squaring principle

Square both sides (Vx)? = (4) Using the squaring principle, square . to solve a radical
both sides. equation, isolate |
the radical on one
Solve equation x=16 The left side is the square of a square root, side and square’ |
which simplifies to x. On the right-hand both sides of the
side, 4” equals 16. The solution is 16. We equation. Then
check our solution by entering 16 for x into | solve the resulting :
the original equation 13 + Wx = 17 and equation.
doing the operations. Since V 16 = 4, and
13 + 4 = 17, our solution is correct.

5.4 Radical Equations 245

Extraneous Solutions An extraneous solution
: is not a solution to the
Extraneous solutions are solutions that can be derived througha series of original equation. You
correct steps, but they are not solutions to the original equation. How does can discover extraneous
this come about? As an example, although every solution to a = b is also solutions by checking
a solution to a* = b*, not every solution to a* = b* has to be a solution to possible solutions in the |
a = b. For instance, 5? = (—5)?, but 5 # —5. original equation.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve V 4x = —6x. Determine if there are extraneous solutions.
SOLUTION
Square both sides V4x = —6x Use the squaring principle and square both sides of the
4x = 36x? ~~ equation.

Solve equation 36x? —-4x = 0 To solve the equation, subtract 4x from both sides, and write
the equation with all terms on the left and 0 on the right.

geet, eerx 1) 0 Factor. The solutions to the quadratic equation are 0 and ss
property 1 Z
ee VOR —9 These are iepossible solutions to the original
& equation.
q

Check 0 in V4-02(—6)(0) Check each of the possible solutions in the original equation
original equation 0= 0 V4x = —6x. Substituting 0 for x in the original equation
and simplifying both sides, we have the equality 0 = 0. This
means 0 is a solution of the original equation.

eheck ain —
Oo
|r
Substituting “for x in the original equation and simplifying
original equation bee
th
I~ both sides, we get the equation 2 = a which is false.
WIN
wolR WIN
oo
Although :solves the quadratic equation we created by
squaring both sides, it is not a solution of the original
equation.

One solution 0 is a solution The only solution to the original equation is 0. The number
oe
9 1s extraneous
5is an extraneous solution since it is not a solution to the

original equation.
Model Problems continue...

246 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

@ Cie) Two students solved the equation —2x = V3x . One student says there are two solutions,
3
x= Q and x = 1 The other student says there is only one solution x = 0. Which best describes
who is correct?
A. There are two solutions because all radical equations have two solutions.
B. The students solved the equation incorrectly because there should be one positive
and one negative solution for a radical equation.
C. : only one
There is | : a
correct solution, x = 0. The other solution, x = a’ is extraneous.

D. There is only one correct solution, x = . The other solution, x = 0, is extraneous.

SOLUTION

A. When the solution x = .is checked into the equation, the left side has a value that is negative,
which cannot be equal to the positive right side.
B. The student is thinking that there are positive and negative roots for numbers, but this does
not apply here.
C. Correct answer. Squaring both sides eliminates the negative value on the left side of the
equation, but when the solution x = =is checked into the original equation, the left side
has a value that is negative, which cannot be equal to the positive right side.
Do the x = :does not check into the original equation. x = 0 checks into the original equation.

3. Solve V3x — 5 — V2x + 7 = 0. Check for extraneous solutions.

SOLUTION
Isolate both radicals ASE Geb P= 7 Isolate both radicals by adding the second
radical, V2x + 7, to both sides.

Square both sides (V3x-— (5)? = (2b 7)- Square both sides. The result of squaring is
2 ay ee the linear equation shown.

Solve equation Rie Ole Solve the equation by combining like

x = 12 terms, and so on.

Check solution in V3x —-5—-V2x+7=0 Check the possible solution, 12, in the
original equation V3(12) — 5 — V2(12) +7 20 original equation. Substitute 12 for x in
me res the original equation and simplify the left
pa de Geass cite get the equality 0 = 0. Since the
V31—V3120 — solution 12 makes the original equation
0=0 __ true, it is the solution to the equation
VON EV
2 a= 0:

Model Problems continue...

5.4 Radical Equations 247

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
@ IYLYa Solve x + 1 = V2x + 5 for x. Check for extraneous solutions.

SOLUTION
Square both sides (e+ 1) = O/2e
5) The radical is already isolated, so square both
sides. Notice from the structure of the expression
x +2x4+1=2x4+5
that it is a quadratic.
Set equal to 0 x7 + 2x -2x+1-5=0 The expression has been rearranged as a
7 -4=0 quadratic. Set one side equal to 0.
Factor @ 2-2-0 Factor the equation. x? — 4 is a difference of two
squares, so it must be the product of the sum
and difference of x and 2.
Find solutions xa42=0 Since the product is equal to 0, one of the factors
x= -2 must be equal to 0. Solve these equations to find
x-2=0 that xis either 2 or —2.
x=2
Check first Ze laV2:-245 Check the solutions to see if either is extraneous.
solution: 32 V9 Plug in the first value of x = 2 to see if it works. It
x=2 does, so x = 2 is a solution.
3=3
Check second —2712V-2+2-75 Check the second solution. This results in a
solution: -12vVi statement which is not true, so x = —2is an
y¥-— -2 extraneous solution. The only solution to the
—1| #1
original equation is 2.

Power Principle
Equations involving roots with any index can be solved in a similar manner as
equations with square roots. In other words, if a = b, then a" = b". To solve an
equation, you can raise both sides to any power you like. The power principle
states:
If an equation |
lia = b, then a” = b". is true, sois |
the equation
that results
If a and b are equal, then you can raise them to any power, and the equality from raising
still holds. If W/x = 3, for example, we can raise both sides to the fifth power: both sides
(x)° = 3°. If you raise both sides of an equation to an even power, you must check tothe same _[
your solutions in the original equation to eliminate any extraneous solutions that power. :
might result. Raising the sides to an odd power does not introduce extraneous
solutions.

248 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEM
Solve Vx + 17-5 = -3 using the power principle. Check the solution.
SOLUTION
Isolate the radical Wx+17=2 Isolate the radical by adding 5 to both sides.
Raise both sides to the (Wx + 17)8 = (23 To remove the radical, raise both sides to the
appropriate power third power.
Simplify x+17=8 Cubing a cube root results in the expression
inside the radical. The cube of2 is 8.
Solve for x r= 9 Subtract 17 from both sides to get x equals —9.
Substitute —9 forx WORT 53 Check the solution. Substitute —9 for x. The
radical simplifies to the cube root of 8.
, VW8-52-3
Do the operations FOr 8 The cube root of 8 is 2. Subtract 5 from 2, and
=3=—3 get —3 on both sides. The solution x = —9isa
solution to the original equation.

PRACTICE
1. Solve Vx + 10 =2 -x. 12. V2x+5=x+1
Awet a l 13. 5 — V6x = 16
B. x=6
14. 3x +5=10
GG... = 1 and.6
D. No solutions 15. V4x + 4=10
2. [TF Solve the equation Vx + m+ A 16. V/x + 600 -4=6
for x. Which represents the best solution? 17. 12=52-4V4x-1
Ae 2 tai 18. 10 = 26 —-2V5x-1
BAe se 19. 25 = 70 —5V3x-1
A tit
1S Arai) 20. 4=60-4V2x
-1
Exercises 3-35: Solve. Vee
21. 1
4
3. 8=5+ V4x+4+17
Wx —5+1
4.2=3-V3x+19 eo ee
5. V/x+5=1 Vn+2+46_
23. 8
6
6. Vx —2=3
peel
AV
7.4-VW3-x=1 24.
2
az

8.34 Wxt+2=-1 25. Vx +6 = V—-2x+ 15

9.5-V3-x=7 26. V4x +1 = V—3x + 43
10. 6— V5x = 13 27. V5x —1=V4x +9
440 =x% + 237=3 28. V4x + 7=V8x - 11
Practice Problems continue...

5.4 Radical Equations 249

Practice Problems continued .. .

29 . V3x +5 = V6x —9 39. Heron’s formula, A = V's(s — a)(s — b)(s — ¢),

gives the area, A, of a triangle with side
. Vix +4=V7x
—8
lengths of a, b, and c, and s being its
. V3x +8 = Vox — 11 semiperimeter (half its perimeter). Solve the
equation for c.
. V5x + 12 — V9x — 18 =0
40. What must be true for the following
. V4x +9 — V10x — 134 = 0 statement to be valid: “Let a and b be real
34 . V4x +9 — V11x — 100 = 0 numbers and n be an integer. If a” = b”, then
a=b.”
35 . V5x + 10 — V9x — 130 = 0
41.(TF MP) The average of a number and its
Exercises 36-37: Solve for the real solutions of x. square root is 10. What is the number?
36 2 2x 15 = 11Vx (ae ME) The average of a number and its
42.
a 2 cube root is 0. What is the number?
37 . [PM 4° = x + 18 (Hint: Substitute 43. If two equations have the same radical
2
solutions, does that imply the equations are
y= x° into the equation, solve it for y, then
the same? Why or why not?
find x.)
38. (TAZ R5 The speed of sound in air can be
calculated with the formula
| rE ;
0 oe
= 3314/1 + 373’ where Tis the
—

temperature in degrees Celsius and vis the

speed in meters per second. On a hot 30°C
day, a hiker shouts into a canyon and hears
an echo 2 seconds later. How far away is the
opposite side of the canyon, to the nearest
hundredth of a meter?

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

(ix Adam, Brian, and Carla are attempting to solve 2 = V3x — 2 — V10— x.
Adam says, “This is easy. Just apply the squaring principle.” He does the following:
+ =x = 2) —(10 = x)
4 mor 2-10 +X
4 = 4x -12
16 = 4x
x =4

Brian says, “That's not right, Adam. You need to move one of the square-root terms to the other
side of the equation before you square both sides.”
Carla comments, “It doesn't matter whether you move one term to the other side of the equation
or not. But you will have to apply the squaring principle twice in order to get the right answer.”
a Who is correct?
b Explain the error(s) in the incorrect comment(s).
c If Adam is incorrect, what is the correct solution?

25 O Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals:

LESSON 5.5 sue

5.5 Radical Function Graphs

Graphing a Square Root Function
The real function f(x) = Vx is the parent function of the square root
function. The domain is x = 0, since as a real function it isundefined
for negative values. The range, or output, of the function must be
greater than or equal to 0, or f(x) = 0, because the value of the function oS
is the principal square root of x. The graph intercepts the axes at the
origin. As x increases, f(x) increases.
As with graphs of other functions, the graph of the parent function can be translated
(shifted). For a square root function, f(x) = Vx can be translated using Vx —h +k,
where (h, k) shows the point where the graph has the smallest values of x and Ys
We show f(x) =Vx — 2 + 1 compared to f(x) =x.

° Identify handk With f(x) = Vx —2 + 1,h =2 andk=1.The graph is

translated to the right by 2 since h = 2, and up 1 since k = 1.
¢ Domain The domain is x = 2 so that the function is defined. Lesser
values would make the radicand negative and the function
undefined.
e Range The output of the function must be greater than or equal
fon Ota) L

In this activity, experiment with translating square root graphs.

f(x) = 1\/ x +0 +0

a——{} ——
h———{—_
k——{}-——

5.5 Radical Function Graphs 251

 MODEL PROBLEMS
© a (TEAR) The distance a person can see to the horizon, barring atmospheric conditions such as
clouds, can be found with the equation v = 1.225V/a, where v = miles of visibility to the horizon
and a = viewing altitude, in feet, above the surface. |
a Graph the equation.
b Determine the distance you would be able to see if you were on a ship 20 feet above the surface
of the water.
c Describe the end behavior of the function.
SOLUTION
a Graph y

Lan 9 = 1205/4 at

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

b_ Using the graph, at a distance of 20 feet above the surface of the water, you would be able to see
5.48 miles.
c Atan altitude of 0 feet, the visibility is 0 miles. The visibility increases as the viewing altitude, in
feet, above the surface increases.

& ET 9 Compare and contrast the graphs of f(x) = au fed = 2x and f@) = — Vx.
SOLUTION
The parent function is scaled when it is multiplied by aus
various constants. Multiplying by a constant whose br
absolute value is greater than 1 stretches the graph as,
vertically. If the constant has an absolute value that is
less than 1, then the graph contracts vertically.
Multiplying by a negative constant reflects the graph
over the x-axis. The domain is restricted to values 2
greater than or equal to 0. The range restrictions depend — 7
on the coefficient. The range is greater than or equal Ersf
to 0 if the coefficient is positive, and less than or equal
to 0 if the coefficient is negative. 8
1
We start with f(x) = aye It is the same as f(x) = Vx
but each output of the function is multiplied by = creating a flatter curve. f(x) = 2Vx is the same as
fix) = Vx but each output of the function is multiplied by 2, creating a steeper curve. f(x) = — Vx
is the same as f(x) = Vx but each output of the function is multiplied by —1, which flips the graph
about the x-axis. It is symmetrical with the graph of f(x) = Vx about the x-axis.
Model Problems continue...

252 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Compare f(x) = Vx and f(x) = Vx — a + b. For what values of a and b does the graph of
fix) = Vx — a +bshift left and up from f(x) = Vx?
A. Positive a and positive b
B. Positive a and negative b
C. Negative a and positive b
D. Negative a and negative b
SOLUTION
A. The graph shifts to the right and up for these values of a and b.
B. The graph shifts to the right and down for these values of a and b.
C. Correct answer. Negative a values create a horizontal shift to the left, and positive b values
create a vertical shift up.
. The graph shifts to the left and down for these values of a and b.

Graphing a Cube Root Function

The function f(x) = Wx is the parent function of all cube root
functions. Unlike the square root function, the domain is not
restricted. Its domain is all real numbers since the function is
defined for positive numbers, negative numbers, and 0. The
graph intercepts the axes at the origin. As the absolute value of leew ae
- x increases, so does the absolute value of f(x). >) iauee

MODEL PROBLEM
Graph and compare f(x) = Wx +3 —2 to the parent function f(x) = Vx.

SOLUTION
endfy h With function coher y ae

and k fot Ve oe 2, transformations

h = —3 and k = —2. that reflect and
stretch the square
Translate left The graph is shifted to Sie tae
root function also |
3, down 2 the left by 3 since et apply to other root |
h = —3 and down a
: f(x) We +3 — 2-60 CC EEE functions. :
2 since k.=!—2. The Sk
domain and range of
these functions are all
real numbers.

5.5 Radical Function Graphs 253

PRACTICE

1. What are the ae and range of

f(x) =Vx-9+4? -10 EO a ena ace 1 234567 8910 ‘

& x = Wandin)
=4
B. x=9and f(x) =4
C. x=% and fx) =4
De sx: Wand f(s) 124
2. Which of the following is the domain for the
11. What are the differences between f(x) = Vx
function f(x) = Vx* — 9?
and 9(x) = Se
Ree
Bo ee S Exercises 12-13: State the domain and range of
Ces oand x =3 each function.
D. All real numbers
12. f(x) =Vx+3-2
Exercises 3-6: Use the parent function f(x) = Aver
to graph and write the function based on
13. f(x) = Vx —12+4
the description of how the parent graph is Exercises 14—15: Find the values of a, h, and k for
translated.
each graph, which represents the function
3. The graph is translated left 8 units. f(x) = aVx —h +k. The parent function is
4. The graph is translated down 5 units. A) =p N/
es
5. The graph is translated down 6 and right 14.
9 units. -10-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2aly I 2)33 455, 6::7 8 910.4
x

6. The graph is translated up 4 and left 5 units.

Exercises 7-10: Write functions that represent

each graph based on the parent function
A= Va. 1543 y
TMi hog othe x
-10-9 -8-7-6-5 4-3-2-1,4.1 2 3 4 567 8 9 10
x

-10-9 -8 -7 6-5 -4-3-2-1, 12S KAO 67890.

—2
=3
4 om Exercises 16-19: Use the graph of the parent
5
function f(x) = Vx to graph and write the
function based on the description of how the
parent graph is translated.
16. The graph is translated down 10 units.
17. The graph is translated right 7 units.

18. The graph is translated up 2 and left 9 units.

19. The graph is translated down 5 units and

left 8 units.

Practice Problems continue...

254 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

Practice Problems continued .. .
Exercises 20-23: Write the expression for the Exercises 26-27: Find the values of h and k
function that represents each translated graph for the graphs, which represent the function
based on the parent function f(x) = Wx. fix) = Vx —ht+k.
CO tre ae 26. . oe
x
-10-9 -8-7 6 5 -4-3-2-1 Aye ro4 big68 784-9)
10

x
3 8 -7 6-5 -4-3-2-1, L293 45) 6. 75/8) 9°10..

Le 2Si 74°56)
7.8) 9)10

27. L. BA
10-9 -8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1

28. Write the cube root function that represents

a translation from the parent function of
3 units down and 1 unit left.

29. Write the cube root function that represents,

in order of application, vertical stretching by
4, reflection over the x-axis, translation of
2 units up, and translation of 3 units right.
be x
-10-9-8-7-6543-2-1,1.1234567
8 910
Exercises 30-32: State the domain of each
function.
f
}=10-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 4-3 -2 1 LEZ ro! SAD 07: 8 9 10
x
30. f(x) =Vxt+Vx—5
She fis Ve oa eee,

32. (ii VO 2a et

33. EPR” Mike states that the function

g(x) = V 2x + 5 is translated 5 units to the
Exercises 24-25: State the domain and range of right of the function f(x) = V/2x. Is this
each function. correct?
Exercises 34-36: Determine the radical function
24. fix) =Vx—10+4 in the form y = aVx + b + c that passes through
25. f(x) = Wx + 1-112 the given points. Then graph the function.

34. [LER (—3, —1), (0, 0), and (5, 1)

35. DFR (2, —4), 6, —1), and (10, 2)

36. [LER (-—3, 0), (2, —2), and (9, —4)

5.5 Radical Function Graphs 255

Chapter 5 Key ideas
5.1 Radical Operations

e To multiply
ply square
Sq roots with negative
8 radicands, restate the factors using 8 i.
n

e The quotient rule for radicals, Wy =e a where b + 0, allows the simplification of fractions.
The quotient rule can also be used to simplify radicals. A radical expression involving fractions
is considered to be simplified when there is no fraction under a radical sign, and no radical in the
denominator.

5.2 More Operations with Radicals

e Asimplified radical expression has no radical in any denominator. To rationalize a denominator,
you multiply by a fraction equal to one. That fraction has an expression in its numerator and
denominator that makes all the powers in the denominator multiples of the index of the radical.

5.3 Exponent Notation

e The rules of exponents apply to expressions with fractional exponents as well. The rules apply for
any integer or fraction.

5.4 Radical Equations

e Although every solution to a = bis also a solution to a* = b’, not every solution to a* = b* has to
be a solution to a = b. Applying the squaring principle can create extraneous solutions, which are
solutions to the final equation that are not solutions to the original radical equation.
e The power principle says that if an equation is true, so is the equation that results from raising
both sides to the same power.

5.5 Radical Function Graphs

e The real function f(x) = Vx is the parent function of the square root function. The domain is
restricted to values 0 or greater since the function is undefined for negative values. The range
consists of zero and all positive numbers.
e The cube root function f(x) = W/x has a domain of all real numbers. Unlike the square root
function, the domain is not restricted. The range is all real numbers as well.

256 Chapter 5: Powers and Radicals

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
1. [GI Karen's calculator shows part of the Exercises 11-21: Simplify.
graph of f(x) = Vx + 4. 11. V'700
12. V 28
13. 240
14. W/5x- V/3x3
prac
15. V5x -V/5x
-10-9 -8 -7 4 -5 4-3 -2-1 1°23 405) 627 785904
16. W/4x!- W/16x?
17. V/4x™ - V/2x"
18. V/16x° — 16x”
19. \V/81x°
— 81x?
What statement is true?
A. Ifshe scrolled to the left, where 20.
x becomes increasingly negative,
she would eventually see the only 21.
x-intercept.
B. If she scrolled to the right, where Exercises 22-23: Simplify. State your answers
x becomes increasingly positive, with 7 when necessary.
she would eventually see the only
x-intercept. PEE Eye)
C. If she scrolled in either direction, she 23. \/—2- V6
would see an x-intercept.
Exercises 24-26: Simplify.
D. No matter how far she scrolled in
either direction, she would never see 24. 8V5 +5V5
an x-intercept.
20. 27, Von
Exercises 2-6: Simplify.
26. V7 (9V/2 — V/12x)
2
2. 64° 27. [FRE Find five pairs of numbers
= (x, y) such that Vx = Vy. Find the function
3. 497 y = f(x) that passes through the points you
ie chose. With the help of a graphing utility,
4
Ae fox sketch a graph of the function.
28. [EI Use the rules of exponents to prove
Tt oaNI
See x= = Hint: The proof is similar to the
a
11’ 1
3 derivation of Wx = x".
6. (9x*)?
29. [ed What is the equivalent term for a
Exercises 7-10: Solve. radicand when an expression is written in
Wa 67 210 exponential notation? Do all properties of
radicands apply to its equivalent term?
8. Vx -—5=8
30. [Pad Write a quadratic equation in the
9.7 — V4x =14 form ax? + bx + c = 0 in which one of the
10. ¥/x + 60,000 -5=5 solutions is 1 + V3.
Chapter 5 Review 257
Cumulative Review
aid Chapters 1— is

1. Jonathan needs to find the area of his 9. Consider the equations x* — 36 = 0 and
rectangular garden. The length of his —x* + 36 = 0. Show that they have the same
garden is 9 + 4V3 and the width is solution set by showing they share the same
10 + 5V3. What is the area of his garden? factors.
Air-935 C. 150 + 85V3 10. Solve for a in terms of x and y:
Be 00s 135\/73) DD. (9014573 64x? — ay” = 0
2. Find the distance between the points (—2, 4) 11. Solve: 9x* — 64 =0
and.(—3,8):
12 Multiply the expression by its complex
KoA Cray5 conjugate and state the result: —6 — 7iV3
Bey 17 Do V4
13. [PSE] Factor a? + b? using complex
3. EGE Which of the polynomials have no numbers. Do this in two different ways and
remainder when divided by (x — 3)? Explain show that both factorizations equal a* + 0b’.
your answer.
14. Factor using complex numbers: x* + y*
Ee) 2) (x5)
B. 2+6x+9 Exercises 15-16: Simplify.
CUMGHES)a =) 15. (x* + 19x° + 95x? — 91x — 1176) + (x — 3)
Ree (9x03) (x — 1)
4 — 4x
ee 16... eee
Ax? + 44x — 48
Pee O19
Exercises 17-18: Check whether the given
4. Saul solves the equation ordered triple (x, y, Z) is a solution to the system
(2x + 5)* = 6x + 15 by letting y = 2x + 5. of linear equations. Show your work.
His work is shown below.
17..(6, 3, LIX = 927, 32,00 2y + 4z = 5
(y)’ = 3(y)
y’ — 3y = 0 18. Q,2,-Ijx=y;—pe aude ty +62 =2

yy — 3) =0 19. Find k such that 7x — 3 will be a factor of

y = Oand y = 3, so the solutions to the 7x>+ kx? — 24x + 9.
equation are x = 0 and x = 3.
20. [Ted Find the quartic polynomial with
Describe Saul’s mistake in his solution.
leading coefficient 2 that has the zeros
What are the actual solutions?
shown in the graph.
Exercises 5—7: Factor. y

5. 4x* — 81°
6. x4 + 12x” + 20
7. x* + 9x7 + 18
8. Wed If 4(x + a)? = 48x + 144 + 4x”, find
the value of a.

258 Cumulative Review

 - Determine the value of k such that the 28. Write the function that, compared to the
l jal 2%° — ko? + 7x — are
Eenle 3 oa oe 740 can bedivided graph of f(x) = ~,is reflected across the
x-axis, stretched by afactor of 6, shifted up
ercises 22-24: Solve. 2 units, and shifted right 4 units. Then graph the
Le res function.
| eee : or
|| 29. Determine whether a linear, quadratic,
ib. ea radical function would be best to model each
fex—8 x«+ 16 table of data. Justify your answer.
1 Boer oes 2 =8 a
i‘ ee
>. Factor x —y as the product of 2 binomials.

5. EXREREA If side A is 4 miles and Bis twice as

long, how fast would Becca have to ride at a
constant speed if she wants to make the trip in
35 minutes? Your answer should be exact and
simplified in miles per hour. b

30. [LE REREY Is it possible to write the

number 1 as a sum of the fractions
SL ae ee Rarer andes
ep Cee
are odd natural numbers? Explain.

Chapters 1-5 259

Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs G F-IE.6; F-IF.8b; F-BF.3

Exponential Functions
Exponential Function Graphs
Translating Exponential Function Graphs
Rate of Change in Exponential Functions
. . . . A-SSE.1b; A-SSE.3c; F-IF.4; F-IF.7e;
6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions © F-LE.5; S-ID.6a
Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling
Exponential Functions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

6.3 Combining Functions © F-BF.1b

Evaluating a Combined Function

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions SG © F-BF.4a

Inverse Functions
The Graph of a Function and Its Inverse
Optional: When Does a Function Have an Inverse Function?
Composite Functions
Optional: Domain Restrictions of Composite Functions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

CHAPTER 6 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-6

260 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

Vocabulary
combined function exponential decay inverse function
composite function exponential function percent rate of change

constant function exponential growth

ATLA AEN EOL

LESSON ee
6.1 summeenssm ERTS
necae s
6.1 Exponential Function Graphs
Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a function with base b defined by f(x) = b*, where b
must be positive but not equal to 1. A function such as f(x) = 3* is an exponential
function since it has a constant raised to a variable power. Exponential functions
can also be generated by multiplying or adding a constant to the exponential
expression, such as f(x) = 2 - 4* or f(x) = m* + 5. Exponential functions can be
rewritten using the power property of exponents.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Write f(x) = 2°" with x alone as the exponent.
SOLUTION

Power rule fx) = (2 Use the power rule.

Evaluate power fix) = &* Simplify 2° = 8.

2. Write f(x) = 3 * with x alone as the exponent.

SOLUTION
Definition of Sane A negative exponent is equivalent to the
negative exponents fo) 3 reciprocal of the base.

PRACTICE
1. (GE Which of the following is equivalent Exercises 2-7: Evaluate.
toy =3-2**1? Justify your answer by 2. f(x) = 10% for x = -2
showing the steps to get from this equation ’
to the correct answer. 3. f(x) =5 7 for x = -2

A. y=6"t! cay = 0182, 4. f(x) =2-* forx =3

Bao Ly Grok 5. f(x) = ¥ forx
=3
Practice Problems continue . .

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs 261

Practice Problems continued ...

6. f(x) = 2* forx =5 13) (5%9)7

© 1 14. (2¥>)3
7. Q(x) = & forx = a

Exercises 8-20: Simplify.

V2) V2
15. (7¥*)”?
8. 342. 3¥2 16. (61°)
SENT eh 17. (4")’
10. 24 . 9Vv5 18. (4-9-

Be 19. V5"
11. —;
Be 20. 0/32"
V3+1 (3 Which number is greater, 2'“' or
12. — oa
Byes v2
(0.25)
2? Explain.

Exponential Function Graphs

Exponential Growth
We showagraph of an exponential function with The basic
base > 1. The graph shows exponential growth. properties of
the graph of
¢ Graph rises to the The graph becomes very an exponential
right of the origin. steep as x becomes larger function depend
positive values. Its end on whether the
behavior is that the base is greater
graph becomes ever than 1, or ’
steeper and the y-values between 0 and 1.)
ever greater.
¢ x-axis is horizontal On this side of the origin,
asymptote to left of the end behavior of the graph is that it becomes a very
origin. small positive value. The expression 3* can become
very small. For instance, when x = —10, it equals a
which is approximately equal to 0.0000169, and it
would be even smaller for x = —100. The graph will
approach 0 (the x-axis) but never reach this value.
The line y = 0 is called a horizontal asymptote, which
is a horizontal line that a curve approaches but never
reaches.

The graph to the right is of the world population over the last 2000 years.
It can be closely approximated by the graph of an exponential function.
The fact that some natural phenomena can be modeled as exponential
functions is one reason for the interest in these functions.
(in
billions)
Population
World

ONY
Oy,
Or
BY
(Or
RD
(=
oS x

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Year

262 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

Exponential Decay
We showa graph of an exponential | - Graphs of exponential
function with base < 1. The graph | ——s functions follow a
shows exponential decay. a | ie particular pattern.
‘ f On one side of the
¢ Graph rises to left | As you can see, VEE aN | 7 y-axis, they become |
of origin. the function can i | very steep. On the other |
have large values side, they asymptotically |
when x < 0. | approach the x-axis. :

exponential
growth graphs,
the graph rises as x gets smaller.
¢ x-axis is horizontal As x gets larger, the graph approaches the horizontal
asymptote toright axis but never reaches it. The horizontal axis is an
of origin. asymptote. We show why this is the case using
x = 4as our example. f(4) = 0.2*, which is 0.0016, a
small number. If x were larger, f(x) would be even
smaller.

MODEL PROBLEMS
€® (TEMA a Graph g(x) = 4"
b The graph of g(x) = 4* is a smooth curve without gaps, or what mathematicians call
continuous. Explain whether the function is defined for all rational and irrational
numbers.
SOLUTION
a Create Evaluate the function g(x) = 4* for some values of x.
x-y table _ Start with x = —2. Raise 4 to the power of —2, which
equals oY Place those values in an x-y table. Repeat
forx — —-1,0, 1, and 2,

Graph Graph the points. Connect the points with a

curve.

Model Problems continue...

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs 263

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
b Since each real number can be found on the x-axis of the graph (a number line), the function
must be defined for real numbers, both rational and irrational, since that is the definition of
real numbers. This means the graph must be defined for values such as V2 or V/11.435, since
both are real numbers. The table in part a shows how the function is defined for rational
numbers.
We begin demonstrating this concept by evaluating 9(x) = 4° for x = V2. Substituting V2 into
the function, we get (V2) = 4’? In order to locate the point on the graph, we approximate
V2 ~ 14. Raising 4 to the 1.4 power, we get 7.00, as we approximate the output to the nearest
hundredth. If we approximate the square root as 1.41, we get approximately 7.10. Using
rational exponents, we could plot points more and more finely, until we get as close as we like
to V2. The values of the function will get closer and closer to 4v2, and we create a continuous
curve.

@& [TE Solve the system of equations graphically: y = 0.5* — 13 and y = —3x + 22.
Identify the types of functions.
SOLUTION
Use a graphing calculator to graph the two equations. Any intersection nes
point is the solution to the system. We can read both the x- and y-values
from the screen. The solutions to y = 0.5* — 13 and y = —3x + 22 are
x = —5.70 and y ~ 39.11, and x ~ 11.67 and y ~ —13, respectively.
SES aa
One function is linear, since the slope is constant. The other function is Intersection
exponential decay, since it has a number less than 1 raised to the x power. H=U1.666564 Y=-12.99969

Translating Exponential Function Graphs

We graph the function g(x) = 2"~ ° on the right. It has the same graph
as the exponential function f(x) = 2*, but is translated (shifted) to the
right 3 units, since 3 is subtracted from the function’s input. The two
functions are related, since g(x) = f(x — 3). This means the graph of
g(x) is the graph of f(x) translated to the right 3 units.

In this activity, translate an exponential function.

ay
4& Graph It!

264 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 MODEL PROBLEM
Cred For the exponential function f(x) = 2" + m, which set of values for m all make the horizontal
asymptote of the function shift up vertically?
A. m= {-—2,0,2} C. m={0,1, 2, 3}
BD. t= 1-3, -2, 1,0, 1,2,3) D. m= (1, 2, 3}

SOLUTION
A. Only m = 2 makes the function shift up vertically.
B. Only m = 1,2, and 3 make the function shift up vertically.
C. m= 0 does not move the function at all.
3, Correct answer. The values m = 1, 2, and 3all shift the graph of the function 1, 2, and 3 units|
vertically.

Rate of Change in Exponential Functions

Radioactive decay can be modeled by an exponential Average Percent
decay function. Radioactive decay is when one Minutes
Grams
fT Rate of Rate of
substance decays to become another substance. For Remaining
Change Change
instance, Substance A decays into Substance B with a
half-life of 1 minute. If there is 1 gram of Substance A | 0| ai
to start with, after 1 minute there are 0.50 grams, after
2 minutes there are 0.25 grams, and so on. Each
1 minute, half of Substance A decays to become
Substance B. The function for half-life is f(x) = 0.5%.
h. in y_va l
Average rate of change: et: e eee Wise
change in x-values 2
In a linear relationship, the slope is used to measure the rate of change, but gos
in nonlinear functions, we must find the average rate of change. To find the 2 g 06
average rate of change, find the slope of the line between two intervals. g g Ge
Between (1, 0.5) and (2, 0.25) the rate of change is aa
es = — 0.25. 3 oe = el Le

QO. 1 $2oys3iy 4eeromno

The average rate of change column shows the amount the original substance Time Gane
is reduced. The absolute value of the average rate of change decreases over
time, as the amount of the remaining original substance falls. For instance,
|—0.5| > |—0.25| > |—0.125], and so on.
Notice that for
P ch _ final — initial exponential
ercent rate of change: ee functions, the
amount of change
As the time interval increases by one minute, the amount of material remaining in the function
will be multiplied by 0.5; there will always be 50% less material from minute over each regular
to minute. This is shown in the percent rate of change column, with the negative interval of input is
sign showing the change is a reduction. The percent rate of change is ‘ constant; rent. ntHowever, |
diffeperce
at —50%. The percent rate of change between the first and second minutes is_ ]
: the
change between
— 0.5 _
0.25 —0.5 = —50%. You might also observe something: The percent rate
0.5 a; regular intervals is ||
of change for an interval of one equals the base minus 1, expressed as a percent. | the same.
For this exponential decay function the base is 0.5, so 0.5 — 1 = —0.5, or the percent
rate of change.

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs 265

We consider an exponential growth model. We model Average Percent
the balance of a bank account earning interest. Let’s Rate of Rate of
consider a bank that is kind enough to pay 5% interest Change Change
Hoi
a year, when we initially deposit $2500. We model
our balance as P(1 + r)', with P representing the initial
deposit, r representing the interest rate, and ¢t representing
the time in years.
change in y-values
Average rate of change:
: : change in x-values
Again, with nonlinear relationships we find the average rate of change between
2625 — 2500 _
two intervals. Over the first year, the average rate of change is een 125: In exponential |
. Sree decay functions, |
Percent rate of change: ane ee the percent ;
aac 2625 — 2500 rate of change
We compute the percent change over the first year, ——-—~——_ = 5%. It is 5%, is negative. In
2500 exponential
the interest rate. The percent change for the function is always 5%. The growth
percent change is again the base minus 1. In this case, the base of the function is functions, the
(1 + r), with r being 0.05. The base is 1.05. The percent change is 1.05 — 1 = 5%. The percent rate
percent change does not depend on P, the starting amount, but only on the percent of change is :
added to 1 in the parentheses in this expression. positive. :
MODEL PROBLEM
Show that the percent change in an exponential function is always the same for the same
change in x. For example, if a change in x of 1 causes the function to increase by 20%, that will be
true no matter what the values of x are: The change might be from x = 2 to x = 3, or it might be
from x = 3000 to x = 3001. In both cases the exponential function will change by 20%. The change
in x does not have to be 1. It might be 5, for instance, or —2. But whatever it is, for an exponential
function of x, the same change in x brings about the same percent change in the function.
SOLUTION
Function fx =h Start with an exponential function, a base b to
the x power.
final — initial ou
Percent change _ percent change = aa Use the definition for percent rate of change.
ee The difference of the final and initial output
values is divided by the initial value.
Ee TX
Substitute percent change = oe The final value is found by substituting x + c
for x. The initial value is b*.
mee x
Simplify percent change = a = Separate into two fractions.

percent change = b***~* — b*"-* Then we apply a law of exponents, subtracting

exponents to divide.

percent change = b° — b? Simplify.

percent change = 0° — 1 We have shown that the percent change equals
one less than the base to the c. As claimed,
this result does not depend on the value of x. It
depends only on the value of c, the change in x.

266 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following best describes the 4. Which statement concerning the graph of
graph of f(x) = 4-*? the exponential function y = 5* is true?
A. It increases on the right, and it A. The graph never intersects the graph of
approaches but never reaches the y =2".
horizontal axis to the left of the origin. B. The graph passes through the point (0, 1).
B. It increases on the right, and it C. For x <0, the graph can dip below the
approaches but never reaches the x-axis.
horizontal axis to the right of the origin. D. As x increases, the graph gets closer to
C. Itincreases on the left, and it the x-axis.
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the left of the origin. . Brad sketches the graph of an exponential
D._ It increases on the left, and it
function f(x).
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the right of the origin.

2. Which of the following best describes the

graph of f(x) = (4)

A. It increases on the right, and it

approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the left of the origin.
B. It increases on the right, and it
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the right of the origin.
Which exponential function could generate
C. Itincreases on the left, and it
a graph of this form?
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the left of the origin. A. f(x) = 2" CO) = 2
D. It increases on the left, and it B. f(x) 2) +5 “9 DS fy =a
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the right of the origin. . Leonard states that y = 1* + 4is an
exponential function on a math test. He gets
3. Which of the following best describes the the question wrong. Which reason explains
why the base of an exponential function
graph of f(x) = (2) cannot be equal to 1?
A. The graph of the equation is a point.
A. It increases on the right, and it
B. The graph of the equation is a line.
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to theleft of the origin. C. For increasing values of x, the value of
the function decreases.
B. It increases on the right, and it
approaches but never reaches the D. For negative values of x, the value of
horizontal axis to the right of the origin. the function increases.
C. Itincreases on the left, and it Exercises 7-12: Graph each function.
approaches but never reaches the
horizontal axis to the left of the origin. 7. f(x) = 2"
D. It increases on the left, and it Sxfinia ae
approaches but never reaches the 9. o(x) = 0.5"
horizontal axis to the right of the origin.
10. 9(x) = 0.5"~?
Practice Problems continue...

6.1 Exponential Function Graphs 267

Practice Problems continued .. .

dd y= 50%
=2 20. IMP 7| Given the function, f(x) = 2*, what
is the percent of change over intervals of
12. y = (3) = 1 unit?
21. Given the function, g(x) = 0.6", what is the
13. If (0.34)* < (0.34)’, which is greater, a or b?
Explain.
percent of change over intervals of 1 unit?
a b 22. Write both an exponential function and a
14. If(3) & (3), Which is greater, a or b? translated version of the same function, and
describe the differences between the graphs
Explain. of the two functions.
Exercises 15-19: Use the structure of the 23. TEE Explain why a function having
expression to determine how the graph of 9(x) is a plus sign like g(x) = 3* *? results ina
shifted compared to the graph of f(x). left-horizontal shift and a minus sign like
15. 9(x) = 10"
~°; fix) = 10° h(x) = 3*~? results in a right-horizontal shift
of the function f(x) = 3*.
a6. si) =(2) = (2)
Se

24. [GF Rewrite the function g(x) = (2)

47> 9(0) = 0.4 **; fix) = 0.4" as an exponential function of the form a** ”.
Hint: b might be negative.
48. 9(x) =a °**; f(x) =a"
25. Lisa claims that for any positive value of
19. 9(x) =a’ **; f(x) = a*; assume bis positive. a, the function f(x) = a* will always have a
curvy shape either increasing upward or
leveling to a horizontal asymptote on the
x-axis. Is her reasoning flawed? If so, what
positive value(s) of a contradict her claim?
LESSON 6.2 seer
ee eS

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator:
Modeling Exponential Functions
Rapid growth may be modeled with an exponential equation of the form y = ab”.
For example, the table shows the rapid increase of Web hosts (computers that run
Web sites) from 1969 to 2004.

2 500,000,000 =

0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00

Year Since December 1969
209,199,107

We use an exponential regression to model this data, where y represents the number
of Web hosts and x represents the number of years since December 1969, the first
date in the table.

268 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 Spreadsheet
e is an irrational
In a spreadsheet, start by entering the data and constant
creating a scatter plot. Make sure the chart is used in many
selected, and then choose Add Trendline from exponential
the Chart menu. To do an exponential models. It
regression, choose the Exponential option under is equal to
Trend/Regression type. You can add the model approximately
~
equation and the coefficient of determination r=; 2.71828. We
using the Options tab. The equation in the PIS ere a ie will discuss itin
spreadsheet has the form y = ae*, where e is the | $ 5°.000000 ; cma mote -detallan .
mathematical constant whose value is = oma ee
approximately 2.71828, and a and c are ee oe
constants that are adjusted to get a good fit to ; eee :
the data. § eas
0.00 10.00 20.00 30.00 40.00
Years Since December 1969

Graphing Calculator
With a graphing calculator, start by entering the data and creating a scatter plot.
Then, choose exponential regression. To do this, press and then scroll right to
the CALC menu. Scroll down to 0:ExpReg and press to set up the ExpReg
command. Then enter the parameters and do the regression as for linear regression.
The calculator displays the results as shown to the right. This is an equation of the
form y = ab’.
Although the spreadsheet and calculator use different exponential equations to
model the data, it can be shown that the equations are equivalent. From the values
of a and b given by the calculator, the equation is y = (2.115)(1.7332*). This equation
can be rewritten as y = 2.115e°°**, which is the equation given by the spreadsheet.
(You can use the product of powers rule to see that the two expressions are
equivalent.) The models are equivalent, even though the equations are different in
form. The value of 1? = 0.9765 indicates a good fit.

MODEL PROBLEMS
) eS|MP 2, 4,5} Imagine we have a population of animals that grows by 3% per year. We release 200
of these animals into a wilderness preserve. How many years would it take for the population to
grow to 500 animals?
SOLUTION
We can model the population with the function P(t) = 200(1.03)'.
To answer our question, we will need to solve the equation
200(1.03)' = 500. Use a graphing calculator to graph the two
functions on either side of the equation. From the screen, we
see that: x is approximately 31, so the population will reach
: Intersection
500 animals 31 years after they are released in the preserve. HEZO.99H913 ¥=S00
Model Problems continue...

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions 269

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2.) [AAA You see a table showing the temperature of a cup

of coffee over time. According to Newton’s law of cooling, Time Temperature
(minutes) | (°Fahrenheit)
the falling temperature is an exponential function of time. The
general form of this function is y = ae~ + Ty, where To is the
temperature surrounding the cooling object, x is the elapsed time,
a is the difference between the object’s initial temperature and
the lower surrounding temperature, and y is the temperature of
the object after elapsed time x. In this example, the surrounding
temperature is 0°F, which simplifies the function. The falling
temperature means that for y = ae“, the constant c is negative.
Equivalently, for the form of exponential function y = ab’, the
base b is between 0 and 1.
Use a spreadsheet to find an exponential function that models this set of data, and the
corresponding value of 7’.
SOLUTION
Cooling Coffee This spreadsheet function is in the form
y = ae”. It is equivalent to the function
y = (190.96)(0.9658*), which is what you
should find with a graphing calculator.
Ee»
Cd,
Ow
Cl
OVe

— panyOl

.o
ar Ol
Ol

(°Fahrenheit)
Temperature
N ol
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (minutes)

© © Cire For interest compounded annually, f(£) is equal to P, the initial deposit, times 1 plus the
interest rate r raised to the exponent t. The variable t represents the number of years. $10,000 is
the initial deposit in a bank account. The interest is compounded annually at a rate of 10%.
a Write and calculate the function for every five years for 25 years.
b Create a graph of the amount of money in the account for the first 25 years, with time on
the horizontal axis and the amount on the vertical axis.
c Use the graph to determine which five-year interval had the largest amount of growth between
years 0 to 25.
SOLUTION
a Evaluate the fit) = PA +7) The function is f(t) = P(1 + nr)‘.
function for f(S) = 10,000(1 + 0.10)° = 16,105 Calculate the amount of money for
every 5 years f(10) = 10,000(1 + 0.10)? = 25,937 every fifth year, up to year 25, as the
f(15) = 10,000(1 + 0.10)!8 = 41,772 problem asked. Round the results to
(20) = 10,000(1 + 0.10)2° = 67,275 the nearest dollar.
f(25) = 10,0001 + 0.10) = 108,347
Model Problems continue...

270 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b fo)
Note that the graph has
100,000

80,000
ear eo the form typical of an
exponential function with
a base greater than 1.
60,000

40,000 ;
20,000

c From the graph, we can tell that the growth is getting exponentially larger. The slope between
years 20-25 is much steeper than the growth between years 0-5.

) @ Ciera) The formula that follows calculates interest when the interest
is compounded n times a year. For interest compounded monthly, use When the money
2 r nt is compounded
the formula f(t) = (1 — r |. This formula calculates how much monthly, that
means it is
money there will be if P dollars are deposited for ¢ years with an interest compounded 12
rate of r that is compounded n times per year. Compounding means that times a year. :
interest is being paid on an amount that includes interest already paid.
For instance, if $100 is deposited and the interest rate is an annual rate of 12% and it is
compounded monthly, then the monthly rate is 1% (because 12% divided by 12 months).
The deposit would earn $1 dollar the first month (because $100 - 1%), and the balance
would be $101. The interest the second month would be $1.01 (because $101 - 1%), and
the new balance would be $102.01. In other words, the interest is being calculated each
month and added to the amount in the bank, resulting in a larger amount than if just
12% interest was calculated on $100.
$10,000 is deposited in a bank account. The interest is compounded monthly with an
annual interest rate of 10%. How much money will be in the account after 25 years?
Assume no money is withdrawn (removed) from the account.

SOLUTION
nt
Substitute and f= (1 + r) Substitute P = 10,000 for the starting
evaluate number, r = 0.10 for the rate of interest,
A10\- > and n = 12, since it compounds monthly.
Ja?) = 10,000(1z 230) The money is in the account for 25 years.
You would have $120,569.45 in the account
f(25) = 120,569.45 after 25 years. Note: The amount of money |
is about $12,000 more than if the interest
was compounded annually.

Model Problems continue...

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions 271

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

@ Suppose the annual interest rate at a bank is 4%. We can write the function
f(t) = 1.04' to describe this. How can we calculate the equivalent monthly rate?
SOLUTION
From annual ft) = 1.04 Approximate monthly rate for interest that is
to monthly 4% a year.
Write monthly fim) = (1.04) Write the function in terms of months, m.
function
as ‘
Use property f(m)= (1.01- ) Use a property of exponents: a” = (a’).
of exponents
1

Evaluate 1.041? ~ 1.00327 Approximate 1.04 to the = power.

Calculate 1.00327 — 1 = 0.00327 The base, 1.00327, minus 1 equals the monthly
percent Monthly interest rate ~ 0.327% fractional change. It is about 0.00327, which we
change : state as 0.327%. One way to approximate the
monthly rate is to divide 4% by 12 months, which
yields 0.325%. Our approach here gives a more
accurate result.

©@e ie) Dioxin was part of Agent Orange, an herbicide that the
United States military sprayed over Vietnam during the conflict there.
The herbicide was intended to destroy vegetation. Dioxin was an
unintended component of Agent Orange, and it turned out to have
significant negative effects on the human body. Although Agent
Orange decays rapidly, the half-life of dioxin when it is buried in
locations such as river sediment can be 100 years. By half-life, we
mean that after every period, there will be half as much of the
original material left. The data table to the right illustrates this idea.
a Create a graph of the function.
b Determine an expression for the function and check your solution.
SOLUTION
a y

Grams

0 x
0 100 200 300 400
Years
Model Problems continue...

272 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

1 x

b Formula f(x) =a (4) We can model this with an exponential function:

5 IOS (3) where @ is the initial amount, and x is
Substitute fl3) = 128(3)
2 the number of intervals (in this case, centuries).
1 Note that because x is the number of intervals, when
Apply exponent f(3) = 129(2) evaluating this function, 300 years is 3 intervals. We
8 can confirm this solution by calculating how much
Multiply f3) = 16g dioxin would be present after 300 years, if the original
amount were 128 grams.

) PACir) After each successive round of dilution, there is 40% less salt in a solution. You are
given four functions as options to model the situation: f(x) = 0.4%, ¢(x) = 0.6%, h(x) = 1 — 0.4x,
and b(x) = 0.6x?.
Identify the types of functions being used to model the situation.
Graph the amount of salt after successive rounds of dilution using each function.
Determine which function correctly models the situation.
aadIdentify where the quadratic and exponential expressions intersect. Identify the y-intercepts
oe
of each function and which expression has the greatest absolute value as x increases.
SOLUTION
a f(x) = 0.4* and g(x) = 0.6* are exponential decay functions. h(x) = 1 — 0.4x is a linear function.
b(x) = 0.6x? is a quadratic function.

mam | 00
mein as |0
amaeNUW olsT0220)
Although the expressions might
be considered to be stepwise
functions, graph them with
curves or lines so you can better
oy = VU see their properties.

Model Problems continue .. .

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions 273

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

c You were asked to model a process where in each step, there was 40% less of a substance, salt.
That is the same as saying that 60% of the material remains. There are two ways to answer
the question about which function models a process where 60% remains each time. One is to
simply recognize that an exponential function’s base minus 1 equals the percent change for each
interval. Since 0.6 — 1 = 0.40 = —40%, 0.6 is the right choice. Another way to choose the right
expression is the table. The 0.6* function goes 1.00, 0.60, 0.36, and so on. Each succeeding value
is 60% of the prior value.
d The exponential functions intersect at (0, 1). For the next pair, 0.6* and 0.6x* have the same
values at (1, 0.6). For the final pair, 0.4* and 0.6x” have the same values at about (0.9, 0.5).
The y-intercepts for the exponential functions are 1. A quadratic of this form has a y-intercept of
0. Zero to any power is 0. The linear equation has a y-intercept of 1.
It is clear from the pattern of the graphs that the quadratic function will have the largest
absolute value as x increases.

© © Cie ed Radioactive iodine, I-131, is used to treat thyroid disease. Its half-life is 8 days,
which means after 8 days, the amount of I-131 remaining is half the original amount. After
16 days, only one-quarter of the original amount is left, after 24 days, one-eighth is left, and
so on.
a Write f(x) = (4s with only x as the exponent.
b Graph the equation from part a.
c Describe the end behavior of the function.
SOLUTION
1 x

a Power rule fX)= ((2)5) Use the property of exponents x” = (x”)’.

1 \=
Evaluate power f(x) ~ 0.917* Approximate (+)a

b With the exponent now solely x, we graph

the expression. Its domain is 0 and positive
numbers, since time cannot be negative.
The graph of radioactive decay shows the
typical form of a graph of an exponential
function with a base less than 1. In model
problem 6, we discussed an exponential
decay expression. The interval was 100
0 x
years, and we wrote the expression using
OPPS 101552025530) “intervals”—centuries—as the input. In
model problem 8, we rewrite the expression
so that we can use the actual input—days—instead of an interval. This function’s value is the
proportion of radioactive material left in a sample of radioactive iodine I-131 at a given point in
time. The variable x represents the number of days that have passed.

c End behavior The base of the function is less than 1, which means the amount of iodine
falls rapidly at first and then approaches 0.

274 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

PRACTICE
4. The number of bacteria, N, present in an A sociologist models the spread of rumors
agar culture dish is growing exponentially with the function N(t) = No10°°, where No
with time, t, as shown in the table. Which of is the initial number of people who know
the following equations correctly models the the rumor and tis the time in hours. How
data for the number of bacteria N present at long does it take the number of people who
time t? know the rumor to double, to the nearest
tenth of an hour?
a ae Lucky you: You won $1,000,000 at a
a bingo tournament. Smart you: You save
Sao. [2000 all the money, earning 7% interest a year,
a compounded annually. How much money
will you have after 20 years, to the nearest
80-
per 30 cent?
A. N= 1000 + 2'% Write an exponential function that describes
t
the area of the green part of a rectangle.
B. N= 1000: 210 The area of an entire rectangle is 1. The
t
rectangles are numbered 1, 2, 3, ... as you
Cc. N=2000% move from left to right.
t

D. N= 2000-210

$200 is deposited in a bank account. The

interest is compounded annually at a rate of
6%. How much money is in the account after
How many years must you wait for your
5 years, to the nearest dollar?
money to double in a savings account if the
A fruit fly population doubles every hour. annual interest rate is 10%? Use iteration
If the population starts at 6, how many will to answer the question. State the first year
there be after 4 hours? in which the money is at least double the
original amount.
You have 10 grams of beryllium-—11, which
10. As you move away from Earth’s
has a half-life of about 14 seconds. After
surface, atmospheric pressure decreases
3.5 minutes, how many grams would you
approximately exponentially as altitude
have? Use scientific notation to express your
increases. It decreases about 12% for each
answer. 1000 meters of increased altitude. The air
(ead A population of bacteria can be pressure at Earth’s surface is about 100,000
described with the function N(t)= No10°°" pascals. What is it at 10,000 meters above
where Nj is the initial number of bacteria Earth’s surface?
and t is the time in minutes. How long does 11. a Moore’s law states that the number of
it take this population of bacteria to double, transistors in a microprocessor doubles
to the nearest tenth of a minute? every two years. A microprocessor in
1971 had 2300 transistors. How many
transistors would the law predict for a
microprocessor in 1989?
b How many transistors would the law
predict for a microprocessor introduced
in 2000, based on 2300 transistors in 1971?

Practice Problems continue...

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions 275

Practice Problems continued...

12. The recycling rate for aluminum cans is 18. [PR] A cup of tea at an initial
about 51%. About 100 billion new cans are temperature of 75.4°C is placed in a
produced in a year. For sake of discussion, room at a constant temperature of 20°C.
assume the world ran out of aluminum and The temperature of the tea is measured
was forced to exist solely on recycled cans, every 5 minutes, and the results are
starting with a batch of 100 billion new cans. recorded in the table. A model for the tea
How many of those cans would be available, temperature is created based on the data:
assuming a 51% recycling rate each year, T = 20 + 55.36 - 2.78 9-9”! where t is
after 25 years? measured in minutes.
13. The amount of a radioactive material
remaining in a 1-kilogram sample of
material is given by the formula r(t) = 0.95'
where t represents time in minutes. After
one minute, what percentage of the sample
is no longer radioactive?

14. Derek invested $500 in a Certificate of

Deposit (CD), and after a year the CD
was worth $517.50. What percent interest
was being paid on the CD if the interest is
compounded annually? a According to the model, what will be the
15. A car that was originally worth $20,000
tea temperature in 1 hour? Round your
depreciates, or loses value, at a rate of 10%
answer to the nearest degree Celsius.
per year. b What is the significance of the “20”
term in the equation of the temperature
a Write a function to represent the value of model?
the car, v, after t years.
b What is the value of the car after 10 years, 19. (PRE After simplifying an equation you
to the nearest thousand dollars?
c Determine the percent decrease in the get(2) = 2. What should you conclude
value of the car over a 10-year period. about the sign of the number a?
16. CREW] The fraction of incident light 20. The percent change in the value of an
reaching a certain depth in water decreases exponential function over a period of one
exponentially with depth. If a water layer year is 10%. What will the percent change
3 meters deep absorbs half of the incoming for the function be over the next year?
light, what fraction of the incoming light
will reach a depth of 30 meters? Hint: 21. The percent change in the value of a stock
Compare this problem to the half-life of over a 5-year period was 16%. If the value of
radioactive elements. the stock can be modeled by an exponential
function, will the percent change be
17. After the first year of use, a new car loses 16% over a 2-year period? Explain your
15% of its initial value each year. Write an reasoning.
exponential function that describes the value
P(t) of a car with an initial value of $15,000, 22. The effective annual interest rate on a bond
after t years. is 5%. Calculate the monthly interest rate, to
the nearest tenth of a percent.
23. The effective monthly interest rate on a bond
is 0.6%. What is the annual interest rate of
the bond, to the nearest tenth of a percent?

Practice Problems continue . .

276 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 Practice Problems continued .. .

24. The annual interest rate paid on a bond is 29. For a chemistry experiment, a student is
10%. What is the effective quarterly rate, to diluting a solution of alcohol with water.
the nearest tenth of a percent? After each successive dilution, 10% less
alcohol remains in the solution than before.
25. Write a function to express the value
of a bond after t years, with interest a Using x and y, write a function to model
compounded annually, whose effective the portion of alcohol that remains after
quarterly rate is 1.8%. x dilutions.
b Graph the function you wrote in part a.
26. The exponential decay function k(t) = 0.7!
c After how many dilutions is the solution
is used to determine what portion of a drug
less than 50% alcohol, if the student
remains in a person’s system after ¢ hours.
began with pure alcohol?
Rewrite the expression, giving the amount
of the drug remaining as a function of the d The student performs 10 dilutions. What
number of minutes, and express the base of percent alcohol is the resulting solution?
the function to the thousandths place. 30. In an archeological excavation, a fragment of
27. [PA Rewrite the exponential decay a burned log is found in an ancient fire pit.
function r(t) = 0.6’, where t represents time By measuring the amount of carbon-14 and
in months, as an equivalent function where
the other isotopes in the log, an archeologist
determines the amount of carbon-14 is 0.034
t represents time in weeks. Assume there are
times the original amount. The half-life of
4 weeks in one month, and round the base of
carbon-14 is 5730 years. How old is the log,
the new function to the hundredths place.
to the nearest 1000 years?
28. The exponential function p(t) = 0.99!
represents the part of the original population
of a town that remains after t months. Write
a new function to calculate the remaining
population if time is measured in years.
Round the base of the new function to the
nearest thousandths place.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

Cox) You have $8000 to put in a savings account that earns 5% interest. Leaving the money untouched,
find the total amount, to the nearest dollar, you will have after 20 years if the interest is compounded
Annually?
Quarterly (4 times a year)?
Monthly?
Daily? (Use 365.25 days in a year.)
anwe

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions 277

LESSON 6.3 emcee

6.3 Combining Functions

A combined function results from adding, subtracting, multiplying, and/or
dividing two or more functions.
Adding (f + gy(x) = flx) + g(x)
Subtracting Cf — g)(x) = fix) — g(x)

Multiplying (f > g)(x) = fix) - gx)

Dividing (
if) _ f(x)
go} = oe)
The domain of the combined function is the set of x-values common to both
functions. Sometimes, numbers that are in the domain of both functions are not
in the domain of the combined function. For example, because division by 0 is
undefined, (LE) is undefined when g(x) = 0.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Add (f + g)(x) when f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) = 2x — 3 and determine the domain.
SOLUTION
Add the (f + g(x) = f(x) + g(x) Add the expressions that define the two functions
expressions (f + g\(x) = (x +1) + 2x - 3) fand g to find an expression that represents the
s combined function f + g. Substitute in for f(x) and
DOP Sa? g(x) the expressions that define the two functions:
x + 1 and 2x — 3. When you add the expressions,
you get 3x — 2 asa result. This expression defines the
function f + g.
Domain All real numbers The domain of the function is all real numbers, since
that is true for each function.

2. Divide (E)en when f(x) = x° and 9(x) = x? and determine the domain.
SOLUTION
Divide the ie mee) Substitute in the expressions and then divide.
expressions g es g(x)

f ie
(yJo=%

Domain
(:)
— |(x) =x

Real numbers except 0 If x = 0, then g(x) = 0, and @c is undefined since it

requires dividing by 0. The domain of this function is all real

numbers except 0 because we need to restrict the function
for when g(x), the divisor, equals 0. RO aosNicaea

278 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions.

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3. Multiply (f - 9)(x) when f(x) = 2V’x and (x) = Vx and determine the domain.

SOLUTION
Multiply = (f- 9)(x) = f(x) - g(x) Multiply the expressions.
(f+ g)(x) = 2Vx Vx
(f+ g)(x) =2x
Domain 0 and positive numbers The domain of (f - g)(x) excludes negative numbers, since
negative numbers are excluded from the domain of f(x) and
g(x). The domain reflects the fact that f(x) is only real when
x is 0 or positive.

© @ Cire) In a video game, you start with 20 points. You have

60 seconds to grab the 10 cherries in the game. You get 8 points
for each cherry you grab, but lose 2 points for each cherry that
is still there when the 60 seconds expire. Write a function
describing the points.
SOLUTION
Constant function S(c) = 20 es eG ey with Le The function
points. rite a constan We create ia
function. It is always equal | ompination of
to 20. other functions.
Score for cherries G(c) = 8c You get 8 points for each It will include a
grabbed cherry you grab. constant function
and some
composition.
Number not 10 c There are 10 cherries. If shee a function
grabbed you grab c cherries, this _ always has the
means that you did not same output for
grab 10 — c cherries. any input, it is
Score for cherries N(c) = —2(10 — c) You lose 2 points for every | called a constant 4
not grabbed ungrabbed cherry. Multiply | function.
25 iy hentunbeteen ected
failed to grab, which is
10 — ¢ cherries.
Combine functions p(c) = total points function Combine the three functions. The combined
p(c) = S(¢) + Gc) + N(o) function confirms the description. You start
with 20 points, gain 8 points for each cherry
Oo ea you grab, but lose 2 points for each cherry you
p(c) = 10c fail to grab.

6.3 Combining Functions 279

Evaluating a Combined Function
We want to evaluate a combined function for a particular value. We show two ways
to do so, starting with combining the functions’ expressions before evaluating.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is (f — g)(5) when f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) = x — 2?
SOLUTION
Subtract the (f — g)(x) = f(x) — g(x) To evaluate the function f — g for x = 5, we could
expressions (f— g)(x) = 3x + 7 — (x — 2) first combine the functions to find an expression
b for f — g. Subtract the functions that define the
Vey en expressions.
Substitute and (f— g)(5) = 2(5) + 9 Now substitute 5 into the combined expression
evaluate (f— g)(x) = 19 and evaluate it.

2. What is (f — g)(5) when f(x) = 3x + 7 and g(x) = x — 2?

SOLUTION
Definition of f — g (f — g)(x) = f(x) — g(x) The functions f(x) and g(x) shown here have the
same domain, the set of all real numbers. We want
to find (f — g)(5). Use the definition of the function
f — g, which says to subtract the outputs of f and g.
Substitute 5 and fo) = OF OF e7 = 22 We want to subtract ¢(5) from f(5). First calculate
evaluate each 9(5)=5-2=3 the values of f(5) and 9(5).
function
Subtract outputs (f — g)(5) = f(5) — 9(5) Evaluate f — g for the input 5 by subtracting the
(i — (GO) 3 outputs 9@(5) from f(5). The result is 19.
(F910) ade

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-5: What is (f + g)(x)? Exercises 10-13: What is (g - h)(z)?
L. fix) = —3x; g(x) =5x +4 10. 9(z) = 4z + 3; h(z) = 9z
2. f(x) = —5x; g(x) = 7x +5 11. 9(z) = 7z + 8; h(z) = 8z
3. f(x) = 2x + 1; g(x) = 3x — 2 12. 9(z) = 8z + 1; h(z) = 9z
4. f(x) = —9x; 9(x) = 7x +2 13. 9(z) = 7z + 3; h(z) = 8z
5. f(x) = —3x; g(x) = 5x +8
Exercises 14-17: What is (2)(x)?
Exercises 6-9: What is (q — r)(y)?
14. 9(x) = 12x; h(x) = 4
6. g(y) = 8y — 9; r(y) = by+ 8
15. 9(x) = 28x; h(x) = 4
7. gly) = 10y — 8; ry) = 7y + 9
16. 9(x) = 16x; h(x) =2
8. g(y) = 9y— 8; r(y) =4y
+4
17. 9(x) = 54x; h(x) =9
9. gy) = 3y — 5; ry) = 8y+ 7
Practice Problems continue...
280 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions
Practice Problems continued .. .

18. What is (f+ g)(—2) if f(x) = 2x and 25. Carolina receives an allowance that is tied to
Q(x) = 9x — 4? completing her chores during the week. She
starts off with an allowance of $20. She has
19. What is (f+ g)(—3) iff(x) = 8x and
five chores to complete during the week, and
g(x) = 4x — 9?
for each chore she completes, she receives
20. [LX What is Geoo if gy) =2y +5 $3. However, for each chore that is not done
and h(y)= 10y — by the end of the week, she loses $4 from her
allowance.
21. What is (f - 9)(5) if f(z) = 4z — 9 and
aA a Write an expression describing Carolina’s
a) allowance as a function of the number of
22. What is (f-¢)(3) if f(z) = 9z — 4and chores, C, that she completes during the
9(z) = 5z? week.
b If Carolina completes 4 chores, what is
23. What is (2)-5) if x(z) = 42z — 120 and her allowance?

y(z) = 6z? 26. (UGA Is fia + b) = fla) + f(b)? Givea

proof or provide a counterexample.
24. What is (2)-9 if x(z) = 70z — 280 and
y(z) = 10z?

LESSON 6.4 ee ecm

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions

Inverse Functions
An inverse function is one that reverses
the action of a function, returning the An inverse
original input value from the original function
output value. To explain an inverse f: encipher reverses the
function, we use the example of a coded a“ action of a
message. To encode your message, to DEruHs function,
Yo
make it hard for others to read, you f': decipher returning the |
convert letters into numbers, as shown original input |
in the diagram. The arrows show which number is assigned to each letter. value. :
The function uses a rule that takes the position of the letter in the alphabet
(A = 1,B = 2,...) and adds 9 to it. To decode the message, to read it, your friend
Alan looks at the number and also uses the table to calculate the letter.

In the language of mathematics, he — | eee

applies an inverse function to read your me bal oe
message, a function that reverses the effect fo) cretee eS
of another function. The output of the finctaaies
function is the original input. For instance, Re
if you input B and got 11, he then reads —— Range of f(x) ;
functions in the |
Domain of x
the 11 and outputs B, which was your Range of f-1(x) Domain of f~1(x) next chapter. |
original input.
The inverse of f is written as f~’. This is read as “f inverse.” It does not represent
the exponent —1.

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions 281

 MODEL PROBLEM
What is the inverse of f(x) = x + 2?
SOLUTION
Replace f(x) with y y=x+2 Start by replacing the function
notation with y. To find an expression
Swap x and y x=y+2 Swap x and y in the equation. for the inverse function
This is the step that “reverses” of f(x), replace f(x)
the funchon. with y, swap the x-
x : and y-variables in the 7
Solve for y yt2=x Solve for y. Our first step is equation, and solve for y.
mead just to switch the sides of the The resulting expression |
equation around, so y is on will be the expression for}
the left. It makes it easier to f-1(x).
see what we are doing. Subtract 2
from both sides to isolate y.
State as inverse f(x) =x-2 The resulting expression is the inverse function.
function

g In this activity, decode the first message. It was encoded using the function
ROS se:

G In this activity, decode the second message. It was encoded using the function
f(x) = 4x — 3.

282 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 The Graph of a Function and Its Inverse
We show the graphs of f(x) = 2x, and its inverse,
The graph of a
s 1 :
f'@= 5%, to the right. The two graphs are function and
its inverse are
symmetrical about the line y = x. They are reflections symmetrical
about this line. about the line
Another way to state the symmetry is to say that for y =x.
every point on the graph of a function, you can find
a point on the graph of its inverse function that is the Nia) Soy
same distance from the line y = x.

We show another graph of a function and its inverse. You can see that
for every point on a function’s graph, we can find a point on the graph
of its inverse that is the same distance from the line y = x.

MODEL PROBLEMS
2) @ Cia! The function f(x)= = + 32 converts a aegis from Celsius (C) to Fahrenheit (Ey
For nae we can convert ie to Fahrenheit: f(10)= =(10)+ 32 = 50°F. What is thei
inverse
of f(x)= fe a O27

SOLUTION |
Replace f(x) foo = + 32 Start by replacing the function notation with y.
with
: y= 25 + OZ
5
Swap x and y x= & + 32 Swap x and y in the equation. This is the step that reverses _
the function.
Solve for y ay + 32=x Solve for y. Our first step is just to switch the sides of the
5 equation around, so y is on the left. It makes it easier to see
ay =x — 32 what we are doing. Subtract 32 from both sides, and then
5
multiply by —.
a
State as f(x) = 2 (x — 32) The resulting expression is the inverse function. Above, we
inverse ? said that 10°C was 50°F. Let’s check our inverse function:
pon fl@= ae — 32). Substituting 50 for x, we get

f*60)= aot 32), which equals 10.

Model Problems continue...

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions 283

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© eB iF! The distance a car travels equals the product of its rate of fuel consumption (its gas
mileage) and the number of gallons of gas it uses. The car we are considering gets 30 miles
per gallon. What is the inverse of this function?
SOLUTION
Write function d(x) = 30x We represent the number of gallons the car uses with x, so
the distance it travels can be written as d(x) = 30x.

Replace d(x) with y y = 30x Start by replacing the function notation withy.

Swapxandy _ : x =30y Swap x and y in the equation.

Solve fory y= a Solve for y.

State as inverse d(x) = s The resulting expression is the inverse function. In this
function function, x represents the number of miles the car was
driven. The inverse function allows us to calculate how
many gallons of gas we would need for a trip of x miles. For
instance, we would need 10 gallons for a 300-mile trip.

Optional: When Does a Function Have an

A one-to-one
inverse Function? function pairs
é ' exactly one
Not every function has an inverse. Every function pairs exactly one output to each input with
input. To have an inverse function, the function must also pair exactly one input each output.
to each distinct output. To put it another way, no output can be the result of two A one-to-one
or more inputs. If say f(3) = 9 and f(—3) = 9, then the function will not have an function has
inverse function, since two different inputs, 3 and —3, have the same output, 9. \ an inverse.
A function that matches each output with one input is called a one-to-one function. a fnedon
a ce : that is not
The domain of the original function is the same as the range of the inverse function. one te-one doeen
A function is one-to-one if for every x and y in its domain, f(x) = f(y) if and only nothavean
if x = y. inverse function.
Hasinverse f(x)=x+3 The only input x with an output
function If fix) =5,x =2 of 5 is 2. No other value of x when
One-to-one added to 3 equals 5. Since this
is true for every output of this
function, f(x) = x + 3 is one-to-one.
Does not f(x) = x° The function f(x) = x” is not
have inverse If f(x) =9,x =3erx=-3 one-to-one. The inputs 3 and —3
function Not one-to-one are both paired with the output 9,
so there is more than one input for
a given output.

284 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

Another way to tell if a function has an inverse is to Pe tao)
apply the horizontal line test to the graph of the If a horizontal
C line intersects
function. If there is a horizontal line that intersects
the graph of a
the graph of the function at more than one point, the ay Fe function more
function has no inverse. Why? If a horizontal line Maat co “y than once, the |
intersects the function at two or more points, then the : | function has
same y-value, which is the output, comes from ; i re
-7-6
5 -4-3'-2-1, 4.1 23 4 5 6 7 no inverse. :
two or more x-values, which are the inputs. This
means that it is not a one-to-one function. Because the line intersects the graph
twice, this function has no inverse.

PRACTICE
1. Which of these functions is the inverse of Exercises 4—20: Find the inverse of each function.
= ?
Vig tonoih 4. f(x) =3x-—5
Pee ox OC y=
bn dee
5. f(x) =4x4+1
pa e aoe
B. YS are Dire 220s pti
6. g(x) = 7
2. Which of these functions is the inverse of a?
7. 9(x) = Xho
Ae 10
8. f(x) = 5x —9
eel
9. 9(x) = 5
10. f(x) =x +31

11. fix) =x +18

A. a Gare
B.D Dand 12. f(x) = —32x
3. Astudent starts with the function shown in 13. f(x) = —5x
the graph below. The student translates this
function vertically down 3 units and then 14. f(x) =4x +7
calculates the inverse. What is the inverse of 15. f(x) = 5x +8
the new function?
y ' 16. 9(x) =x-3

L7. g(x) =x-9

PIP EPEp eee 12 § 456789 ‘ ‘ i8. fz) = 92

19. f(z) = 8z

A. f(x) = 2x —3

B. f(x) aa 5
So
Dttfs lx)= 23

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions 285

Composite Functions
A composite function is the result A composite
of one function being applied to function is
the results of another function. The made up of
~ composite function is written f(g(x)). two functions,
| This is stated as “f of g of x.” We use taking the
playing a guitar as our example of output of the
a composite function. The frequency first function |
of the note is stated in cycles per as input to the
second, with a unit called hertz. second.

One function The inputs to the first function are fret positions, which are the numbers of the
e Fret to note white regions between the black lines on the neck. The outputs are musical
notes. If a player strums at position 3, for example, the guitar plays the note G.
Second function The second function takes a note as input, and its output is the frequency of the
¢ Note to frequency note. For example, G has a frequency of 392 hertz.

Composite function The composite function takes the fret position as input and states its frequency
¢ Fret to frequency as output. This composite function goes directly from fret position to frequency.

There are two ways we can evaluate a composition for an input. One way is to
use the expression for the composition. Another way is to evaluate the innermost
function first. It is like working with parentheses because we work from the inside
out.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Write the composite of f with g when f(x) = x + 1 and g(x) =
b Evaluate at x = 3 by using the expression for the composition.
c Evaluate at x = 3 by evaluating the innermost function first.
SOLUTION
The inner
a Composite f(g(x)) = g(x) +1. +To write an expression for the function is g(x)
function f(9(x)) composite function f(@(x)), replace x and the outer
in the expression for f(x) with g(x). function f(x).
Replace g(x) with f(g(x)) = 2x + 1 Replace g(x) with its expression, x:
its expression The result is an expression for f(g(x))= 2x + ct

b Substituteand _—f(g(3)) = 2x + 1
evaluate flg(3)) = 23) +1=7

c Evaluateinner 9(3)=2:°3 To evaluate a composite function, find the value of the innermost
function first (3) =6 function first. To find f(g(3)), start by finding g(3). It equals 6.

Evaluate outer f(9(3)) = f(6) Now replace the inner function with the value calculated in the
function using fle) =x +1 previous step. Since 9(3) equals 6, f(g(3)) equals f(6).
output of f6)=6+1
inner function
Evaluate f(g(3)) = 7 Evaluate f(g(3)) by finding f(6), which is 7.
composite Model Problems continue...

286 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
2. A tree’s trunk grows 2 centimeters wider each year, and its height increases by 4 centimeters each
year. Its mass density is 510 kilograms per cubic meter. If the tree starts out 10 meters tall with a
0.8 meters diameter, write a function describing its mass as a function of the year.
SOLUTION
We will write functions to describe the tree’s various dimensions and take advantage of the formula
for the volume of a cylinder, V = mh. Its mass will be the product of its density and volume. This
application lets us compose functions three levels deep. We are composing M(V(h(t), r(t))). The height
and radius are functions of time, and the volume is a function of the height and radius. In turn, the
mass is a function of the volume. |

Mass M(V (h(t), r(£))) The mass is a function of the volume,

which in turn is a function of the height
and radius, which are functions of the time.
Volume V(h, r) = ar-h Use the definition of volume. Write a
V(t) = m(r(t))? + h(t) function for the volume as a function of time.
Height . h(t) = 10 + 0.04t Write the expression for the tree’s height
from the problem. It increases by 4 cm
every year, but we need consistent units, so
we convert centimeters to meters and get
0.04 m.
Radius r(t) = 0.4 + 0.01t Write a function for the radius of the tree.
We convert the diameter to a radius:
0.8 m diameter = 0.4 m radius. If the
diameter increases by 2.0 cm, its radius
increases by half that.
Substitute V(t) = 17(0.4 + 0.01#)* - (10 + 0.04¢) Substitute the expressions.
expressions
Mass M(V(#)) = 510: V(#) The mass of the tree is a function of its
volume.
Substitute M(t) = 5107(0.4 + 0.01#)? - (10 + 0.04t) | Substitute the expression for the volume.

Optional: Domain Restrictions of Composite

Functions The domain
restrictions of
Determining the domain restrictions of a composite function is a two-step a composite
process. First, determine any restrictions on the domain of the inner function. function
Any restrictions on the inner function’s domain are restrictions on the composite include any
function. Second, add any restrictions to the composite function expression to the restrictions on
restrictions of the inner function. This combination of restrictions is the domain \, the expression
that result from |
restrictions of the composite function.
the composition |
For instance, the @(f(x)) = V4— x?when f(x) = x? + 1 and g(x) = V5 — x. The inner and any '
function, f(x), has the domain of all real numbers. However, the domain of the restrictions
composite function is limited to -2 =x =2 because that is the domain of the on the inner
composite function expression, V4 — x°. If the absolute value of x is greater than function.
2, then the expression has a negative radicand, and the output is not a real number.

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions 287

 MODEL PROBLEM
Determine the domain of:

a f(g(x)) when f(x) = + and 9(x) = x+1

b g(f(x)) when f(x) = ~and 80) oman

c f(f(x)) when f(x) = *and g(x) = > :1

SOLUTION
2 FSO) SC) ee State the composite function f(9(x)).
; 1 , arated
E 7;) Substitute for x in the expression ee
cel
and simplify.
Domain Inner function g(x) undefined for —1 State the domain restrictions. x cannot
Domain is all real numbers except —1 equal —1 because it causes the innermost
function, (x), to be undefined. Even though
the composite expression, x + 1, has the
domain of all real numbers, the domain
of the composite function must include
any restrictions on the inner function g(x).
Therefore, the domain of the composite
function is all real numbers except —1.

b g(f(x)) BU) = ; : State the composite function 9(f(x)).

258) Substitute the expression for f(x) into the
x g(x) function. The composite function
is undefined for —1 because that value
causes the denominator of the composite
expression to equal 0.
Domain (f(x)) is undefined for —1 Another domain restriction is x # 0 since
Inner function f(x) undefined for 0 f(x) is not defined for x = 0. The domain
Domain is all real numbers except —1 and 0 restrictions are all real numbers except
—land 0.

c f(f(x)) ffx) = Q)” x State the composite function f(f(x)).

Domain Inner function f(x) undefined for 0 This composite function has the domain
Domain is all real numbers except 0 of all real numbers except 0, since f(x) is
undefined for 0.

288 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

PRACTICE
1. DGKA If fix) = 3x — 4 and (x) = x3, what is 11. What is z(y(x)) if z(x) = 2x + 15 and
the positive difference between f(¢(2)) and y(x) = —4x — 9?
g(f(2))? 12. What is f(2(2)) if f(x) = —2x + 6 and
Ae G.020 Q(x) = 8x?
Bz, 12 D; 28
13. What is f(2(3)) if f(x) = —2x + 14 and
CER Which of the following statements Q(x) = 4x?
are true? 14. What is 9@(f(3)) if f(x) = —6x + 14 and
Ii O)=—(¢ — f (x) forall x Q(x) = 8x?
II. If fand g are functions such that 15. What is 9(f(—2)) if f(x) = —10x + 20 and
f(x) = g(a) for all x, then f(x) = g(x). g(x) = 10x?
IIT. If f(g(x)) = x, then g(f(x)) = x for all x. 16. Write an expression for g(h(x)) given
A. lonly C. Tand II g(x) = 5x and h(x) = 4x — 14.
B. Ionly Dit irang lt 17. Write an expression for g(h(x)) given
g(x) = 2x and h(x) = 8x — 13.
. What is f(9(4)) if f(x) = 3x — 1 and
g(x) = —4x + 11? 18. Write an expression for h(g(x)) given
g(x) = 8x and h(x) = 3x — 15.
» What is f(g(—5)) if f(x) = —2x — 5 and
g(x) = 6x + 20? 19. Write an expression for h(@(x)) given
g(x) = 6x and h(x) = 2x — 2.
- What is f(9(7)) if f(x) = 4x + 14 and
g(x) = —9x + 60? 20. f(x) = 275x — 535. What is f(f~(—4050))?
. What is 9(f(5)) if f(x) = x? — 16 and 21. f(x) = 255x — 510. What is f(f~!(—2700))?
g(x) = 3x — 7? 22. Cie A barrel cactus grows in the
. What is 9(f(6)) if f(x) = x* — 31 and shape of a cylinder. The cactus is currently
B(x +17? 0.2 meters in diameter and 1.2 meters
high. It grows 10 centimeters higher and
. What is 9(f(7)) if f(x) = x* — 40 and 6 centimeters wider each year. Its mass
Q(x) = —2x + 8? density is 700 kilograms per cubic meter.
» What is 9(h(x)) if g(x) = 4x — 6 and a Write a function to represent the volume
Wi Det 27 of the barrel cactus in cubic meters as a
. What is f(g(x)) if f(x) = —3x — 19 and function of time.
g(x) = —8x + 20? b What is the mass of the cactus, to the
nearest whole kilogram, after 5 years?

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice

ie) Consider the function y = 2x? with the domain restricted to x = 0.

a_ Find the inverse.
b Is the inverse a function? Explain.
c Algebraically, show that the function you found for part a is an inverse. In other words, show that
ff "@)) = x.

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions 289

Chapter 6 Key Kieas seme ee
6.1 Exponential Function Graphs
e Anexponential function has a constant raised to a variable power, f(x) = b*. The base b must be
positive but cannot equal 1.
e To graph an exponential function, you can plot points and draw a curve through them.
Exponential functions can be translated up or down, left or right.
e The basic properties of the graph of an exponential function depend on whether the base is
greater than 1, or between 0 and 1.

6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions

e Exponential functions can be restated using properties of exponents in order to solve for different
variables.
e For exponential models, use exponential regression to determine if the model is a good fit.

6.3 Combining Functions

¢ Acombined function is the result of adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing two or more
functions.

6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions

e An inverse function reverses the action of a function, returning the original input value from
the original output value. The inverse of fis written as f'.
e Not every function has an inverse. Every function pairs exactly one output, an element of the
range, to each input, or element of the domain. To have an inverse function, the function must
also pair exactly one input to each output. Such a function is called a one-to-one function.
e You can find an expression for an inverse function by replacing f(x) with y. You then switch the
x- and y-variables, and solve for y. The expression equal to y defines the inverse function.
e The graphs of a function and its inverse are symmetrical about the line y = x. By symmetrical,
we mean the graph of one is the reflection of the other across the line.
e Acomposite function is made up of two functions. The composite function takes the output of
one function and uses it as the input of the other function. For any value of x, the composite
function f(g(x)) takes the output of g, g(x), and uses that as the input to f. To put it another way,
you evaluate the inner function first.

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
1. How does the graph of 9* + 7 compare to 2. (LEM Ainsley opened a certificate of
the graph of the parent function 9*? deposit account with an initial deposit of
A. Itis shifted to the left 7 units from the $1,800. At the end of Year 1, she had $1,872
in the account. At the end of Year 2, she
parent function.
had $1,946.88 in the account. At the end of
B. Itis shifted up 7 units from the parent
Year 3, she had approximately $2,024.76 in
function.
the account. Which of the following best
C. Itis shifted
oedown 7 units from the represents the interest rate she secured?
paren :
D. Itis shifted to the right 7 units from the A. 0.02% C. 0.04%
parent function. Bz. 0.03776 D. 0.05%
Chapter Review continues . . .

290 Chapter 6: Exponential Functions

Chapter Review continued . .
3. A species of bacteria doubles three times 16. If a principal P is invested at an annual
every 8 hours. If there are only3 to start interest rate r, compounded n times per year,
with, how many are there after a day? in ¢ years it will grow to an amount A given
nt
A. 24 Cr 068
by A os
=P FF us
4
B.4 192 D5V1536
a Acheck deposit of $10,000 is
Exercises 4-7: Evaluate the following functions.
accumulating an annual interest rate of
4. f(x) =4 forx =3 3.6%, compounded quarterly. How much
is the check deposit worth if it is left to
5. f(x) = (2) for x =3 accrue interest for two decades? Round
your answer to the nearest dollar.
6. Q(x) = 8* forx = 7 b Suppose that $2500 is invested at an
7. g(x) = 6 forx = —2 interest rate of 4.5%, compounded
monthly. How much is the investment
8. Simplify: 7V> - 7V3 worth at the end of 8 years? Round your
9. Which number is greater, 33or 3929 Explain. answer to the nearest dollar.
10. Chelsea was given a loan by the bank and c Banks A and B offer an annual interest
purchased a house for half a million dollars. rate of 6%. However, Bank A compounds
She put a down payment of 20% on the monthly and Bank B compounds
house, but forgot to make her monthly annually. Which bank offers a better
payments for the next five years. Her annual plan?
interest rate, which is compounded monthly, 17. Find the inverse: h(y) = —5y + 5
is 4.9%. How much will she owe the bank in Exercises 18-20: What is (f + g)(x)? Simplify your
5 years, to the nearest dollar? answer.
i1 Scientists counted only 15 bacteria five years 18. f(x) = 5x — 9; g(x) = -—2x +1
ago in a petri dish experiment and observed
that the bacterial population quadrupled 19. f(x) = —11x — 3; 9(x) =4x +5
every three years. What will be the bacterial 20. f(x) = —3x — 5; 9x) 2x IZ,
population four years from now?
Exercises 21-22: What is (f - g)(x)?
12. (ERY Broker Bob notices that inflation
21. f(x) =x -—7;9(x)=x+5
has caused the median salary to increase
by approximately 2% each year. Based on 22. f(x) =x +9; 9(x)=x+4
his observations, he says that if you earn 23. What is (f — g)(4) if f(x) = 8x — 9 and
P dollars today, you'll be earning P - (0.02)”° g(x) = 3x — 2?
in 20 years. Is his formula correct? If not,
modify it so it represents the expected 24 What is (Le if f(x) =x + 2and
median salary amount earned in t years
based on a 2% inflation rate. g(x) = 7x — 11?
13. Amanda’s annual interest rate is represented (a
25. Ned A rocket is launched straight up
by the function, f(t) = 1.05’. What is the into the air from the ground with a
quarterly interest rate, to the nearest tenth of starting velocity of 50 m/s. (Hint:
a percent? Position = initial position + initial
14. (Ey Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 velocity - time — 4.91’, with position in
years. Given a full sample of carbon-14, meters and time in seconds.)
what percentage of its original amount is left a What is the height of the rocket after 3 s,
after a millennium? in meters?
15. Tie a Magnesium-27 has a half-life b Write an expression to model the height
of about 9.5 minutes. At 3:45 P.M., only of a ball that is thrown directly upward
a sixteenth of magnesium-27 was left from a starting height of 1 m with an
from its original amount. What time was initial velocity of 7 m/s. Use the variable
magnesium-27 in its original state? t to represent time.

Chapter 6 Review 291

 eat ti cela hdam Ch ated ay
for Chapters 1=@
1. Which of the following could be the 5. The bank offers a 3.8% interest rate for a
coordinates of an x-intercept of the graph of savings account, compounded annually.
a function? How much money could be expected in
the savings account in 10 years if $100 is
Be 2)
deposited today?
Bae (Oa 1)
Cora) A. $128.48
Devo B. $145.20
Ce. p19275
2. The solutions to —x? — 4x — 5 = Oare D. $239.09

caiae { ; Exercises 6—7: Factor.

Deeiaiey tent
Cea 2g 4 21 6. x* + 13x° + 42
| psiiligetDisi bea peter
7. x° + 4x? — 45x
3. What are the conditions for adding or
8. [TP3F) Show that the quadratic equation
subtracting radical terms?
ax? + bx + c = 0, (a # 0) has two different
I. The index of the radical must be the negative solutions if a-c >0,a-b>0,and
Se page 0
II. The radicand must be the same.
Hl. Th fficient in front of the radical
9. (x + 3) times (x — 7) equals x? — 4x — 21.
Benet uni Gk es) What are the x-intercepts of the function
| prgee Dep ne cante, flx) = x2 — 4x — 21? State only the
A. lonly x-coordinate of the x-intercept(s).
B. Ilonly
10. Find the5 x-intercepts of the graph of
@ xlLand I
fix) = x° + 7x + 12. State only the
D. Wand Il x-coordinate of the x-intercept(s).

4. How does the graph of 14*” ° + 3 compare 11. Ifx + 1isa factor of x1! + kx + 7, what is
to the graph of the parent function 14*? the value of k?
A. Itis shifted to the left 6 units and up 3
Exercises 12-13: Determine whether the
units from the parent function.
expressions are factors of the polynomial
B. Itis shifted to the left 6 units and down function.
3 units from the parent function.
C. Itis shifted to the right 6 units and up 3 12. Expression x — 2; f(x) = 6x° — 7x? + 8x — 9
units from the parent function.
13. Expression x + 5; f(x) = x° + 5x? + 4x + 15
D. Itis shifted to the right 6 units and
down 3 units from the parent function. 14. For the expression —x° — 3x* + 4, if x + 2 is
a factor, what is P(—2)?

15. Is (5, 4, —2) a solution to the following

system of equations? Show your work.
22 YR 2k 6

292 Cumulative Review

16.
:
Simplify ‘
: S.—-4x
ty —AD
Exercises 23-27: Simplify.
a;
17. Solve: x =>
5 23. 25°
Rea xe 14 2
18. a Complete the table. Write the quotients as 24. 125°
integers with a remainder, if necessary.
The first one is completed. one
ee 6
a 30

have a remainder?
26.

ltl en a elem
bees el 27. ay ys
ee Fk creel oyom
28. What is (f — g)(x) if f(x) = 6x —1 and
g(x) = x + 8? Simplify your answer.
b What can you say about the remainder
when the divisor is a factor of the
29. [MPM The function g(x) = 47-° + 2
dividend? What can you say about the
remainder when the divisor is not a factor? can be obtained by shifting the function
f(x) = 4° to the right 3 units and up 2 units.
19. Ifx — 5isa factor of x° — 3x* — 13x + 15,
Each point on f(x) is shifted 3 units right and
what does that imply about the remainder in
2 units up, which is a total distance
Wieeretok t LOS
th e quotient
tient o of of V3? + 2 = V13 ~ 3.6 units (using the
Pythagorean theorem). Find an exponential
20. [IF] Sam divides ax’ + bx + cby x — fand function with a total distance shift of 5 units
finds that the remainder is 0. What does that from the function a* for each function below.
say about x — fin relation to ax* + bx + c?
Exercises 21-22: Write the reciprocal function
a fi) =a'*”
b 9x) =a +c
that is represented by each graph.
CHa oe
21.

-16-15-14-13-12-11-10 -9 -8 -7-%

Chapters 1-6 293

Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

7.1 Logarithms G F-LE.4

Logarithmic Functions
Common Logarithms
Solving Logarithmic Equations

7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs A-REI.11; F-BF.3

Translating Logarithmic Function Graphs

7.3 Natural Logarithms and e © F-LE.4

7.4 Laws of Logarithms F-LE.4

Logarithmic Identities
Logarithmic Equations
Logarithms of Products
Logarithms of Quotients
Logarithms of Powers
Change-of-Base Formula
Summary of Logarithm Rules
Solving Exponential Equations

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms © ee F-IF.4; F-IF.6; F-IF.7e;

Spreadsheet and Graphing Calculator: Modeling
Logarithmic Functions
Multi-Part Problem Practice

7.6 More Logarithmic Operations A-SSE.2; F-LE.4

Breaking Up and Combining Logarithmic Expressions
Derivations of the Rules of Logarithms
Multi-Part Problem Practice

CHAPTER 7 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-7

294 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 RIESE 932
Vocabulary
4
argument e power rule for logarithms
base logarithmic function product rule for logarithms
change-of-base formula natural base exponential quotient rule for logarithms
function
common logarithm natural logarithm

RRR ISN AE SL

LESSON 7.1 sec: 20sec

7.1 Logarithms
Logarithmic Functions
A logarithmic function is the inverse of an exponential function. If bY = x, then
log, x = y. With log, x, b represents the base, and x is the argument of the logarithm.
The logarithm is the power y that base b is raised to so that it equals x. Both b and
x must be greater than 0, and b cannot equal 1.
Example:
log, 8 =? The expression is read as “the base 2 logarithm of 8.”
Power of 2that The expression log, 8 means the power to which 2 must be
results in 8 raised to equals 8.
log, 8 =3 The base 2 logarithm of8 is 3, since 2 to the third power is 8.
2P=8

We show some examples of how logarithms and exponents are related:

You can see how the exponent on the left equals the value of the logarithm on the
right. In the first row of the table, the exponent is 2 and the value of the logarithm
is also 2. You can also see that the bases are the same on both sides of each row. \

For instance, in the first row the base is 4 for both the exponential expression and
the logarithm.
Finally, you cansee that the value of the exponential expression equals the argument
of the logarithmic function. In the first row, the value of the first exponential
expression is 16, and 16 is the argument of the first logarithm, and so on.
7.1 Logarithms 295
eG In this activity, move tiles from a logarithmic function to create an equivalent
exponential equation, and vice versa.

SG In this activity, you get a mix of transformations from logarithmic function to exponential
equation, and vice versa.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Exercises 1—4: Evaluate.
SOLUTION
1. log, 49 log, 49 = 2 The logarithm equals 2, since 7? = 49.

2. logy 1000 log) 1000 = 3 The logarithm equals 3, since 10° = 1000.

3. log, as log, Dt 6 The logarithm equals —5, since 2~° =sl

2 o2 ; oe,
1 1 4
4. log 116 log 1 oul 4 The logarithm equals 4, since (3) = --

296 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

Common Logarithms
A common logarithm is a logarithm with base 10. A logarithm written as log 5 is
a common logarithm; it is equivalent to logy) 5. In other words, if the base is not
stated, it is assumed to be 10, and it is a common logarithm. Many calculators
calculate common logarithms when the “log” key is pressed.

MODEL PROBLEM
Calculate the common logarithm of log 1000 = x.
We show how to
SOLUTION calculate the common
logarithm of 1000
Restate as 10*= 1000 Use the definition of logarithms. using the relationship
exponential If log 1000 = x then 10* = 1000. of logarithmic and
equation - exponential equations.
Write 1000as_ = 10* = 10° Write 1000 as 10° so the same base ~ Af expresso ae
power of 10 appears on both sides of the equation SE ees
3 stated. It is a common
Solve C3 The exponents can be set equal to each logarithm and its base
other because the bases are the same. The is 10. For example,
solution is x = 3. The common logarithm log 1000 is equivalent |
of 1000 is 3. to log. 1000. '

Solving Logarithmic Equations

Since y = log, x is equivalent to bY = x, we can convert a logarithmic equation to an
equivalent exponential equation to solve it.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve log, 8 = 3 for the base of the logarithm.
SOLUTION
Convert to exponential x° = 8 Restate the equation as an exponential equation. The
equation equations log, 8 = 3 and x° = 8 are equivalent.
Solve x=W8 Take the cube root of both sides of the equation. The cube root
peas? of 8 is 2, or to put it another way, 2° = 8. This means x = 2.
This is the solution to the equation.

2. Solve logs x = 2 for x.

SOLUTION

Convert to exponential 5° = x Restate the logarithmic equation as an exponential equation.

equation The equations log, x = 2 and 5* = x are equivalent.
Solve x =25 Simplify 5? to solve the equation. The solution is x = 25.
Model Problems continue...

7.1 Logarithms 297

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Solve log,x = —3.

SOLUTION
Convert to exponential 47° = x Restate the logarithmic equation as the equivalent
equation exponential equation 4° = x.

Solve ee = Since 4°° = ma x= =

4. Solve log, 20+ * = 3.

SOLUTION
Be ZO as oleae
Convert toexponential 4° = — Restate the logarithmic equation as an equivalent
equation exponential equation.
Solve 64 = ee Solve the equation and find that x = 2.
64x = 126+ x
63x = 126
2

5. Which equations have a solution between 0 and 1? Select all that apply.
A. log3;x = —2

B. logigx =
|e
N

Glog, (4) = 0

Damlogeen =o2
S
SOLUTION

A. Correct answer. The answer is 3°* = =

Be
B. The answer is 167 = 4.
C. Correct answer. First write as an exponential equation, x* = = Then take the square root
and disregard the extraneous negative answer because the base of a logarithm must be positive.
The answer is =
=—2

D. The answer is (4) = 9),

298 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

PRACTICE
1. If logigx = —2, thenx = 27. logs 25

1
1 1 28. log, 8
A. a Cam
10 100 oe
Bear S100 logy, 2
Dig. (= 2) 10
29.

Exercises 2-10: Restate each logarithmic equation 30. log, ch

+ 16
as an exponential equation.
2. log, 2187 = 7 31. logvat

3. log; 0.04 = —2 32. log, 0.5

4. log, 128 = 7 33. log; 3V3

5. log, 64 =3 34. logs V25

6. log; 625 = 4 3/ 1
35. log. oo
7. log, 6 =x
Exercises 36-49: Solve.
8. log; 729 = 6
36. log 10,000 = x
9. log, 512 =3
37. log 100 = x
10. log), 0.01 = —2
38. log 100,000 = x
Exercises 11-20: Restate each exponential
39. log,x = 2
equation as a logarithmic equation.
40. log, 81 = 4
$1203 .0
12. 6° = 216 41. logs89 x = =
5
13, 3° = 729 42. log,x =3
14. 57 =:25 43. |08, ar7355
15. 17* = 4913 27
16. 30.234 os y 44. log,5 =1
45. logyx = -1
ai. —Z
46. log,8 =3
18. 4
47. log; x =-—2

19. 16 ~ 48. logx = 2.453

20. a ‘= 49. logx = 2
Exercises 21-35: Evaluate. Exercises 50-51: State the answer to the nearest
21. log, 16 hundredth. Use a calculator or a spreadsheet.

22. log; 27 50. If log x = 0.396, what is x?

23. log, 1 51. If log x = 4.500, what is x?

24. logs 1 52. EE Why can’t there be a logarithm of a

negative number?
25. log 10”
26. log 10”
7.1 Logarithms 299
LESSON 7.2
7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs
The graph is a typical logarithmic function. As x aiken cee See
approaches 0, f(x) becomes increasingly negative. Meese
As x becomes larger, the graph “flattens out.” The
vertical axis is the vertical asymptote for the
logarithmic function. The graph of the logarithmic
function does not extend to the left of the y-axis
because logarithms are not defined for 0 or for
negative numbers.

An exponential function and the appropriate

Just as with other
logarithmic function are inverses of each other.
inverse functions,
Two functions that are inverses have graphs
the graphs of
that are mirror images of each other and are
a function and
symmetric about the line y = x. Since the
its inverse are
exponential function f(x) = 2* and the aS
symmetric about
logarithmic function f-'(x) = log, x are inverses, “5 4 ~ | the line y = x.
their graphs are symmetric about y = x. Cle

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve the system of equations, y = log, x and y = 2* — 15, by graphing.
SOLUTION
Create table
and graph

Solution: (4,1) A solution to the system is where the graphs intersect. In this example, the graphs
intersect twice. We can use x-y tables to get a sense of the number of solutions. A
solution in the table is a row where the two functions have the same value of y for
a given x. A logarithmic function is undefined for 0 and negative inputs, so there
cannot be an intersection for values less than or equal to 0. Using the x-y table, we
know one solution to this system of equations is (4, 1). The other solution is where
y = 2* — 15 crosses y = log, x, very close to the y-axis. If you iterate a solution, you
will find it between 10°° and 10°’.
Model Problems continue . .

300 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

o |MP1,5, 6| a Solve y = (log;) x) + 2 and y = 1.2" to find approximate solutions.

b Continue to iterate to find a more precise solution for the greater value of x.
SOLUTION
a Create table
and graph
Etec

|
pecan
Eat eee

Two solutions Approximately (0.1, 1.1) Use the graph to find approximate solutions. One
Approximately (5.5, 2.7) seems to be about (0.1, 1.1). The other seems to be
about (6.5, 2.7).

Iterate values between 5.45 We estimate that the solution for the greater value of x was
and 5.625 about 5.5. Using a spreadsheet, generate values for x, starting
with 5.45, and adding 0.025 to create each additional value.

Approximately (5.525, 2.74) Using the graph, we can approximate the solution as (5.525, 2.74).
We could also state that the x-value of the solution is between 5.525
_and 5.55, and the y-value is between 2.74 and 2.75.

We could continue to iterate: We could start with 5.525 and add

even smaller increments, such as 0.01, to calculate an even more
precise solution.

7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs 3041

Translating Logarithmic Function Graphs

As with other functions, the graph of a logarithmic function

can be transformed. As our parent function, we choose
f(x) = log, x. Two outputs for specific values of x of the
parent function will make comparing our transformations
easy. When the input of the function is 1, then the output log, (* + 3) tag,
is 0. This is represented by the gray point. (Remember,
oa so log, 1 = 0.) Another point we can use is (4, 2).
This is represented by the green point. (Remember, x” = x,
so log, x = 2.) An Onn ORO mmeLO)

Translate up or down by adding or subtracting a constant to

the function’s output. For example, g(x) = 5 + log, x has a positive constant of 5
added to the function, which translates the graph up. The points (1, 0) and (4, 2)
have been translated and are (1, 5) and (4, 7).
Translate left or right by adding or subtracting from the input of the function. For
example, h(x) = log, (x + 3) has 3 added to the input of the function. As expected,
the graph is translated horizontally; it is shifted to the left 3.

The choice of the base determines the precise shape of the

parent graph. For example, compare f(x) = log, x to
b(x) = log;) x. As the base becomes greater, the graph is less
steeply curved than the parent function.

We can note that other transformations are true for logarithms as for
other functions. For example, the graph of m(x) = —log, x is a
reflection over the x-axis of the graph of the parent function
fix) = log, x. Multiplying the parent function by a —1 creates
a reflection. If the base is less than 1, then the graph of the function
will also have the characteristics of a negative log function graph.
For example, the graphs of —log, x and logo; x are identical.

If the coefficient of the function is greater than 1, such as

k(x) = 5 log, x, the function vertically stretches compared to the
parent function. If the coefficient of the function is less than 1
1
but greater than 0, such as j(x) = aol
= log, x, the function vertically —~
a
shrinks compared to the parent function.

302 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEM
Using the parent function f(x) = log, x, graph g(x) = 5 + log. 3).
SOLUTION

Gea fix) = log, x (1,0) | (4,1) | (16, 2)

able
glx) = 5 :telog, (ew —8)li(ort 33y +5) | (4.5) | (776) (19) 7)
Create a table of values that satisfies the parent function, f(x), and the new function, 9(x).
Using properties of logarithms you can identify simple points for the graph of f(x), (1, 0)
and (4, 1), and the corresponding translated points, (4, 5) and (7, 6). You also know that
4° = 16, so (16, 2) is a point on the f(x) graph, with corresponding translated point (19, 7).
Compare The new function g(x) = 5 + log, (x — 3) has the same shape as the parent function.
functions _ It’s simply translated. The (x — 3) part of the function indicates that the graph of
the function moves 3 units to the right. The constant of 5 moves the function 5 units
vertically.
Consider Before plotting the points on a graph, the domain of the translated function must be
domain __ considered. (x — 3) can only bea positive value. Setting x — 3 > 0 and solving finds that
x > 3. If x > 3, then the graph of g(x) approaches the vertical line x = 3.

Graph zo g(x) =5 + log, (x — 3) Plot the points (4, 5), (7, 6), and (19, 7) and sketch a
Te logarithmic curve approaching the vertical line x = 3.
: ia 3 Both the translated function and the parent function
4 td are shown on the graph. Note the translation is
3 om shown by the arrows.
2
coe
poy x
ROR [4 6 8 101214161820

PRACTICE
1. Which is true about the graph of 5. f(x) = logos x and g(x) = 0.5*
y = logs (x — 2)? Choose all that apply.
6. Describe the difference between the graphs
A. The graph is 2 unitsleft of y = log; x. ofy = log x and y = 5 + log xusing a
B. The graph is 2 unitsright of y = log; x. translation.
C. The graph is 5 unitsleft of y = log, x. . Describe the difference between y = log, x
D. The graph is 2 unitsdown from and y = log, (x + 5) using a translation.
y = logs x. “2
. Describe the translations that change the
E. The graph has the same shape as
graph of y = log; x into the graph of
y = logs x.
y = log; (x + 1) — 9.
F. The graph is a steeper curve than
y = logs x. . Describe the translations that change the
graph of y = 2 log, x into the graph of
Exercises 2-5: Graph. Vie Og. (v3). 2,
2. fix) = log x 10. How are the graphs of y = log, x and
3. f(x) = log) 5x y = log, (x + 10) — 4 similar?
4. f(x) = log, x and g(x) = 4" Practice Problems continue...

7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs 303

Practice Problems continued...

Exercises 11-13: The graph of the parent 19. The graphs of the functions y = 5 log x
function, y = log x, is shown below. Graph each and y = (x — 3)’ intersect between
given function. Describe the transformations 4.5 <x <5. Use iteration to find the
necessary to return from each given function to x-coordinate of their point of intersection,
the parent function. to the nearest hundredth.
20.Cie Explain how the graph of
y = log; x could be obtained from the graph
of the function y = 3*.
21. The graph shown below describes an
exponential function. If it is reflected across
the line y = x, what function is described by
the resulting graph?

11. f(x) =4 + log (x + 3)

12. f(x) = —log x

13. f(x) = 4 — log (x + 3)

14. Give three integer coordinate points that are

on the graph of f(x) = 2 log, (x — 3). Then
sketch the graph.
15. Use the given values of x to find points that
are on the graph of y = log, x. Then translate
the points to find integer coordinates of points
on the graphof y = log, (x + 6) — 1. Two Exercises 22—24: For which values of x is each
points have been completed for you, as well statement true? Explain your reasoning.
as x-values for y = log, x.
22. logy x < log, 2x
Points on Points on
23. logo.25 a logo.25 5
y = log, x y = log,
(x + 6)-1
24. log, 5 < log, 6
25. Can the point (125, 5) belong to the graph of
Alx) = logs x? Explain.
26. Marvin starts with the graph of
y = log (x + 8) + 3 and wants to draw
the graph of y = log x. Describe the two
translations Marvin can perform on the
16. Based on the number of times their graphs graph of y = log (x + 8) + 3 to create the
intersect, how many solutions exist to graph of y = log (x).
the system of equations consisting of
27. Describe the differences and similarities
y =5 + log xand y = 2”?
between f(x) = 5 log, x and 9(x) = log, x.
17. How many solutions exist for the systems of 28. [TI Shaya graphed the function
equations y = 4 + log x and y = |x — 5]? y = log (x — 3) + 3 by translating the graph
of y = log x. She moved the parent
18. State the coordinate points that are solutions
function left 3 units and up 3 units to find
to the systemy = 4 + log x and y = |x — 5]. her new graphof y = log (x — 3) + 3. Is
Shaya correct? If so, sketch the graph. If not 7

explain why and sketch the correct graph.

Practice Problems continue...

304 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

Practice Problems continued .. .
29. ETGYS Consider the table of values for the 30. Consider the graphs of f(x) = 17 log x and
function y = log; (x). In order to graph g(x) = —17 log x. Tara says that the graph
y= logs (x) + 4, a student made the second f(x) is the graph of 9(x) shifted 17 units
table of values. Will the second table vertically. Is Tara correct? Explain.
correctly graph the new function? Explain.
i 31. [QF Describe the transformations required
y = logs (x) to graph each function. For example, what is
needed to transform y; to y2, Y2 to y3, etc.?
y1 = logx
Y2 = 3logx
y3= —3 log x
Y4 = —3 log(x + 4)
ys = —3log (x + 4)-1
32. [TPR When a > 1 and N > 1, which
expression is greater, log, N or log, =
When a < 1 and N > 1? Justify your answer.

LESSON 7.2 meee

ee

7.3 Natural Logarithms and e

A natural logarithm has a base of e. The number eis an irrational constant,
which is a number that repeats without a pattern, like 7. The first digits of e are
2.718281828459. Some important equations in science, mathematics, and economics
are stated using logarithmic or exponential functions with a base of e.
The rules of
A logarithm with base e, such as log, 7, is called a natural logarithm. A natural logarithms
logarithm is written as “In,” asin “In 7.” This is equivalent to log, 7. Some calculators ae fo
have a key labeled “In” that calculates the natural logarithm. If you evaluate In 7, logarithms
you will see that the first digits of In 7 are 1.9459.
The constant e can be calculated using the function below:
We evaluate and compare the values when 1\"
n= 1 and n= 10,000. When n = 1, the value of Evaluate f(n) = (1a +)
the function equals 2. function for :
When we increase the value of 1 to a large Bani = (1a 1)
number like 10,000, the result is close to e; the 1
first three digits to the right of the decimal fG) =2
are the same as e. If we used an even larger 1 \1000
number, like 10 million, we would get even Evaluate f(10,000) = (1+ )
closer. As n gets larger (and approaches function for 10,000
infinity), the value of the function becomes —_| n = 10,000 #(10,000) = 1.0001"
closer and closer to e. f(10,000) = 2.718145936

7.3 Natural Logarithms and e 305

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Restate log, x = 5 and In x = 5 as exponential equations.
SOLUTION
log,x=5 x=2° Iflogx =5, then x = 2°. (This is just a reminder of the general definition of
logarithms before you practice with natural logarithms.)
Inv=5 t= Vile
> 7inen eae”

2. Restate 4* = 9 and e* = 9 as logarithmic equations.

SOLUTION

AiO log,9 = x If 4* = 9, then log, 9 = x.

e = 9 In9=x If e* = 9, then In9 = x.

3. Solve In y = 9 for y.
SOLUTION We can never get
exact solutions for
Iny =9 y= If In y = 9, then y = e”. y, because eis an
irrational number.
4. Solve Ins = 5 for y.

SOLUTION

Int+=5
y
Lag
y
1
Write the natural logarithm in exponential form. If In qn 5, then
1
1
y=are®2 —oe=. Th lve for y.

© e Cir) The interest on savings at a bank can be calculated by

Like other positive
stating that the interest is compounded at certain regular intervals, numbers, the number
such as 12 times a year (once a month). But there is also continuously e can be raised to a
compounded interest, in which banks, in essence, compound the power and graphed.
interest every moment. With this type of interest, you can use A function of form
the formula f(t) = Pe”. This formula calculates how much money f(x) = ae™, is called
there will be if P dollars are deposited for t years with an annual a natural base i
interest rate of r. exponential function. |
$10,000 is deposited in a bank account with an annual interest ee
rate of 10%. The interest is compounded continuously. How much money will there be in the
account after 25 years? Assume no money is withdrawn (removed) from the account. Compare to
compounding interest yearly and monthly after 25 years.
SOLUTION
Substitute and fit) = Pe” Substitute 10,000 for the original deposit,
evaluate (25) = (10,000)(e1925)) 0.10 for the 10 percent interest, and 25 for
number of years. After 25 years, there will be
fi25) = $121,824.94 $121,824.94 in the bank account.
Model Problems continue...

306 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Compare to f(25)= (10,000)(1 + 0.10)?° If the interest were compounded just once
compounding the fl25)= $108,347.06 a year, then our calculations show about
interest yearly (12.25) $13,500 less interest would be earned. On the
and monthly 1
f(25) = (10, 090)( 920)
other hand, if the interest were compounded
once a month, the difference would only be
(25) = $120,569.45 about $1250.

PRACTICE
1. The graph below is most likely to be the 14. Graph the function y = e* and the line
graph of which function? y = x + 1 on the same coordinate grid.
15. Graph the function y = In x and the line
y = x — 1 on the same coordinate grid.
st 8 ally
16. a Fill in the table for given values of x.

raoh
~ 2
3

A. y=e& C. y=e*
Bye D. y=Inx
2. What is the x-intercept of the function
= In 2x + 1) — In(@ + 2)?
fet}
+
nx

b Which function increases fastest for small

ow ee yl
values of x? for large values of x?
c Which function shows the slowest
B. -1 D. The function doesn’t
have an x-intercept. growth?
Exercises 3-7: Evaluate. 17. If you deposited $2000, withdrew no money,
3. Ine and earned a 3% continuously compounded
annual interest for 10 years, how much
4. Ine’ money would you have in the account? You
made no other deposits.
5. (ae
18. If you deposited $5000, withdrew no money,
6. In and earned a 2% continuously compounded
annual interest for 1 year, how much money
would you have in the account?
dali;
Ars
SS 19. If you deposited $1000, withdrew no
Exercises 8-10: Restate the following as money, and earned a 2.5% continuously
exponential equations. compounded annual interest for 2 years and
8: Inx= 17 6 months, how much money would you
have in the account?
9. Inz=45
10. Inz = 0.5
20. Recall that the function h(x) is called even if
heo= ai ae odd if h(—oe= —h(x). If
Exercises 11-13: Restate each equation as a
flx) = a g(x) = = ,is each
logarithmic equation.
ie =k of the Pines f(x) and 9(x) even or odd?
Explain.
12.2 =
13. eee],
7.3 Natural Logarithms and e 307
LESSON 7.4 eeemeec cm ae

7.4 Laws of Logarithms

Logarithmic Identities
The identities log, b* = x and b'°8»* = x are useful to know when working with
logarithms. These identities follow from the fact that the exponential and
logarithmic functions are inverses.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Evaluate log) 10°.
SOLUTION

Evaluate logis 10° = 5 Following the identity, log,) 10° equals 5.

2. Evaluate 3'°837.
SOLUTION

Evaluate oo Raising 3 to the power log; 7 results in 7,

the argument of the logarithm.

3. Evaluate log, 1.
The base b logarithm
SOLUTION of 1 is 0: log, 1 = 0.
Why? Because an
Evaluate logy 1=0 For example, log, 1 = 0, ee Bian tan hs
Oi: :
because 7” = 1. raised to the power O
equals 1.

4. Evaluate log, 4.
SOLUTION The base b logarithm
Evaluate log,4=1 For example, log, 4 = 1 of b is 1: log, b = 1.
because 4! = 4. This is because any
number raised to the
power 1 equals itself.

308 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

Logarithmic Equations
The equation log, x = log, y is true if and only if x = y. As long as x and y are
positive, these are equivalent equations.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve log; 2x = log, 10.
SOLUTION
log, x = log, y and 2x = 10 Since the bases of the logarithms are equal, we can
x = y are equivalent write the equation shown on the left.
Solve x=5 Solve the equation.

2. Solve log; (x* — 3) = logs 2x.

SOLUTION

log, x = log, y Oa Since the bases are the same, we can set the
and x = yare arguments of the logarithms equal to each other.
equivalent
Solve hee =) Solve the resulting quadratic equation. There are
(x — 3)\(x+1)=0 two solutions, 3 and —1.
When solving an
x=3o0rx=—-1 equation involving
logarithms, check
Check solutions in log; (3? — 3) 2 log; (2 - 3) Check the potential
potential solutions
original equation log; 6 = log; 6 solutions in the original
to make sure the
equation. For x = 3, the
logarithms are
equation is true, with
defined. We want to
log; 6 on each side. make sure we know
log; ((—1)? — 3) 2 log; 2(—1) For x = —1, the tentative which solutions are
log, 2 Blogsi==2 equation has log; —2 on extraneous.
each side. Since the me LS ST TT TEE

logarithm of a negative number is not defined,

the equation cannot be confirmed so —1 is not a
solution to the original equation.
State solution x=3 State the solution to the original equation, which is
eS:

3. Solve logs (x — 2) = 3.
SOLUTION

Write the equation in its Dee ee Since 5 is the base of the logarithm, then
exponential form 5 is the base of the exponential equation.
Solve the equation 125 ahr Solve the equation to find that x = 127.
x = 127

Check the solution log; (127 — 2) =3 Check the solution in the original
logs (125) = 3 equation to see that x = 127 is not
extraneous.

7.4 Laws of Logarithms 309

PRACTICE
1. Which statement(s) about logarithms is 18. If log, x = 3, what is log, 2
incorrect?
A. log, c is equal to 1. 19. If log, x = 3, what is log, x?
b
B. log, 1 is equal to 1.
Exercises 20-31: Solve.
C. The solution to log, 1 = Ois
any positive number. 20. log, 1024 =5
D. In the equation log, x = 1,w =x.
21. log, 1296 = 4
2. eae Ifpe (V/b*)
= 2a then
22. log,x =1.5
a =
B. = 23. logo, x = :
CG. she 29
D. 2a=b 24. log, (2x + 3) =

Exercises 3-17: Evaluate. 25. log, (5x — 14) =

3. 7'°875 26. log, (x* + 2x) = log, (x + 2)

: gloss 2 27. logs (1 — x”) = logs (x? + x)

5 es 28. log; (x? — 7x + 37) =2

15°25” 29. log, (seva) 0

628 6 456

xlos V2
30. sae) Ss -

poPn
on
. log, V2 31. logio V7 OO Ve =

10. log, 2V2 32. [TLFRE Solve 4 — log, x = 3Vlog,, x;

11. log; 5° Hint: Let Vlog, x = t, then solve a
quadratic equation for ft.
12. log,, 12°
33. [SEY Martha says that a logarithmic
13. log, z° equation can have only one extraneous
solution. Is this a correct statement? Explain.
14. log, 32” Hint: Consider that extraneous solutions can
15. log, 1 occur because logarithms are only defined
for positive arguments.
16. log 100
34. Solve the inequality In (2x — 3) < 1. Leave
17. log 0.01 your answer in terms of e.

310 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

Logarithms of Products The product
rule can let you
The product rule for logarithms states that the logarithm of a product of calculate the sum
numbers equals the sum of the logarithms of the factors. To state this as an of two logarithms. |
equation: The logarithms must |
have the same :
log, MN = log, M + log, N base.
M, N, and b must be greater than 0, and b cannot equal 1.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Calculate the value of log, (4 - 8) using the product rule for logarithms.
b Check by evaluating the logarithm of the product directly and comparing the results.
SOLUTION
a Apply product log (4-8) = log, 4 + log,8 The product rule says to add the logarithms of
rule for the two numbers that are being multiplied in
logarithms the argument.
Evaluate log, (4-8)=2+3 Evaluate the logarithms. The first equals 2 since
log, (4-8) =5 2? = 4, and the second equals 3, since pee:

b Check log, (4: 8)=? Whether we use the rule or multiply first, we should get the same
results. We check this conclusion.

Multiply log, (4-8) Now, multiply first. The product of 4 and 8is 32.
log, 32
Evaluate log,32=5 Since 2° = 32, log, 32 = 5. This agrees with the result we got using
logarithm the product rule.

2. Use the product rule to evaluate log, 4 + log, 9.

SOLUTION
Apply product rule logs 4 + log, 9 If two logarithms with the same base are added, their
for logarithms log, (4 - 9) arguments can be multiplied.

log, 36. » Multiply, and get the base 6 logarithm of 36. Using the
product rule results in a number that is a power of 6.

Evaluate logarithm log, 36 = 2 Since 67 = 36, log, 36 = 2.

7.4 Laws of Logarithms 311

Logarithms of Quotients
The quotient rule for logarithms states that the logarithm of the quotient of two
numbers equals the difference of the logarithms of those numbers. To state it as an
equation:

log, = = log, M — log, N

M, N, and b must be greater than 0, and b cannot equal 1.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Calculate the base 3 logarithm of the quotient of 81 and 3 using the quotient rule for logarithms.
b Check by evaluating the logarithm of the quotient directly and comparing the results.
SOLUTION

a Apply log; eh log; 81 —1log,;3 The quotient rule says that to calculate the logarithm
quotient rule 3 of the quotient, we subtract.
for logarithms
Evaluate logs log, oe 4-1 The first logarithm equals 4 since 3* = 81, and the
3 second equals 1, since 3' = 1.
lo 833
ae 3

D Check log, Ble 2 Whether we use the rule or divide first, we should
3 get the same results. We check this.
Divide log; = We divide first: 81 divided by 3 equals 27.

log; 27
Evaluate log, 27 = 3 Since 3° = 27, log; 27 = 3. This agrees with the result
logarithm we got using the quotient rule.

2. Use the quotient rule to evaluate log; 72 — log; 8.

SOLUTION
Apply quotient log; 72 — log; 8 = log; ie If two logarithms with the same base are
rule for . subtracted, their arguments can be divided.
logarithms
Divide log; 9 Now divide and get the base 3 logarithm of 9.
Using the quotient rule results in a number that
is a power of 3.
Evaluate log39 = 2 Since 3° = 9, log; 9 = 2.
logarithm

312 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

Logarithms of Powers
Another tool in evaluating logarithms is the power rule for logarithms. It states
that the logarithm of a power of M can be calculated as the product of the exponent
and the logarithm of M. To state it as an equation:
To evaluate the logarithm |
log, M? = p - log,M of anumber M raised to |
» @ power, you can multiply |
M and b must be greater than 0, and b cannot equal 1. the logarithm of M by the |
exponent.

MODEL PROBLEM
Use the power rule for logarithms to calculate log, 8°.
SOLUTION

Apply power rule _ log, 8” The power rule says to take the exponent and multiply it
for logarithms 16 - log, 8 by the logarithm of its base. The exponent is 16, so multiply
| that by log, 8.
Evaluate the 16 - 2° Since 2° equals 8, log, 8 equals 3. Multiply 16 by 3 to get 48,
logarithm and 16-3 = 48 so log, 8'° = 48.
multiply

Change-of-Base Formula
The change-of-base formula allows you to write a logarithm with one base as a
logarithmic expression with a different base. The logarithm of the “old” base is in the
denominator, and the logarithm of the argument is in the numerator. Use the change-
of-base formula when you do not know how to calculate a log directly. You can change
the base of logarithms using the following formula:

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Restate log,, 32 using only base 2 logarithms and the change-of-base formula.
b Use the change of base from part a to evaluate logy, 32.
SOLUTION
a Change-of-base log, x = 108% We want to restate the log;, 32 as an expression using
formula log, 4 only base 2 logarithms. To do so, we will need to use the
change-of-base formula. Restate the logarithm base a of x
as a quotient of logarithms with base b.
Restate logarithm Jog, 32 = log2 32 To answer the question, apply the formula. Identify that
using change-of- log, 16g =16,b =2,and x = 32, then substitute the values into
base formula the formula. The result is an equivalent expression that
uses only base 2 logarithms. Model Problems continue...

7.4 Laws of Logarithms 313

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b_ Evaluate log, 32 ae The two base 2 logarithms can be evaluated. Since 2° = 32,
each log,16 4 log, 32 = 5. And since 2* = 16, log, 16 = 4. Using the
logarithm
change-of-base formula, logy, 32 = *:
5
Check 164 2 32 To check the answer, we can use the definition of logarithms.
solution 5 5
(s16) 2 32 The power 164 (with the original base 16) should equal 32.
Evaluate the fractional exponent. It equals the fourth root of 16
Ded 3D. to the fifth power. Evaluate the radical. The fourth root of 16 is
2, and 2° equals 32. Our evaluation checks.
Bo = OD

eeCoed Use the change-of-base formula and acalculator to

evaluate log, 12.
Using the change-of-base
SOLUTION formula to change the base
= : logio 12 to 10 is helpful since many F
Apply... log, 12 = ——— We change the base to 10, calculators only evaluate the
formula logio 7 because many calculators S.. common (base 10) log. This >
can evaluate with this is useful when a decimal
base. Sees is needed.
Use log, 12 ~ eee~ 1.28 We use acalculator to find
calculator that logio ae 1.08 and logiy 7 ~ 0.845. We oe divide”

Summary of Logarithm Rules

The rules for logarithms work for any base. This includes e, so the rules apply for
natural logarithms too.

log, M — log, N

Power rule log, M? = p- log, M

Change-of-base _ log, x
formula 8a ~ log,a

PRACTICE
1. log), 72 + log), 2 = 2. log; 27° =
Ax 2 A. 8
B.
C.
144
logy, 36
pa >
D. log. 74 Cea ed
Das
Practice Problems continue...

314 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 Practice Problems continued .. .
3. Donald is simplifying the expression Exercises 23-26: State the logs without a power.
_ log; 81. 23. log, y°
waigg. 27
24. log, 6°
Step 1: y = log; 81 — log, 27
25. log, 8”
otep 2: y = log; 81 — 3
Step 3:y=4-3 26. log; p”
Step 4: y =1 Exercises 27-32: Evaluate. Round to three
Which is the first incorrect step in his work? decimal places, if needed.

A. - Step 1 C. Step3 27. log; 8

B. Step 2 D. Step 4 28. log, 4
Exercises 4-5: State as a sum of logarithms. There 29. logs 4 + logs 16
may be more than one correct answer. 30. log, 2 + log, 16
4. log,15 31. log; 500 — log; 4
5. log, 56 32. log, 1 — log, 8
Exercises 6-10: State as a single logarithm. Exercises 33-36: State as a single natural logarithm.
6. log, 11 + log, 2 33. In5+1In3
7. log, 5 + log, 4 34. In 18 — In 12
8. log, 4 + log, 5 35.2 Ing 2b ins
9. log, 3 + log, 6 36. 4Iny+In7-1
10. log; m + log; n 37. [LER] Alogarithm in base 3 of a product
Exercises 11-14: State as a difference of logarithms. of two consecutive numbers is one more
9
than the logarithm of 10 in base 3. Find the
i O84 —5 smaller of the numbers.

8 38. [GFR A right triangle has legs a and b,

a2. 10g3 =7
and its hypotenuse is c. Show that
log, (c — b) + log, (c + b) =
TZ
13. |O8p a3 log, b
39. Show that —@"— = 1 log, x.
log, 0
14. log, 5
40. EGP Show that
Exercises 15-18: State as a single logarithm. ii
~ 1
+ iL
+ il
= 10 log, a.
log,b logeb logsb log sb
15. log, 5 — log, 7
log, (log, a)
16. log; 2 — logs 13 log, a
41. Simplify the expression: a
17. log; 40 — log; 4
42. If log, 2 = aand log, 5 = J, find log; 5.
18. log), 3 — logi. 2 ee
logs x
Exercises 19-20: Express as a single logarithm 43. Solve: x = 5° (Hint: Use change-of-base
with an integer argument. formula. If there are no solutions, state this.)
19. log, 4 + log, 6 — log, 8 44. Solve: x"°8*)~? = 1000 (Hint: Take log, of
both sides and use change-of-base formula.
20. log; 15 — logs Saat logs 4
If there are no solutions, state this.)
21. Express log, y* in terms of log» y.
45. ieee Which is greater: oe 2 or logs a
5
22. Express log; x° in terms of log; x. Justify your answer.

7.4 Laws of Logarithms 315

Solving Exponential Equations
Exponential equations can be solved by taking the logarithms of both sides of the
equation to create an equivalent equation. You can take the logarithm of both sides
using any base.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Solve 3* = 20 using logarithms.
SOLUTION

Take logarithm logiy 3* = logy, 20 Take the logarithm of both sides. We are using
base 10 of both sides common logarithms with base 10.
Power rule x logig 3 = logy 20 Use the power rule to restate the logarithm on
the left without any exponent.
Solve for x _ logio 20 Solve for x.
logio 3
Evaluate ~ 13010 _ 5 796g Evaluate the common logarithms using a
~~ 0.4771 calculator and state the answer to the nearest
ten-thousandth.

a Solve. 3 4 = 81.
There is another way to solve model
SOLUTION
problem 2. The equations b* = b”
Take logarithm base 3 log; 3 * = log; 81 Take the and x = y are equivalent equations.
Biboticides logarithm All values for x and y that make the
base sok one equation true also make the
bottenies other one true.

Use logarithmic 2x-2=4 Use the logarithmic identity log, b* = x on the left
identity, evaluate and evaluate the logarithm on the right.
Solve for x 2x = 6 Solve for x.
x=3

3. Solve 3% ~ * = 81 using the identity b* = bY and x = y are equivalent.

SOLUTION
Restate right side with 3%~*=3* Restate the right side of the equation as a power of 3.
exponent

b=bYandx=yare 2x-2=4 State the equation as an equivalent equation without

equivalent exponents.
Solve for x x=3 Solve for x.

316 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-15: Solve. If there is no solution,
say SO.
1. qex +2 = q’

2. qx ts =

3 Sige Se
A eases
a

Boe aot

6 {ene \fGge= 1
mae nS = 4ac—1

S09 = 27"**
D.i2P d= 32
10. 3°%*”= 27
11. 6° = 19
12. (FI= 8
13, 3=c¢ *
14, 5°) = 625
15. 3° = 27

LESSON 7.5 sees

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms

Spreadsheet and Graphing Caiculator:

Modeling Logarithmic Functions
The sound level provides a scale that relates how Sound Level
humans perceive sound to a physical measure of
its power. Sound intensity is a measure of how much 110
power a sound transmits. a intensity of aa er ee
approximately 10 * W/m‘ (watts per square meter) aCe oy 123.01
is the minimum perceptible by the human ear, and eee ee
is represented by Ip. The sound level is logarithmically
related to the intensity, and is measured in units eters oe
called decibels (dB). The equation relating sound 133.01
intensity and sound level is B = (10 dB) log =
0
where B (beta), in decibels, is the sound level and I is the sound intensity. We use
a logarithmic regression to model this data, where y represents the sound level and
x represents the intensity.

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms 317

 Spreadsheet
In a spreadsheet, start by entering the data and creating a scatter plot. Make
sure the chart is selected, and then choose Add Trendline from the Chart
menu. To do a logarithmic regression, choose the Logarithmic option under
Trend/Regression type. You can add the model equation and the coefficient of
determination r* using the Options tab. The equation in the spreadsheet has the
formy =a+ blinx.
Sound Intensity versus Sound Level
y =4.3429In(x) + 120 Logarithmic regressions
produce an equation of the
2=4

formy =a+bInx. Ina

subsequent model problem
25S
you will see this equation
written in another equivalent
(decibel)
Level
Sound
form using “log” instead of
0 5 10 15 20 25
Intensity (watts per meter squared)
“In.”

Graphing Calculator
With a graphing calculator, start by entering the data and creating a scatter
plot. Then, choose logarithmic regression. To do this, press and then scroll
right to the CALC menu. Scroll down to 9:LnReg and press to set up the
LnReg command. Then enter the parameters and do the regression as for linear
regression. The calculator displays the results as shown. This is an equation of the
formy =a+t blnx.

EDIT TESTS
JTQuadrkeg
:Cubicked
Quartredg
Beecee

MODEL PROBLEMS
© ee Ti) When an amount of money P is invested in an account that pays interest at rate r,
compounded annually, the accumulated amount in the account after t years is given by the
function A(t) = P(1 + 1)’. If $5000 is invested in an account paying 8% interest compounded
annually, how many years will it take for the account to be worth $100,000?
a_ Set up the problem.
b_ Solve the equation from part a.
SOLUTION
a Choose t = number of years We are asked for the number of years it takes
variable for the amount in the account to reach $100,000.
We represent this time with f.
Substitute A(t) = PQ +1) State the function, and substitute the stated
100,000 = 5000(1 + 0.08)! values. Next, we will solve the equation.
Model Problems continue...

318 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b_ Add inside 100,000 = 5000(1.08)! Solve the equation stated in part a. We start
parentheses by adding 1 and 0.08.
Divide by 5000 20 = 1.08° Divide both sides of the equation by 5000.
a a, ; log 20 = log 1.08' Take the common logarithm of both sides.
ogarithm of bot Then use th le,
sides log 20 = t - log 1.08 Ce

Solve fs log 20 _ Solve for t. Use a calculator to evaluate the

log 1.08 logarithms and find that t = 38.9 years. If you
1.3010 invested $5000 at 8% interest compounded
~ 0.0334 annually at age 21 and paid no taxes or other
withdrawals, by the time you are 60 you
i = 38.9 yeats would have $100,000.

)€s EPR] The value of an exponential function of time will always double in the same amount
of time. For example, if bacteria double from 10 to 20 bacteria in the first 5 minutes, they will
double from 20 to 40 in the next 5 minutes, and double again from 40 to 80 in the next 5 minutes,
and so on.
A colony of bacteria can show exponential growth under ideal conditions. The equation for the
number of bacteria in a colony after t minutes is given by the function N(t) = No10°°™!, where
Np is the initial number of bacteria. How long will it take the number of bacteria to double?
SOLUTION
Write N(t) = No10°° Write the equation that represents the number of bacteria.
equation
Substitute -2Ny =.Nj10
7 We want to know how long it takes for Np bacteria to
2 = 190.015 double. Substitute 2N, into the equation and divide by Np.

Take log 2.= log 10°" Take the common logarithm of both sides, and then use an
ae log 2 = 0.015 identity to simplify the right side.
ogarithm
Solve ee Solve for t, evaluate the logarithm of 2 and divide the
OUI5 answer by 0.015. It takes approximately 20.01 minutes for
_ 0.3010 the bacteria to double. The colony of bacteria doubles in
20 015 size about every 20 minutes, ignoring real-world limits like
food or space. At this rate, if you started with 2 bacteria,
t ~ 20.07 minutes you would have more than 250,000 after about 6 hours.

Model Problems continue...

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms 319

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© &s [EPR The equation relating sound intensity and sound level is 6 = (10 dB) log -
where B (beta), in decibels, is the sound level and J is the sound intensity. What iis -.
intensity when the level of the sound is 75 dB?
a_ Set up the problem.
b_ Solve the equation from part a.
SOLUTION
a Substitute B = (10 dB) log - Enter the values 8 = 75 dB and
Ip Ip = 1 X 10- W/m? into the equation
Oh) ng L relating sound level and sound intensity.
- 10 i
b Quotient rule for 75 = 10 [log I — log (10° ”)] On the right side of the equation
logarithms is the logarithm of a quotient. Use
- the quotient rule to rewrite this as
_ - a difference.
Logarithmic identity 75 = 10 logi= (12) The common logarithm of
107 3p12.
Solve for log I 75 = 10 log I + 120 Distribute, subtract a constant,
45 = 10 log I and divide.

—4.5 = log!
Convert to 107*° = Convert the logarithmic equation
exponential equation 2 to an exponential one. This
and evaluate b=aS 3.16 x 10
=o
“Wim solves the equation for I. Using a
calculator, we find he intensity
_ is about 3.16 X 10°° watts per _
square meter.
Model Problems continue...

320 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
) QO|MP 2,4| In 2014, a deadly outbreak of the Ebola virus appeared in West Africa.
The data in the table gives the number of total cases during four different months in
the country of Liberia. The data was taken from www.cdc.gov.

a Plot the 4 data points on a graph, labeling the scale and axes. Let x = 4 represent
the month of April.
b Find and interpret the rate of change between April and July. Compare that to
the rate of change between October and December. Round to the nearest
whole number. :
¢ Suppose the Ebola virus later surfaces in Asia and the growth of the virus is
modeled by the function y = 10 log (x + 1), where x is the number of months
after January 2014 andyis the total number of cases. Sketch this function,
labeling the scale and axes.
d Compare the actual growth of the Ebola virus in Liberia and the fictional outbreak in Asia.

SOLUTION

a Graph The x-axis represents the number of

months after January 2014, where each
® mark represents 1 month. The y-axis
6 represents the number of cases of Ebola
© reported in Liberia, where each mark
5 represents 1000 cases.
Z
5
PS 2 Se Ora 6. 9 NO 2:
Month

b_ Find the rate of change 929 15) The ratio of the change in the number
: oe 105
from April to July 7-4 of cases to the number of elapsed
months gives the rate of change.
From April to July, the rate of change
was 105 cases per month.
Find the rate of change 8018 — 6535 _ 45 From October to December, the
from October to December .. 12 — 10 rate of change was 742 cases per
month. This shows that as the year
progressed, the rate of change of
cases of Ebola increased dramatically.
Model Problems continue...

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms 321

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

The x-axis is the months past January 2014 and the

y-axis is the total number of cases. Using the function,
a table of values can be created by substituting
numbers in for x in the logarithm function.
Plot the points and sketch the curve.
The y-axis shows the number of cases,
with each mark representing one case.

12345 6 7 8 9 1011121314 15 1617181920

d_ Based on the data in the table for Liberia, the growth of the virus appears to fit an exponential
growth model showing that the virus is growing very quickly. In contrast, the Asia outbreak
following the logarithmic model is growing much more slowly, as seen above in the graph and
the table of values.

PRACTICE
1. If you invest $150 at 7% interest compounded 6. [FSW A radioactive substance decays
annually, in how many years will you have from 1000 grams to 15.625 grams in 12 hours.
$400? Give your answer to the nearest tenth What is its half-life, to the nearest minute?
of a year.
7. [FREY The pH factor measures the
2. If you invest $4000 at 9% interest hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
compounded annually, in how many years and varies between 0 and 14. Values of pH
will you have $20,000? Give your answer to in the range of 0 to 7 correspond to acidic
the nearest tenth of a year. substances, such as stomach acid, while
Exercises 3-4: The formula relating sound I values greater than 7 correspond to alkaline
intensity and sound level is B = (10 dB) log 7” substances. Pure water has a pH of 7, which
where B in decibels is the sound level, lis ~° is considered neutral. If x is the effective
the sound intensity, and Ip is approximately concentration of hydrogen ions, in moles per
10° W/m’. Calculate the sound intensity in liter, then pH = —logj) x. The pH of human
decibels. blood is about 7.4. What is the hydrogen ion
concentration in human blood? You may
3. Two people whispering: I = 10°° W/m? leave your answer in exponential form.
4. Ajet:1 = 10*W/m? 8. (RW The population P(t) of
Logarithmville is described by the equation
5. (ERM A species is disappearing at the P(t) = 500,000e", where t is the time
rate of 8% a year. To the nearest hundredth measured in years. The time t = 0 represents
of a year, how long until only 10% of the the year 2010. The population of the town
species remains? in 1990 was 270,000. Use the value of k to
estimate the population for the year 2020, to
the nearest 10,000 people.
Practice Problems continue .. .
322 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions
Practice Problems continued .. .
A cup of water at an initial temperature 11. [FRI The speed, v, of an object
of 76°C is placed in a room at a constant moving ina resisting substance (such
temperature of 20°C. As the water cools, its as water or air), when the resistance is
temperature is described by the equation proportional to the speed, is given by the’
T = 20 + 56e~°°°”", where t is the time equation v = ue ™, where % is the initial
elapsed in minutes. speed, t is the elapsed time, in seconds,
a What is the temperature of the water one and k, in inverse seconds, is a constant that
half-hour after the cup was placed in the depends on the resistance of the substance
room, to the nearest degree Celsius? and the mass of the object. v and vy are in
b How many minutes will it take for the meters per second.
water to cool off to 25°C? | a Aboat has an initial speed of 1.5 meters
10. The rule of 70 states that if you want to per second. In 4 seconds, its speed is
determine how long it will take a quantity 1 meter per second. Use the formula for
to double, divide 70 by the interest rate
the speed to find k, and then find the
speed of the boat after 15 seconds.
expressed as an integer. Calculate how lon
itvilltake $1000 to ie ata 4% ees When will Oe
rate using the rule. Then calculate the actual Pambansa easeELA TICi
interest earned during that time if the See
interest is continuously compounded.
a By how many dollars does the actual
interest differ from simply doubling over
this period of time?
b Use the rules of logarithms to derive the
rule of 70.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

Diz Jared is tuning his piano (keyboard depicted), and his tuner reads the following
frequencies for the white notes, starting with A:

FEEL EEE BE NRE EAE ei ETE

aiemiddle C

a Create a scatter plot of the data. _Note_|

Note Note#*|Frequency (Hz)|
b Find an exponential regression equation to fit the er ae
data. ae
c Use your equation to find the notes with the
ieeeees
following frequencies:
(i) 1046.50 Hz Una
(ii) 30.87 Hz

* Every key on the piano is numbered, with A below middle C arbitrarily given position zero.

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms 323

BS Gh fh yesneveapsssemmareem emma meena yea cape name aR

7.6 More Logarithmic Operations

Breaking Up and Combining Logarithmic Expressions
We apply the rules of logarithms to logarithmic expressions with variables.
We can use the rules of logarithms to combine logarithms and write them as sums
and differences.

MODEL PROBLEMS
4
1. Express log, Fa in terms of logarithms of each variable.

SOLUTION
4
Use quotient rule log, a Restate the logarithm in terms of log, x, log, y, and
Vie log, z. Use the quotient rule to restate the logarithm
log, x* — log, y2z of the quotient as the difference of logarithms.

Use product rule log, x* — (log, y” + log, z) | Use the product rule to split up the variables in the
log, x4 — log, y? — log, z logarithm on the right. Then distribute the minus
sign.
Use powerrule 4log,x —21log,y—log,z Use the power rule to remove the exponents.

2. Express log, (|= in terms of logarithms of each variable. We use the fact that a
root can be written with [|
SOLUTION : $ a fractional exponent to :
Write root as log, (5) Rewrite the radical as a rewrite the logarithmic |
exponent : fractional exponent. SEXDIC =o!On. .

Use power rule 7log, (3) Use the power rule to remove the exponent.

1
Use quotient rule S (log, 5 — log, z°) — Use the quotient rule.

1
Use power rule a (log, 5 — 2log,z) And use the power rule once more to remove the exponent
from z.

3. State 2 log, x — 4 log, z as a single logarithm.

SOLUTION
Use power log, x* — log,z*_—- Use the power rule to remove the coefficients of the logarithms.
rule
2
Use quotient log, x The logarithms have the same base b and no coefficients. Use
rule Z the quotient rule to rewrite the subtraction of logarithms as the
logarithm of a quotient.
Model Problems continue...

324 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
4
4. State log, ie + log, 2Vx asa single logarithm.

SOLUTION

Use product Aaa

log, ar + The logarithms have the same base b and no coefficients. Use the product
rule rule to rewrite the addition of logarithms as the logarithm of a product.
Simplify log, 8 Simplify the argument of the logarithm.

Z
5. Evaluate log, 6, log, 37 log, S log, 8, and log, 5 using log, 2 = 0.43 and log, 3 = 0.68.
SOLUTION
log,6 log, (2 - 3) Use the product rule, since 2 times 3 equals 6. This means we add the
log, 2 + log, 3 logarithms.
0.43 + 0.68 = 1.11

log, a log, 2 — log, 3 Apply the quotient rule and subtract.

0.43 — 0.68 = —0.25
log, - log, 3 — log, 2 Apply the quotient rule and subtract.
0.68 — 0.43 = 0.25
log,8 log, 2° Restate 8 as a power of 2, and then apply the power rule. Evaluate,
3 - log, 2 multiplying the stated value of log, 2 by 3.
3(0.43) = 1.29
log,5 log,5 # log, 2 + log,3 The logarithm rules cannot be used to calculate log, 5 from the
values given. The product rule does not apply because 5 is the sum
of 2 and 3, not the product.

Derivations of the Rules of Logarithms

We derive the rules for logarithms here. The product, quotient, and power rules for
logarithms are proved using the corresponding rules for exponents.

fans. = Rit, ee ton "J The product rule is derived from |

| Prove the product rule: log, MN = log, M + log, N = the product of parerenule

Use variables m and n m = log, M;n = log, N__| Use the variables m and nto represent
for log, M, log, N log, M and log, N.
Convert to exponential M=b";N=8" Write the equations for m and n in
equations exponential form.
Multiply M and N MN = bb" =p" *" Multiply M and N and use the product of
powers rule to write the product as b”*”.

Convert to logarithmic |log, MN =m+n Convert to logarithmic form. Replace m

form and replace m log, MN = log, M + log, N and n with log, M and log, N. This proves
and n the product rule for logarithms.

7.6 More Logarithmic Operations 325

 Sa gE a vi The quotient rule for :
| Prove the quotient rule: log, No log, M — log, N <_ logarithms is derived from the |
quotient of powers rule. |

Use variables m and n |m = log, M;n = log, N Use the variables m and n to represent
for log, M, log, N log, M and log, N.
Convert to exponential |M = b”; N = b" Write the equations for m and n in
equations exponential form.
Divide M by N VE tubs Divide M by N and use the quotient of powers
rule to write the quotient as b”~".
Convert to logarithmic Convert to logarithmic form. Replace m and
lo 8b eS
Vy
form and replace m n with log, M and log, N. This proves the
and n quotient rule for logarithms.
log, = = log, M — log, N

The power rule for logarithms ;

| Prove the power rule: log, M? = p- log, M <_ is proved using the power of [|
powers rule, (x”)” = x”.

Use variable m for log, M Use the variable m to represent log, M.

Convert to exponential Vib © Write the equation in exponential form.
equation
Raise to P power p MP? = (b™)P = uP Raise both sides of the equation
4 to the P power
p. Use the power of powers rule to write the
power on the right side as b?”.
Convert to logarithmic | log, M? = log, b?” Convert to logarithmic form. Then replace m
form and replace m log, M? = pm with log, M. This proves the power rule for
log, M? = p - log, M logarithms.

We use the power rule for }

Prove the change-of-base formula: log, x = log,x logarithms to prove the [
log, a change-of-base formula.

| |Use variable d for log, x d = log, x Use the variable d to represent log, x.
| Convert to exponential x =a" Write the equation in exponential form
| |equation
| |Take logarithm base b__| log, x = log, a’ Take the logarithm base b of both sides of the
| |of both sides equation.
Apply the power rule | log,x =d-log,a | Apply the power rule on the right side
Solve for d and replace Solve the equation for d and replace it with the
expression it represents. This proves the change-of-
base formula.

326 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 PRACTICE
Exercises 1—4: State in terms of logarithms of x, y,
12. 2 log, V45 + 2 log, V6 — log; 27
and z. 3
1. log, (2x°y?z”") 13. Express logio esin terms of logjy x, logig y,
and logy 4.
2. log, (=) 3
14. Express log, we in terms of log; x, log; a,
3. log, (7°x°y8z°*) x
and log; 5.
3
4. log; (xahd @ ) Exercises 15-18: log, 5 ~ 1.161, log, 12 = 1.792,
and log, 6 ~ 1.292. Use these approximate values
Exercises 5-12: State as a single logarithm. to evaluate each logarithm.
15. log, 60
.log, x* — 6 log, Vy
16. log, 2.4
6. 3 log,x + 2 log, y° — 5log,2 17. log, 25
18. log, 2
: 3 log, x — 5logyx + 2 log,z
19. To the nearest hundredth,
s, log, 42 = 2.09, log, 2 = 0.39, and log, 3 = 0.61.
. log,
08%=rn= log,
og, V5 V5x
What is log, 7, to the nearest hundredth?
- log, 15 — 6 log, x + y log, (16 + w)
20. (XNA To the nearest hundredth,
10. logs 5
V4 6 log, 2 = 0.39 and log, 3 = 0.61. What is
+ y log; x + logs i
log, 72, to the nearest hundredth?
21. EEA To the nearest thousandth,
il. clog,
8 b — dlog,
Be=+ hlog,eee log, 6 = 0.921 and log, 3 = 0.565. What is
log, 54, to the nearest hundredth?

¢ Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice -«

EP RZY Earthquake magnitude is measured by seismographs on the Richter scale using
R = log where | is the intensity of the earthquake being measured, and I) is the intensity of the
0
weakest measureable quake (the “threshold quake”).
a An earthquake has an intensity of 3.5 X 10° times Ip. What is its measure on the Richter scale, to
the nearest tenth?
b An earthquake occurs with an intensity 6000 times that of the threshold quake. What magnitude
will it measure on the Richter scale? Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
How many times more intense is an earthquake measuring magnitude 8.2 on the Richter scale
than one that measures 6.8? Round your answer to the nearest hundredth.
An earthquake measures magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale. What is the magnitude of an
aftershock with half the intensity of the original? Round your answer to the nearest tenth.
The deadly San Francisco earthquake of 1906 is approximated at 8.25 on the Richter scale. What
was its intensity in terms of Ip? Write your answer in scientific notation with 2 significant digits.
The magnitude of the 2011 Japan earthquake was 8.9 on the Richter scale. The San Francisco
Bay Area earthquake of 1989 was 100 times less intense. What was the magnitude of the San
Francisco earthquake on the Richter scale?

7.6 More Logarithmic Operations 327

Chapter / Key \UcAS =e
7.1 Logarithms
e Logarithmic and exponential functions are inverse functions. To state the relationship using an
equation: y = log, x if and only if bY = x.
¢ Logarithms with base 10 are called common logarithms. These are written with the usual logarithm
notation, but without the base; for instance, log 5.

7.2 Logarithmic Function Graphs

e The graph of a logarithmic function and the graph of its inverse exponential equation are
symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

7.3 Natural Logarithms and e

e A logarithm with base e is called a natural logarithm. The number ¢is an irrational constant. Its first
digits are 2.718281828459. A natural logarithm is written as “In,” as in “In x.” This is equivalent to
log, x. The rules you have learned about logarithms apply to natural logarithms.
e The function f(n) = (1+ *) as n approaches infinity can be used to calculate the value of e.

7.4 Laws of Logarithms

¢ Some useful logarithmic identities include log, b* = x, b'°8»* = x, log, 1 = 0, and log, b = 1.
e log, x = log, y and x = y are equivalent equations. We can use this relationship to solve equations.
e The product rule states that log, MN = log, M + log, N.
e The quotient rule states that log, — = log, M — log, N.
e The power rule states that log, M? = p - log, M. To evaluate the logarithm of a number M raised to
a power, you can multiply the logarithm of M by the exponent.
e Change the base of logarithms using the formula log, x = ae
O8p 4

7.5 Modeling with Logarithms

e Logarithmic functions can be used to model situations.
e For logarithmic functions, use logarithmic regression to determine if the model is a good fit.

7.6 More Logarithmic Operations

e The product, quotient, and power rules for logarithms can be proved using the corresponding
rules for exponents.

328 Chapter 7: Logarithmic Functions

 as NA ML LON
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
1. Which of the following pairs of functions are Exercises 24-25: Use the properties of powers and
inverses? logarithms to simplify the expressions.
A. x and log; x
Boe LOO? and!” 24. TEER log, VovVivo
and yr
D. 3* and log; x 25. 2(
log,Vb - +log,Vet log,va)
Exercises 2-5: Restate each equation as an
exponential equation. 26. [LER Given that log 2 = 0.3010 and
2. log, m =k log 3 = 0.4771, find log 75 without using
the log function on a calculator. Give your
3. logsy = x answer to the nearest thousandth.
4. log,7=1 27. (UGA The logarithm in base 5 of a
5. logos 0.0625 = 4 number is equal to the common logarithm
of one-tenth this number. Find the number
Exercises 6-8: Restate each equation as a to the nearest ten thousandth.
logarithmic equation.
28. ETEZI If you invest $2000 at 4% interest
6. ae compounded annually, in how many years
7. 516.89 =x will you have $5000? Give your answer to
the nearest tenth of a year.
8. oy 743
29.Cir The pH factor measures the
Exercises 9-16: Evaluate or simplify.
hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
9. logs 25 and varies between 0 and 14. Values of pH
in the range of 0 to 7 correspond to acidic
10. log 10* substances, such as stomach acid, while
11. log 10° values greater than 7 correspond to alkaline
substances. Pure water has a pH of 7, which
12. log 10* is considered neutral. If x is the effective
13. log 10°-* concentration of hydrogen ions, in moles per
liter, then pH = —logyy x. The concentration
14. In Ve of hydrogen ions in milk is 10°°°. What is
the pH factor of milk?
15. glogs3
16. log» V8
Exercises 17-23: Solve.

17. log, 729: —-6

18. log, x =7

19. loge, (6x ar 10) > a

20. logs (x? — 3) = logs (—2x)

ext = 12
21.
22. log (log 10*) = 2

23. log 10 + =log(375 -- 5V2x) wy

Chapter 7 Review 329

ee CY
for Chapters 1 q

1. Which of the following equations could be 7. (PR Determine the value of k such that
part of a system that has the solution the polynomial x° + kx* — 3x + 6 can be
(7757 4) divided evenly by x — 2
Aaa + 30210 AB(—C)
B Of 5h —40=0 8. In the expression(AE BIC’ each capital

Carat 26 Gann? letter represents a binomial in the form

Dee 4a 20. e= "6 (x — a). Simplify the expression.

2. [TFRERA When can the exponential 9. [PRE Use the fact that 2 = 1 + 2 to write
function y = a™ be restated as an 5 5
exponential function in the form y = c*? x+9 ata es ait SEs CHT:
A. If the product of a and b is a negative
number. Exercises 10-11: Simplify.
B. Ifa raised to the b power is equal to 1. :
C. Ifaraised to the b power is a positive 10. (== ae = ) (+45)
number. MS x? aoe) occa cy 2 6x

D. Ifthe product of a and b has a variable 3

term. 11. (== Bs =) (z25)
LG ee coy) Xenon
3. Which is the inverse of f(x) = px — qx + 1?
2 1
1 — — 12. Solve: — =
Noe GS) ee r OE ey
|ie
Bae De ; 13. Write the reciprocal function that best
represents the graph.
Ce f(x)= as

4. Given the equation y = 2* + 4, which line

would create a system of equations that has
no solutions?
A. x=-4
B. y=6
C. x = 100,000
D. y=4
P24 © 6 8-10712714716 18°
5. Find the value of the discriminant of
3x* — 3x + 6 =0.

6. Find a quadratic function of the form

y = ax’ + bx + c that passes through the
points (—2, 5), (2, 1), and (1, —4).

330 Cumulative Review

15. (4x4)2 Exercises 25-27: Let f(x) = = ee and
Cage
16. \/52 - V/2x Sa) = 5

17. Vx° — 24x + 144

25. Cir Show that
18. [PREY Explain why using exponents is g(x a aol)
flx) - fly) a
almost always better than using radicals.
19. Write a cubic equation in the form
ax? + bx? + cx + d = 0 in which one of the 26.Dire Show that
solutions is 3 + V/4. flx) ‘ ey) _ fx +y)+flx-
ws y)

Exercises 20-21: Solve.

27. IEPA Show that f?(x) — ¢%(x) = -1.

20. 25% = —it
125
28. Write 3 In p — 4 + In2 asa single natural
21. (0.5)* ~20*+72.5 = cee logarithm of a rational expression.
so)
Exercises 29-30: Graph the functions.
22. What is (E\c-2) if f(x) = 3x — 6 and 29. y = log, (x* — 9) — log, (x + 3)
Ate ox 2?
30. y = log, a + log, x
23. Express as a difference of logarithms: logs :

24. [GER Given that log 2 = 0.3010, find

log 125 without using the log function on a
calculator. Give your answer to the nearest
thousandth.

Chapters 1-7 331

_ Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences SG © F-IF.3; F-BF.1a; F-BF.2; F-LE.2

Recursive Formula for Arithmetic Sequences

Explicit Formula for the General Term

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series

Sigma Notation
Partial Sum of an Infinite Arithmetic Series
Derivation of Formula for Arithmetic Series
Arithmetic Series in History
Multi-Part Problem Practice

8.3 Geometric Sequences G © F-IF.3; F-BF.1a; F-BF.2; F-LE.2

Recursive Formula for Geometric Sequences

Explicit Formula for the General Term
What Type of Sequence?

8.4 Geometric Series © A-SSE.4

Geometric Series and Partial Sums

Derivation of Formula for Geometric Series
Infinite Geometric Series
Derivation of Formula for Infinite Geometric Series
Multi-Part Problem Practice

Binomial Theorem A-APR.5

Binomial Expansion
Factorial Notation
Binomial Coefficients
Binomial Theorem

CHAPTER 8 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-8

332 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Vocabulary
arithmetic sequence explicit formula partial sum of an arithmetic series
arithmetic series factorial notation recursive formula
binomial coefficient finite sequence sequence

binomial expansion general term series

binomial theorem geometric sequence sigma notation

common difference geometric series summand

common ratio infinite sequence summation sign

converge | partial sum of a geometric series term

LESSON 8.1
8.1 Arithmetic Sequences
You likely have bumped into sequences in your study of mathematics. A sequence
is an ordered list of numbers. A number in a sequence is called a term.

e Sequence ‘le 2: 4,8, 16 We use the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16

notation to discuss sequence notation, the
/ mathematical vocabulary of sequences.
¢ Subscript a, = 1st term = A sequence can be represented with a
indicates index a = 2nd ter m=2 variable, like a. A subscripted number
a, = 3rd term = 4 is used to indicate the place of a term
in the sequence, called its index. The
first term is a,, which is1 in this
sequence. The second term is a, which
is 2 in this sequence. The third term
is a3, which equals 4 in this sequence.
This notation continues for other terms
in the sequence.
ea,isthe general a, = general term The term a, is the general term, or
term and stands nth term, in a sequence. This means it
for any term can stand for any term.
elfn=5 A= as =116 The variable n can be replaced with
an integer. In the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
ifn = 5, then a, = 16.

A finite sequence like 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 comes to an end. An infinite sequence continues

forever. An infinite sequence can be stated as 2, 4, 16, 64, ... where the three dots
indicate the sequence continues forever.

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences 333

Recursive Formula for Arithmetic Sequences
In an arithmetic sequence, each term equals the sum of the preceding term and a
constant called the common difference. The common difference is positive if the
sequence is increasing, and negative if the sequence is decreasing. For instance,
2,5, 8, 11, 14 is an arithmetic sequence. It starts with 2, and each term that follows
is the result of adding the constant 3 to the prior term. The common difference for
this sequence is 3. To form other terms in the sequence, we add 3 again and again.
The sum of 5 and 3is 8, the sum of 8 and 3is 11, and the pattern continues.

-ie AIekae
Sequence: 2 5 8 Li* 14 "aan? n

Common difference 3 d

We state the definition of an arithmetic sequence as a formula: The formula for the
general term a, in an
arithmetic sequence
An = An —4 + d * .
Is a recursive
d = common difference
formula. A recursive
a, = general term formula shows how
4, 1 = term before a, to calculate a, based
The formula states that a, equals the previous term a,,_ ; plus on the value of a, _ ;,
a constant, the common difference d. the previous term.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. The sixth term of an arithmetic sequence is 11 and the common difference is —2. What is the
seventh term?
SOLUTION
Definition of a, =4a,-,+d Start with the formula that defines an arithmetic sequence.
arithmetic
sequence
Substitute az7=a,t+d The question asks for a7, the seventh term, and we are told the
sixth term and d. Substitute, replacing the subscripts with the
indices stated in the problem.
Substitute a7 = 11 + (—2) Substitute again, replacing a, with 11 since we are told 11 is the
terms sixth term. Replace d with the stated common difference, —2.
Evaluate a,=9 Add to get the seventh term, 9.

2. What is the common difference for the arithmetic sequence 10, 7, 4, 1, —2, ...?
SOLUTION
Common d= tee td Rearrange the recursive formula for the common difference d.
difference d=a,-—a,-, | Thecommon difference is calculated by subtracting any term
from the term that follows it.
Subtract first term d= 4),— 4a, Subtract the first term, a,, from the second term, a>.
from second

Substitute d=7-10 Substitute, replacing the variables with the values of the terms.
Subtract = -3 Subtract. The common difference is —3.
Model Problems continue . .

334 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3. If the first four terms of an arithmetic sequence are 13, 9, 5, and 1, what is a,?
SOLUTION
Calculate common d =a) — a, To calculate d, subtract the first term, 13, from the
difference L=9— 13 second term, 9. The common difference is —4.
d=-4
Definition of arithmetic a, =a4,_,+d Use the formula that defines an arithmetic sequence.
sequence
To calculate ag, first a,=a,+d We are asked for a, which is calculated by adding d to
calculate a; as = 1 + (—4) a;. We can first calculate a;, since we know a, and have
= 3 calculated d, the common difference.
Add d to calculate a, a4,=a,+d Now that we know as, we can calculate a.
ae — —3 Ste (—4)

ag = —7

Explicit Formula for the General Term

Although you could calculate any term in an arithmetic sequence by starting with
the first term and repeatedly adding the common difference, this would be a lot
of work if you needed to find the 100th term or the 1000th term. There is a way to
calculate a term directly. To provide an informal derivation, we calculate the first
four terms of an arithmetic sequence to find a pattern.

The first term of an arithmetic sequence is a).

Second term |a,=a,+d The second term is the sum of the first term a,
and the common difference d.
a,=a+d The third term is the sum of a, and d. We
a,=(a,+d)+d can write a, as the sum a, + d. Rewrite this
a, =a, + 2d as a, + 2d.

Fourth term a4=a,+d Follow the same process for the fourth term.
a, = (a, + 2d) +d__ | Take the expression for the third term, and
a, =a, + 3d add another d.

Use the pattern above to write a formula for a,, the general term.

a, aes ay a (n aa 1)d Because you

d = common difference can find the
a, = general (nth) term value of any
n = index of general term term, this .
The nth term, a, equals the first term, a,, plus n — 1 times d.
formula is called
For instance, as shown above, a4 = a, + 3d. In this case, the an explicit ;
formula. !
index n is 4, which means n — 1 is 3.

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences 335

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. a Anarithmetic sequence starts with 3 and 5 is added to create the next term. Write an
expression for @,,.
b_ Use the expression to calculate the eighth term.
SOLUTION
a Formulafora, a4, =4,+(n—1)d This is the formula for the nth term of an arithmetic
sequence. It equals the first term, a, plus n — 1 times
the common difference d.
Substitute Gea gh = +) To write an expression for a,,, substitute the values
values to write for a, and d. The first term of the sequence is 3. The
expression common difference is 5. Write the 5 in front of the
for 4, parentheses for ease of reading.

b Substitute Gp Oo Aiea) We are asked for the eighth term, so 71 is 8.

Evaluate Ago 5 7. Evaluate the expression to find that the eighth term
dg = 38 is 38.

2. An arithmetic sequence starts 4, 9, 14, 19. What is the ninth term?

SOLUTION

Determine values a, =4 The first term is 4. We are asked for the ninth term, so
fora, andn n=9 nis 9.

Calculatecommon d=9-4 Subtract the first term from the second term to calculate
difference d A=5 the common difference d, which is 5.
Formula for a,, Gd, =a,+(n—1)d Use the formula for a,.
Substitute Ma =4+(9-1)5 Substitute for a,, n, and d.
Evaluate Mo =4+8:°5 Evaluate the expression. The ninth term in the sequence
fo = 44 is 44,

3. The fifth, sixth, and seventh terms in an arithmetic sequence are 20, 21.5, and 23. What is the
first term?
SOLUTION
Determine values n=5 We are told the fifth term, so we choose 5 for n.
for n and a, ds = 20

Calculate common d= — as Subtract the fifth term in the sequence from the
difference d a= 215 —20 sixth to calculate the common difference, 1.5.
d=1.5
Formula for a, a, =a,+(n—1)d Use the formula for a,,.
Substitute 20 =a, +(5-—1)(1.5) Substitute the values for a,,, n, and d.
Solve for a, 20 =a, + 6 Solve the equation for a,, which is 14.
a,=14 Model Problems continue...

336 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
4. The first two terms of an arithmetic sequence are 26 and 23. A later term is 2. What is the index
of the term 2 in the sequence?
SOLUTION

Determine values a,
=2 To use the formula for the general term a,,,
for a,, and a, 1 = 26 we need values for the nth term g,,, the first
term a,, and the common difference d. The nth
term is 2 and the first term is 26.
Calculate common d = 23
—26 Subtract the first term from the second to
difference d a= -3 calculate the common difference, —3.
Formula for a,, a, =a,+(n—1)d Use the formula for a,,.
Substitute 2 LO (ies)3) Substitute the values for a,,, a,, and d.
Solve for n —24 = (n — 1)(—3) Solve the equation for n, which equals 9.
8=n-1 The number 2 is the ninth term in the sequence.
n=9

5. Calculate ag from a; = 41 and a,, = 17 in an arithmetic sequence.

SOLUTION

Write equation for a; aan— Vd We do not know 4, or d, but can write two
41 =a, +(5—1)d equations with a, and d from the terms given.
41 =a, +4d This gives two equations in two unknowns.

Write equation for ay, A, =a, +(n—-1)d Use the formula for a, to write an equation
17 =a,+
(11 -1)d for ay}.
17 = a, + 10d

Solve the system of 41 =a,+4d Subtract the second equation from the first. The
equations —(17 =a, + 10d) a, terms cancel out when we subtract. Solve the
244 — 109
equation for d, which is —4.
d=-4
Solve first equation At=a, +44) Substitute —4 for d in the first equation and
for a, ay = 57, solve for a,, which is 57.

Formula for a, Ga iet(nes thd To calculate ag, use the formula for a,,, now that
you know the first term of the sequence.
Determine value for 1 n=8 We are asked for ag, so n is 8.

Substitute a, = 57 + (8 — 1)(-4) Substitute the values for a,, n, and d.

Evaluate ag = 29 Evaluate the right side of the equation to

calculate ag, which is 29.
Model Problems continue...

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences 337

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Oe LP] In its first year, the annual “Bulldog Night” sports fundraiser started with 135 people —
attending. Each year, a dozen more people attend. Use the formula for an arithmetic sequence
to determine the first year in which at least 200 people attend.
SOLUTION
Equation a,=a, + nid Start with the equation for an arithmetic sequence.
Substitute § 200=1354+(n—1)12 Substitute 200 for a, since that is the number of people
after n years. Start with 135 people so that is a, and the
common difference d is 12, the number of Se
people attending each year.
Solve equation 200 = 135 + 12n — 12 Distribute, combine like terms, and divide by 12. The
77 = 12n solution to the equation is about 6.4. Since the event is
= 64 > Year 7 annual and the question asks for at least 200 people, we
must round up to7 years.

© @ TEEPXZY Justin has $40,000 in his bank account on June 1. On July 1, his parents give him his
$10,000 monthly allowance and continue to do so every month. In how many months can he buy
his sports car ($70,000), or if he decides to really save, when can he buy his yacht ($110,000)? Use
_ agraph to answer the question.
SOLUTION

Write equation Savings = 40,000 + 10,000n Justin starts with $40,000 and adds $10,000 each
month.

Create table We start with the n = 0 for the first term.

Note that in this problem, the first term of the
|=n | 40,000 + 10,000n | .
sequence starts with n = 0. For an application
jee Oni a 40,000 problem, it sometimes makes more sense for
50,000 the initial value, in this case the investment
60,000 amount, to occur at the “Oth” time interval. So
ek ill le Gooec a we are actually using a modified form of the
3 70,000 formula, a,, = dy + nd.
80,000
5 90,000
6 100,000
110,000
Graph Looking at the graph, you may
pa have noticed that points are on
pe a line. The slope of the line is
isle the common difference.
Hise 20,000
ah sacmmsam ” a .
3 70,000 oe can buysa car shel 3Poe or a yacht
60,000 after 7 months.
50,000
40,000

OF 2S ia Sens
Months

338 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

S We show one oftwo similar activities below. In these activities, you help a frog locate
his (mathematically oriented) flies using your knowledge of arithmetic sequences.

We show one of three similar activities below. In these activities, enter values for the
formulas for the odd rows of the pattern as well as the even rows.

De@es Se et i
SC

PRACTICE
1. Which of these are arithmetic sequences? 3. Which of these are arithmetic sequences?
Select all that apply. Select all that apply.
PA ABAG a= 82.3: A.y 12) 227-232) Sa
BAS 2 61 2520 pe) "J B.. gel Aa ae
eS) UO Ty eA SN, Ger 0,20), 4s.
Dha is i=l7 671s ee Disp 222, AeA? 5k
2. Which of these are arithmetic sequences? 4. [PM] A sequence is given by the
Select all that apply. formula, a,, = k + s(n — 1). What are
Ie jen Tee the first three terms? 2
Boil 3; 927s: Ay k™- 3s, + 4s. k + 5s
C2 $7413 9725,4.1 Bo kk+Lk+2
DE I2759,9, Tat C. k,ks,2ks
Dike ko sks
Practice Problems continue...

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences 339

Practice Problems continued . .

5. Which of the following represents the 13. The ninth term of a sequence is 81. Find the
formula for the given sequence tenth term.
SRO lowe 2 ae
14. The thirteenth term of a sequence is —9.
A. G, = a, —1 — 5, where a, = 3 Find the fourteenth term.
B. 4a, = &,—1 + 5, where a, = 3
15. The second term of a sequence is —4.
C. a, =2a,-,+ 2, where a, =1 Find the third term.
D. a, = 54a, —1, where a, = 1
Exercises 16-18: Calculate the term.
6. Which of the following is true about an 16. The term after the number 2 when the
arithmetic sequence? common difference is 5.
A. There is a common difference between
17. The term after the number 9 when the
adjacent terms.
common difference is —1.
B. There is a common ratio between
adjacent terms. 18. The term after the number —1 when the
C. The sequence always increases. common difference is —5.
D. The sequence always decreases. Exercises 19-21: Calculate the common difference
for each arithmetic sequence.
7. Given the sequence 10, 14, 18, 22, ..., what
iS Aye? 19. 0,2,4,6,8
A. 60 CoP Z0 205, 12,715, 18721
B. 66 D. 74
21. 11,5,5,2
8. [ka Which of the sequences represents Exercises 22—26: Calculate the next term in each
the given graph? arithmetic sequence.
Beh 9, Lies:
23. 100 105,109 113.
266 Dee ee.
25. 8.4, 10.5, 12.6, 14.7, ...
26. —64>—9.6, 12.3716, -.;
Diane
On — 1) Exercises 27-28: Calculate the requested term in
= Oot 1) each arithmetic sequence.
a, = -2+5(n
—1) 27. A sequence starts 10, 13, 16. What is the fifth
m@>
ON eat OH — 1) term in the sequence?

9. What is the largest term in the infinite 28. A sequence starts —2, 5, 12. What is the fifth
arithmetic sequence —3, —7, —10,...? term?
Exercises 29-32: The equation for the general
10. What is the smallest term in the infinite
term of a sequence is a, = 5 + 4(n — 1). Calculate
arithmetic sequence 10, 12, 14, ... ? the requested term in the sequence.
11. In the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, what does a, equal? 29. The third term
Exercises 12-15: Each sequence can be described 30. The first term
by the equation a, =a, —, + 4.
31. a,
12. The fourth term of a sequence is 11. Find the 32. 41,
fifth term.
Practice Problems continue . .

340 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Practice Problems continued...
Exercises 33-39: State the equation for the 53. The first two terms of an arithmetic sequence
general term for the given arithmetic sequence. are 19.1 and 16.8. A later term is 3. What is
33. 4,9, 14, 19,... the index of that term in the sequence?

34. 1, 10, 19, 28, ... Exercises 54-56: State the expression for the
general term of the sequence.
3.14 217 25,°35, .:.
54. The fourth term of an arithmetic sequence is
SG yd 17158 18 and the common difference is 5.
37. 28, 26, 24, 22,... 55. The fifth term of an arithmetic sequence is
35 and the seventh term is 27.
S8.¢, 6-0, C20;
c+ 3a) 4
56. The ninth term of an arithmetic sequence is
395 Litt — 1 Skt Sai,
26 and the eleventh term is 33.
Exercises 40-53: Calculate the requested term for
57. What would be the slope ofa line that
each arithmetic sequence. passes through a graph defined by the
40. Asequence starts 5, 7, 9, 11. What is the arithmetic sequence a,, = 4 + 3(n — 1)?
17th term in the sequence? 58. Determine the formula for the sequence of
41. A sequence starts 4, 7, 10, 13. What is the the given graph.
13th term in the sequence?
42. For the sequence 11, 15, 19, 23, ..., what
iS Ay?

43. For the sequence 1, 9, 17, 25, ..., what is a1?

44. Asequence starts 2, —1, —4, —7. What is the
25th term?
45. A sequence starts —4, —9, —14, -19. What is
the 8th term?
46. For the sequence 0.5, 3, 5.5, 8, ..., what
iS 0,4?
47. For the sequence 2, —2.5, —7 —11.5, ..., 59. Sketch the graph of a, = =n =);
what is do?
60. [FREY You open a savings account by
48. A sequence starts a oa =. What is the depositing $10. The next month, and every
month that follows, you deposit $2 more
10th term in this sequence? than the previous month.
49. Asequence starts a = 1 a What is the a Inthe month that begins the third year,
how much will you be depositing?
11th term in this sequence? b Write the equation for calculating the
50. The eighth, ninth, and tenth terms in an amount you deposit in any month.
arithmetic sequence are 55, 61, and 67. 61. [FRR Liz agrees to loan her younger
What is the first term? brother some money each month. She gives
him $150 in April. Each month thereafter,
51. The twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth terms
she decreases the loan amount by $12.
in an arithmetic sequence are —23.5, —26.5,
and —29.5. What is the first term? a How much will she loan her brother in
December?
52. The first two terms of an arithmetic sequence
b Write the equation for calculating the
are 9.4 and 10.7. A later term is 25. What is amount Liz loans in any month.
the index of that terra in the sequence?
Practice Problems continue...

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences 341

Practice Problems continued...

62. ERE Connor states that the linear 63. Describe what it means for a sequence to be
graph below can be modeled by the an arithmetic sequence.
arithmetic sequence that starts with 4 and 64. Does order matter in a sequence? Why or
has a common difference of = as given by why not?
65. Die) If Ay, Ar, Az, ... and by, Dy b3, Bp elks
the formula a, = 4 + >(n — 1). Simplify
both arithmetic sequences, is a, + b;, a + 2,
Connor’s formula to the slope-intercept a3 + b3, ... an arithmetic sequence? Explain.
form and graph it. Was Connor correct? 66. Prove that if two distinct terms are equal in
Why or why not? an arithmetic sequence, then the sequence
must be constant. (A sequence is constant
when all terms are equal.)
67. A sequence can be defined by a function
a, = f(n). That is, the nth term of the
sequence can be determined by a function
Mae aes that depends only on n. How else can one
peo
eee S4 32-111 23 45 67 8A define a sequence?
rine aon Cen Use this
michto define
e the

LESSON 43.2 ===> ee ee

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series

When the terms of an arithmetic sequence are added together, the resulting A series is
expression is an arithmetic series. For instance, adding the terms of a composed of
finite arithmetic sequence 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 creates a finite arithmetic series the sum of
4+6+8+ 10 + 12. If an arithmetic sequence is infinite, such as 3, 6, 9, 12, ..., the terms ofa |
the result is an infinite arithmetic series,3 +6+9+12+.... sequence.

MODEL PROBLEM
Write the arithmetic series for the arithmetic sequence 2, 4, 6, 8.

SOLUTION
Arithmetic series: terms 2+4+6+8 To write the series, insert + signs between
in sequence, added the terms. This is called writing the series in
expanded form.

342 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Sigma Notation
A series can be written using sigma notation. The Greek letter © (sigma) indicates
a sum, and is called the summation sign. This notation uses an expression for the
nth term of the sequence, called the summand.
4 In sigma notation, an expression for the general term in the series
> 2n is used. For this example of an arithmetic series, 21 represents the
nth term, so the summand is 2n.
The variable n is called the index of the summation, and it must be
an integer. Each term in the series is calculated from a value of n.
The range of the index n starts with the value below > and ends
with the value above. For this summation, 1 starts at 1 and ends at
4 so n has the values 1, 2, 3, and 4.

We show how to expandaseries written in sigma notation:

Start with > 2n To expand the series, we start with the value
the value of at of n below 2, which is 1. Replace n in the
n below & 4 expression with 1 and write the first term of
22h =2:1+... the series.
4
Increase n by 1, >) 2n =2-14+2-2+... The next term is always created by increasing
and add term oo n by 1 and substituting that value in the
expression. Do this to create the second term
and add the result to the first term.
4
Repeat until 1 > 2n=2-1+2-2+2-3+2-4 Repeat the process, increasing n by 1, to get
equals value zd 3, and substituting that. This creates the third
above = term, which is added to the expression. Keep
increasing n by 1 until it equals 4, the value
above =, adding the terms as we go.
4
Simplify > 2n=2+4+6+8 Simplify the series by doing the
ASS multiplication for each term.

MODEL PROBLEM
Write the infinite arithmetic series 1 + 3 +5 + ... using sigma notation.
SOLUTION
Use formula 4,=4,+(n—1)d_ To write a series using sigma notation, we need an expression
for a, a,=1+(n—1)(2) for the nth term. Use the formula for a,,, the nth term of an
arithmetic sequence, substituting 1 for a, and 2 for d.

Simplify A, 2 The resulting expression simplifies to 2n — 1.

- In sigma :
Write > (2a 1) Write the summation, using the expression J Notation, an = |
summation, uae for the general term as the summand. infinite senes Is
using © There are an infinite number of terms, so written with the :
the summation is written with the infinity infinity symbol
symbol above >. This indicates the series «© above >.
continues forever.

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series 343

Partial Sum of an Infinite Arithmetic Series
The sum of the first n terms of an infinite series is represented by S,, and is
called a partial sum of an arithmetic series. For example, for the arithmetic series
3+5+7+9+..., the partial sum S, = 8, represents the sum of the first two
terms. This is found by adding the first two terms 3 and 5.
A partial sum can always be calculated by adding the terms, but the formula for
the partial sum can be useful for large sums:

Here is a way to remember the

Snn = (a,nN9 (a, + An)
formula for the partial sum of
S, = partial sum of an arithmetic series an arithmetic series: It is the
average of the first and last
n = number of terms being added beret
a, = first term terms, area multiplied
a, = nth term by the number of terms, n.

Derivation of Formula for Arithmetic Series

The formula for S,, for the sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic series is derived
below. We pair the first and last terms in the series, the second and next-to-last
ones, and so on.

Derive: S,, = 5 ag)

Se Fas he Sao O34 a, Start with the expression for

an arithmetic series with 1
terms, from 4, to @,,.
Each term S,=4+@+a+@+4+2d)+...+@,—2d)+@,—d)+a, | Each term in the series is d
d greater greater than the previous
term. This means the first
three terms are a,, 4a, + d,
and a, + 2d. The last term
is a,,. The term before it is
a, — d, and the term before
that is a, — 2d.
Commutative | S,=4,+@,—d)+@,—2d)+...+@+2d)+@+d)+a, | Using the commutative
property property, write the same sum
in reverse order, from a, to a).

Add Sen ee (bd) ede) Ay, Add these two equations,

equations seh 0) Renee ie) eae ay which results in 2S,, on the left.
Doe (ee a en) (Gena teat nee) On the right side, add each
pair of terms. Each pair adds
up to a, + a,

n terms of On the right, there are 1 terms

(a, + a,) of a, + a,, SO We write the sum
as n(a, + a,).
||Divide by 2 Divide by 2 to derive |
the formula.

344 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate S, for the series3 + 7+114+15+....
SOLUTION
Formula forS, 5S, = 5 a4) Start with the formula for the partial sum of the first
n terms of an arithmetic series.

Substitute S4= 5G + 15) We are asked to calculate the sum S,. The number of
terms is 4, the first term is 3, and the fourth term is 15.
Replace the variables with their values.

Evaluate S, = 2(18) = 36 Evaluate the expression. S, equals 36. The answer can be
checked by adding the first four terms of the series. The
sum of 3 + 7 + 11 + 15 equals 36.

2. For the arithmetic series 3 +10+17+...,

a_ Find the value of the ninth term.
b Use the formula for S,, to calculate S,, the sum of the first nine terms in the series.
SOLUTION

a Calculate common d=a-a First, calculate the common difference, d.

difference d A=10—3 Subtract the first term from the second term.
d=7 The common difference is 7.
Formula for a, a, =0,+(n—1)d Use the formula for a,,.
Substitute ao = 3 + (9 — 1)(7) We want to calculate the ninth term, which
means n = 9. Substitute these values, n = 9,
a, =3,andd = 7.
Evaluate ay = 59 Evaluate the expression and find that ay is 59.

b Formula for S, S,= 5 =tadte) Use the formula for S,,.

Substitute and So = =A + 59) Replace the variables with their values and
evaluate evaluate the expression. The sum of the first
So = 279 nine terms is 279.
Model Problems continue...

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series 345

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Find S; for the arithmetic series »S (11 — 2( — 1)).

n=1
SOLUTION
Calculate a, ,=11-2(n-1) Weneed to find the sum of the first 5 terms. To use the formula
and a; for S,,, we need a, and as. The expression in the summation,
11 — 2(n —1), is an expression for the general term 4,,.
n=1 a4,=11—2(1—1) Tocalculate a,, replace n with 1 in the summand, the expression
= 1 for the general term of the series. Evaluate the expression to find
that a, = 11.
n=5 a,=11—2(5—1) Then replace n with 5 to calculate a;, which is 3.
a,=3

Substitute = Ga, + a,) Replace the variables with their values and evaluate the
and evaluate 2 expression. The sum of the five terms is 35. The expanded form
c= 2m + 3) of the first five terms of the series is 11 +9+7+5+3.
2 If you do the addition, you can confirm the answer by checking
S5 = 35 that the sum equals 35.

a ind o,tor >, 2+ >(n— 1). Write your answer in simplest form.
n=1

A. oe 5P 1

Bo oe |
a ol
Fionn
. ap+= hs
rae
D. 4p+p*
SOLUTION
A. This is not p times the average of the first and pth terms.
B. This is the pth term, not the sum of the first p terms.
C. Correct answer. To use the sum formula, we first calculate the first and last terms. When we
substitute in n = 1, we get a, = 2. To calculate the last term, we substitute n = p, and

Wye > -—1)= = = Then using the formula for the sum of the first n terms
n
=—(a,+ p oo Tas gias
=+(2+(=+=p))=—p+=—p’.
qe at c 5?)) es
D. This is not p times the average of the first and pth terms.

Model Problems continue...

346 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

@ (LPI 4pile of logs has 13 on the bottom row, 12 on the row immediately above, 11 on the next
tow above, and so on. There are 6 rows of logs. What is the total number of logs in the log pile?
a Calculate the number of logs in the sixth row. Use the fact that the number of logs in
consecutive rows forms an arithmetic sequence and use the number of logs in the bottom
row as the first term in the sequence.
b Use the formula for S,, to find the total number of logs in the pile.
SOLUTION

a Number of The number of logs in each row forms an

logs in rows Gace: arithmetic sequence. Each row has one fewer
is arithmetic log than the row below it.
sequence

Use formula a, =a,+(n—1)d Use the formula for the general term of an arithmetic
for a, ag = 13 + (6 —1)(—1) sequence. Substitute 13 for a, since there are 13 logs
in the first row, and 6 for n, since there are 6 rows.
The common difference is —1.
Evaluate a = 13 + (5)(-1) Evaluate the expression on the right, and see that there
i = 8 are 8 logs in the sixth row.

b Substitute S, = 5 + a,) Use the formula for the sum of an arithmetic series.
and evaluate Replace the variables with their values. Evaluate the
S = (13 + 8) expression. There are 63 logs in the 6 rows.

Sg = 63

Arithmetic Series in History

A famous story about the German mathematician Karl Friedrich Gauss says that
when he was a young student and the teacher presented his class with the problem,
“Add up the integers from 1 to 100,” he quickly wrote down 5050.
What was his insight? He paired numbers that summed to 101, and calculated that
there were 50 pairs of them. In the diagram to the right, the integers are arranged
1+ 100 = 101
to show the pattern Gauss is said to have used. Each integer is paired with another 2+99=101
integer to sum to 101. The first term, 1, is paired with the last term, 100, the second 3 + 98 = 101 )Poirs
term, 2, with the next to last term, 99, and so on. The 50th pair is 50 and 51. This
means there are 50 pairs of terms, each of which sums to 101. The sum of the 50-35 =108
integers from 1 to 100 equals the product of the number of pairs of added terms, eS F(a + An)
50, times the sum of each pair, 101. The product of 50 and 101 is 5050.
Gauss’s insight agrees with the formula for S,,, the sum of the terms inaseries.
There are half as many pairs of terms as the original number of terms. We divide
the number of terms 1 by 2. Each pair of terms has the same sum. We use the sum
n
of a,, the first term, and a,,, the last term. The product of BIand a, + a, is the sum
of the series.
8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series 347
PRACTICE
1. What is the sum of the first 12 terms of the 6
15. » (4n + 1)
sequence a, = 3n + 2? ia

A. 142 C0256 Exercises 16-18: Write each arithmetic series

Bo 210 Dee o2Z using sigma notation.
6
2. Evaluate »S (22 — 1). 16. —45 + (—31) + (-17) + (-3) + ...
2
§7. 98-4 74-50
26 ee ser
Zs Cr 533
Baeod Deo a8: 104 23 -004-49
2-4...
3. Keisha opened a savings account in January
19. What is S,, for the arithmetic series
with a deposit of $500. She plans to increase
—25+ (-11)+3+17+...?
each monthly deposit by $100. How much
money will she have saved by the end of 20. What is S, for the arithmetic series
the year? 13 + 6+ (-1) + (-8) +...?
A. $10,400 C35 0127600 21. What is S,, for the arithmetic series
Bey7$,100 D. + $13,100 —13 + (—10) + (—7) + (-4) +... ?
Exercises 4—6: Write the series corresponding
to each sequence. 22. For the arithmetic series 5) (—3n + 80),
n=1
4. 2,4,6,8 what is S59?

3.0 0.0V376 23. For the arithmetic series 5’ (15n — 40),

n=1
Gy 2 4 4 12 what is S59?
Exercises 7-12: Write the series in expanded
form. 24. For the arithmetic series > (—8n + 43),
: n=1
what is S;5?
7. S(6n + 2)
n=1 25. What is the sum of the first 30 terms
of an arithmetic series if the series begins
8. S (-71) Bete OAR 7 eee. ce
n=1

26. What is the sum of the first 25 terms

9. Sn +1) of an arithmetic series if the series begins
n=1
Bo OE TEAS Barat

10. >)2n 27. Theaters often expand with distance from

the stage. How many seats are there in
6 rows, if the first row has four seats, and
11. S (5n + 3) each additional row has two more seats?
n=1

3 28. a Use the diagram below to make a sketch

12.) n= 6) for the arithmetic sequence a, = —1 + 2n
n= I
for at least the first 5 terms.
Exercises 13-15: Evaluate the sum. s
is aa
13. s (n — 2) ay Ay
n=1

4 b Determine the 12th term of the sequence.

14. >’3n
n=1
Practice Problems continue...

348 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Practice Problems continued .. .
29. You save $10 on the first day of the month, 34. What are the difference(s) between a
$20 on the second, $30 on the third, and so sequence andaseries?
on. In a month that has 30 days, how much
do you save? 35. ELE RER Derive a formula for the partial
sum from the kth term to the nth term where
30. EXE RZY You inherit a piggy bank k <n for an arithmetic sequence a,,.
containing $2.50. On the first day of the
month, you deposit a dime, and each day of 36. ITTGPRY Can the sequence of partial sums
that month you deposit a nickel more than of an arithmetic sequence a,, contain both
the previous day. At the end of a 30-day positive and negative terms? Explain.
month, how much money is in the piggy
Exercises 37-40: Find the infinite arithmetic
bank? You do not take any money out.
sequence a, that generates the infinite series
31. To save for a bicycle, you make a plan to S, given.
save $10 the first day, $20 the second day, S70 Sf $48, —127-16,-20 2 4a
$30 the third day, and so on. If the racing
bicycle you want to buy costs $2760, on 38. S, = 1,3,6,10,15,..., mil aa
what day can you afford the bicycle?
39. S,=1,4,9, 16, 25,...,n2, ...
32. A stack of logs starts with 13 logs in a row
on the bottom, and each row has one fewer 40. S,.= 1,0, =3,=8 —15,.., 1 Ga ee
log than the row below it. The stack 6 i
continues until there is one log on top. 41. Find the value of >( >> k)
How many logs are in the stack? j=1\k=1

33. EXPE Alisa claims that if a, defines a 42. EP The arithmetic sequence ay, ay,
a3, ... has the common difference d. Prove
term in an arithmetic sequence, then the
that the sum of the first n terms of the series
sequence S,, of partial sums defined by a, is
a, + dy + a3 + ... is given by the formula
also arithmetic. Is her claim correct? Why
or why not? S, = 52a + (n—1)d].

¢ Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

Cie Armand starts the year off slowly in math class, but makes regular progress on his test scores.
His first 6 scores, in order, are 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, and 58.

Find an expression for an arithmetic sequence that best represents this data.
b If Armand’s test scores continue to improve following this sequence, what will he score
on his 15th test?
c The class will take 20 tests over the course of the year. Again, assuming this sequence holds,
what will be Armand’s total for his test scores?
What will be his average test score?

8.2 Optional: Arithmetic Series 349

LESSON 2.5 pees ee oe

8.3 Geometric Sequences

Recursive Formula for Geometric Sequences
In a geometric sequence, each term equals the product of the preceding term
and a constant called the common ratio. For instance, 3, 12, 48, 192 is a geometric
sequence. It starts with 3, and each term that follows is formed by multiplying the
prior term by 4, which is the common ratio for this sequence.
As with an arithmetic sequence, the terms of a geometric sequence are often
referred to using the notation a, a2, a3, and so on, with a, representing the general
term.
Sequencers, 12," 148 192° “a.gte
wr ee
n

Common ratio 4 4 i

You can perhaps see how the common ratio gets its name. It is the ratio of a term
to the term that precedes it. For instance, in the sequence 3, 12, 48, 192, o =a

= =4 = = 4, etc. The ratio is common (the same) for every pair of terms.

We state the definition of a geometric sequence as a formula for calculating any

term in the sequence from the previous term:

a, = a, =i) iG A geometric sequence

r = common ratio starts with an initial
term. Each term that
a, = general term
< follows is the product |
a, 1 = term before a, “) of the prior term and a |
The formula states that a,, equals the previous term a,,_; constant, r, called the |
times the common ratio r. common ratio.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. The second term of a geometric sequence equals 16, and the common ratio is 2.
What is the third term?
SOLUTION
Definition of Ay =Gy-1°7 Start with the formula that defines a geometric sequence.
geometric sequence
Substitute a, = 16-2 We were asked to calculate the third term when the second
term equals 16, and the common ratio is 2. Replace the
variables with these values.
Evaluate az = 32 Multiply to get 32, which is the third term.
Model Problems continue...

350 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. What is the common ratio for the geometric sequence 10, 2, 0.4?
SOLUTION
a
Common ratio pa : The common ratio r can be calculated by dividing a term, such
x as a, by the term before it, a, _ 1.
. a
Divide second term r= = For instance, to calculate r we could divide the second term, 4,
by first : by the first, a}.
: 2
Substitute = 10 Substitute, replacing the variables with the values of the terms.

Evaluate one
= 5 =0.2
oe oe
Divide. The common ratio is 0.2.

Explicit Formula for the General Term

The explicit formula for the general term of a geometric sequence can be derived in
a similar way to the explicit formula for the general term of an arithmetic sequence.

Second term
:
5.
1
=a, a
The first term of an arithmetic sequence is 4.
The second term is the product of the first
term a, and the common ratio r.
Third term A, =G)°1 The third term is the product of a, and r. We
= (y- 1) 7 can write a, as the product of a, - r. Rewrite this
a,=a,°° ie 2
asa,°r.

Fourth term Follow the same process for the fourth term.
Take the expression for the third term, and
multiply by another r.

Use the pattern above to write a formula for a,, the general term.

ae
r = common ratio
a, = general (nth) term
n = index of general term
The nth term, a,,, equals the first term, a,, multiplied by the
common ratio, r, to the n — 1 power.

8.3 Geometric Sequences 351

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is the fourth term in a geometric sequence where the common ratio is —2, and the
first term is 3?
SOLUTION
Formula fora, 4a, = ar" Any term in a geometric sequence can be calculated directly with
this formula. To calculate the nth term, multiply the first term a, by
the common ratio r raised to the power n — 1.
Substitute a, = 3(—2)*~' The question asked for the fourth term, with the common ratio
equal to —2, and the first term being 3. Replace the variables with
the values stated in the problem.
Evaluate a, = 3(-2)° Evaluate the expression. The fourth term is —24.
a, = 3(—8)

ag = —24

2. A geometric sequence starts with 2, 6, 18. What is the fifth term?

SOLUTION

Calculate common rf= a Use the formula for the common ratio.
: An—1
ratior

Divide second (ae _ Divide the second term by the first to calculate the common
term by first z ratio, which is 3.
f ae

Formula for a,, A, = ar} Use the formula for the general term of a geometric sequence.

Substitute a;= 2-3"! The first term, a,, is 2 and we found the common ratio, r. We are
asked for the fifth term, so 1 = 5. Substitute these values into the
formula.
Evaluate as = 2-81 Evaluate the expression. The fifth term is 162. Check the
A162 solution. Since a, = 18 and the common ratio is 3, a, = 54 and
a; = 162.

3. The first three terms in a geometric sequence are 8b, 32b”, and 128b°. What is a,?
SOLUTION
Calculate common pee An Divide the second term The terms in a
ratio r An - 1 by the first and get the geometric sequence |
30h common ratio, 4b. can contain variables. |
= af We can use the same |
formulas to find the |
r = 4b common ratio and
- ree particular terms, as
Formula for @,, a, =a"? Use the explicit formula we do here.
for a term in a geometric seen
sequence.
Substitute and Ae = 8b(4b)°~! Substitute the values for a,, r, and n and simplify
simplify ag = (8b) 4505 the expression. The sixth term is 8192°.
dg = 8192D° Model Problems continue.. .

352 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
4. Ina geometric sequence, a, = 48 and a, = 24. What is a,?
SOLUTION

Calculate common oe Ud First, we calculate r from the two terms we are given, dg and ay.
ratio r M6 mire lk
= 24
48
The common ratio is —.
2
1
==
2
Substitute An = aye" * Use the formula for the general term in a geometric sequence.
1\o-1 Substitute the values for a, r, and n and simplify.
48 = a(3)
, 2
ay : : :
Solve for a, 48 = 3D Solve the equation for a,. The first term is 1536.

a, = 1536

5. Write an equation for the general term of the geometric sequence 2,6, 1877228
SOLUTION
Calculate common r = First, calculate r from the first Multiplying a number by a
ratio r 71 two terms. The common ratio negative number changes
me a0: Soe oa: its sign. If the common
2 ratio for a geometric
i= 3 sequence is negative, the |
terms alternate in sign. = |
Substitute An — ii il To write the equation for the SN

ee ae general term in this sequence, use the formula for a,,. Substitute
a, = 2(—3)"~1_ the values for a, and r.

: @ [EPR] You enlarge a photograph to make the linear

dimensions 25% larger over and over again. The Increasing a photograph’s size by 25% :
photograph started at 8 inches wide. Write an means each photograph is 125% the |
equation to represent the width after each increase size of the previous photograph. We
restate 125% as 1.25. If we enlarge
and use it to calculate the width after it has been
the photograph five times, we have
enlarged five times.
the sixth image of the photograph.
SOLUTION
Substitute asa" - The photograph starts with an 8-inch width, so a, = 8. Each time
width = (8)(1.25"~1) We increase it we must multiply by 125%, which is 1.25. The
common ratio is 1.25.
width = (8)(1.25°"') Set n equal to 6. Why? If we enlarge it five times, it is our
sixth photograph. The original photograph is n = 1, the first
enlargement is n = 2, and so on. The fifth enlargement is the sixth
photograph.
Evaluate width = (8)(1.25°) Evaluate. The final width after five enlargements is about
width ~ 24.4 inches 24.4 inches. Model Problems continue...

8.3 Geometric Sequences 353

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© a CURE] You have 4 pet amoebas. They each undergo mitosis once an hour, which means each
amoeba splits into 2 amoebas. None perish. After 24 hours, how many pet amoebas do you have?
a Determine a formula for how many amoebas there are after t hours and
graph the first 8 hours.
b Solve the formula for 24 hours and discuss some real-life limitations to the model.
SOLUTION
a Determine 4, =4 The initial number of amoebas is 4. Every hour each amoeba
a, andr r=2 splits into two, so the total number of amoebas doubles.
The common ratio between each hour is 2, since the number
increases to 200% of the previous number.
Write a-ar ! Substitute the initial term and the common ratio into the
formulafor g =4.2"-} equation for geometric sequences. For the initial term when
geometric y= 4! n = 1 the number of hours equals 0, and for the second
sequence : term when n = 2 the number of hours equals 1. Because the
number of hours t is always 1 fewer than n, substitute ¢ into
the equation for n — 1. Use A, for the number of amoebas after
each hour.
Plot points Evaluate the formula for several points
and graph 1200 ++ from t = 0 tot = 8, and plot them ona
ey graph. The number of amoebas increases
. exponentially.
S00tE =
8 If the common ratio is greater than 1,
D 600
2 then the geometric sequence can be
< 400 described as exponential growth. If
the common ratio is less than 1, but
200
greater than 0, the geometric sequence |
can be described as exponential decay. |
0 2 4 6 8
Time (hours)

b Find the number of A= 4.2) Substitute the value of 24 for t, and

amoebas whent=24 4,, = 4.724 multiply. There are 67,108,864 amoebas
after 1 day.
Aog = 4- 16,777,216
Ao, = 67,108,864
The number of amoebas goes from just 4 to more than 67 million over the course of one day,
doubling each hour. Left at this exponential rate, there would be more than one quadrillion at
the end of the next day. This seems unrealistic, since in real life there would be external factors
in their environment to limit such growth. It is highly unlikely that no amoebas would perish
during the 24 hours.

354 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

> We show one oftwo similar activities below. In these activities, you help a frog locate
his (mathematically oriented) flies using your knowledge of geometric sequences.

What Type of Sequence?

In the following model problems, the sequences are either arithmetic or geometric.
The first step is to determine the type of sequence by finding if there is a common
difference or a common ratio.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Given the sequence 54, 36, 24, 16, ...,
a Determine if the sequence is arithmetic or geometric.
b Find the sixth term of the sequence.
SOLUTION

a Calculate A — a If the sequence is arithmetic, then the difference between any

differences 36
— 54 = —-18 two consecutive terms will be the same. Subtract the first
24
— 36 = -12 two terms, and get a difference of —18. Then subtract the
second term from the third to get —12.

Arithmetic? Sequence is not The differences between the pairs of terms are not the same.
arithmetic There is no common difference. This means the sequence is
not arithmetic.
|a
Calculate T= If the series is geometric, then the ratio between any two
SS)2 | —
ratios consecutive terms will be the same. We calculate the
90 ratios of each pair of terms, dividing each term by the term
54 before it.
Zoe
36
OTe
TAs WIN
W|N
: ; Z :
Geometric? Sequence is Since there is a common ratio of 3/ the sequence is
geometric eometric.
& Model Problems continue...

8.3 Geometric Sequences 355

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b Substitute 4, = a,r"~! Calculate the sixth term in the sequence by using the
7 \o-1 formula for the nth term of a geometric sequence.
ooo 42) Substitute r = = a, = 54, and n = 6 since we are
looking for the sixth term.
5
Evaluate 4 = 42) Evaluate. Start by simplifying the exponent.
. 95 Orig?) eo?
Factor 1S a aeeu Write the expression as a single fraction. We want to
cancel common factors, so state 54 as 2 - 3°, which is 2
times 27.
sees ie aoe x“ ' aie 2 2
Simplify Ae as os ow cancel common factors, and get ve
The sixth term is a

2. Calculate the ninth term of the sequence 12x”, 16x”, 20x, 24x”, ....
SOLUTION
Calculate a, —t,.4=¢d To calculate the ninth term of the sequence, first
differences 16x2 — 12x? = 4x2 determine if the sequence is arithmetic or geometric.
Oy? Sie 4c Calculate the differences for the three pairs of terms.
24x? — 20x? = 4x?
Arithmetic? Sequence is arithmetic Since all of the differences are the same, 4x”, the
sequence is arithmetic.
Formula for a, 4, = 4, + (n — 1)d Calculate the ninth term in the sequence by using the
in arithmetic formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence.
sequence
Substitute Ag = 12x? + (9 — 1)4x? Substitute n = 9, d = 4x”, and a, = 12x? and evaluate.
Evaluate io = 44x The ninth term is 44x.

AN In this activity, use your knowledge of arithmetic and geometric sequences to locate
the flies.

356 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

We show one of two similar activities below. In these activities, you are asked to state
formulas for both the horizontal and vertical locations of the shape in order to create
art.

© ODDROW FORMULAS —
x tela}: Lo] |

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following represents the 4. Which of the following could represent the
formula for the given sequence el

to tl, LAO, eet geometric sequence 4, = (2) 2

A. 4,
= 3n Cag 3,
go tt ee See ae
Be Wn DisrapeORion
PPR

2. If the fourth term is sand the sixth term is

in a geometric sequence, what is the only
possible value of the fifth term?
Pre
Bo 3
OF
DO
OrRFNWHATADN
01 293456
7.8 9 1017
9
Giz
5 0
OF N24
56 =78 a1 0rid
x
D. There is not enough information to
determine the only possible value
of the fifth term.
3. The sequence 41, 4,43, ... is a
geometric sequence with common ratio i
and b,, by, b3, ... is a geometric sequence with
common ratio g. If a, + by, a2 + by, a3 + b3,.
is also a geometric sequence, what must be ie eee aoa ii y

true of r and q? A. GraphA C. Graph C

A. ris equal to q. B. GraphB D. Graph D
B. rand qare reciprocal.
C. rand gare opposites. Practice Problems continue...
D. rand q canbe any non-zero numbers.

8.3 Geometric Sequences 357

Practice Problems continued...
5. Anna analyzes the first three terms of a Exercises 11-18: Calculate the common ratio.
sequence: mn + p,kmn + kp, mn + k’p.
41. 5,25, 125,625 59—
She says the sequence is arithmetic because
the terms increase by k each time. Which 12. 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, ...
statement best describes Anna’s analysis?
13. =2,6 —15, 0427
A. Anna is correct because the common
difference is k. 14. 96, —48, 24, -12, 6...
B. Anna is correct because the terms 15. V2, 2,2V2,4
increase by a power of k.
C. Anna is incorrect because the sequence
16. 5V2, 5V6, 15V2
is geometric with a common ratio k. 27. 22.257-3:379, 0.0625
D. Anna is incorrect because the sequence 18. 3, —2.25,11.6875
is geometric with a common ratio of
kmn + p. Exercises 19-22: State the next term in the
geometric sequence.
6. The graph of a sequence is shown below.
Which most likely is true about the 19s), Oto rae
sequence? 20. 4, 20, 100, ...
21. 4,6, 9)77 2
22. 12 =O) pce:
Exercises 23-26: The equation for the general
term of a sequence is a, = 5(—3)"~ 1 Calculate
the requested term in the sequence.
23. The first term
24. The third term
25. 14

26. 4,

A. The sequence is arithmetic with a Exercises 27-35: Calculate the requested

common difference of —2. term in the geometric sequence.
B. The sequence is geometric with a 27. A sequence starts 2, 6, 18. What is the
common ratio of 2. seventh term in the sequence?
C. The sequence is geometric with a 28. A sequence starts 10, 30, 90. What is the
common ratio of —2. eighth term?
D. The sequence is arithmetic with a
common difference of 2. 29. In the infinite sequence 16, 24, 36, ...,
what is a?
7. What is the greatest term in the infinite
30. A sequence starts 32, 24, 18. What is a;?
g eometric sequence
q —1 ege
eae 2?
31. What is the eighth term in the infinite
8. What is the smallest term in the infinite sequence 1000100, 10, —T) 2?

geometric sequence 6, —2, 3 aa glee 32. A sequence starts 625, —125, 25, —5. What is
the sixth term?
Exercises 9-10: Find the requested term.
33. A sequence starts 5, —5, 5, —5. What is the
9. The term after 6 when the common ratio is 5. 398th term?

10. The term after 2 when the common ratio 34. A sequence starts ab’, 2a°b°, 4a°b*. What is the
isi. fifth term?
Practice Problems continue...

358 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Practice Problems continued ...
35. A sequence starts 1296y°z’, 648y4z°, 324y°z°. AS...20,. 20°, 2a2 2a, ie
What is the sixth term?
50.34+46+07,9+0,12+
a...
Exercises 36-39: State each term in the form
af ,sichaso- 5". 51.14+V2,3+2V2,54+ 3V2,...
36. A sequence starts 2, 8, 32, 128. What is the Exercises 52-59: Determine whether the sequence
11th term in the sequence? is arithmetic or geometric. Then calculate the
sixth term.
37. A sequence starts 125, 25, 5, 1. What is the
13th term in the sequence? 52. 7,4,1,...

38. A sequence starts 5, —15, 45, —135. What is Ay? §3..'6, 12:24) =.

39. A sequence starts 1, — — = What is a,,? 54. 128, 965-724.

RMAC G §§..-4, - 1.2...
Exercises 40-45: State the expression for the
56. 80, —40, 20, —10, ...
general term for the given geometric sequence.
40. 3, 12, 48, 192, ... 87:-4) 0, lie

44. 2,.10)507°250;.. 58. 1673/0) —37s

42. 16, 12, 9, 6.75, ... 59. 1073079072707.

|MP 1,2| Exercises 60-61: Determine the formula
MSs 32) 0; 27) OD;...
for the sequence of the given graph.
44. 4,7, 7°...
60. 4 wor Ae
45. 3ab*, 27a°b®, 243a°b", ...

ac. DEEN
a Write an expression to represent the
area of a photograph being enlarged n
times, as shown below, with the original
considered as the first step in the process. 1e2-3
4 15Son7 se

ao

b What will the area of the photograph

be after the fourth time it has been
enlarged? Tait
62. Sketch the graph of a, = ——(3)
Exercises 47-51: Determine whether the
sequence is arithmetic, geometric, or neither. If 63. You are chewing a piece of gum. Every
the sequence is arithmetic or geometric, calculate minute, it loses 10% of its flavor. After six
its common difference or ratio, respectively. minutes, how much flavor is left? State your
BOP OAL! answer as a percent, and round the percent
to the nearest whole percent.
48. 4, 12, 36, 108, ...
Practice Problems continue...

8.3 Geometric Sequences 359

Practice Problems continued...
64. If you make an initial investment of 71. WY Lani claims that a geometric
$1,000,000, a llama will pay you 10% interest sequence must have terms that are all
on your total amount of money at the end positive like a, = 2” or terms of alternating
of each year. You keep the interest, and signs like a, = (—2)". Is her claim necessarily
the animal pays you the interest based on true? Explain.
your total amount of money (the interest
72. Le Mack states that a nonzero sequence
compounds annually). After five years, how
must either be arithmetic, geometric, or
much money will you have?
neither and can never satisfy both arithmetic
65. Native Americans sold Manhattan to the and geometric properties. Is his statement
Dutch in 1626 for beads and trinkets that true?
have been said to be worth $24. Let’s say
73. In a geometric sequence a,, with common
these Native Americans took this money,
ratio r # 0 where the second term is 3, does
put it in the bank at an annual interest
rate of 5%. Their descendants decide to
the number 0 occur in the sequence? Why or
withdraw the money in 2026, earning
why not?
400 years of interest. To the nearest dollar, 74. Prove that if a geometric sequence 4,
how much money will they have? The contains a term that is 0 and the common
interest is compounded annually. Note: ratio is not 0, then a, = 0 for all k.
An estimate of Manhattan’s value in 2006
is on the order of $100 billion, based on tax 75. Why is it necessary to exclude r = 0 as
assessments.
the common ratio in our definition of a
geometric sequence?
66. You won the lottery. Congratulations! You
receive a check for $1,000,000, put it in the 76 Research an application of the geometric
bank, and keep it there for 10 years until you sequence and explain your findings.
retire. Let’s say you deposit the check in a 77. The midpoints of the sides of a square are
bank account that pays 5% interest annually. connected to form an inscribed square, and
The interest is compounded annually. a square is inscribed in it the same way. This
How much money will you have after process continues. The areas of the squares
the 10 years, to the nearest dollar? form a geometric sequence. What is the
67. A deposit of $7000 is made in an account common ratio?
that earns 3.5% interest compounded 78 The chromatic musical scale contains
quarterly. The balance in the account after n 13 notes: all of the notes on a piano (both
a 0086.) the white and black keys) from one note to
quarters is given by A, = 7o00(i
the note an octave higher. The frequencies
where n = 1. Find the balance after 10 years. of the notes form a geometric sequence. The
13th frequency is twice the first frequency.
68 You put $2500 in the bank. The bank pays a What is the common ratio of the sequence?
6% annual interest compounded monthly.
How much money do you have after 79. The product of the 2nd and 5th term ina
18 months, to the nearest dollar? (Hint: geometric sequence is 288. If the 6th term is
Divide 6% by 12 to get the monthly rate.) 96, what is the first term in the sequence?
69. You dropa ball from 5 meters above the 80. |MP 3, 7Bi A, = Oy, Ao, Gz, --. and b,, = bi,by,

ground. Each time it bounces, it reaches b3,... are geometric sequences, prove that
40% of its previous peak height. After it hits G0, = Gy 0, Ay 0a, 5° 05, ...15a
the ground the third time, how high will it geometric sequence.
bounce? 81. If a, = ay, do, 3, ... and b,, = bj, by, bs, ...
70. A baby kangaroo is learning to jump. Her are geometric sequences and b, # 0
first jump one day is 0.3 meters, and each for all positive integers k, prove that
jump is 10% higher. How high is her fourth An 4, GA Gs
ea is a geometric sequence.
jump? Round your answer to the nearest n 1 2 3
hundredth of a meter.

360 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

LESSON 8.4 su1w=smescoeem EERE eee
8.4 Geometric Series
Geometric Series and Partial Sums
Adding the terms of a geometric sequence creates a geometric series. The series
4+ 8 + 16 isa finite geometric series, and 2 + 6 + 18 + ... is an infinite geometric
series.
As with an arithmetic series, S, is the sum of the first n terms of a series. For
instance, with the series 4 + 8 + 16 + 32, S, represents the sum of the first two
terms. Adding 4 and 8 gives that S,is 12. S,, is a partial sum of a geometric series,
the result of adding a finite number of terms, starting with the first term in the
series. The formula for a partial sum is shown below.

J a,(1 = i)
S=
Mei
S, = partial sum of geometric series
n = number of terms
a, = first term
r = common ratio, where r # 1

Derivation of Formula for Geometric Series

We derive the formula for S,, for a geometric series below.

: a,(1 — r”)
Denve.o. ——
: 17
S, = sum from |S,=a,+a+...+4, We start with the expression for a
geometric series with n terms, from
a, toa,,.

Eachtermisr |S,=a,t+ar+ayr7+...+ar"+ Each term is r times the previous

times previous term, so the second term is a,r and the
last term is ayr"~ 1.
Multiply by r Multiply each side of the equation
by r.
Subtract S, =a tartar +. tar Subtract the second equation from
equations —(rS,, = ayy + ar +... +ar""'+ ar") | the first one, lining up like terms
S,—-1S,=4+0+0+..+ 0 —a7. vertically. Many like terms cancel
when we subtract.
Factor and = On the left, factor out S,, to write the
divide left side as (1 — r)S,,. Divide both sides
oe of the equation by 1 —r.

Factor out 4, a ree Factor out the common factor a, in the

numerator to get the formula for S,,.

8.4 Geometric Series 361

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is the sum of the first six terms of a geometric series that starts with 5, and has a
common ratio of 4?
SOLUTION

Formula for S, 5, = mute

1-7?" Use the formula for calculating the partial sum of the first n
t terms of a geometric series.
Substitute xe £)
5g= ee : the values stated in the problem.
Replace the variables with
The series starts with 5, so a, = 5. The common ratio is 4,
so replace r with 4. Calculate the sum of the first six terms,
Son = 6.
5(1 — 4096 :
Evaluate Sg = A Evaluate the expression. The sum of the first six terms is 6825.

27 eecomet»ric series begins'a,; + 12-18 + ...",

a Calculate the common ratio.
b What is the sum of the first five terms?
SOLUTION
a Calculate common ee An First, determine the common ratio. We are given the second
ratio Gad and third terms, so divide the third term by the second term
18 and calculate that r = 1.5.
=—=1.5
12

Calculate first term a, = a We determine the first term a, by dividing the second term,
a ay, by the common ratio, r. The first term is 8.

coe Ts
ay — 8

AEE) : ;
b FormulaforS,, 5, =aay Start with the formula for a partial sum.

. 8(1 — 1.5°) P
Substitute S5 = asi ee ace We found a, = 8 and r = 1.5, and we substitute those values.
‘ Substitute 5 for n, since we are asked to calculate the sum of
the first five terms.
Evaluate Ss = 105.5 We used a calculator to evaluate the expression, first raising
1.5 to the fifth power. The answer is 105.5.
Model Problems continue...

362 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
4
3. Evaluate S) 5(—2)"71.
n=1

SOLUTION
4
Evaluate with >) 5(-2)""! This geometric series is described by using sigma notation,
sigma notation ead and has four terms, since it starts with n = 1, and ends with
n = 4. To use the formula for S,,, we need a,, n, and r.
General term of a, =a," * The summand describes the general term of a geometric
geometric series series. We can identify a, and r directly from this expression.
By matching terms in the sigma notation with the variables in
the formula for the general term, we find a, = 5 andr = —2.
mae
Formula for S,, S, = a) Use the formula for the sum ofa series. Replace the variables
; with their values. Since the summation was from n = 1 to 4,
S.= 5(1
=(=2)") the number of terms equals 4.
1'=— (-2)
5(1= 16) ‘
Evaluate S4= reas aa Evaluate the expression. The sum of the four terms is —25.
Check the answer by expanding the series as 5 — 10 + 20 — 40.
S,= —25 Evaluating the sum, we get 25, which confirms our answer.

) eo PEERY Aball is dropped from 4 feet. When it bounces, it

rises to 60% of the height from which it was dropped.
After 7 bounces, as the ball just touches the ground, how
far vertically has it traveled?
a Calculate how far the ball travels for all the “up” bounces.
b Calculate the total vertical distance traveled.
SOLUTION
a “Up' distances: += 0.6 The “up” distances form a geometric sequence, since each
are a geometric bounce is 60% of the height of the previous bounce. Write
sequence this as a common ratio of 0.6.
Determine 4, a, = (0.6)(4) =2.4 The ball was dropped from 4ft, so on its first bounce up it
travels 2.4 ft.
Formula for S, S$, = mt Use the formula for the partial sum of a geometric series.
<1 ; The ball makes seven bounces, so n = 7. Enter the values
So = 2.4(1 — 0.6") and calculate that the ball travels 5.83 ft on the upward
1 = 0.6 bounces.
S, = 5.83 ft
Total distance = first drop + twice “up” distance The total vertical distance traveled is the
distance distance = 4 + 2(5.83) sum of the first drop, the rises after all the
distance = 15.66 ft bounces, and the falls following all the
rises. After each bounce, the ball rises and
falls the same distance. So, we multiply
its total upward distance of 5.83 ft by 2
and add the initial fall of 4 ft. The ball
travels a total distance of 15.66 ft.

8.4 Geometric Series 363

infinite Geometric Series
An infinite geometric series is an expression for the sum of the terms in an infinite
i dadeaten
geometric sequence. The sequence 1, = W816 ee forever. Each term

equals the prior term times a common ratio of oy The infinite series for this

sequence is 1 + _ e 7 + .... The first five partial sums of this series are S, = 1,
61= 1.5,.5, = 1.75,.5, = 1.875, and'S, = 1.9375. Note that the inereasetronvone
partial sum to the next is getting smaller. The second partial sum is 0.5 larger than
the first, but the third is just 0.25 larger than the second partial sum. The difference
between S; and S,is only 0.625. It appears that the partial sums are getting larger,
but approaching a value around 2.
Not all geometric series have a finite sum. The common ratio r must be greater
than —1 and less than 1, or |r| < 1, for the series to converge to a finite sum. When
the sum of an infinite series converges, it can be calculated with the formula:

. oh
ais
S = sum of infinite series
a, = first term
r = common ratio, where |r| < 1

In a converging geometric series, as n gets larger and larger, the values of S,,
converge to a limit. We evaluate several partial sums for the following series,
expressed in sigma notation to show how a geometric series converges:

a S00 5-1 S,=1 We show the first 10 partial sums.

eae S,=15 The partial sums are getting closer
S3 = 1.75 and closer to 2. We skip a few partial
S4 = 1.875 sums and calculate the 100th partial
Ss = 1.9375 sum. You can see it is very close to 2.
Se = 1.96875 The partial sums of this infinite series
S7 = 1.984375 continue to approach the number 2 as
Sg = 1.9921875 the number of terms increases. We say
So = 1.99609375 the series converges.
S19 = 1.998046875

Si00 = 1.9999999999999999999999999999984

Another way to show that the partial sums approach 2

is with a graph. We graph the partial sums of the first
10 terms. The partial sums get closer and closer to 2.
The graph of the partial sums rises toward a horizontal
asymptote of y = S = 2.

364 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Derivation of Formula for Infinite Geometric Series

Why must |r| be less than 1

To show that the formula for the sum of an infinite series is true, for the formula to apply?
we start with the formula for the partial sum of the first n terms Consider the infinite series
all = n 1+3+9+27+81+243+...,
of a geometric sequence, S,, = alilk = :)When |r| < 1, raising r where r is 3. The partial sums '
become increasingly large. Since
to a large positive exponent results in a number that is close to 0.
the partial sums do not approach :
1 2000 1
For instance, think about (+ , Which is the same as 2000 This a particular value, this infinite =|
series does not have a sum. |
is a very small positive number, very close to 0. As n gets very
large, r” gets very close to 0 and the numerator of the fraction in
date
a(1S ;)gets close to 1. Since r” essentially becomes 0 when nis

very large, the formula becomes o(3=*),which equals i a

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the sum of the infinite geometric series with the first term 9, and common ratio =
SOLUTION

Substitute oi i, Substitute the values stated in the problem. The first term of
ee 9 the series, a,, is 9 and r is - Because r is between —1 and 1,
1 - a the series converges toa finite sum.

Evaluate S= eee 9- = Subtract in the denominator first, and then invert and multiply.
(2 The sum is 13.5.
S = 13.5

2. Calculate the sum of the infinite series 3 —1.5+0.75+....

SOLUTION
Common f= a = = Calculate the common ratio r by dividing the second term by the first
ean to get = Since |——| < 1, the infinite geometric series has a sum.

Substitute S = iA The problem states the first term is 3, and we calculated that
EL
r equals ee Substitute those values into the formula.

5
Evaluate .19;= > =3- - Evaluate the expression, which requires dividing by a fraction.
(3) The sum is 2.
D
2 Model Problems continue...

8.4 Geometric Series 365

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3. a Calculate the sum of the infinite series: n + (—2mn) + 4m’n + (—8m°n) + ....
Which expression best represents the sum?
n nN
Te Cramer ant
3 to 2
B. doce 21 n
n te 2
b In part a, what restrictions must be placed on m in order for this infinite series to have a sum?
Explain.
SOLUTION
a_ A. This is the sum of the infinite series with a first term 1 and common ratio —2. But since an
infinite series with a ratio of 2 does not have a finite sum, the formula cannot be used.
B. This is the reciprocal of the formula for the sum of the infinite series.
C. The denominator of the formula is 1 — r and since r = —2m, the denominator should be
PS 2in) = 1 + 2mm.
D. Correct answer. The first term is n and the common ratio is —2m. Using the formula for the
n nt
sum of the infinite geometric series, S =
1—(—2m) 14+2m-
b The absolute value of the common ratio, —2m, must be less than 1, so 2 <m< _ Another
restriction is m # 0; otherwise the series is not infinite, consisting only of its first term, 7.
© Q MIP 2, 4BN fractal is a geometric shape that can be split into : fs‘
parts, each of which is a reduced-size copy of the whole. The
triangles in the diagram to the right are examples. Fractals
often can be defined with a simple, recursive formula. The
Sierpinski triangle is a fractal created using equilateral
triangles. The process of creating it involves removing i
smaller triangles from larger ones.
a Find arule for a,,, the number of triangles removed by the nth iteration, and determine the
total number of triangles removed by the 12th iteration.
b Find the remaining area of the triangle after the nth stage, and calculate the remaining area
after the eighth iteration.
SOLUTION
a Determine At each iteration one triangle is removed from each black triangle, leaving
common ratio three smaller black triangles behind. The number of triangles removed by each
iteration equals the number of remaining black triangles before the iteration.
The sequence of numbers of triangles removed by each iteration (or remaining
before the iteration) is a geometric sequence with initial term 1 and a common
ratio of 3.
Substitute values a, = a,r 7 To find the expression for the nth term of the sequence,
into formula g =e) substitute the common ratio and the initial term into the
for geometric a, = 3") formula for geometric sequences and simplify.
sequence
: atl or : .
Substitute values 5S, = 7 Find an expression for the total number of triangles
into formula for 1-3") removed after the 12th iteration by substituting the
partial sum S= nae common ratio and initial term into the formula for S,,.

oe ee
S, = — Model Problems continue...

366 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Calculate S,,
137
Sin= = To calculate the total number of triangles removed
after the 12th iteration, substitute 12 for n into the
1 — 531,441
So = cae formula for S,,.

Si = 265,720

b_ Calculate Take the initial area to be 1 unit. After the first iteration, 2 of that area remains. After the
area after 4
; 3 ee :
n iterations second iteration, 7 of the remaining area remains, and so on. We see that the sequence

of remaining areas is a geometric sequence with common ratio a and initial term 1.

Substitute ar Substitute the common ratio and the initial term into the formula
values into for geometric sequences and simplify.
formula for
geometric -o(G)
.-) :
sequence

Calculate ag
..
—
To find the remaining area of the original triangle after the eighth
iteration, substitute 8 for n into a, and calculate. Since the original
area was 1, the remaining area a, is approximately 0.1335.
_
as ~ 0.1335
@ (A Every rational number can be written as a decimal that either terminates or has a
repeating pattern of digits. For example, .= 0.375 terminates, and Ae = 1.24 does not terminate.
The bar over 24 indicates those digits repeat forever. One way to consider a repeating decimal is as
an infinite series. Use this approach to write 0.345 as a ratio of integers.
SOLUTION
Write as 0.345 = 0.345 + 0.000345 + 0.000000345 + ...
infinite series
ee .. 1
Each term of the series is 7000 of the previous term, so this is a geometric series
- 1000
with the common ratio j s5: For instance, the second term, 0.000345 is the

product of thefirst term 0.345 and ———

a 0:

Substitute S= aa Since |r| < 1, the infinite series has a sum S and we can
Lv? use the formula to calculate it. Replace the variables a,
_ 0.345 _ 0.345 andr with their values and subtract.
oa 999
1000 1000

Simplify $= oo = If you divide 115 by 333 on a calculator, you will see that it
equals 0.345.

8.4 Geometric Series 367

PRACTICE

1. Which of the following best represents the

sum of the first 20 terms for the infinite 11. S Oa! aie
n=1
series 200 ca. 100) 50:4 a?
12. Find the sum of the first six terms of the
oS C. 400
geometric series that starts 243 + 81 + 27 +....
Dace D. 425
13. Find the sum of the first eight terms of the
2. Given the infinite series: —2 + 1 — 5 +, geometric series that starts 2 + (—6) + 18 + ....
which of the following represents the sum? Exercises 14-15: Calculate the sum.
5
As a4 C= 5 it Teal
‘ 4 14. S) 72{
5)
Bye D1 n=1
3

3. If an infinite geometric series is convergent, 15. Me—25(—0.4)"~!

n 1
then which of the following must be true?
A. The common ratio |r| < 1. 16. Use the diagram to answer the following
questions.
B. The terms in the series must be of
alternating signs.
C. The sequence of partial sums must be
decreasing.
D. None of the above.

Exercises 4—7: Find the partial sum as indicated.

4. The first five terms of a geometric sequence
that starts with 3 and has a common ratio LL EO;
EROS
of 2.
5. The first seven terms of a geometric a After six bounces, with the ball rising =
sequence that starts with 2 and has a
common ratio of 3. of its prior height each time, how far has
the ball traveled vertically?
6. The first seven terms of a geometric
b After seven bounces, with the ball rising
sequence that starts with 2 and has a
60% of its prior height each time, how far
common ratio of —4.
has the ball traveled vertically?
7. The first nine terms of a geometric sequence
Exercises 17-20: If the infinite geometric series
that starts with —3 and has a common ratio
converges, calculate its sum. If the infinite
Of 2)
geometric series does not converge, state so.
Exercises 8-11: Write the series in expanded 4.4 =
form. B72. 4 So ae
Oe ieee

8. 350)! 18.18 og aya

eS
n=1

9. S 3(4)"~? ig ose 51
n=1

20. st | seh
10. S -263).5 D|R |e
N Ny
|oo JNhe
n=1

Practice Problems continue .. .

368 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Practice Problems continued .. .
Exercises 21-23: Rewrite the repeating decimal as 29. [TTP RIA fuse is cut into 5 parts forming
the ratio of two integers in simplest form. a geometric sequence. If the shortest length
21. 0.72 is 6 centimeters and the longest length is
96 centimeters, what is the total length of
22. 0.189 the fuse?
23. 0.0411 30. A pile driver drives a steel column into the
24. As the number of iterations of the Sierpinski earth. On its first drive, the column moves
triangle goes to infinity, what value does the 2 meters into the earth. On its second drive,
area approach? it moves a further 1.8 meters. Assume its
25. ETGEAEY The diagram below is known as movement is a geometric sequence and
calculate how far the column has been
the famous Koch snowflake fractal, which is
driven into the earth after five drives. Round
created using the following steps:
your answer to the nearest tenth.
(i) Start with an equilateral triangle.
31. You decide to trace back your ancestors.
(ii) Divide each side into thirds. You count your two parents as the first
(iii) For each side, create a new equilateral generation back, and their four parents as
triangle, pointing outward from the the second generation back, and so on. If
original, whose base is the middle third you go back seven generations, how many
of the side. total ancestors would you have traced back?
(iv) Remove the base of the newly created
32. A phone tree is a way to contact a large
triangle.
number of people, perhaps to say a school
(v) Repeat steps (ii)-(iv) as many times are is closed because it lost electricity. The tree

V ad
b383
you want. starts with one person calling five people
(which is round one), and each of those
people calling five more people (round two),
and so on. If 3500 people have to be called,
how many rounds are required? In the last
round, a caller might call fewer than five
people.
If the side of the original equilateral triangle
is 5 inches and the pattern continues forever,
33. A ball is attached to the end of a swinging
what is the perimeter of the 10th Koch rod in a damped pendulum system. If its
snowflake?
initial swing makes an arc 15 inches long
and each successive swing travels only 95%
Exercises 26-28: For each problem, complete the of its preceding swing, what is the total
table and plot the points (n, S,,) on the coordinate distance traveled by the ball? Assume the
system. Then use the infinite series formula to pendulum in this damped system is allowed
find the value of the infinite series. to swing forever.

findexe [1 [2|3 |4 [5/6 | 34. A ball is dropped from 12 meters and after
each bounce it rises 20% of the height from
poenetan | Sees which it falls. If the ball is allowed to bounce
Paral sume 8217SYt [iscdivscalsiibanl
a forever, what is the total vertical distance the
ball travels?
-1
35.CLE June calculated the infinite series
Domo it 5ce a + ... by applying the
ay 2 4
formbla 5 =~ Sip aye

She concludes the sum is ~ Is she correct?

Practice Problems continue...

8.4 Geometric Series 369

Practice Problems continued...

36. What does it mean for a series to converge? 40. A convergent infinite geometric series starts
What do you call a series that isn’t with 6, and the sum is a What is the sum of
convergent?
the first five terms?
37. If an infinite sequence converges to a
number, does it necessarily imply its 41. Assume |x| < 1. Write an expression
corresponding infinite series converges? for the sum of the infinite series
Why or why not? 14+ 2x + 3x*+40°4+....
(Hint: Consider S — xS.)
38. [TGQERE Prove that if an infinite geometric
sequence approaches 0, its corresponding 42 Develop your own fractal defined by
infinite series converges. using geometric sequences. Then use its
corresponding infinite series to determine
39. [TGF Explain how we can use infinite the area or perimeter of your fractal. If
series to show that all numbers containing neither infinite series converges, find a
repeated digits after the decimal are rational formula for calculating its nth iteration.
numbers.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

(PF You are allowed to use a 4-by-6-inch note card on your physics test, but the amount of notes
you write take up a much larger space. By the time you finish writing your notes, you have filled an
8-by-12-inch piece of paper. You can use the photocopier to shrink your notes, but the copier will only
reduce the area to 86% of the original. Note that your card and paper are similar rectangles and the
photocopy of any figure is a similar figure.
a Write an equation for the general term of the geometric sequence that represents the area on the
nth reduction.
b On what reduction (which value of 7) will your copy be small enough to fit on the 4-by-6-inch card?
a Discuss how close you are to an actual 4-by-6-inch card.
d How much paper, in total area, will you have used for your images? Round your answer to the
nearest whole number. Hint: Find the partial sum of the series for the requisite number of terms.

LESSON 5.5 eeu

eerie ee

8.5 Binomial Theorem

Binomial Expansion
We expand the binomial a + b for the powers from 0 to 4 below. The sum of terms
for each binomial is a binomial expansion. There are patterns evident in these
expansions involving the exponents and the coefficients. We will start with the
pattern in exponents and then describe the pattern in cofficients.

Exponents

(a+b) =1 A binomial
(a+b)'=at+b expansion is
(a+ bY =a +2ab+l? created by raising |
(a+ bp =a? + 3a°b + 3ab* + bP a binomial like
(a + b)* = a* + 4a°b + 60°b* + 4ab? + bt a + b to a power.

370 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

¢ Sum of exponents In each term, the sum of the exponents of a and b equals
fora term of (a + b)" —_n, the power to which the binomial is raised. In the
equals n bottom row, that power is 4, so the sum of the exponents
must equal 4. For instance, the third term of (a + b)* is
6a°b*. The exponents of both a andb in this term are 2,
and2+2=4.
¢ Exponents ofa start The exponents of a start with n, the power the binomial
with n, go to 0 is raised to, and decrease by 1 with each term. For
(a + b)*, the exponents of a start with 4, which means the
expansion starts with a*. The exponents of a decrease by
1 from one term to the next. This means the factor of a in
the second term is a’. In the third term, the factor of a is
a*, and a', which is just a, appears in the fourth term. The
pattern continues until the exponent equals 0, which
is to say a° appears in the last term. Since a° = 1, the The sum of the
last term just has b as its variable. exponents of any
term of (a + b)" is
e Exponents of b start | The exponents of b start with 0 (so there is no b in
with 0, go ton
| n. The exponents
the first term, just a*). The exponents of b then
of adecrease by1 |
increase by 1 each term and stop at n, which is 4 with each term while
in this expansion. The last term is b*. The binomial the exponents of b |
expansion of (a + b)" is written as a polynomial in increase by 1. |
descending order of the power of a. Because the
exponents of a (or b) in the terms of (a + b)” include
all of the integers from 0 to n, the expansion of (a + b)"
has n + 1 terms, one more than the power n.

Coefficients
In each binomial
expansion, the
(a+b)=1 coefficients are
(a+ b)'=1a+ 1b . symmetric as they
(a + b)? = 1a? + 2ab + 10’ increase toward
(a + b)? = 1a° + 3a7b + 3ab? + 1b° the middle and
(a + b)* = 1a* + 4a°b + 6a*b? + 4ab? + 1b? then decrease.

e Start at 1 The coefficients in each expansion start with 1. For example, in the
expansion of (a + b)*, the coefficient of a* is 1. We show coefficients of
1 here so the pattern is easier to see.
e Increase The coefficients then increase from left to right. For (a + b)*, the
coefficients increase from 1 to 4 to 6.
e Decrease back tolin The coefficients then decrease back to 1, in the reverse order of their
reverse pattern increase. The entire pattern of coefficients for (a + b)* is 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.

8.5 Binomial Theorem 371

We can determine the coefficients for a binomial
(a + b)° row 0
expansion using a pattern called Pascal’s triangle.
This is named for Blaise Pascal, the French (a + b)! row
mathematician, philosopher, and religious scholar. (a + b)? row 2
(Other scholars also “discovered” or studied the (a+b)? aga
triangle. For instance, in China it is called the ; :
Yanghui triangle, after the Chinese mathematician ie os
who studied it about 500 years before Pascal.) (a + b)? row 5
Pascal’s triangle starts with 1 on its left and right
edges. Each of the other numbers is the sum of the two numbers directly above it.
The numbers in a row of Pascal’s triangle are the same as the coefficients of the
terms in each binomial expansion (a + b)" shown previously. The coefficients for
(a + b)" are found in rownof the triangle. The top row is row 0.
We use Pascal's triangle to expand (a + b)°. Row 5 of Pascal’s triangle gives us
the coefficients for the binomial expansion of (a + b)’. We use the pattern of
exponents to write the terms of the series. The exponents of a go from 5 down to
0 and the exponents of b go from 0 up to 5. The final expanded form of (a + by
is a + 5a*b + 10a°b? + 10a2b° + 5ab* + BD.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Expand (a + b)’. The seventh row of Pascal's triangle is 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1.
SOLUTION

Sum of va gb + a ge + abt + ob + abo +_b’ | The problem asks you to use

exponents the seventh row of Pascal’s
is 7 triangle to expand (a + by’.
The sum of the exponents
in each term is 7. Ignore the
coefficients of the terms for
now.
Coefficients a’ + 7a°b + 21a°b? + 35a*b? + 35a°b* + 210?b° + 7ab° +b’ Fill in the coefficients for all
correspond of the terms. The coefficients
to row 7 correspond to the numbers
of Pascal’s in the seventh row of Pascal’s
triangle triangle.

2. The seventh row of Pascal’s triangle is 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1. What is the eighth row?

SOLUTION
Outside edges The problem asks you to use the seventh
are all 1 row of Pascal's triangle to find the eighth.
Fill in the first and last numbers in the
row. The outside edges of Pascal's triangle
are all 1.
Second number Find the second number in the eighth row.
is sum of two It is the sum of the two numbers above it
above in Pascal’s triangle, so it is the sum of the
first and second numbers in the seventh
row. Model Problems continue...

372 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Each other Each of the remaining numbers in the row

number is sum is the sum of the two numbers directly
of two above above it. The third number in the eighth
row is the sum of the second and third
numbers in the seventh row, and so on.

3. Write the first three terms of the expansion of (2x — 1).

SOLUTION
Coefficients 1 5 10 We use Pascal’s triangle to write the first three
terms of this binomial expansion. This requires
handling the coefficients carefully. Start by writing
the first three terms of the expansion of (a + b).
Write the coefficients from the appropriate row of
Pascal’s triangle.
Exponents 1a” + 5a*b + 10a°b? Enter the variables a and b with the appropriate
exponents and write the expression as a sum.
Substitute (2x)? + 5(2x)*(—1) + 10(2x)*(-1)?? — The expression we were asked to raise to the 5th
2x for a and power was 2x — 1, so substitute 2x for a and —1
—1 for b for b.
Simplify 3250 ee BU ct 80x? Simplify the resulting expression to write the
three terms.

4. The first three terms in the expansion of (a + b)!” are a’® + 19a'8b + 171a'’b?. Write the last three
terms.

SOLUTION

Coefficients 71191 The coefficients of the last three terms in the

expansion of (a + b)!° are the same as the coefficients
of the first three terms, but in reverse order. They are
17 1 Oo and |

Exponents 171a°b’’ + 19ab'® + b'’ ~_— For the last three terms, the exponents of a and b are
symmetrical. The exponent of a becomes the exponent
of b, and vice versa. Do the same with the term that
starts with 19. 19a'°b is one of the first three terms, so
19ab!* must be one of the last three. And since a’ is
the first term, b!? must be the last. Remember that a!”
is equivalent to a’’b°. Write the expression as a sum.

8.5 Binomial Theorem 373

Factorial Notation
Factorial notation is an efficient way to write products of integers. To calculate the The factorial of O |
factorial of integer n, denoted n!, start with n, and multiply n by all the positive < _ is defined as 1
integers that are less than n, n! = n-(n — 1): (n — 2)-... ! until the final factor so O! = 1.
equals 1. For instance, 3! = 3-2-1=6.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Compute 7!
SOLUTION
Tl = 7230 tora.
2k
7! = 5040
5!
2. Compute 31
Formulas involving
SOLUTION ee ee often k
{ ayes As involve division o
Cancel factorials a= a = aa =20 There isashortcut for factorials. In model
‘ : ; dividing 5! by 3!. problem 2, we
Instead of expanding show a shortcut for
the numerator all the dividing factorials.
way, stop when we _— —
reach 3, and state it as 5 - Ae 3. eel the
3! factor, which leaves the product of 5 and
4, which is 20.

Binomial Coefficients
The coefficients of the terms in the expansion of (a + b)" are called binomial
coefficients. The formula in the box can be used to calculate the coefficients of
a binomial expansion. The variable n represents the exponent in the binomial
expansion and k gives the k + 1 term in the expansion. For example, if n = 5 and
k = 3, the formula finds the coefficient for the fourth term in the expansion of
(a + b) The binomial coefficient for n and k is written using parentheses as you
see, with n above k and no fraction bar between them. This is read as “n choose k.”
It is defined using factorials.

(")a n!
k k!(n — k)!

(")= binomial coefficients

374 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

There is a connection between binomial coefficients and Pascal's triangle. Using
the binomial coefficient formula, any number in Pascal's triangle can be calculated
directly:
Row

QO
mB
OS
NK

The binomial coefficient (

")is the number at position k + 1 in row n of Pascal’s
triangle. The diagram shows the first four rows of Pascal’s triangle, including row
0, on the left, and the corresponding binomial coefficients on the right.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is (3)

SOLUTION
Substitute 1 Nes. n! We calculate the binomial coefficient for 12 choose 9
and k) K(n—k)! by entering those values into the formula. Because
evaluate 12! is the product of all the integers from 12 to 1,
& ee eels2) write it as 12 - 11 - 10 - 9! and cancel to simplify.
2 OKT2: 9)! The binomial coefficient is 220.
Cs eeald 1 10 oe eo
o 943! 6

(5) 12
= 220

2. What is the fourth number in row 4 of Pascal's triangle?

SOLUTION

Number in Nes. n! We start with the formula for finding the binomial
row n, at k) K(n—k)! coefficients.
position k + 1

For row 4, 4\ _ 4! The number at position 4 in row 4 of Pascal's triangle is

position 4 3) © 33) the binomial coefficient of the fourth term in the expansion
of (a + b)*.
Factor and AN 2 Ae Factor the numerator to cancel 3!. The binomial coefficient
simplify By ee roads is 4, which is the number shown at position 4 in row 4 of
Pascal’s triangle.
Model Problems continue...

8.5 Binomial Theorem 375

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. What is(")

SOLUTION

The first number in any row of Pascal’s triangle is 1. This means F should be 1. We check this,
using the fact that 0! = 1. @ = ESET = Tem = 1, so any binomial coefficient with k = 0 is 1.

4. What is (F)

SOLUTION

Substitute (k
nN

)- i —b!
oe Substitute the values for n and k.

(3)- ase ay
8)!

Pian (°) 8
I 39!
8131!
Factor the numerator to cancel 31!.
Calculate the binomial coefficient

(3) 39- 38 -37-36-35-34- 33-32-31

8! - 3H
tobe 61,523,748.

ie) = 61,523,748

5. What is the seventh number in row 18 of Pascal's triangle?

SOLUTION
{
Substitute (7)= ear To calculate the seventh number in row
(n ) 18, substitute 18 for n and 6 for k.
Pe 18!
6!(18 — 6)!

18 18!
Evaluate = Factor the numerator to cancel 12!.
Calculate the binomial coefficient

i) Blea
ae
loselolai lp eel2t to be 18,564.

376 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Binomial Theorem
The formula below can be used to calculate any term in a binomial expansion, and
it is part of the binomial theorem:

(i)
n q" kbk

The coefficients of these terms appear in Pascal's triangle. In row n the numbers
n n
run from ( ‘)to(") As k takes values from 0 to n, the exponent of a starts at n
and decreases in steps of 1 until it reaches 0, while the exponent of b follows the
opposite of that pattern.
The formula for the sum of all these terms—with nfixed and k running from 0 to
n—is called the binomial theorem. Note that the summation index k indeed runs
from 0 to n in the formula.

(a+b) = S(T arte

k=0

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is the term that contains b° in (a + b)°?
SOLUTION

Formula for term @ aa Use the formula for calculating any term ina
with b* in (a + b)" binomial expansion of (a + b)”. We want the
term that contains D*.
Substitute values (3) Ue Substitute the values. We want the term for b° in
3 (a + bP, son = 5andk =3.

Do the operations (3)eb = = a*b’ Use the formula for the binomial coefficient and
3 31(5 — 3) subtract to simplify the exponent of a.
Simplify (3)a 3h = = a°b’? Factor the numerator to cancel 3! and simplify
: — the expression. The term is 10a’b”.
(3)a~°b? = 10a°b°

2. What term contains y’ in (3x — y)’?

SOLUTION

Term with b’ in (a + b)’ (7)gee. The first step is to use the formula to calculate the term
with b’ in (a + b)’.
36a°b’

Substitute 36(3x)*(—y)’ In the original binomial, the first term is 3x and the second
932)y7 term is —y. Replace a and b with these expressions, and
~36(92°)y simplify the result. The term is —324x*y’.
—324x7y’
Model Problems continue...

8.5 Binomial Theorem 377

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Expand (a + by.
SOLUTION

u i. nye The binomial theorem with

(a+ b)"= = iE a n = 5 and values of k from

5 5 5 5 5 . 0 to 5 gives us the six terms

5
G3) = ( 7 ( to - ( se + (2ate in the expansion for (a + b)’.
5 eo + (
5) a (
The power of a starts at 5, and
5 5 5 5 5 5 decreases by 1 with each term.
(a+ bp = (2 5) + (3 6 + (je + (Jor
te (Jato+ ( The power of b starts at 0, and
0 1 5 increases by 1 with each term.
Evaluate pol Ole. D\ Oller ae, 10 Evaluate the binomial
binomial migist east ieee ON (2 ee coefficients.
coefficients
Tee 3) eeei es)
6). eeae (l= a i
Bid) 5 5s 5
2)-2
2131 7%ae ei 510! 5
Write a + 5a*b + 10a°b* + 10a2b° + 5ab* + bP? Substitute the coefficients to
expansion complete the expansion.

4. Expand (2x + V3).

SOLUTION

(a+b)= >(i) feo The binomial theorem with n = 4 and

values of k from 0 to 4 gives us the terms
4 4 in the expansion for (a + b)*.
(a+ by = (( + (Tete + (Fae + (5 )ao?-+(4)
2 3 4

Evaluate 4\ AL _ Al _ BNA ss 4_ 4 Evaluate the binomial coefficients.

nit Qndete
binomial Oyomegi4!, “ain eee
coefficients

1) 13t s AeA
Bat:
(\-3
IDF = 1 72
Write a’ + 4a°b + 6a7b? + 4ab> + bt Write the binomial coefficients.
expansion

Substitute (2x + V3)" = (2x)* + 4(2x? (V3) + 6(2x)? (V3) + 4(2x)(V3) + (V3) Replace a and b with
2x and V3.

Simplify (2x + V3)" = 16x* + 32V3x? + 72x? + 24V3x + 9 Simplify.

378 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following is the third term in Exercises 8-15: Calculate the requested term.
the binomial expansion of (V2x — y)"?
8. The fourth term in (3x + y)*.
As ©e4y 2xy C 2aehy
Beyalaaie 9. The third term in (3x + y)*.
Do 3207
2. How many terms are in the binomial 10. The fifth term in (2z — w).
expansion (7a + b)**~1? 11. The third term in (2z — w).
Asre2k= 2 Gyrezk 12. The fourth term in (p — q’)°.
Beek et |Ba ea
13. The third term in (p — q’)°.
3. Find the binomial coefficient represented 14. The fifth term in (—2k + 3m?)’.
2 =
by ( P )and describe its location in 15. The third term in (—2k + 3m°)’.
Pascal's triangle. Exercises 16-17: Expand.
Dy c= 16. (2+ Vx)?
A. (i i = 2m — p. It is the first
0 17,5 24)
number in the 0th row of Pascal’s
triangle. Exercises 18-23: Evaluate.

p =
18.
(0!)(9!)
B. (ee Z = 1. It is the first number in 7!

the (2m — p)th row of Pascal’s triangle. 19. 13!

= (1)
9!
& & i a)= 0. It is the (2m — p)th

= ()
number in the Oth row of Pascal’s
triangle.

D. biea be = 1. It is the (2m — p)th

=()
= ()
number in the 1st row of Pascal’s
triangle.
Exercises 4-7: Calculate the requested term using
Pascal's triangle.
Exercises 24-27: State the requested term.
24. In (a + b)’’, the term with b to the
25th power.
25. In (a + b)'®, the term with b to the
16th power.
26. In (a + b)"*, the term with b to the 9th power.
27. In (a + b)", the term with b to the 11th power.
Exercises 28-29: State the requested term.
4. The third term in (a + b)’. 28. In (2x — y)"*, the term where y is raised to
5. The last term in (a + b)’. the 12th power.
6. The second term in (a + b)°. 29. In (—x + 2y)", the term where yis raised to
the 4th power.
7. The fourth term in (a + b)°. Practice Problems continue...

8.5 Binomial Theorem 379

Practice Problems continued...

30. [ERA student’s completed solution for 33. Choose a large integer n and compute the
the 5th term in the binomial expansion of
(2x — a)’ is shown below. Identify the errors
nth partial sum given by > a Make an
: k=0 *
in the student’s work.
i )
Sth term in (2x — a)’ =“(s(2x*)(a° educated guess as to the value ofpa "a
6
ae 5)!et 1)
WB
BI 34. Solve the equation (a8ork 2)= (0),
k=0
= ZP(2x\(@8) 2 5
35. Solve the equation (()s
Pah (a 3°)= 32
= 42x*0° a > k
31. Prove (m + n)! = m! + n! or provide a n fe ere n
counterexample. 36. ILERA Prove @e mokth\(
(a = at
32. [GER Use Pascal’s triangle to
explain why (")= 5ie A Prove this
37. TIGER Prove
n
k “(23cay
algebraically.

Chapter 8 Key \deas =I Oe eee

8.1 Arithmetic Sequences

e Asequence is an ordered list of numbers. By “ordered,” we mean that it matters which number
comes first, which comes second, and so on. A number in a sequence is called a term. The
notation, 41, a, 43, ... , is used to describe sequences. The subscripted number is called the index
and describes the place of the term in the sequence. The general term of a sequence is a,,, where
the index is indicated with the variable n. The general term represents any term in a sequence and
is often used in equations.
e Inan arithmetic sequence, each term equals the sum of the preceding term and a constant called
the common difference. The definition of an arithmetic sequence is the formula a,, = a, _ ; + d where
a, is the general term in the sequence, a, _ ; is the term before a,,, and d is the common difference.
This is a recursive formula.
e The explicit formula for the general term in an arithmetic sequence is a, = a, + (n — 1)d where a,
is the first term in the sequence, and d is the common difference.
e The slope of a line that passes through the graph of an arithmetic sequence equals the common
difference of the sequence.

8.2 Arithmetic Series

e When the terms of a sequence are added together, the resulting expression is a series. Adding the
terms of an arithmetic sequence creates an arithmetic series.
e A series can be written using sigma notation. The Greek letter > (sigma) indicates a sum, and is
called the summation sign. The summand is the expression for the nth term of the sequence. The
variable n is called the index of the summation, and is always an integer. The initial value of n is
stated below , and the value of n is increased by 1 to create each term, until the value above > is
reached. The value above >is infinity for an infinite series.

380 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

 The sum of the first 1 terms of a series is denoted by S,,. This is called the nth partial sum of a series.
:
For an arithmetic series, n
S$, = 7h eh)

8.3 Geometric Sequences

In a geometric sequence, each term equals the product of the preceding term and a constant called
the common ratio. As with arithmetic sequences, the terms of a geometric sequence are often
referred to using the notation 41, 45, a3, ..., with a,, representing the general term.
The definition of a geometric sequence is the formula: a, = a, — ; - r where a, is the general term in
the sequence, a, - ; is the term before a,,, and r is the common ratio.
The formula for the general term in a geometric sequence is a,, = a,r"~' where a; is the first term
in the sequence, and r is the common ratio.

8.4 Geometric Series

Adding the terms of a geometric sequence creates a geometric series. As with an arithmetic series,
S,, is the sum of the first n terms of a geometric series. The formula for calculating the nth partial
sum of a geometric series is S,, = gilt)
beep
An infinite geometric series is an expression for the sum of the terms in an infinite geometric
sequence. The sum of an infinite series, if it exists, is denoted as S. An infinite geometric series has
ay
a sum when |r| < 1. If the sum exists, $ = ae

8.5 Binomial Theorem

A binomial expansion is created by raising a binomial like a + b to a power, n. The coefficients of
the terms are called binomial coefficients.
Pascal's triangle is a triangular array of numbers where the outside edges are all 1, and each
other number is the sum of the two numbers directly above it. The top point of Pascal's triangle
is considered row 0, and it has only one number in it: 1. The numbers in a row of Pascal’s triangle
are the same as the coefficients of the terms in the binomial expansion of (a + b)", where n
corresponds to the row number.
Factorial notation is an efficient way to write products of integers. To calculate n!, start with n,
subtract 1 repeatedly to calculate the other factors, stopping at 1, and multiply all of the factors:
ni=n-(n—1):(n—2)-...:3-2-+1.The factorial 0! is defined as 1.

a and is read as
The binomial coefficient for 1 and k is written as ( “n choose k’. It is defined
n z Ml AA 2 .

(ait n!
cok eo taekicesnioks
The binomial theorem states that the binomial coefficient (4 is the number at position k + 1 in
n ene .

row 1 of Pascal’s triangle.

Chapter 8 Key Ideas 381

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
1. Assume the pattern continues in the 16 Compute 5!
sequence 17, 10, 5, ... . Is the sequence
arithmetic, geometric, or neither? 12!
17. C omputefe sor
A. Arithmetic
B. Geometric 18. What is the value of bs
|?
.C. Neither
19. Sketch the graph of a, = 7 — 3(n — 1).
. What is the index of the term 8 in the
Sequence 4 22, O07 O06, oe, 10128) 120 ie
20. Sketch the graph of a, = (3)
. The general term in a sequence is described
by a, = n? — 1. Find ay. 21. Complete the table and plot the points
(n, S,) on the coordinate system. Then use
. The eighteenth term in an arithmetic the infinite series formula to find the value
sequence is 89, and the common difference n=

is —16. What is the nineteenth term in the of the infinite series for a,, = (7)(-3) i
sequence?

. What is the next term in the arithmetic indexn |1/2] 3 |4 [5/6] 7|

sequencets 27 12719 a?
Sequence,
||||||||
. Write an expression for the general term in PartialsumsS,|
| || | | | |
the arithmetic sequence 52, 56, 60, 64, ... .
22. WTF Taking the reciprocal of each term
. Find the 11th term in the sequence of an arithmetic sequence creates a harmonic
aed ea lye OOP TAO es: « sequence. For example, the reciprocals of
the terms of the arithmetic sequence
. Consider the famous Fibonacci sequence:
1, 2, 3, ... create the harmonic sequence
1,1, 2, 3,5, 8, 13,.;.. Use the pattern:to find
the recursive formula for the series and 2 ae a .... Aharmonic sequence begins
calculate the next term. AS)
dees :
3 a i “ What is the general form for
. Write the series for the sequence 1, 3, 9, 27.
5 this harmonic sequence? Use this to
10. Expand the series (3n — 1). determine the 99th term.
n=1

11. For the geometric series 5 + (—10) + 20 +..., 23. TRG Use the diagram below to make
what is S7? a sketch for the sequence of partial sums at
6 1 j= il
least for the first 5 terms of the arithmetic
12. Evaluate > 224(4) : sequence a, = —1 + 2n. Then determine the
n=1 12th term of the sequence of partial sums
(i.e., the 12th partial sum of a,,).
13. Calculate S for an infinite geometric series
EE
a a
with a, = 30 and r = =
Sy S5
14. Calculate the sum of the infinite geometric 24. The seventh term in a geometric sequence
series 112 + (—84) + 63+....
is 5od and the common ratioae is 6. What is' the
15. Write the first three terms in the expansion
Oni aay) eighth term?
Chapter Review continues...

382 Chapter 8: Sequences and Series

Chapter Review continued .. .
25. Write an expression for the general term 29. [PMA Add the entries of the first few
in the geometric sequence —224, —56, rows in Pascal's triangle and make a
Sle) ae conjecture about the sum of the entries in
: the nth row as a function of n. That is, find
26. The first term in a geometric sequence is 405.
To get the next term, you divide by 3. What fin) for y (")= f(n). Test your formula
is the fifth term in the sequence? at
by comparing it with the result from the
27. What is the sixth term in the geometric sum of binomial coefficients for n = 7.
sequence that starts 4x, 20x*,2 100x”, 3 ... 9? Bo com inteibe coareion (or

28s. [PM A convergent infinite geometric. (Va i ax)(Va A 4x)

series starts with 4, and the sum is 8.
What is the sum of the first three terms?

Chapter 8 Review 383

 Cumulative Review
for Chapters 1- 8

1. Solve 2* + 2*~' = 96. 12. What is the volume of a cube with each
ao face having a surface area of 291 + 154\V/2
centimeters? The side length has the form
Bae a + bVc. Give your answer in exact radical
C. 6 form.
Ds
13. [EN Determine whether alinear,
2. Factor completely: 3x* — 27x? + 5x* — 45x° quadratic, or radical function is “best”
used to model the given table of data.
3. Is (—3, 6, 0) a solution to the system of Justify your answer. What might be
equations? associated with this data?
2tO = Zz — 4x = 2y
2

4. Solve the system y = 2x and engines

8 64
using substitution. Show the process and
state the solutions.

5. PA Solve the system 2x” + 4y* = 108

and x’? + y* = 45 using elimination. Show
the process and state the solutions.
Exercises 14-17: Solve. If there is no solution, say so.
6. EE RERG On a quarter-mile track, two es ee
Si 14. 3° =3
runners start at the same position and
time. One person runs 6-minute miles and 415. Bt ha 57
the other runs 8-minute miles. When will
they be together at the same position on 16. 5*+3-5*-2=140
the track?
17. [LP 4 — 2" *' — 48 = 0 (Hint: Let
7. Divide Xx+95) Write your answer as t = 2*. Then solve a quadratic equation
«+11 for t.)
1 + R(x) where R(x) is a rational expression.
18. What is (f— ¢)(5) if Ax) = —3x — 1 and
Exercises 8-9: Simplify. g(x) = 4x — 11?
\ ih i

ie 3 e ah. : =
gee) 19. What is (F\a) if lx) =x + 6and
ae x)= =3x 982
7/36, Exercises 20-21: Restate the following as
9. V/A exponential equations.
20. y = 1 10815 we
Exercises 10-11: Solve. Y

10. Vx —4=12 21. log; 81 =4

41. Vx -—6=7

384 Cumulative Review

Exercises 22-23: State the answer to the nearest 29. Calculate S for an infinite geometric series
tho usan dth. U se a calculator or a spreadsheet. with a, = —8 and r = =
22. log 14
30. A county fair is holding a pool
23. log 0.2 tournament for cash prizes. First place
receives $400, second place receives $350,
24 Evaluate In and third place receives $300. Prizes
continue to be awarded following this
25. Restate as an exponential equation: Ina = 2 pattern until the prize amount reaches 0.
26. Restate as a logarithmic equation: e** ! = 15 What is the total amount of cash awarded
to the tournament players, and how
27. Write the series in expanded form: many prizes are given? Assume there are
8 enough players such that all cash prizes are
G3) awarded.
1

28. What is S, for the geometric series

—4-- 12 + (—36) +... ?

Chapters 1-8 385

Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles © G-SRT.8

Right Triangle Basics
Special Right Triangles

9.2 Geometry Review:

© G-SRT.6; G-SRT.7; G-SRT.8
Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Ratios
Sine, Cosine, and Complementary Angles
Sine, Cosine, and Tangent for Special Triangles
9.3 Angles of Rotation and E-TF.1
Trigonometric Functions S
Reference Angles and Trigonometric Functions
Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions
Radian Measure of Angles

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle SG F-TF.2; F-TE.8

The Unit Circle
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle
Multi-Part Problem Practice

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs eG © F-IF.4; F-IF.7e; F-BF.3; F-TE.5

Properties of Trigonometric Function Graphs
Graphs Using the Unit Circle
Scaling Trigonometric Function Graphs
Translating Trigonometric Function Graphs
Sine and Cosine Identities
Graph of the Tangent Function
Multi-Part Problem Practice

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent
Reciprocal Trigonometric Function Graphs

9.7 Modeling with Functions S-ID.6a

CHAPTER 9 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-9

386 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Vocabulary
adjacent leg hypotenuse radian measure
amplitude midline reference angle

angle of rotation opposite leg secant

central angle period sine

cosecant periodic function tangent

cosine phase identity trigonometric identity

cotangent phase shift trigonometric ratio

coterminal Pythagorean identity trigonometry

frequency Pythagorean theorem unit circle

horizontal scaling radian vertical scaling

LESSON 9.1
9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles
Right Triangle Basics
A right triangle is a triangle with one angle equal to 90°, which is called a right
angle. The two sides that meet at the right angle are called legs, and the side of the
triangle opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. It is typical to call the
legs a and b, and the hypotenuse c.

a=leg c = hypotenuse

The converse of
b=leg ; the Pythagorean
theorem is also
The Pythagorean theorem states that in a right triangle, the hypotenuse squared __| true. In any
equals the sum of the squares of the legs, c? = a* + b?. triangle, if the
lengths of the
3 sides, a, b,
Pythagorean theorem c, satisfy the
fb equation
a? +b? = c2,
You may find yourself calculating the length of a hypotenuse frequently. You may eee Piatine i
see the equation for the hypotenuse’s length stated as c =V/a* +b*. We can also | ang the side |
applya similar idea to calculate the length of a leg, a =Vc* —b’. of length c is
the hypotenuse.

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles 387

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What is the length of the hypotenuse ofa right triangle with legs 9 and 12?
SOLUTION
rt+p=ac The Pythagorean theorem states that the sum of the squares ?=?
+12? =¢ of the legs equals the square of the hypotenuse. The legs have
lengths 9 and 12, so substitute those values in the equation.
81+ 144=¢ Evaluate. Square 9 and 12, getting 81 and 144, and add. The result is 225.
225 =
c=V225=15 Since c’ is equal to 225, c is the square root of 225, which is 15.

2. Isa triangle with sides of length 3 meters, 4 meters, and 5 meters a right triangle?
SOLUTION
We use the
If the sides of atriangle 3*+4*25? The longest side must be the hypotenuse, converse of the
have lengths, a, b, c that since its square is the sum of the Pythagorean
Satisfy a +b? =" squares of the legs. If this triangle is a theorem to
right triangle, the side of length 5 meters determine if this |
must be the hypotenuse, c. Enter the is a right triangle. |
values into the Pythagorean theorem.
Then the triangle is a 9+16225 Square 3, 4, and 5, and add the squares 9 and 16. Their sum,
right triangle 25=25 25, equals the square of 5, confirming that this is a right
triangle.

3. Aleg ofa right triangle is 12 and the hypotenuse is 13. How long is the other leg?
SOLUTION
Start with Pythagorean a? +b? =c" Start with the Pythagorean theorem.
theorem
Solve for a’ ee Solve the equation for a*. Subtract b? from both sides.
Substitute hypotenuse a’ =13*— 12’ Substitute in the length of the hypotenuse, 13, and
for c and leg for b the length of the leg, 12.
a’ = 169-144 Square the numbers and subtract, then take the
a’ = 25 positive square root, since lengths are positive.
a=5 The length of the leg is 5.

PRACTICE

1. Which of the following sets of side lengths 2. A triangle has sides a = 4,b = 5, andc = 6.
cannot form a right triangle? Is it a right triangle?
AL. oO, 4,0 A. Yes
B eed el2, 13 B. No
Ciah8; 15) 14 C. Not enough information to determine
Det 15; Gd

Practice Problems continue. . .

388 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued .. .
3. A triangle has sides 1, 2, and 5. Is it a right 9. A right triangle has one leg of length 5 and a
triangle? hypotenuse of length V125. What is the
A. Yes length of the other leg?
B. No 10. A right triangle has a hypotenuse of
C. Not enough information to determine length 12 and one leg with length 6. What is
4. What is the length of the hypotenuse of a See ance:
right triangle with legs 6 and 8? 11. What is the length of the hypotenuse of a
bi es
5. A right triangle has legs 8 and 15. What is Fight RAREIsSupen lgee fan ah, aay
the length of the hypotenuse? 12. A 19-foot ladder leans against a wall. If the
| base of the ladder is 10 feet from the wall,
Be seneimanigls has ore lef oplengtir 4 how far up the wall is the top of the ladder?
and a hypotenuse of length 50. What is the
length of the other leg? 13. GPR To get from his house to the grocery
7. Aright triangle has a leg 8 and hypotenuse 17. store, Peter must drive 6 miles directly east
and then 8 miles directly north. How far is
ee ok erences) Peter’s house from the grocery store, as the
8. A right triangle has two legs, one with crow flies?
length 8 and the other with length 2. What is
the length of the hypotenuse?

Special Right Triangles

A triangle can be described by the number of sides and angles that are congruent
and the measures of its angles. One way a triangle can be described is by the
measure of its largest angle.

a
Acute
All angles less than 90°
Soe Ae
Right
Has a right (90°) angle
Obtuse
Has an angle greater than 90°

Another property of a triangle is the number of congruent sides or congruent

angles it has.

LS
60°

~~

A 60° 60°
Equilateral triangles have: Isosceles triangles have: Scalene triangles have:
e all sides congruent e at least two congruent sides ¢ no congruent sides
e three congruent angles e atleast two congruent angles ¢ no congruent angles

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles 389

We use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the lengths of the sides of two
All 45-45-90
specific right triangles, 45-45-90 and 30-60-90 triangles.
triangles are
similar, so
45-45-90 Triangles their pairs of
Remember that any triangle with two sides of the same V5 a corresponding
length is an isosceles triangle. In such triangles the acute : sides are
angles are equal, so the angles of isosceles right triangles proportional.
measure 45°, 45°, and 90°. For this reason, isosceles right 45° = The ratio of the
triangles are sometimes referred to as 45-45-90 triangles. 1 hypotenuse to
alegis V2:1
We use sides of length 1 to calculate the hypotenuse. The ratio of the hypotenuse in an isosceles
to the legs will be the same for any isosceles right triangle, since all isosceles right right triangle.
triangles are similar.
cS ea Use the Pythagorean theorem to state the relationship
c=2 between the legs and the hypotenuse c.
c=V2 Solve the equation. The length of the hypotenuse is V2. In a 30-60-90
triangle, the
30-60-90 Triangles ratio of the
shorter leg to the
Another special right triangle has acute angles measuring hypotenuse is
30° and 60°. This is called a 30-60-90 triangle. The short leg “\. 1: 2. The ratio of
is opposite the smaller, 30° angle. 2 the longer leg to
Again, we have the length of one leg as 1 for simplicity’s the hypotenuse
sake. The ratios here apply to any 30-60-90 triangle, since iowa.
A
all these triangles are similar. 60° r
1
We can use the diagram to the right to explain the lengths of the sides. We construct
a congruent triangle to form an equilateral triangle (since the two base angles are
60°, the upper angle must be 60° as well). We assume the sides of the equilateral
triangle have length 2. The vertical leg bisects the base, forming a right angle, and
each of the two smaller triangles has a horizontal leg length of 1. The Pythagorean
theorem enables us to conclude the vertical leg has a length of the square root of 3.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What are the lengths of the
legs of this triangle? V72

SOLUTION be
45-45-90 This is a 45-45-90 triangle, since the two legs are shown as congruent and it is a right
triangle triangle. The ratio of the sides opposite the 45° angles to the side opposite the right
ratio angle is 1:1: Nie
hypotenuse V2
Write ratio Write the ratio of the hypotenuse toa leg.
leg 1
hypotenuse
Solve for leg lee Tt
= ae Solve fora leg.

Vee 72. : Bes aon

Evaluate leg = a SAV oy V36 =6 Substitute, divide radicals, and simplify.
Model Problems continue...

390 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. What are the angles in this triangle?

V48 8

SOLUTION 4
Simplify V48 = V16-3=4V3 In the triangle, the longer leg is V/48. Simplify this to 4V3.
e : 4
Divide all sides oe 1 Divide each side by 4.
by 4
ENS iG
a
ye

30-60-90 triangle 1: V3: 2 This is the ratio of the sides of a 30-60-90 triangle.

3. Jolene has a ramp that she wants to make into a jump. She is
curious how high off the ground it will be if it makes a 30° angle
compared to a 60° angle from the ground. She would like to
know the answer to the nearest tenth of a foot.
SOLUTION

Draw Draw the two cases of a 30° and

triangles 60° triangle.
6 ft
6 ft

| |

Use 30° ratio 30° opposite leg to hypotenuse = 1:2 This is the ratio of the leg opposite the
etl 30° angle to the hypotenuse in a 30-60-90
Gras triangle.

Evaluate Ot 7 = 3,feet The 30° leg is one-half the length of the

hypotenuse. Multiply, and calculate that
the end of the ramp would be 3 feet high.
Calculate the 60° opposite leg to hypotenuse = \/3:2 Rounded to the nearest tenth of a foot,
height with the end of the ramp is about 5.2 feet high
the 60° angle x _ V3 when the ramp makes a 60° angle with the
6 2 ground.
3 We can check the answers for being
ae eae 5.2 feet reasonable. The 60° jump is higher than
the 30° jump, which makes sense. Also,
both lengths are less than the hypotenuse,
which also makes sense.
Model Problems continue...

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles 391

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© @ TRE] It is 20 feet from home plate to first base, and the same distance between any two
consecutive bases. How far does a catcher have to throw from home plate to second base, to the
nearest foot?
SOLUTION
Draw isosceles Start by recognizing that the indicated 7
right triangle base paths form two legs of an
isosceles right triangle. Both are
90 feet.

Ratio hypotenuse : leg = VO This is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the legs
of an isosceles right triangle.
Multiply leg by hypotenuse 2 Multiply 90 by the ratio, and round to the
ratio leg 7 nearest foot. The catcher needs to throw the
/ > ball 127 feet. To check this answer, we could
hypotenuse = “leg check that indeed 90° 2 + 90° 2~ 127°. 1972

hypotenuse = V2 - 90 ~ 127 feet

PRACTICE
1. If the sides of a right triangle measure 8, 6. The leg opposite the 30° angle of a 30-60-90
8/3, and 16, what is the measure of the triangle has a length of 4. What is the length
smallest interior angle of the triangle? of the hypotenuse?
yee Oh CG. 560" 7. The leg opposite the 60° angle of a 30-60-90
B. 45° De so0s triangle has a length of 7V3. What is the
2. The area of a 30-60-90 triangle is 18/3. How length of the hypotenuse?
long is the shortest side of the triangle? 8. The leg opposite the 60° angle of a 30-60-90
hon 2G Cig 4D triangle has a length of 11V3. What is the
Beaten O DD oN/3 length of the hypotenuse?

3. A triangle has sides that measure 2, 2V’3, 9. The leg opposite the 60° angle of a 30-60-90
and 4. This triangle is best described as a(n) triangle has a length of 3V3. What is the
A. 30-60-90 triangle. length of the hypotenuse? 2
B. Scalene obtuse triangle. 10. One leg of an isosceles right triangle
C. Scalene acute triangle. measures 1 unit. What is the exact length
D. Isosceles right triangle. of the hypotenuse of this triangle?

4. The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle 11. The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle
has a length of 3V2. What is the length of has a length of 5V2. What is the length of
a leg?
a leg?
5. The leg opposite the 30° angle of a 30-60-90 12. The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle
triangle has a length of 5. What is the length has a length of V18. What is the length of
of the hypotenuse? a leg?
Practice Problems continue. . .

392 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued . .

13. The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle 25. Mr. Nichols built a ramp over his front
has a length of 8. What is the length of a leg? steps so he could move a piano into his
14. The hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle house. The ramp makes a 30° angle with the
has a length of 12/2. What is the length of ground and reaches a height of 4.25 feet at
the top of the steps. How long is the ramp?
a leg?
26. The perimeter of an equilateral triangle
15. A right triangle has a hypotenuse that
is 42 feet. What is the exact length of its
measures 2 cm and a base that measures
altitude?
1 cm. What is the exact length of its height?
27. An obtuse isosceles triangle has a vertex
16. In a 30-60-90 triangle, the hypotenuse
angle that measures 120°, and its two
measures 12 inches. What is the length congruent sides each measure 8 centimeters.
of the shorter leg? How long is the altitude of the triangle,
17. In a 45-45-90 triangle, the hypotenuse in centimeters?
measures 7V’2 centimeters. What is the 28. EEREIs it possible for the lengths of
length of one leg? all three sides in a 45-45-90 triangle to be
18. The longer leg of a 30-60-90 triangle integers? Why or why not?
measures V75 units. How long is the 29. WPF The diagonal of a rectangle is
shorter leg? equal to twice the length of the base of
the rectangle. What is the measure of the
19. The hypotenuse of a 30-60-90 triangle
smallest angle of a triangle formed by the
measures 22 units. How long is the leg base, height, and diagonal of the rectangle?
opposite the 60° angle?
30. What type(s) of triangles are formed within
20. An isosceles right triangle has a hypotenuse a 30-60-90 triangle when the altitude
of 3V’2. Sketch the triangle and label the connecting the right angle to the hypotenuse
measures of all three angles. Then state the is constructed? Explain your reasoning.
length of each of the legs.
31. Write a word problem based on a 30-60-90
21. Sketch a 30-60-90 triangle with a hypotenuse triangle. Make sure to include a solution to
of 6. Label the measures of all three angles, the problem you have written.
as well as the lengths of both legs.
32. EF Assuming that the legs of an
22. A square courtyard is crossed by two isosceles right triangle each measure x,
diagonal footpaths that connect its corners. show that the length of the hypotenuse will
One side of the courtyard measures 120 feet. be xV2.
a Makea sketch of the situation.
33. An artist is designing a window. The
b Find the length of one diagonal footpath, window will be a square within a square,
to the nearest tenth of a foot. with the interior square formed by
23. Onafast-pitch softball field, it is 60 feet connecting the midpoints of the sides of
from home plate to first base, and the same the outer square. If the outer square has a
distance between any two consecutive bases. perimeter of 80 inches, what is the area of
How far does a catcher have to throw from the interior square?
home plate to second base, to the nearest 34. The legs of an isosceles right triangle each
foot? measure 6 feet. An altitude of the triangle is
24. Joel has an 8-foot-long ramp that he wants to constructed, connecting the triangle’s right
make into a jump. He wants the jump to be angle and its hypotenuse. What is the exact
as high as possible, as long as it’s not higher length of the altitude, in feet?
than 7 feet. Should he use a 30° or 60° angle 35. BEF The interior of a regular hexagon
between the ground and board? Round to can be divided into 6 congruent, equilateral
the nearest tenth. triangles. If the perimeter of the hexagon
is 60 units, what is its exact area, in square
units?
9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles 393
LESSON 9.2
9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric Ratios
Trigonometry is the study of the relationships of the sides and angles ee Opposite leg
of triangles. Ratios of the sides of triangles play a crucial role in
trigonometry.
Ay = Adjacent leg... iC
Trigonometric ratios are the ratios of the sides of a right triangle
defined in connection with an acute angle in the triangle. We will call that acute
angle ZA. The adjacent leg is next to angle A. The hypotenuse and the adjacent leg
form ZA. The opposite leg is the other leg, which lies across from ZA.
The sine, cosine, and tangent are the most commonly used trigonometric ratios.
Sine old The sine of ZA is the ratio of the lengths of
' the leg opposite to ZA and the hypotenuse. the classi way
see length
ofopposite leg The abbreviation for the sine is “sin.” to remember
length of hypotenuse the ratios: SOH
CAH TOA. It is
Cosine of A The cosine of ZA is the ratio of the lengths Sine Opposite
eeeeeiacent ; le of the leg adjacent
i to ZA and the hypotenuse. Hypotenuse,
cos A = EE
— ~The abbreviation for the cosine is “cos.” Cosine Adjacent |
length of hypotenuse Hypotenuse, and |
Tangent Opposite |
Tangent of A The tangent of ZA is the ratio of the lengths Adjacent. :
fener onoosite lé of the leg opposite to 2A and the leg adjacent & a
tan A =ae to ZA. The abbreviation for the tangent is “tan.”
length of adjacent leg

Trigonometric ratios are an outcome of similar right triangles. We examine the yi

side ratios for two similar triangles, and show that the ratios depend only on the 5a3
angles of the triangles. If two right triangles are similar, then the values of their -
trigonometric ratios will be equal, since the ratios only depend on the acute angle 4 4 C
measures. 10 6
e A ABC and ADEF are similar
By definition of similar triangles, all corresponding angles are congruent and D 8 F
corresponding sides are proportional.

e The corresponding side ratios are equal: eat a oe eas a ates gah one
AB DE eth TAGHDiieArrAbes Digs
Calculate the ratio of the sides in one triangle and compare it to the ratio of the
corresponding sides in the other triangle. The ratios are equal. This is true for
any pair of side ratios between the two triangles.
‘of eAAC _=.DF
OE _ . 530
e Trigonometric function AB DE 53
Trigonometric ratios are side ratios that reference specific sides related to one
of the acute angles. For example, ae and oe are the ratios of the opposite leg
to the hypotenuse with respect to the 53° angle. This is the sine of 53°.

394 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

The values of many trigonometric functions are irrational numbers. This means
their digits continue forever with no pattern. We use the “approximately equals”
symbol, ~, to indicate we are rounding their values to the nearest thousandth.
In this activity, experiment with right triangles and the sine, cosine, and tangent
functions. You can drag vertices A or B to change the triangle.

You can use a

calculator to
evaluate the
sine, cosine,
and tangent of
angles. Press
the(SIN), [COS],
or button,
enter the angle,
and press the
equals key to
calculate the
function.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What are the sine, cosine, and tangent of A? B

A 4 iS
SOLUTION
length of ite |
Sine of A sin Aee
= pe = - The sine of ZA is the ratio of the lengths
EUS wide Pontes, of the opposite leg and the hypotenuse.
length of adjacent |
Cosine of A cos agate
cong OF 8-2 The cosine of Z Ais the ratio of the lengths
length of hypotenuse 5 of the adjacent leg and the hypotenuse.
_ length of oppositeleg 3
Tangent of A tan . length of adjacentleg 4 T he tangent of fZAZAi is the ratio of the lengths
of the opposite leg and the adjacent leg.
Model Problems continue...

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 395

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2.alf'tan @i= a what is sin 6?

SOLUTION
Use definition opposite 15 Start with the definition of the tangent, substituting
of tangent tan 0 = =
5 adjacent 8 the given values.

Draw triangle Draw aright triangle with an angle 0, whose

tangent is =, which means the opposite leg has
length 15 and the adjacent leg has length 8.

lx i
8

Pythagorean c? = 152 + 8? = 289 To calculate the sine of angle 6, we need the length
theorem c=17 of the hypotenuse. Use the Pythagorean theorem to
calculate the hypotenuse.
Bin opposite a dD
Use definition Apply the definition of the sine of 6.
of sine
hypotenuse 17

Qe A snowboarder wants to build a jump that is at a 40° angle from the horizontal. She has
a 6-foot-long wooden board with which to make the jump. How high should she raise the end of
the board off the ground, to the nearest hundredth of a foot?
SOLUTION
Draw The jump will be 6 feet long and the designer
diagram wants a 40° angle. She needs to calculate a to find
how high the end of the jump should be.

opposite
Use definition 1 A=— Apply the definition of the sine of A. Solve for the
hypotenuse
of sine opposite leg, since that is the unknown.
opposite = (sin A)(hypotenuse)
Substitute a ~ (0.6428)(6) Let a be the length of the opposite leg, A = 40°, and
and evaluate a =~ 3.86 6 is the length of the hypotenuse. Since sin 40° is
approximately 0.6428, a is about 3.86 feet. The end
of the board should be propped up about 3.86 feet.

396 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Sine, Cosine, and Complementary Angles
In right triangles, the two acute angles are always complementary. Because of this,
the sine and cosine ratios have a special relationship. See if you can figure it out by
looking at the table without reading ahead. All numbers are rounded to the nearest
thousandth.
INS _

30°[00500
|086s|0.866|0.500|
ie
ABQRI
| 60° | 30° | 0.866
70°
a | 2° | 0940 | 0342 | 0342 | 0.940 |

| 80°
80° | 10° |oes | oi74 | 0174 | 0.985 |

As you may have noticed, the sine of one angle is the cosine of its complementary
angle, and vice versa. For instance, look at the cosine of 20° and the sine of 70°.
We discuss this relationship further by examining ©
a general right triangle.

: B A
opposite
Find sin A a Find the sine of 2A, using the appropriate
hypotenuse irigonometricSe ratio.

sin A = whee
AC
adjacent ; : ; ;
Find cos C C =
cos Peet Hes Find the cosine of ZC using the appropriate
NPE ionsies trigonometric ratio.
cos. C= Eo
AC
sinA=cosC ZA’s opposite side is the Because the opposite side from ZA is the same side as the
same as 1C’s adjacent side. adjacent side to ZC, the trigonometric ratios are equal.

MODEL PROBLEMS
4. Calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of 40°. The values of some
trigonometric
SOLUTION functions are rational. |
sin 40° ~ 0.643 Use a calculator to determine the value of sin 40°. It is For instance, the
approximately 0.643. The value of the sine of this angle tangent of 45° is 1,
is irrational, so the digits continue forever. since it is the ratio of
two equal sides in an
cos 40° ~ 0.766 The cos 40° is approximately 0.766. isosceles triangle.
tan 40° ~ 0.839 =‘The tan 40° is approximately 0.839.
Model Problems continue...

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 397

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. a What is the length of a, to the nearest tenth?

b What is the length of b, to the nearest tenth?
SOLUTION

a Definition _OpPeaiaae sin A The sine equals the opposite leg divided by the
o f sine Ry POs hypotenuse.
vE
Substitute 4 = sin 25° The angle is 25°. Substitute and calculate the sine of
: the angle. :
og 0.423 With a calculated, |
2 there are a |
Solve 6-2 =6-sin 25° Solve for a by multiplying both | variety of ways
6 sides of the equation by 6. to calculate b.
a~ 25 Round the answer to the We could use
nearest tenth. the Pythagorean
theorem since we
b Calculate mZA +mZB+mZC = 180° One way to calculate know the length
mZB (iL 18)" = )>— 25° the length of the leg b is} Of a leg and the
mZB = 65° to calculate mZB. Since | hypotenuse, or
the measure of the angles | We could use the [|
sum to 180°, mZ.B = 65°. | cosine of 25°.

Use a = sin B Use the definition of the sine. Solve the

definition ts equation for the opposite leg by multiplying
of sine to opposite = sin B- hypotenuse _ both sides of the equation by the hypotenuse.
calculate b
Solve b = (sin 65°)(6) Substitute in the values we know from the
b = (0.906)(6) ~ 5.4 diagram. The measure of ZB is 65°, and the
hypotenuse is 6. The leg opposite ZB is b.
b to the nearest tenth is 5.4. We can check the
answer using the Pythagorean theorem. Since
2.5* + 5.4? ~ 6, the answer is correct.

3. What is the length of the hypotenuse, to the nearest tenth?

SOLUTION ae
te adjacent i
Denniionvor = 4 =1cos A Since we know the length of the adjacent leg, use the cosine
hypotenuse
cosine ratio.
10
Substitute = = cos 32° The angle is 32°. Substitute and calculate the cosine of the
10 angle.
— ~ 0.848
c
10 : i
Solve oh 0.848 Solve the equation. First, remove c as the denominator of
Hose 0848 2 fraction. Multiply both sides by c. Divide both sides by
eee 0.848. Rounded to the nearest tenth, c is approximately 11.8.
Model Problems continue...

398 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
)@DPR
between
Ted is estimating the height of the Space Needle using the angle of 75°
his line of sight and the horizontal. Based on this diagram, how tall is
the Space Needle? The angle between a horizontal line and the line of sight to an
object above the horizontal line is called the angle of elevation. In this problem,
that angle is 75°. Surveyors use angles of elevation to estimate the heights of
objects that cannot be easily measured directly. We ignore Ted’s height in
this estimate.
50m
SOLUTION

Definition tan A = aes Use the diagram. The tangent of ZA is

of tangent adjacent
the opposite leg divided by the adjacent
opposite = (tan A)(adjacent) leg. Solve for the opposite leg.

Substitute a =~ (3.73)(50) Substitute a for the length of the opposite leg, 75° for
and a ~ 186.5 meters the measure of 2A, and 50 for the length of the adjacent
evaluate leg. The tangent is approximately 3.73. The tower is
approximately 186.5 meters tall. The calculation is close
to the actual height of the tower, which is about
184 meters.

OS from
ERY The angle at which an airplane descends is the angle of depression. It is a downward angle
the horizontal. An airplane’s path of descent is at a 15° angle from the horizontal. The airplane
is 3 miles above the ground. To the nearest tenth of a mile, how far does it travel before it reaches
the ground?
SOLUTION
DOW Draw the descent of the airplane. It is
diagram 3 miles above the ground. It is flying at a
L=3 15° angle from the horizontal. We want to
Be calculate c, the distance the plane travels
1.02. before it lands.
Calculate B = 90° — 15° = 75° The two angles sum to 90°. Subtract to calculate that
angle B=70.
adjacent
Definition cos 6 = Use the definition of cosine, solving the equation for the
hypotenuse hypotenuse.
of cosine
ac __ adjacent
ypotenuse = eae Bs
B

Substitut c= Z Substitute c for the hypotenuse, 3 for the length of the

ered cos 7D”
adjacent leg, and 75° for B.

Substi
ubstitute Ce 0.2588
é Use a calculator to find the value of cos 75° to the nearest
value of ten thousandth. Substitute that and divide. The plane
cos 75° c =: 11.6 miles travels 11.6 miles before it lands.
Model Problems continue...

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 399

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
© @ Two measurements of angles of elevation to a mountain summit are made as shown in
the diagram. There is a distance of 3930 feet between the two points from which the measurements
are made. How tall is the mountain?
a Write equations This example illustrates
a technique that |
solved for b using
surveyors use, taking
angles of elevation.
two measures of the ]
b Use the equations angle of elevation to the
from part a to solve top of the mountain to |
for a. calculate the height of a
mountain.
SOLUTION
opposit
a First tan 23° = nee = . To find an equation that involves the measuring
equation a position closer to the mountain, where the angle is
23°, we can use the tangent of angle @ = 23°, which
it
equals Ee - Let a represent the mountain
adjacent
height, and let b represent the horizontal distance.
Solve first b(tan 23°) =a Solve the first equation for b.
equation 4
for b tan 23°
it
Second tan 18° = ae = ee The equation describes the situation at the farther
equation Cee measuring position. The horizontal distance
increases by 3930, the distance in feet between the
two measuring positions. The angle is 18° at this
point.
Solve tan 13° = a-930 Solve the second equation for b by multiplying both
second sides of the equation by b + 3930.
equation ba = = 3930
for b tan 18

b Set right —* = 3900 =—t Set the first and second

tan 18 tan 23 ;
sides equations equal to each other,
equal since both equaled b.
Solve (tan 23°)(a) — (tan 23°)(3930)(tan 18°) = (tan 18°)(a) Solve for a. Multiply both
fora (tan 23°)(a) — (tan 18°)(a) = (tan 23°)(3930)(tan 18°) ae y a esand eae to
: ae : >, ¢liminate the fractions. Move
a(tan 23° = tan 18°) = (tan 25°)(3930)(tan 18°) 41. a terms to one side of the
__ (tan 23°)(3930)(tan 18°) equation and the constants to
San 23° — fan 18° the other. Factor out a. Divide
both sides of the equation
by the expression that a is
multiplied by.

Substitute a ~ 2 Substitute and evaluate. The

and : mountain is about 5440 feet
evaluate 4a~ 5440 feet high high.
Model Problems continue...

400 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© GEAIf cos A= 7> whatis sin A?

The triangle we draw is one possible triangle, given the 4

stated value of the cosine. Any other similar triangle |
oa would be possible, such as one with lengths of 16, 30, 7
and 34. Since the sides are proportional, it does not |
A Za C change the value of the sine ratio. q
SOLUTION sa eT ee
Definiti adjacent 15 : oe :
efinition of cos A = —_—-——_ = —__ Start with the definition of the cosine, the length
cosine hypotenuse 17 of the adjacent leg eeealoesse oe oFthe
hypotenuse.
Pythagorean 15 Pe To calculate the sine, we need the length of the
theorem b? = 289 — 225 other leg. Use the Pythagorean theorem to
b=8 calculate that the leg has length 8. :
ei
Definition of sine
opposite
sin A = _—-~——— = — _
8 os Ce
The sine is the length of the opposite leg divided
hypotenuse 17 by the length of the hypotenuse. Enter the values
for the opposite leg and the hypotenuse. The sine
foe 8
. 17

Sine, Cosine, and Tangent for Special Triangles

The values of the sine, cosine, and tangent in 30-60-90 and 45-45-90 triangles are
frequently used. We show how to calculate them.
30-60-90 Triangle: 30° angle

sin 30° = BECPEOL For a 30° angle, use the 30-60-90 triangle shown to calculate the
hypotenuse 2 trigonometric ratios. The sine equals the length of the opposite
leg divided by the length of the hypotenuse, which means the
sine of 30° is >
eel

cos 30° = ee = The length of the leg adjacent to the 30° angle is V3. The cosine
eS equals the length of the adjacent leg divided by the length of
the hypotenuse, which means the cosine of 30° is a
v8

tan 30° =SE pomens A 4 = ~ The tangent equals the length of the opposite leg divided by
adjacent 3 : the length of the adjacent leg, which means the tangent
of 30° equals

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 401

30-60-90 Triangle: 60° angle
Rotate the diagram to calculate these ratios
for a 60° angle.

Byte opposite _ V3 For a 60° angle, use the 30-60-90 triangle above to calculate the sine.
hypotenuse 2 The sine equals the length of the leg opposite the 60° angle divided
V3
by the length of the hypotenuse, which means the sine of 60° is Soe

pee ie adjacent Bei As always, the cosine equals the length of the leg adjacent to the 60°
hypotenuse 2 angle divided by the length of the hypotenuse. The cosine of 60°
Sera
is 5.

it And as always, the tangent is the length of the opposite leg divided
tan 60° = eeLoe = v3 =V3
adjacent 1 by the length of the adjacent leg. The tangent of 60° is V3.

45-45-90 Triangles 45°

We now calculate the same ratios for an isosceles right triangle. ve 1
We calculated the length of the hypotenuse using the
Pythagorean theorem. 45° a
1
Meee
sin 45° = pe
minne Se:
V2 .
For a 45° angle, use the 45-45-90 triangle shown to calculate the trigonometric
ratios. The length of each leg is 1, and the length of the hypotenuse is V2. The
sine equals the opposite leg divided by the length of the hypotenuse.
2
cos 45° = SB = a The cosine equals the adjacent leg’s length over the hypotenuse’s length. It
has the same value as the sine, since both legs have the same length.
i
tan 45° = ee 1 The tangent equals the opposite leg’s length over the adjacent’s. Since the
lengths are the same, tan 45° = 1.

You will start to recognize the values for the

trigonometric ratios for 30°, 45°, and 60°
angles. These are ratios that you may want
to refer to frequently, so we summarize
them in a table.

402 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS
B
1. A is an acute angle and cos A = =
What is the measure of A, in degrees?

Cc a

SOLUTION
A b G
wee adj t
Use definition cos A= a = Start with the definition of the cosine, the length of the
of cosine NESE adjacent leg divided by the length of the hypotenuse.
Use the value of the cosine stated in the problem.
The adjacent leg has a length of 1 and the hypotenuse
has a length of 2.
30-60-90 mZA = 60° In any 30-60-90 triangle, the hypotenuse is twice as
triangle long as the short leg, so this is a 30-60-90 triangle.
Based on these lengths, angle A must be the 60° angle.

2. The leg opposite angle B is V2 long, and the hypotenuse has a length of 2. What is the measure
of ZB?
SOLUTION
it
Calculate the ratio sin B = a ~ es Calculate the sine of the angle since you
y ROUTE know the opposite leg and hypotenuse.
Evaluate mZB = 45° Complete the calculation.

PRACTICE
1. For ‘ an acute angle ina right triangle, the 3. Ina right triangle, sin A = oe where the
cosine of the angle is equal to: fh
two numbers are actual lengths. If you
7% EEDeUUCEOP Ose side needed to state the value of cos A, for which
length of adjacent side of the following sides of the triangle, relative
length of hypotenuse to angle A, would you need to find the
S length of adjacent side length?
C length of adjacent side A. Opposite C. Hypotenuse
"length of hypotenuse B. Adjacent D. Height
fone Dera 4. The value of cos B = =. What is the value of
length of hypotenuse sin B? 5

2. Which ratio is equal to cos 32°? ag Ts c 3

; 5 .3 4hi
AUT Sure?” Gersin 538
Be COs o2- cos 98° B. 4 D. 3

Practice Problems continue...

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 403

Practice Problems continued .. .
5. What is the value of tan A, rounded to the 19. What is the length of side c in the triangle
nearest thousandth, when mZA = 16°? below? State your answer to the nearest
tenth.
A. 0.28 Ce 0.287 B
B. 0.286 D. 2.868

6. Which of the following is the value of cos A,

if angle A measures 60°?

A. 0.5 Cae A LO Ti EI €
B 2V2 Darl
20. If cos A = = what is sin A?
Exercises 7-16: Determine the value of each
function. Give your answer to the nearest 21. Ina right triangle with acute angles C and D,
thousandth.
the value of sin D = a Find the value of
7. cos 42°
sin C. Express your answer as a fraction.
8. tan 65°
Exercises 22-23: Use the diagram below to
Sasini59”
answer the questions.
10. sin 56° B
11. sin 8° 60°

12. sin 28°

13. tan 21° 30° S
A V3 EG
14. cos 13°
15. tan 68° 22. What is sin 60°? State the exact value.

16. cos 61° 23. What is tan 60°? State the exact value.

17. What is the length of side a in the triangle 24. Sketch AABC, where angle B is the right
below? State your answer to the nearest angle, sin A = = and tan A = =
tenth.
B 25. Gretchen stands 10 meters from the base of
a tree. She measures the angle to the top of
the tree from the ground to be 60°. What is
the height of the tree, to the nearest tenth of
a [| a meter?
17 C
26. A guy-wire is used to connect the top of a
18. What is the length of side c in the triangle
radio antenna to an anchor on the ground.
below? State your answer to the nearest
The guy-wire is 120 meters long, and it
tenth.
forms an angle of elevation between the
B
ground and the top of the antenna of 70°.
How tall is the radio antenna, to the nearest
jz whole meter?
27. A carpenter uses a 10-foot ladder. When he
rests the top of the ladder against the wall,
the ladder makes a 65° angle with the floor.
How far up the wall does the top of the
ladder reach? Round your answer to the
nearest tenth of a foot.
Practice Problems continue...

404 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued . . .

28. The leg opposite angle B is V2 long, and the 37. Is it possible for the sine of an acute angle
hypotenuse has a length of 2 units. What is in a right triangle to be equal to 1? Explain
the measure of ZB? your reasoning.
Exercises 29-31: Use the diagram to answer the 38. [GE Using the triangle below, Ivan wrote
following questions. the following equation to find the height of
the triangle: sin 40° = = Is Ivan’s work
correct? Explain your reasoning.

A 33 €

29. What is the cosine of angle A in the triangle? 39. A right triangle has a hypotenuse of 12.
Write your answer as a fraction. How long is the leg adjacent to angle A if the
angle’s measure is 30°? State your answer to
30. What is the tangent of angle A in the triangle the nearest hundredth.
above? Write your answer as a fraction.
40. Sketch triangle DEF, which has a right angle
31. What is the sine of angle A in the triangle at E. Label the length of side DE as
above? Write your answer asafraction. 10 inches and the length of hypotenuse DF
as 18 inches. Find and label the length of
Exercises 32-33: Use the diagram below to
side EF and the measure of angle F. Round
answer the questions.
all answers to the nearest integer.
41. Standing 140 meters from a building,
a surveyor measures the angle from the
ground to a balcony as 13°. How high is the
balcony? Give your answer to the nearest
tenth of a meter.
|
b 42. Carrie measures the angle from the ground
to the top of a tree as 50°. If she is 20 meters
32. What is tan B of the triangle shown from the base of the tree, how tall is the tree?
if a = 8 and b = 4? State your answer as Give your answer to the nearest tenth of a
an exact expression. meter.
33. What is tan B of the triangle shown 43. The angle of elevation from a point on
if a = 8 and b = 5? State your answer as a gym floor to the top of a rope ladder
an exact expression. hanging from the ceiling is 40°. The distance
34. EYEd For what degree measure are the sine from the same point on the floor to the base
and cosine of an angle equal to each other? of the ladder is 30 feet. How long is the
ladder, to the nearest tenth of a foot?
35. Tied As the measure of an angle A
increases from 1° to 89°, what happens to 44. The pilot of a plane sitting on the tarmac at
the value of the sine of A? Explain your an airport looks up at the top of the control
reasoning. tower at an angle of 15°. If the pilot is
300 feet horizontally from the tower, how
36. Is it possible for the cosine of an angle ina far above his head is the top of the tower?
right triangle to be equal to 2? Why or why Round your answer to the nearest foot.
not?

Practice Problems continue...

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions 405

 Practice Problems continued .. .

45. Clayton is building a bicycle ramp. 49. What is sin A of the triangle below if a = 4
He wants the angle of the ramp to be 20°. and b = V 65?
If the length of the board is 8 feet, how high
off the ground is the highest part of the
ramp, to the nearest hundredth ofa foot?

|
b

50. An equilateral triangle has sides that

46. A contractor is building a wheelchair ramp measure 4 feet each. What is the exact height
to provide access to a building. The ramp of the triangle, in feet?
must make an angle of 8° with the ground
51. Create a word problem that can be solved
and must rise to a height of three feet at the
using the tangent ratio. Show the solution to
other end. How long will the slanted part of
the problem you have written.
the ramp be, to the nearest tenth of a foot?
52. Prove that the tangent of an angle is equal
47. EPAA boat is anchored ina part of a
to the angle’s sine divided by its cosine, or
lake that has a uniform depth. The rope
connecting the boat to its anchor is 60 feet tan A = sinA :
long and makes an angle of 30° with the cos A
bottom of the lake. Make a sketch of this
situation, and state which trigonometric
ratio could be used to find the depth of
the lake.
48. In triangle ABC, angle C is a right angle.
If sin A = = find cos B. ry

LESSON 9.3
9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions
y
An angle can be created by rotating a ray. In
this case, the angle is called an angle of rotation.
To create an angle of rotation, start with a ray
at the positive x-axis. This is called the initial 6 = 150° A full rotation is
side of the angle. As the ray rotates, it creates 360°. Positive
an angle. We call the final location of this ray Terminal side Initial side
rotation is
the terminal side. g = —45° counterclockwise,
and negative
The measure of an angle of rotation is Terminallside rotation is
determined by how far the ray rotates by the clockwise.
direction of rotation: counterclockwise is
positive and clockwise is negative. If the ray
rotates in the counterclockwise direction, the measure of the angle is positive.
The measure of the angle 6 in the diagram above is 150°. If the ray rotates in the
clockwise direction, the measure of the angle is negative. The measure of the angle
g in the diagram above is —45°. There are 360 degrees in one full rotation, so one
degree of rotation is a of one full rotation.

406 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

An angle can be created by rotating a ray more than one full rotation, so it is
possible that two different angles could be described by the same ray. Such angles
are called coterminal. Two angles are coterminal if they have the same terminal
side. 120°, 480°, and —240° are coterminal angles.
y y y

120° 480°

x MG x

—240°

T
he terminal sides }
of angles that are |
We can create coterminal angles by rotating an additional 360°, or by using a / multiples of 90°,
negative angle. The measures of any two coterminal angles differ by a multiple of \ such as 0°, 180°,
360°. For example: 480° = 120° + 360° or 480° = —240° + 2 - 360°. |and 270°, lie on
. the x- or y-axis.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Exercises 1-3: In which quadrant is the terminal side of each angle?
i. 230° SOLUTION In quadrant III
y Rotate past 180° counterclockwise, and then 50° more to get
é : to 230°. This angle lies between 180° and 270°. An angle with
230° measure 230° lies in the third quadrant.

Il IV

ee SOLUTION In quadrant IV
An angle of measure —30° (rotating 30° clockwise) lies in the
fourth quadrant.

3. 2/0° SOLUTION On y-axis

An angle of 270° points straight down, along the y-axis.
I

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 407

Reference Angles and Trigonometric Functions
The reference angle is the acute angle between the terminal side of an angle and
the positive or negative x-axis. References angles range from 0° to 90°. Diagrams are one
way to calculate |
¢ For angles in the second quadrant, between 90° and 180°, the reference angle reference angles.
can be calculated by subtracting the angle from 180°. Formulas can
¢ For angles in the third quadrant, between 180° and 270°, subtract 180° from the ‘) also be used
angle to calculate the reference angle. to calculate
e For angles in the fourth quadrant, between 270° and 360°, subtract the angle | reference angles.
from 360° to calculate the reference angle.

MODEL PROBLEMS
Exercises 1-2: Determine the reference angle for each given angle.
L300? SOLUTION The reference angle for an angle of rotation is the acute angle
between the terminal side and the x-axis. For an angle of 300°,
4 the reference angle is 60°.
300°

2. —210° SOLUTION For an angle of rotation —210°, the reference angle is 30°.
y
30°

AOS

Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions

The values of trigonometric functions can be calculated for angles of any
measure. The definitions of the trigonometric functions for angles of rotation
are based on the right triangle definitions of the trigonometric ratios. The
trigonometric functions for the angle @ are defined using any point (x, y) on
the terminal side of the angle. It sweeps out a circle with the point always the
same distance r from the origin.
The x-coordinate is the length of the adjacent leg. The y-coordinate is the eon
of the opposite leg. The x-axis and the vertical segment from the x-axis to the
point (x, y) create a right triangle. The distance from the origin to the point (x, y)
is the radius r. This is also the hypotenuse of the right triangle. The trigonometric
functions are defined in terms of x, y, and r.
sin @ =~ The sine of 6 is y divided by r. This is the same ratio as the opposite leg divided by the
r hypotenuse.

cos 9= ~ The cosine of @ is x divided by r. This is the same ratio as the adjacent leg divided by the
" hypotenuse.

tan
0= Y The tangent of @ is y divided by x. This is the same ratio as the opposite leg divided by the
x adjacent leg.

408 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. State —310° as an angle between 0° and 360°.
SOLUTION

Calculate ~ = —310° + 360° In this case, add 360° to the negative

measure of » = 50° measure of the angle, —310°,
reference angle to calculate the measure of the
reference angle, which is 50°, since
it is in the first quadrant.

2. State 840° as an angle between 0° and 360° and state its reference angle.
SOLUTION .
Subtract multiple of 360° @ = 840° — 2(360)° y In this case, subtract 720°,
© = 840° — 720° 130° a multiple of 360°, to calculate
© = 120° 60° an angle between 0° and 360°.

840°

Calculate measure of ~ = 60° Note the acute angle from the x-axis.
reference angle

3 (EFF The terminal side of an angle 9 passes through the point (6, 8). Use the distance formula
to calculate r and then calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of 6.
SOLUTION
Draw diagram We need to calculate r. To do so, draw a diagram
with a ray passing through (6, 8).

Calculate r Apply the Pythagorean theorem to find r. Substitute

the coordinates of the point (6, 8) to find the value for
ris 10.

Calculate sine Jos sin @ is equivalent to the y-coordinate of the point

ye divided by r.
Calculate cosine cos 0 =~ = oo cos 0 is equivalent to the x-coordinate of the point
wee divided by r.
Calculate tangent tan @= ¥ = e= c tan 0 is equivalent to the y-coordinate of the point
divided by the x-coordinate.
Model Problems continue...

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 409

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

4. The terminal side of an angle 6 passes through the point (12, —9). What are the sine, cosine, and
tangent of 6?
SOLUTION In model problem 4,
the terminal ray is not |
Draw diagram We need to calculate r. To do
so, draw a diagram with a < in the first quadrant,
ray passing through (12, —9) ‘| so be careful with
signs.
and the angle of rotation 0.

Calculate r r=Ve+¥’ Use the distance formula to find the distance r

y= VI + (29 between the point (12, —9) and the origin, (0, 0).

ES
: :) el eae: ee. ;
Calculate sine Se 35 oe: Since the sine of 6 equals the y-coordinate of the point
divided by the distance r, substitute those values and
simplify.
Calculate cosine
er 124
cos @ = — = 15° 5 Since the cosine of @ equals the x-coordinate of the
point divided by 1, substitute those values and
simplify.
ape Oe
Calculate tangent tan @= += Seren g Since the tangent of 6 equals the y-coordinate of the
point divided by the x-coordinate, substitute those
values and simplify.

5. What are the sine, cosine, and tangent of 210°?

SOLUTION
Draw yf Draw the angle of rotation of 210°. In the third
diagram quadrant, the x- and y-coordinates are negative. The
value of r is always positive.
We use a reference angle to calculate the sine, cosine,
: Ghd x and tangent of 210°, an angle in the third quadrant. The
\ reference angle of 30° has the same absolute values for
(x, y)
these trigonometric functions as does 210°. To put it
another way, we calculate the value of the trigonometric
functions for 30°, and then by considering the quadrant of
v
210°, determine the signs of the functions’ values.
sin, cos, tan sin @= 4; negative The sine of 210° is negative y divided by positive r, so it
- is negative. Similarly, cos 210° is negative and tan 210°
cos 9 = 7 negative is positive.

tan 0 = Z.
x’ positive Model Problems continue...

410 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Reference 210° — 180° = 30° The reference angle is the acute angle between the
angle terminal side and the x-axis, which is 30°.
Calculate sin-7l0” = =—sin 30° = ee Calculate the trigonometric functions of 210°. The values
sine of the three functions are the same as the values for 30°,
except for sign. We determined the signs of the functions
above, and we use them here. The sine of 30° is 7 so
the sine of 210° is

Calculate cos 210° ; = —cos 30° = aV3 The cosine of 210° equals the opposite of the cosine of
cosine 30°.

Calculate
: —_tan 210° oe= tan 30° Se
= ye The tangent of 210° has the same value as the tangent
tangent Of 307,

6. What are the sine and cosine of 315°?

SOLUTION
Draw diagram y The angle of rotation, 315°, is in the fourth
quadrant, where the x-coordinate is positive and the
315° y-coordinate is negative. Since the y-coordinate of
any point in the fourth quadrant is negative and r is
* always positive, sin 315° is negative.
45°

Reference angle reference angle = 45° The reference angle is 45° from the x-axis.
. V2
State sine of sin 0 = £ The sine of 45° = ae
reference angle V2
sin. 45° = ——
2

Calculate sin 315° = ao The sine of 315° is negative.

Suro l5°

Calculate cos 45° = ios In the fourth quadrant, the x-coordinate is positive
cos 315° and r is positive, as always, which means the cosine
Ve in that quadrant is positive. The cosine of 315° has
cos 315° = ae
the same value as cos 45°, which is x Since the
cosine is positive in the fourth quadrant, cos 315°
toe.
equals positive rR
Ve

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 411

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following are coterminal with 9. If sin 6 = a and cos @ > 0, then in which
—50°? Select all that apply.
quadrant is 6?
te O10" DS 250"
Bley 31502 E. 310 A. Quadrant I C. Quadrant III
C. 50° B. QuadrantII D. Quadrant IV
Exercises 10-20: State the reference angle for
2. Which of the following are coterminal with
each angle 6.
101°? Select all that apply.
A. -619° D. 361° aOy ae
DP =—10F E. 461° 11. 06= = 135°

ole
12. 6 = —165°
3. Which of the following angles are
coterminal with 72°? Select all that apply. 13. 0 = 330°
A. — 648° Se 792° 14. 9= — 150°

Beet 622 D. 432°

15. 6 = 210°
4. Which of the following angles are
coterminal with —21°? Select all that apply. 16. 6 = 475°
A. JAS Gh Oe 17 Q = —50°

Dee Ooo: Da 2-381°

18. 6 = 375°
5. Which pairs of the following angles are
coterminal? Select all that apply. 19. 6 = 360°
Ay, = L0and 250°
20. 6 = —210°
Bee 157and — 105°
C5 and 765, 21. The terminal side of an angle 6 passes
D. 40° and 760° through the point (4, 9). What are the sine
and cosine of 6?
6. In what quadrant is the terminal side
Of =o29°¢ 22. The terminal side of an angle 6 passes
he Ouadiant! ©@ ©Ousdrantill through the point (5, 10). What are the sine,
D. Quadrant IV cosine, o 6?
and ttangent t of
ine, and
B. Quadrant II

7. In what quadrant is the terminal side 23. The terminal side of angle 6 passes through
of 845°? the point (—8, 6). What is cos 6?

A. Quadrant I C. Quadrant III 24. The terminal side of angle 6 passes through
B. QuadrantII D. Quadrant IV the point (5, —7). What is tan 6?
Exercises 25-26: State the acute angle defined by
8. If sin 0 = v3 and @ is in quadrant I, what is :
D each function.
sin 26?
25. sinx = v3
A. 7 Cry? 2
V3
B. a D. Not enough ae ne
information

Practice Problems continue .. .

412 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued .. .
Exercises 27-29: State the requested ratio based Exercises 38-43: Find all angles 6, with
on the diagram. The ratio may be undefined. 0° <= 0 < 360°, which make the statement true.
y
38. cos 0. =.0
39. cos 0i= 1
no= v2
40. sin 5

41. sin @ = _v2

2.
42. tan 0= 0
27. sin 0
43. tan ¢ =
28. cos 0
44. a A wheel with a dot on its edge rolls on
29. tan 0 the ground. The radius of the wheel is
Exercises 30-32: State the requested ratio based 15 inches. When the dot is at the position
on the diagram. The ratio may be undefined. shown below, at an angle of 112°, what is
the distance of the dot above the ground,
¥
to the nearest tenth of an inch?

eal
(=2)

30. sin 0 The same wheel as in part a rotates so the

dot is at the position shown below, at an
31. cos 6 angle of 308°. What is the distance of the
32. tan 0 dot above the ground, to the nearest tenth
of an inch?
Exercises 33-35: State the requested ratio based
on the diagram. The ratio may be undefined.
y)

(-3, 0)
45. Le
A A bicycle wheel with a radius
33. sin 0 of 13 inches has a valve cap positioned at the
34. cos 0 highest point of the wheel. If the wheel is
spun 750° in one direction, how high is the
35. tan 0 valve cap above the ground? Round your
Exercises 36-37: State the requested ratio based answer to the nearest tenth of an inch.
on the diagram. The ratio may be undefined. 46. TLE
aE A child gets on a Ferris wheel
y ride directly below the center. The wheel
(-4,3) has a radius of 30 feet. His mom takes a
picture at the instant the wheel has just
rotated 254° counterclockwise. What is the
displacement of the child from his initial
position to the position when the picture is
taken, i.e., the straight-line distance between
36. cos 0 the two positions? Round your answer to
the nearest tenth of a foot.
37. tan 0

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 413

Radian Measure of Angles
Instead of degrees, an angle can be measured in units
a

called radians. The radian measure of an angle is

defined using a circle whose center is at the vertex of
the angle. This angle is called a central angle, shown
as @ in the diagram to the right. \\
One radian is defined as the angle created when the
arc length equals the radius. The radian measure of
the angle equals the ratio of the length of the arc
intercepted by the angle to the radius of the circle.
For a circle with its center at the angle’s vertex:
r = radius To find the radian measure of an angle 6, construct a circle of
radius r whose center is at the vertex of the angle.
s =arclength The angle intercepts an arc of length s on the circle.
— The radian measure of the angle 6 is the ratio of the arc length to
t | s
the radius, or me

The circumference of a circle with radius r is 27r. When the radius ofa circle is 1,
the circumference and the arc length of the full circle are both 27. This means that
the radian measure of a 360° angle is 27. Since 360° equals 27 radians, 180° equals
qm radians. Later, we will graph trigonometric functions using the unit circle. A unit

eoPe
circle has a radius of 1.

ita mrachaias === (0.79 radians @=60°=— = 1.05.radians

The conversion factors enable you to convert from degrees to radians and radians
to degrees:

Degrees to radians
a radians
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by
180°
Radians to degrees
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by
a radians -

414 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

> In this activity, convert between degrees and radians, and vice versa.

Degrees 0

On
Radians
1

Show degrees

™ Show radians

M Move by = radians

> We show one of the three similar activities below. Use the activities to become familiar
with common radian measures.

YOUR BEST TIME

MODEL PROBLEMS
Exercises 1-2: Convert each radian measure to degrees.
1. 1 radian SOLUTION To convert radians to degrees, we multiply the
, ; 180°
; 180° number of radians by the fraction —————..
1 radian . ————__
tenant te = 57.3° y a radians

SOLUTION We do a similar operation on another angle.

2. 2a radians
AG SAMBO
niOt uig
qt radians

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions 415

PRACTICE
Exercises 1-6: State each angle in radians in Exercises 24-31: Convert the radian measures
terms of 7. to the nearest tenth of a degree.
Deel” 24. 25
eee 25. 5.8
S18:
26. Se,
4. —80°
27. To
5. 480°
28. 10.6
6. 540°
29. = 2.6
Exercises 7-15: Convert the radian measures to
degrees, rounded to the nearest degree. 30. m0
7, 8=
31. iL7

32. fdaA circle has radius 8. What is the

ap
o arc length of the segment cut by a central
O3=oTF
angle with measure radians? State your
10. answer as an exact expression.
33. EEAA circle has radius 2. What is the arc
11.
length of the segment cut by a central angle
12: with measure oaradians? State your
answer as an exact expression.
13.) ——
34. What angle, in radians, does the hour hand
14.5 make with the positive x-axis?

15...

Exercises 16-23: State each angle to the nearest

hundredth of a radian.
16. 78°
aie 27
18. 627° 35. EP A clock starts at midnight. It is
19, —193° now 1 PM. What angle has the hour hand
swept through during that time? Hint: Use a
20. 726° sign to indicate the direction of motion.
21. 10° 36. You sleep for 24 hours. State the motion of
2a. 2/07 the hour hand in radian measure. Hint: Use
a sign to indicate the direction of motion.
23. 140°

416 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

LESSON 9.4
9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle
The Unit Circle
A unit circle has a radius of 1, which means r = 1 for any point on the circle. ae
x, y
We assume it is centered at the origin. Recall that cos @ = a and sin 6 = ~.
For a unit circle, with r = 1, the equations simplify to cos @ = ~ = rand.
1
sin 9 = e = y. The tangent still equals e since r never figured into its
calculation.

On a unit circle:

¢ The x-coordinate equals cos 8.

¢ The y-coordinate equals sin 0.
¢ r equals 1.
In this activity, experiment with the unit circle, coordinates, and trigonometric functions.
es

G@= 0.0°

x= 1.000 cos@

y= 0.000 sing

tan @é

SOLUTION
cos 9=x= = Substitute the x- and y-coordinates of the point and calculate the
S sine and cosine of 6, which in this case (a unit circle) equal the x- and
in@é=y=—“
sin 6= y 5 y -values.

tan@= 2 = ihe Find the tangent, which equals y divided by x.

ee L315 Oia
Model Problems continue...

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle 417

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. The x-coordinate of a point on a unit circle is given.

What is the y-coordinate there?
SOLUTION

Pythagorean x? + y? = r
The x-coordinate is one leg on a right triangle. Use the
theorem Pythagorean theorem to calculate the other.
Solve fory y=Vr-x Solve for y.

ee
Substitute y r=
1 Dee
(2 3) Substitute and evaluate. The y-coordinate on the unit circle is 5°
and evaluate

y =>}1 Brig 2gsi:

o 5

3. Given the y-coordinate of a point on the unit circle, find the sine, cosine,
and tangent of the angle.
SOLUTION

sin 6 = y-coordinate sin

;
—i”8 On a unit circle,
the sine of the angle equals the y-coordinate.

Solve the Pythagorean x= Vr Ha Solve for x.

theorem for x
8 2

Negative sign reflects See Note that x is negative based on its location (in
quadrant of x : (7 the third quadrant).
ae

cos §@ = x-coordinate cos 0 = =e On a unit circle, the cosine of the angle is the
7
x-coordinate.
Beco
et tan 0 = a de In all cases, the tangent is the ratio of the
Be
mis “1 coordinates.
A

4. What are the sine, cosine, and tangent of 180°?

SOLUTION

x=] Start with a diagram for an angle of 180°. This is a straight

180° y=0 angle, where the terminal side lies on the left side of the
r=1 x-axis. The terminal side of the angle passes through the
x point (—1, 0) on the unit circle.
1, 0)

Model Problems continue...

418 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
Sine, cosine, tangent sin 180° = v = - =) Calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of 180°
ey using the values of x, y, and r. All of these
cos 180° = ae ae = —] functions are defined for 180°.

fat)1803 x
ee=] eo

Trigonometric Identities
Some equations involving trigonometric functions of an angle @ are true for any ‘
value of 6. Such equations are called trigonometric identities.
We can use the Pythagorean theorem to show a relationship between the sine
and cosine. We know that x* + y* = 7’, since the sum of each leg squared
equals the hypotenuse squared. Using the unit circle, we know cos 0 = = and
sin 6 = £, and we can write cos’ @ + sin? 6 = 1. (These squares are usually
written as sin? @ and cos* 6, which are equivalent to (sin 6)” and (cos @).)
We now formally derive sin? 6 + cos* 6 = 1.

| Derive: sin* 6 + cos*6=1

Start with the Begin with the triangle that has a
Pythagorean hypotenuse of length r starting at
theorem the origin and ending at the point
(x, y) and an angle 6 between the
hypotenuse and the x-axis. Use the
Pythagorean theorem to write an
equation relating x, y, and r. We
want to derive an equation that
is equal to 1, so divide both sides
by 7’ to get 1 on the right side. We
can do this because 1 is a non-zero
constant.
Separate into Divide each term of the numerator
fractions by the denominator, r’, to separate
the fraction into two terms. Then
use the rules of exponents to group
each term with a single exponent.
Use (sin @)°+ (cos 6)? =1 | Use the definitions of sine,
definitions of sin? 6+ cos? = 1 ' ; 6
! sin 0 = x and cosine, cos 0 = —,
sin 6 and cos 6 i i
for the angle 6 to replace the
terms in the equation. We have
now arrived at the trigonometric
identity.

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle 419

Because the identity sin? 6 + cos* @ = 1 is derived using the Pythagorean theorem,
it is sometimes called a Pythagorean identity. Two other Pythagorean identities
are often used. We state all three of these identities below. They can be derived
using the definitions of the reciprocal trigonometric functions.
sec, cot, and csc
sin? @ + cos* @= 1 are reciprocal
J + tan? @ = sec* 6 You can derive this identity by dividing both sides of the trigonometric
first identity by cos” 6. functions. You will |
learn more about |
cot 6+ 1 = csc’ 6 You can derive this identity by dividing both sides of the | these in lesson
first identity by sin? 0. 9.6.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. If @is an acute angle and sin 6 = 5 what is cos 6?
SOLUTION
Trigonometric sin? 6+ cos? @= 1 State the trigonometric identity.
identity
Solve for cos* 6 cos’ @=1-sin?@ — Solve the identity for cos’ 6.
2
Substitute for cos*6=1- (4) Substitute the value sin 6 = >
sin 0
8
cos 2 0
9
en

Take square cos @ = A Take the positive square root of both sides, since @
root is an acute angle, and the cosine of an acute angle is
eee Z;2 positive. Simplify the radical expression.

Qe EGA Show that tan 6 = oat

cos 6
SOLUTION
Use definitions of tan@ = —— ; Start by substituting the definitions of
sine and cosine ea : the sine and cosine functions.
( opposite
hypotenuse )
tan 6 =
ae ( adjacent )
hypotenuse
— _ opposite —_ hypotenuse —
Simplify tan 0 = vpotcnce dacs the fraction, multiply the
ypotenuse — adjacent :
: 2 numerator by the inverse of the
pode opposite denominator. The hypotenuse terms
adjacent cancel out. We are left with the
definition of tangent.
Model Problems continue...

420 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 Model Problems continued
ai , 2
3. Ona unit circle, sin 0 = ce. and @ is acute. What does the cosine of this angle equal?
SOLUTION
Relation of trigonometric cos” @ + sin? =1 We derived this relationship earlier.
functions
Solve for cosine cos 6= V1 — sin’@ Solve for the cosine.

Substitute and evaluate cos 9=,/1- @

DENG Substitute and evaluate. The cosine
5
equals =—.
oe ee
tS

Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle

We want to use the unit circle to express the values of sine, cosine, and tangent for
7 — zand wm + z, terms of the sine, cosine, and tangent for z, where z is any real
number.

1. Locate angle z and corresponding point

We pick an angle z and locate its coordinates on the unit circle.
We call these coordinates (x, y). (x, y)

2. Locate 7 — Zz
We locate 7 — z. Note that 7 — z makes the same angle from
the horizontal as z. Since 7 — z makes the same angle from
the horizontal as z, the corresponding point on the unit circle
is (x1).

3. Sign of trigonometric functions

Sine
sin(a — z) = sin z since they both have the same y-coordinate.
For the unit circle, the sine equals the y-coordinate.
Cosine
The x-coordinates are opposites, So cos (7 — z) = —cos z.
Multiplying by —1 gets us the opposite.
Tangent
The tangent equals the y-coordinate divided by the x-coordinate. Since the y-coordinates are the
same and the x-coordinates are opposites here, tan (1 — z) = ed= —tan z.

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle 421

We can use a similar approach for a + z:
1. Locate angle z and corresponding point y
We pick an angle z and locate its coordinates on the unit circle.
We call these coordinates (x, y). (x, y)

N. Locate 7 + Zz
We locate 7 + z. Note that 7 + z makes the same size
angle from the horizontal as z, but on the opposite side
of the x-axis. Since z is the same angle from the horizontal,
the corresponding point on the unit circle is (—x, —y).

3. Sign of trigonometric functions

Sine
sin (1 + z) = —sin z since they have the opposite
y-coordinates. For the unit circle, the sine equals the
y-coordinate. Multiplying by —1 gets us the opposite.
Cosine
The x-coordinates are also opposites, so cos (7 + z) = —cos z.
Tangent
tan (7 + z) = —* — tan z. It is the same as tan z. It is the ratio of the opposite x- and
y-coordinates, which equals the ratio of the coordinates themselves.

MODEL PROBLEM
On the unit circle, the terminal side of an angle 6 passes through the point (—a, —b). Both a and b are
positive and a # b. Which is true?
A. tan@=— =); C. ane a
B. cos 0 = positive D. sin 6 = positive
SOLUTION
A. The tangent of the angle is = e

The cosine of the angle isSa which is negative.

C. Correct answer. The tangent of the angle is # = a Ss

The sine of the angle is = which is negative.

422 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

PRACTICE
1. [UGA The angle shown below on the unit 5. The angle @ corresponds to the angle
circle is a The circle is dilated by a factor between the positive x-axis and the line
oe 15 8
of 6. What is the measure of the angle after bet
etween th the origin and d thethe point
poi (17’ es5
the dilation?
on the unit circle. State your answers as
exact expressions.
a What is sin 6?
b What is tan 6?
c What is cos 6?

ieee Cee . sin 9 = x. What is cos 6? (Assume @is acute.)

6 18
B. = D. Ba . cos 06= x. What is sin 6? (Assume @is acute.)

On the unit circle, the terminal side of an . cos 0 = x. What is tan 6? (Assume 6is acute.)
angle @ passes through the point (a, —b).
Both a and bare positive. Which is not true? ©.
nun
oe
o Give an example of angles 0° = A < 90°
and 0° < B < 90° such that
A. sin@=—b
sin (A + B) = sin A+ sin B.
B. tan 6 = negative
COTCOS OS a 10. Give an example of angles 0° = A < 90°
and 0° = B < 90° such that
D Sue = positive cos (A + B) = (cos A)(cos B).
cos 6

3. ia Use a unit circle to complete the table 11. EGER Show that
below for all values of cos x. 1 <= |cos 6| + |sin 6| = V3 for any angle 8.
Hint: Square |cos 6| + |sin 6| and use the
Pythagorean identity cos* 6 + sin* 6 = 1.
12. (el Given that sin 6 = tsand @is an
. The angle 6 corresponds to the angle obtuse angle less than 7 radians, use the
between the positive x-axis and the line Pythagorean identity to find the exact value
between the origin and the point of cos 0.
ads=H) on the unit circle. State your 13. EEE Use the Pythagorean identity to
ites 2D
answers as exact expressions.
discuss the limits on the magnitude of sine
and cosine values, and their relationship to
a What is tan 6? each other.
b What is sin 6?
c What is cos 6?

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice

Diam a Ifcosé= = what are two possible values for sin 6?

b Why are there two possible answers to part a?

c Ifsin @ = =,what is sin se 2

d Explain how you got your answer to part c.

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle 423

LESSO") °_5 poe
e

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs

Properties of Trigonometric Function Graphs
Functions that have a pattern that repeats over and over are called periodic functions.
The graph of the function repeats its pattern indefinitely. Many functions are not
periodic. For instance, linear and exponential functions do not have a repeating
form, so they are not periodic. Trigonometric functions are periodic functions.
The period can
be calculated as_ |
Period the distance from }
The period is the interval on which the graph any x-value to the
repeats once. A cycle of a periodic function is closest x-value
the smallest repeating unit of its graph. A for which the
period is the interval of the independent graph starts to
variable (x) that contains a single cycle. The repeat. It is often
convenient to
graph ofa sine function has a period of 27,
use two adjacent
as shown in the diagram. This means it repeats
peaks or two
its pattern, or completes a cycle, every 27 units as you move from left to right or
adjacent troughs. }
from right to left. In this type of graph, high points are called peaks and low points
are called troughs.

Frequency
The frequency is the number of cycles contained in one unit interval of the
independent variable (x). The frequency is the reciprocal of the period. For instance,
if a function has a period of 47, then the frequency is a
TT

Midline
A midline is a horizontal line about which a The midline is
periodic function oscillates. It is the graph’s halfway between |
vertical midpoint. In the graph of y = sin x, the peaks and |
the midline is the line y = 0 (the horizontal the troughs.
axis of the graph).

In the graph of y = sin x + 2, the midline is

y = 2. The graph has been shifted up 2, and
the graph is oscillates about the line y = 2.

424 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Amplitude
The amplitude is the distance from the midline
of the graph to its highest or lowest point, or
the distance to a peak or a trough. We show One way to calculate}
the amplitude is 1
the amplitude of the parent functions sin x
to measure the
and cos x. The maximum value of both sin x distance from
and cos x is 1, and the minimum value is —1. peak to trough
These values occur at a point such as 7 radians, and divide by two.
7 : : As a distance, the
for cos x, and > radians, for sin x. The
amplitude is always
amplitude of these functions is 1, or the positive.
distance between their midline (the x-axis)
and a peak or trough.
‘Amplitude ‘

End Behavior
The end behavior of trigonometric functions is to extend infinitely along the x-axis,
unless the domain of the function is restricted. The range of the function will be
determined by the y-coordinates of a peak and a trough, which are functions of the
amplitude and midline.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. State the amplitude of y = 2 sin x.
SOLUTION

Calculate Amplitude =2 The amplitude phos

distance isthemaximum — )
from distance from the ~~
midline midline, or x-axis a
in this case.

2. State the period of y = cos 2x.

SOLUTION ;

Calculate Period = 7 The distance from = au 4 Period J ie 082]

Cala hye iS E

period. From the aN Poa ! | ! \e

graph, the period bao :
iS Tr.

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 425

Graphs Using the Unit Circle
Cosine and sine are the sinusoidal functions. How can you grapha sine or cosine
function? One way is to use the unit circle. We start with the sine function and
graph the angle 9, in radians, on the horizontal axis and the sine of that angle
on the vertical. Remember, on a unit circle, the y-coordinate equals the sine of an
angle and the x-coordinate equals the cosine of an angle.
Sine is an odd |
function because it |
is symmetric about |
the origin, which =f
means it can be 1
rotated 180° about |
the origin and
remain the same
The sine and cosine are periodic functions because the graph. To put it
pattern of the graph repeats over and over and over. another way,
The unit circle explains why the sine and cosine sin (—x) = —sin x.
functions are periodic: After one revolution of the
circle is made, the pattern repeats. Each time we
trace a path around the circle, we create the same aor
graph.
T La
The circle can also explain the period of the function,
or how long it takes to create one complete pattern of 3a
: SI) 7 Uh
the graph. One complete revolution ofa circle is 4
27 radians, and that is the period of the function.
0
noe =-]
Zz
sin 27 =

Now, we graph the cosine function, y = cos x. We graph it

by evaluating the cosine function using radian values for 0.
Again, you can consider cosine as the x-coordinates on the
unit circle. For instance, the coordinates at 6 = 0 are (1, 0),
so cos 0 ="1, Ate = = (or 90°), the coordinates are (0, 1),
SO COS zs= 0. The cosine function also has a period of 27,
which is a complete revolution of the circle. Each trip
around the circle produces a graph with the same pattern.

The cosine function is an

even function because it
is symmetric about the
y-axis. To put it another
way, COS (—X) = COS x.

The graphs of the sine and cosine are similar, but it is helpful to note some
differences. The graph of the sine passes through the origin (0, 0), and increases to
the right from there to ~. The graph of the cosine has a maximum at x = 0 and
decreases to zero at x = 7. On the other hand, the graphs of the two functions have
the same period and general shape. As we discuss later, one graph can be created
by translating the other.

426 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Scaling Trigonometric Function Graphs
Horizontal Scaling The period equalst
As with other functions, trigonometric functions can be scaled. We use the cosine | 2™ jn equations
function as the parent function to discuss the concept of horizontal scaling.
Scaling horizontally means that you can squeeze points like peaks closer together, of the form
or stretch them farther apart. This changes the period of a function. y =acos bx or
y =a sin bx.
We show y = cos x horizontally scaled by a factor
of = This pushes the peaks closer together. In
other words, it reduces the period by a factor of 4, _
and since the frequency is the reciprocal of the
period, it increases the frequency byafactor of 4.

We show y = cos x horizontally scaled by a factor | a

of 4. This pushes the peaks farther apart. In other
beg
a Multiplying the
words, it increases the period by a factor of 4. input by b in
y = acos bx j
causes horizontal
scaling.
| ye Cosa!

A periodic function of the form f(kx) changes the period of f(x), scaling its period,
1
by a factor of —. If k’s sign is changed, the graph reflects about the y-axis, but
k|
a change in sign does not affect its period. If |k| > 1, the graph is horizontally
compressed, and if |k| < 1, it is horizontally stretched.

Vertical Scaling
We use the sine function as the parent function to | felaiee A
discuss the concept of vertical scaling. This LE
changes the amplitude of a function. We show
y = sinx and y = 3 sin x. y = 3 sinx is vertically
taller than the parent function.

Multiplying the
function by a
We show
y = sinx and y = >sinx. in y = a sin bx
causes vertical
y= 1 gin xis vertically shorter than the parent scaling.
function. The constant multiplying the function =»
either stretches it vertically, making the function’s
graph taller, or it squeezes it vertically, making it shorter.
In general, the amplitude of a sin x or a cos xis |a|, the absolute value of a. We
use the absolute value since the amplitude is a distance, and cannot be negative.
When |q| is greater than 1, it stretches the graph, making it taller than the parent
graph. When |a] is less than 1, it squeezes the graph, making it shorter than the
parent graph. With k(f(x)), the graph scales vertically by the factor |k|. A negative
value of k also reflects the graph through the x-axis.
9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 427
 ile a yOu areechalliciees to match slaps by GUADEIE a and b.

y=[aleos(x)
Ge eed a

Pi DN Def
Bi hint \ of
“2

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Graph y = 3cos 3x compared to the parent function y = cos x.
SOLUTION
Amplitude 1 Multiplying the output of a
led b at 2 function, or the function itself, by
pe, > a number scales it vertically; it
stretches or compresses it along
the y-axis. The output is multiplied
by 7 compressing its amplitude.

Period b=3 Multiplying the input of a function by a number scales it horizontally; it

1 stretches or compresses it along the x-axis. The input is multiplied by 3,
scaled by 3 compressing the graph horizontally.
Model Problems continue...

428 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
et
2. Graph y = Rion at compared to the parent function y = sin x.

SOLUTION
i
Amplitude y=—>>sin3% The coefficient of the sine is x soa = —>Shrink the graph of sin x

ec: = |a| vertically by a factor of = cutting its et in half.

1
=
2

Period Period = a The value of b, the coefficient of the input x, is = That means the

ee At period is stretched by a factor of 3, becoming 67.

3S
2n _ 27 _
Be Oy 15/3
To stretch the graph horizontally, a period should
start at the x-intercept x = 0 and finish at the
x-intercept x = 67. This is three times the length of
the period of sin x. Mark an x-intercept also at 3m,
y=sinx. which is halfway. The maximum and minimum
values occur halfway between the x-intercepts.
Plot these points. The y-values are x and ee at
; 2 2
these points.

3. Graph y = —3 sores

SOLUTION
Amplitude y= -—3 cos =x The amplitude of the graph is 3. This will help us plot points. Start
with cos 0. It equals 1, and we multiply by —3 to calculate the
Amplitude = |a| —_y-coordinate. Since the amplitude is 3, we know this will be the
lal =3 lowest point on the graph.
a With x = 27, calculate cos —3
which is 0. Calculate for
x = 4m. cos T equals —1.
Multiply by —3 to get 3. This
is the maximum height of the
function since the amplitude
is 3. Plot the points for
x = 67 and x = 8m. Connect
the points with the curve.

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 429

PRACTICE
1. What is the period of the function Exercises 12-20: Determine the amplitude,
y = —2 sin 8x? period, and maximum and minimum values
i for each function.
Dy i Ge.
8 12. f(x) = cos 2x
Tr
B. a D. 16m 13. f(x) = 2 cos 3x

2. Which of the following functions best 14. f(x) = 2 cos 5x

represents the graph below? 15. f(x) = 4 cos mx
16. f(x) = 3 cos 31x

17. f(x) = =cosAarx

18. f(x) = 2 sin 7x

19. f(x) = 6sin fe

20. f(x) = 7 sin ae

A i= —3. COS 2X ; :
1 Exercises 21-24: State an equation of the form
Bey = —2.038 a y = asin bx that matches the description.
C. y=—2cos 2x 21. Maximum value is 2, minimum value is —2,
1 and the period is 27.
B= 2 eo 22. Maximum value is 4, minimum value is —4,
: and the period is 7.
ees item
eo oe 0.707. What is sin ee 23. Maximum value is 0.5, minimum value is
—0.5, and the period is 2.
4. cos 2 =~ —(0.309. What is cos ae 24. Maximum value is 413, minimum value is
—413, and the period is 0.17.
5. sin 2 ~ 0.782. What is sin 10™? 25. Graph y = 2.5 sinx from x = —4q to 4
7 7 26. Graph y = 4 cos mx from x = —10 to 10
Exercises 6-8: Determine the amplitude of each 27. Graph y = 1.5 cos 2x from x = —7 to 7
function.
28. Graph y = 5 sin 27x from x = —5 to5
6. 24 sin 30x
29. What is the equation of the graph shown?
7. 6 cos 9x State your answer using the sine function.
8. 13 sin 77x

Exercises 9-11: Determine the period of each

function.
9. 5cos 3x

10. zsin 1X
ih
11. 2 COS 5
=e x
Practice Problems continue...

430 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 Ra

Practice Problems continued . ..

30. What is the equation of the graph shown? 31. |MP 1,2,4| A puck, attached to a spring, is
State your answer using the cosine function. held 4 inches from its equilibrium position.
Once the puck is let go, the puck returns to
its initial position in 5 seconds. Assuming the
system is undamped (the oscillations continue
forever without losing amplitude), write the
equation that represents the displacement, d,
in inches from its equilibrium position as a
function of time, t, in seconds. The function
of time is a sine or cosine function, and t = 0
when the puck is released.

Translating Trigonometric Function Graphs

As with other functions, when a constant k is added to the parent function f(x)
to create the function f(x) + k, the graph is translated up by k. All the points are
vertically shifted by k (and if k is negative, the graph shifts down).
With the graphs of the sine and cosine functions, we also discuss
shifting the midline, since we draw points from there based on the A constant that creates a
graph’s amplitude. The constant k, of course, shifts the midline horizontal translation of a
by k units as well. sinusoidal function has a
specific name, the phase
As with other graphs, when a constant is subtracted from the input of the function, andthe |
of a function f(x — 1), the graph is translated to the right by h. This Y resulting horizontal shift is |
means that all points on the graph, including peaks and troughs, called a phase shift. The |
are translated by h units. graph is translated by the |
phase shift h.
4 In this activity, experiment with translating trigonometric function graphs.

y=sin(
x-
Lo|
ya sinx

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 431

In this activity, match the graph by filling in values for h and k.

Y= cos( xX - ===
[0] 1) +
™.
‘.

Ges Sires) fa

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Graph y = sin x — 3 compared to the parent function y = sin x.
SOLUTION
Determine y=sinx +k Restate the
sign of k y = sinx + (—3) equation so that the
constant is added.
This puts it in the
form f(x) + k.
Translates Since the constant added to the
graph down 3 function is negative, the graph shifts y = sinx + (—3)
down 3 units.

2. Graph y = cos (xee =|compared to the parent function y = cos x.

SOLUTION
Translates graph y = cos(x — h) The phase shift is the constant h subtracted from x. It
horizontally by h translates the graph right if h is positive or left if h is
negative.

Graph cos (x — h) cos (x~ | For the function cos(«_ =| the phase shift h isae

The phase shift is positive, so it translates the graph to

T
>» the right by the distance :

Model Problems continue. . .

432 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Graph a sine function with a phase shift of 5 compared to the parent function y = sin x.

SOLUTION
be y = sin(x — h) The phase shift is the constant subtracted
ase Ne aes Sera
eee Gah(: z. (-z))ae (xi ,) from x, so in this case the phase shift is ar

Graph The phase shift is negative, so it translates

the graph to the left by the distance ma

Write anthe equat

4. using ion for the graph =k
sine function. kt

SOLUTION ;
This form of the
Usesineas y=asinb(x —h) The problem asks us to use sine trigonometric function
parent as the parent function. We show uses variables for scaling
function the form of the function. We (a and b) and translation |
need to determine the values web
of a, b, and h. ERRNO
Amplitudea a=3 The graph has not been vertically shifted. The aun of the
graph is 3, the height of a peak. This gives us the value for a.

Use period to Period = 7 = “2 The period of the graph is 7. That is the distance between two
determine b On adjacent peaks. The period is 27 divided by b. Write this as an
age equation and solve for b, which is 2.
b=2
We show with a gray line the
sine function with no phase shift.
We need to shift the gray line
graph. It will be shifted by the
phase shift. The graph we are
Shes ae trying to match starts at 0 and
h= . ae These with no phase a has that property at
zi We need to shift the gray graph by - to the right. This
is the phase shift. This value equals h and it will be subtracted
from x.
Substitute y =3sin a(x= =| We now have the values for a, b, and h, which we substitute in
a, b,h the equation.
s Model Problems continue...

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 433

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

5. Graph y = 4 cos AC = an)

2 =
SOLUTION
Calculate y =4cos 2x =3a) Calculate the period. The variable b is the coefficient of
period the input.

(3)
Period = ea 3
ie
Calculate |a| = The amplitude equals |a|, the coefficient of the function.
amplitude

We can start our graph. It is a cosine function so it starts

at its maximum value, the amplitude 4. It has a period
of 37, so the next peak is at 37.

cee
y = 4cos#x
3

Phase shiftto }), = a The phase is the constant subtracted from x, so in this
right case the phase is me

The graph is phase shifted to the right. The graph shifts

a to the right.

y = 40s 3 ae

© @ EPRI When an object moves in simple harmonic motion, its

position can be described using the sine or cosine function.
Many objects can exhibit simple harmonic motion, from
molecules in a solid, to pendulums, to moons in a circular orbit
when viewed “on edge.” A puck moves onafrictionless air
hockey table in simple harmonic motion. Write an equation for
the puck’s position, y, as a function of time, t, given the graph.
SOLUTION
Sine or cosine? To write an equation for the puck’s position, determine the amplitude and period
from the graph. At x = 0, y is at its greatest value. This is true for the cosine
function.
Amplitude a=3 The amplitude of the graph is 3. This gives us the value for a.
Model Problems continue...

434 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Midline ©. y=0 The graph is vertically centered at y = 0.

Use period to _ period = = = 2 The period is 2 because the distance between adjacent peaks
determine b is 2. The period is 27 divided by b. We write this as an
3 equation and solve for b, which is 7.
Substitutea,b y= 3 cos mt Substitute the values for a and b in the equation.

Sine and Cosine Identities

Some identities can help us graph the sine and cosine functions. These identities
are called phase identities. They translate the graph of the function to the left or
right. |
We start with the graphs of the sine function
and cosine function. These are two different
graphs.

But if we translate the cosine graph

>units to the right, the graphs will coincide. tt COS et
We can state this relationship as a Jot ia
y= cosx
an identity, cos(
x=~=) = sin x.
If we take the sine function and translate it wes Garnet- (x+3) siete
y. ne ee
ni a ieee ent own D é ‘ ae “ he ¥y = sin xX—

2 units to the left, the graph matches the “4 ai ~—

graph of the cosine function. This leads to
the second identity, cos x = sin + 3)

. In this activity, experiment with a sine and cosine identity using the graphing tool.

y=sin(
x-

y= cos( x -

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 435

We also use graphs to show two identities that
involve the same function. We can show two
other identities. We graph both —cos x and
COs x.

If we shift the graph of the cosine function

m units to the left or right, the two graphs
coincide. Subtracting 7 gives the same result
as adding 7, since the difference between
—m and +7 is 21, which is equal to one
period, thus mapping the left shift onto
the right shift. This leads to the identity
=cosx = cos(x + m) =cos(x:— 7):

We can do the same with the sine function.

We graph both the sine function and the
opposite of that function.

We again shift 7 units to the left to show the : Si ios MA cael eee Ole
identity —sin x = sin(x + 7). asx Ccgerctr

fom — SINX = sin (x y = sm X=

Graph of the Tangent Function

To graph the tangent function, we could just plot points until we were sure we had
a good idea of the shape of the curve. However, to reduce the number of points we
have to plot, we consider some properties of the tangent.
Since the tangent is the sine divided by the cosine, we must
consider values of x for which cos x is 0, since at these points the
tangent is undefined. At these values, the graph of the tangent
will have vertical asymptotes, lines which the graph approaches
but never reaches. To identify these points, we graph the cosine
function.

¢ Definitionof ,,,, = Sinx Since the tangent is the sine divided by the cosine, it
tangent cos x is undefined when the cosine has the value 0.

e Asymptotes
ymp for Si ot ee“we 6a &
cos x =se 0 at a —, and then 0 again. every 7 additional
tangent a ae ee 2
units left and right along the x-axis. Using the
graph, we state the values of x that will result in
asymptotes for the tangent.
We also use the locations of the asymptotes to determine the period of the tangent
function. Adjacent asymptotes are separated by 7, so the period is 7. We more
formally derive the period next. Using our analysis, we need only five points to
draw a graph.

436 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

e Draw We use the facts about the tangent
asymptotes function to graph it. We draw
and plot asymptotes based on our analysis
points above of their locations. We plot 3
points for the interval from 0 to the
first asymptote. The function is
undefined at at

e Tangent is We plot some points between ce

symmetric
about origin and 0, and we draw the curve that
passes through these points. The
graph is symmetric about the origin.
This shows the function is odd.

e Period is 7 Finally, since the period of the

tangent is 7, we repeat the graph
every 7 units.

MODEL PROBLEM
Graph y = tan 2x compared to the parent function y = tan x.

SOLUTION
Compare y = tan 2x versus y = tan x The variable b in the two functions is different, b = 2
functions versus b = 1. This means that the period is also different.
Period Period = = e The period of the tangent is 7, so calculate the period of
this function by dividing 7 by b, which is 2. Squeeze the
graph horizontally so the period is oi

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 437

PRACTICE
1. Which of the following is true about the 5. Given f(x) = sin x, which of the following
graph of y = —12 + 19 cos (x — 7) compared could represent the given graph?
to the graph of y = 19 cos (x — 7)?
It is shifted up by 7.
It is shifted down by 7.
It is shifted up by 12.
It is shifted down by 12.
It is shifted up by 19.
wb
OO
md It is shifted down by 19.

. Which of the following is true about the

graph of y = 4 — 15 cos (x + 3) compared to
the graph of y = —15 cos (x + 3)?
It is shifted up by 3.
It is shifted down by 3.
It is shifted up by 4.
It is shifted down by 4.
It is shifted up by 15.
moO
wD It is shifted down by 15.

. Which of the following is true about the

graph of y = —25 — 8 sin (x — 2) compared
to the graph of y = —8 sin (x — 2)? De ai(2- =) —2
It is shifted up by 2.
It is shifted down by 2. . Which of the following is equivalent to
cos (2x — 1)?
It is shifted up by 8.
It is shifted down by 8. A. —cos 2x
It is shifted up by 25. Bae COs e
>7M It is
OW shifted down by 25. C. 2cos(x — 7)
7
D D
COS (xaie x |
. Given the function y = sin x, which of the
following represents the translation of
a units to the right? ~ [OGRA Which function has a graph whose
phase shift is twice the period?
Ale sin — A. y=cos8|x-—
Ya
Ba esineg
co
|3
00
|3 Bb y == cos (xSAE|
eee as
i
OM sin( -2)

co(o+2)
8
Cc. Yy = COS nee
(x 9 )
7
ID esi + —
ine Y are we
4 are>
COS (x )

Practice Problems continue...

438 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued . .
8. If the tangent function is undefined at x = a, 23. Peaks at 3, a period of 7, and shifted left
which of the following must be true? by —.
A. a=0
aD
Bb. *cos:a
= (0) 24. Amplitude of 4, a period of 2, and shifted
Gey sina
—0
right by 3.
Do tan
(@ + v7)=0 25. Peaks at 1, a period of 27, and shifted left
by —.
9. DL ard Briefly describe what each Y'3
letter represents in the function
y =asin b(x —c) +d.
26. Amplitude of 6, a period of a and shifted
right by 7.
Exercises 10-16: Determine the phase shift of
each function, including its sign. Exercises 27-31: Write a function in the form
10. y = 2 + 10 cos (x — 5)
y =a cos b(x — c) + d that matches each
description of the changes to the parent function
at y= —3 = cos (x — 11) y = cos x.
12. y = 12 + 3 cos (x — 6) 27. Shifted up by 1, has a period of eS and
13. y y=sin|x-—
sin( =) shifted to the right by 6.
28. Amplitude of 1, a period of a and shifted
14. y = cos (x + 7)
T
left by 50°
15. y=2sin(x+2)—1 29. Amplitude of 3, a period of = and shifted
3T
46.y=3.0s(x- 2) +2 right by ria

Exercises 17-20: Graph each function from 30. Amplitude of 5, a period of 1, and shifted
= —25to 27: right by 4.

T 31. Amplitude of 2, a period of a and shifted

17. y
y =2 sin(2 altorg=) 3
left by ia
18. y=2sin4(x-%)—1 Exercises 32-38: Write an equation for the
graph shown. State your answer in the
19. y=3.052(x + =) formy = asin b(x — h) + k wherea > 0
and —7 <i Sm.
20. y=30052(x+F) +2 32. Assume the function is not shifted
horizontally.
Exercises 21-26: Write a function in the form
y = asin b(x — c) + d that matches each
description of the changes to the parent function
y = sin x.

21. Shifted down by 5, has a period of A and

shifted to the left by 9.
22. Shifted down down by 4, has a period of ze
and shifted to the right by 8.
Practice Problems continue...

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs 439

Practice Problems continued...

33. The horizontal shift should be between LS Exercises 39-42: State an equation of the form
y = asin bx + c that matches each description.
39. Maximum value is 5, minimum value is 1,
and the period is 27.
40. Maximum value is —3, minimum value is
—5, and the period is 47.
41. Maximum value is 10, minimum value is 4,
and the period is 4.
42. Maxmum value is 0, minimum value is —1,
and the period is 6.
Exercises 43-45: Find the smallest non-negative
values of a and b such that the given line
intersects the trigonometric function graph at
an adjacent maximum and minimum pair. Then
make a sketch of the two functions on the same
set of axes.

43. y= ae y = sin (a(x + b))

44. y = x;y = cos (a(x + b))

45. y= 2 + 2; y = cos (a(x + b))

46. [YSERA Two of Gina’s group members

have a dispute over the phase shift of the
graph y = 2 sin (5x + 7) — 1. One says that
the phase shift is 7 units to the left, while
the other says that it is = units to the left.
Which member is correct? Explain.
47. Write a cosine function equivalent to
fix) = 2 sin (3x + 77), with phase shift
between —T and 7.

48. Write a sine function equivalent to

Alx) = 5 cos (2x — 327), with phase shift
between —7 and 7.

49. Find all the points of intersection of the

graphs y = cos x and y = sin x.
50. [Ed Can you perform horizontal and
vertical translations to the tangent functions
in the same way as sinusoidal functions?
Explain.

440 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

(PREY The tidal variations at a spot in Puget Sound can be loosely modeled by the equation
je
y =7sin ee — 1) + 6, where xis time in hours after midnight andy is water level in feet.

a_ Graph the equation.

Explain the “real-life” meaning of
(i) the7
(ii) the 6
ee th oe,

(iii) the -1
(iv) the 6
c When does the first high tide after midnight occur?
When does the first low tide after midnight occur?

LESSON 9.6 meeeesecucmucmmn

or

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent
The cosecant, secant, and cotangent are trigonometric ratios that are the reciprocals
of the sine, cosine, and tangent.

1 _ hypotenuse
Cosecant of 6 csc 0 = — The cosecant of 6 is the
ay OPPestte reciprocal of the sine of 0. The
abbreviation for the cosecant
is “csc.”
{i hypotenuse ¢
Secant of 0 sec = =—_———___ The secant ofan angle @1s
ee eels the reciprocal of the cosine
of 6. The abbreviation for the
secant is “sec.”
1. adjacent
Cotangent of @ cot @=——— = The cotangent of an angle 6 is
tan@ opposite the reciprocal of the tangent
of 6. The abbreviation for the
cotangent is “cot.”

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 441

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. What are the cosecant, secant, and cotangent of 30°? 60°?
SOLUTION
be a
csc 30° = ee: See Sy The cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine. The sine of 30° is >.
sin 30° 1 D
2 Take the reciprocal, and calculate that the cosecant of 30° = 2.

sec 30° —
1
cos 30° => V3 )
1 =
ove
3
————
: C i,
The secant is the reciprocal of the cosine. The cosine 0
a £30°

zZ is ve Take the reciprocal and rationalize the denominator by

multiplying numerator and denominator by \/3. The secant
of 30° = 2V3
3

cot 30° = —1— = V3 The cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent. The tangent
tan 30° ue
of 30° isTo Take the reciprocal and simplify the fraction.
The cotangent of 30° = V3.
NSMLS SI Owes
7 60° AEE Gg os Use the value of sin 60° and the relationship between sine
a (3) and cosecant to find csc 60°. To rationalize the expression,
- multiply the numerator and the denominator by V3.

Feo Be © ee Use the value of cos 60° and the relationship between
oo (4) cosine and secant to find sec 60°.

co t 60° = a
1 eS
==>
aS Use the value of tan 60° ° and the relationship
ionsh between
tangent and cotangent to find cot 60°. To rationalize the
expression, multiply the numerator and the denominator
by V3.

2. Ina right triangle, 0 is one of the acute angles. If sin 6 = ess what are the values of the other five
trigonometric ratios for angle 6? us
a Determine the lengths of the sides of a right triangle where the sine of one angle is ae
b Calculate cosine and tangent for 0.
c Calculate secant, cosecant, and cotangent for 0.
SOLUTION

a Use definition of 13 Drawa right triangle where sin 0 is ence

sine 7 13
a B the sine is the opposite leg divided by the
b hypotenuse, set the length of the leg opposite
angle 6 to 5 and the length of the hypotenuse
Fie ee ee io e
hypotenuse 13

Model Problems continue...

442 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Pythagorean 5? + bt = 13? To calculate the length of the leg b, use the

theorem b= 144 Pythagorean theorem. The length of leg b is the
bis 144412 square root of 144, which is 12.

adjacent — 12
b Cosineof@ cos@= hyvotenuce 13. Lhe cos Gis the ratio of the lengths of the side adjacent
ypotenuse 13
to @ and the hypotenuse. In this triangle, that is =

Tangent
gent o of @ tan 6 eee
raacet Th e tan @ isis the
the ratioratio of of the
th lengths
h of the
he side
sid opposite
i
to @ and the side adjacent to 0. In this triangle, that isaa

1 hypotenuse
c Cosecant of @ CsSC.o = =) Se The csc 0 is the reciprocal of sin 6. You can
ae Oppesite > also calculate the cosecant as the hypotenuse
divided by the opposite leg.
1. ow hypotenuse’ s113;
Secant of 6 sec 0 = The sec 6 is the reciprocal of cos 6. You can
cos 0 adjacent 12
also calculate the secant as the hypotenuse
divided by the adjacent leg.
ie adjacent Ele
Cotangent of 9 cot @= The cot 6 is the reciprocal of tan 6. You can
tan@ opposite o:
also calculate the cotangent as the adjacent
leg divided by the opposite leg.

2 Crs What are the cosecant, secant, and cotangent of 180°?

SOLUTION
y At 180°, x = -1, y = 0, andr = 1 on the unit circle.

180°

(-1, 0)

Cosecant, secant, csc 180° = fe undefined The cosecant, secant, and cotangent
cotangent a 0 are reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and
: 1 tangent. For 180°, the secant is —1,
Ct 1 but the cosecant and cotangent result
2 in denominators of 0, so they are
undefined.
cot 180° = : = . undefined

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 443

Reciprocal Trigonometric Function Graphs
To graph the cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions, we could plot points,
or determine the period and other characteristics of each function to reduce the
number of points to plot. Instead, the approach we use is to recognize that these
three functions are the reciprocals of functions we have already graphed. That is,
cot x = ,secx = x7 and ese x = ;
cos sin x

: 1
Weewi ll grap h COt cotx
Xx = fue together. You will graph
the other reciprocal functions in the model problems.
The cotangent is the reciprocal of the tangent. To
graph the cotangent function, we start with the
graph of the tangent function.
s Definitiomot a. — —! When the cotangent func
cotangent tan x reciprocal function.

e Asymptotes N= at, 210, ol, a Because the reciprocal of 0 is undefined, there is an

for cotangent asymptote for the cotangent function when tan x = 0.
This occurs at 0 and then again every 7 additional units
along the x-axis. Using the graph, we state the values of
x that will result in asymptotes for the cotangent.
e Draw We use the facts about the cotangent
asymptotes function to graph it. We draw
and plot asymptotes based on our analysis
points
above of their locations. For x = oe
the tangent is 1, and so is the cotangent,
since the reciprocal of 1 is 1. Atx = >
the tangent is undefined, but the
cotangent has value 0. At x = — the
tangent function has a value of —1.
The reciprocal of —1 is —1.

e Period is 7 The period of the tangent function is

a. The cotangent will have the same
by , period.

al
¥h

444 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Graph sec x.
SOLUTION
Use graph In a fashion similar to how we drew the
of cosine Per eh. cotangent function, we draw the graph of
yps i the secant as the reciprocal of the cosine.
x iN Start with the graph of the cosine function.
When the cosine function is 0, the secant
function is undefined and it approaches
an asymptote. The cosine function is equal
OTe non
to 0:46 a =e See
2 Dae
Draw hes Start at 0 radians, where the cosine equals
asymptotes _ |! | 1. The reciprocal of 1 is 1, so the secant
and plot Ly lhe function equals 1 there also. cos 7 = —1,
points fi N so its reciprocal has the same value. The
graphs intersect again at 27, where both
equal 1. Because the absolute value of
the cosine is never greater than one, its
reciprocal, the secant, will never have
a value between —1 and 1. When the
cosine function equals 1 or —1, so does its
reciprocal function.
Period is 27 The period of the cosine function is 277, so
repeat the secant function with the same
period.

2. Graph csc x.
SOLUTION
Use graph of sine The cosecant is the reciprocal of the sine
function. We will explain its graphing
more rapidly, since it is very similar to
graphing the secant function. There will
be asymptotes where the sine function
equals 0.

Draw graph Draw the cosecant graph, which has

asymptotes as shown and equals the
reciprocal of the sine function at all
points. When the sine function equals 1
or —1, so does its reciprocal function.

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 445

PRACTICE

1. The sin 6 = = Evaluate the cotangent of the Exercises 14-18: A right triangle has an acute
angle 0. angle with a sine of = State your answers using

A. cot @ = 7 & cot @ = = fractions.

4 5 14. What is the cosine of the angle?

B. co t@d=—3 D. co td=—3
15. What is the tangent of the angle?
Exercises 2-7: Use the right triangle to answer
16. What is the cosecant of the angle?
the following questions.
17. What is the secant of the angle?
18. What is the cotangent of the angle?
Exercises 19-23: A right triangle has an acute
Za ie angle with a cosine of = State your answers
3 using simplified radicals.
. What is the sine of the angle 6? 19. What is the sine of the angle?
. What is the cosine of the angle 6? 20. What is the tangent of the angle?
. What is the tangent of the angle 6? 21. What is the cosecant of the angle?
. What is the secant of the angle 6? 22. What is the secant of the angle?
a.
ft
NN
W
o What is the cosecant of the angle 6? 23. What is the cotangent of the angle?

7. What is the cotangent of the angle 6? Exercises 24—26: Evaluate. Express your answer to
the nearest hundredth.
Exercises 8-13: Use the right triangle to answer
the following questions. 24. csc (—12)°

25. cot 249°

26. sec 146°

Exercises 27-30: Determine whether the graphs

ae CT can be described by the secant, cosecant, tangent,
5
or cotangent function. Justify your answer.
8. What is the sine of the angle 6? 27. —
9. What is the cosine of the angle 6?
10. What is the tangent of the angle 6?

|
11. What is the cosecant of the angle 6?
12. What is the secant of the angle 6?
13. What is the cotangent of the angle 6?

=eh
42-3
+=-
=
~~

Practice Problems continue...

446 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued . . .
28. ap He 31. [3A What do you notice about the
relationship between the secant and cosecant
functions?

Exercises 32-33: Sketch each trigonometric

function for the domain —27 = x S 2m.

32. y=2esc(x- =)

33. y=3s0c(x +=)

pe
aad
Se
:

34. [RPAA right triangle has an acute angle

A, and sin A = z. Write a formula for
sec A in terms of z.

35. [GRA The angle 6 corresponds to the angle

between the positive x-axis and the line
between the origin and the point a Ge
La
on the unit circle. What is csc 6? State your
answer as an exact expression.

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions 447

LESSON GS. suse eee OUR eR

9.7 Modeling with Functions

You have now seen all the different types of functions you will encounter in this
textbook: linear, quadratic, polynomial, rational, exponential, logarithmic, and
trigonometric functions. Different types of functions can be used to model data.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Determine the model that best fits the data. jot
Explain how you arrived at your solution.

SOLUTION i neae ar ee 10 12
+»X

y a Linear Model We use a spreadsheet program to find the regression curves.

12
y = 0.9043x
—0.4562 ~
eee
We try a linear model. It has a fairly high r* of 0.9. However,
10 P= 0.9008 “——\---—-/4 if x were to continue to increase in value, the linear model
would be more challenged to model the data.

Mtoe
10

y Polynomial Model Next, we try a third-degree polynomial. It provides a model

that is very close—it has an r* greater than 0.99. Polynomial
models can often provide high 1 due to their flexibility.
We used a third degree (greatest power is 3) to model the
function.

x
LOR 2

Finally, we try an exponential model. The data came from an

exponential function, so all of its data points are on the graph
of the function. The r* value is 1. This model fits the data the
best. The spreadsheet likes to use the natural logarithm (with
e the natural logarithm’s base) for exponential functions.
The base could be converted to 1.25, which is what we used
ourselves. There is an important point here: If data looks like
the graph of a function you know, try that function. The graph
does not look linear, of course, and it looks like it could be
Chee Gs GOP RIa exponential. Model Problems continue...

448 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

 MODEL PROBLEMS
continued
2. Determine the model that best fits the data. Explain how you arrived at your solution.

1.60
1.40
1.20
ete 1.00
ie
: 0.40

0.00

[3.00 [1.03
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00

P1300 [099
SOLUTION
a Linear Model We use a spreadsheet and start with a linear model.
1.60
e The 7? is about 0.79, which is not bad, but far from
1.40
1.20
perfect. Perhaps the relationship between the
e variables is not linear.
1.00 sels —~% 0 «
0.80
0.60 y = —0.0406x + 1.4286
~ 0.40 r> = 0.7932

0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00

i Exponential Model The data might look like an exponential function

1.60
© with a base less than 1. We try that. (Again, the
spreadsheet prefers to use e as its base; note the
1.20 ° i
negative power, which makes the base less than 1.)
:
0.80 i /
e The model has a moderate r”. ;
0.60 y = 1.4447e~
0
0.40 r = 0.8186
0.20
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00

y Logarithmic Model That makes logarithms a good model to try. The

: :
1.60 ’
e spreadsheet prefers to use natural logs, as shown in
: 5 :
1.40 .
the logarithmic model. It has a very high r’.
1.20
See
- > @a@
1.00

SO ieee ee :
0.60 + y = —0.271 In x + 1.6342
0.40 + r= 0.9339
0.20
0.00
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 Model Problems continue...

9.7 Modeling with Functions 449

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

3. Determine the model that best fits the data. Explain how you arrived at your solution.

It helps to
consider what
the graph may
look like, instead |
of simply trying |
functions. The
» graph looks like
the graph of a
sine function,
so that is an
appropriate :
function to try. |

SOLUTION
We could write a trigonometric function to model the data by looking at the graph above. It has a
midline of 1, an amplitude of 2, and seems to have a frequency of about aof a cycle per unit, which
means it has a period of about 6. To calculate the coefficient of x in the trigonometric function, we
divide 27 by the period, 6, and will round to 1. It can be modeled with y = 2 sinx + 1.
If we do not recognize that, we can try functions such as linear or polynomial, but they will not be
very close to the data points. Spreadsheets do not provide trigonometric functions for modeling data,
but the data (such as the position of a particle in a wave over time) is modeled with a trigonometric
function.

Linear Model We try a linear function, but unsurprisingly, its 7? is

RE very low. The graph does not look like the graph of
arr po Poy = -0.0215x + 0.623 a linear function.

Model Problems continue...

450 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Polynomial Model We try a polynomial model of degree 3. It has a

fairly low 7’.

~~ 1.504 y = —0.0033x3 — 0.006x? + 0.5629x + 0.8986

-2.00+-~ 72 = 0.48281 ~~ fame

Polynomial Model We could increase the degree of the

Paco ar polynomial that the spreadsheet can use. If
we allow it to use a sixth-degree polynomial,
the model has a very high r*. But we should
caution you strongly: This is true for this
range of data. With no additional information
about the system being modeled, we cannot
predict what happens when the range is
uo extended. The two well-fitting models here—
+ 0.0206x4 — 0.3214x* — 0.0795x* + 1.9997x + 1.044 the trigonometric and the polynomial—each
0.99955 |ol _|
Para kae | -2,50
SEE Seee predict very different behavior outside the
given range, and each prediction, or neither,
might be correct. Only the data can tell us.

PRACTICE
1. A student models two data sets with linear 2. Which of the following function types is the
models. For which data set should the best fit for the data points graphed below?
student expect a lower r* value?
oe Ya ren

Graph 1 : Graph 2 d

A. Graph 1 because three points appear to

lie exactly on the line.
B. Graph 2 because more data points are
closer to the line. A. Linear
C. Graph 1 because there are more points B. Polynomial
far away from the model than there are C. Sine
in Graph 2. D. Logarithmic
D. Graph 2 because more points appear to Practice Problems continue...
lie on the line than in Graph 1.
9.7 Modeling with Functions 452
Practice Problems continued .. .

3. Which graph could represent a non-linear 5. Which type of function, of the choices given,
polynomial function? will best model the data plotted in the graph
y Graph A below?

5 10 15 20 25

A. Logarithmic
B. Polynomial
Co hinear
D. Exponential

6. Which type of function, of the choices given,

will best model the data plotted in the graph
below?

0.75
A. GraphA Ce GraphC Oi
B. GraphB D. GraphD 0.25
0 f

4. Which type of function is shown in the 0) 2554567

8) 10912" 14

graph?
A. Sine
B. Tangent
C. Linear
D. Exponential

7. Which type of function, of the choices given,

will best model the data plotted in the graph
below?

A. Exponential
B. Logarithmic
GC} Eimear
D. Polynomial

A. Polynomial
B. Exponential
C. Linear
D. Logarithmic

Practice Problems continue...

452 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued .. .
Exercises 8-9: Identify the type of function
(linear, polynomial, exponential, or
trigonometric) that provides the best fit for
the data points given in the table. Justify your
answer.

iw Exercises 10-16: Graph the data points ee eee

shown in the table. Based on the graph’s 1018
appearance, provide a conjecture for the type 5001
of function represented by the data (linear,
polynomial, logarithmic, or exponential).
Explore the possible functions using a trend line.
State the best fit function, in equation form, and 14.
state the 7’ value.

Practice Problems continue...

9.7 Modeling with Functions 453

Practice Problems continued . .
19. What are the most likely types of functions
represented by the data points in the graph
shown? Explain your reasoning.

-20 -15 -10 -5@

20. What are the most likely types of functions

represented by the data points in the graph
shown? Explain your reasoning.

What are the most likely types of functions

= represented by the data points in the graph
shown? Explain your reasoning.
UW
17. What are the most likely types of functions 1600 ee ee ee
represented by the data points in the graph 1400
shown? Explain your reasoning. 1200C ee
1000
y
800
2500
600
2000 400
200
1500 +-
0 x
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

500
22. [ae Eric states, “An experiment to
measure the relationship between two
variables produces a data set. The best fit
18. What are the most likely types of functions trend line for this data set has an r’ value
represented by the data points in the graph of 1. This means the trend line describes the
shown? Explain your reasoning. relationship between the variables.” Is Eric’s
statement correct?

Practice Problems continue...

454 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Practice Problems continued .. .
23. Decide if the function, which includes the
points shown in the table, is a polynomial
function or a cosine function. Identify the
type of function and justify your decision.

24. [TQPRE In your own words, explain the

meaning of an 7? value, or the coefficient of
determination.

25. In your own words, explain the meaning of

the line of best fit, or trend line.

26. Create a table of values that would be best

modeled by a linear function.

27. Create a table of values that would be best

modeled by a logarithmic function.
28. Ed The bar graph represents the
average rainfall in inches each month in
Seattle, WA. Use a cosine or sine function to
model the average rainfall, R, at any given
time, t, in monthly intervals, where t = 1
represents January 15 and t = 12 represents
December 15. Assume afull cycle period of
12 months. Note that because the average
rainfall is not symmetric in the 12-month
cycle, your model may be a bit inaccurate.

4.09 3.92 a
NB
O00
32.03 155...9.934-46~L61
Rainfall
(in
inches) io a;

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

9.7 Modeling with Functions 455

Cape; 5 ley he US sae
RRR nemene emma mmnmaaD

9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles

e An isosceles right triangle is an isosceles triangle with a right angle. The acute angles of an
isosceles right triangle are equal, so the angles of the triangle are 45°, 45°, and 90°. For this reason,
the isosceles right triangle is also called a 45-45-90 triangle. An isosceles right triangle with legs of
length 1 has a hypotenuse of length V2.
¢ The 30-60-90 triangle has acute angles of 30° and 60°. A 30-60-90 triangle with a short leg of length
1 has a hypotenuse with a length of 2 and a longer leg, opposite the 60° angle, with a length of V3.

9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions

¢ The sine, cosine, and tangent are trigonometric ratios, which are the ratios of the sides of a right
triangle defined in connection with an acute angle in the triangle. For an acute angle 6, each ratio is:
__ length of opposite leg __ length of adjacent leg _ length of opposite leg
mae length of hypotenuse’ pa length of hypotenuse’ SE length of adjacent leg”

9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric Functions

e Anangle of rotation is created by rotating a ray from its initial side on the positive x-axis. The terminal
side of the angle is where the ray stops. The measure of an angle of rotation is determined by how far
the ray rotates, and in what direction. Positive rotation is counterclockwise, and negative rotation is
clockwise. A full rotation is 360°.
e Coterminal angles can be created when a rotation greater than 360° is made. Coterminal angles have
the same terminal side, and their measures differ by a multiple of 360°.
e The reference angle for an angle of rotation (other than a multiple of 90°) is the acute angle
between the terminal side and the x-axis. A reference angle is used to calculate the trigonometric
values.
e The values of trigonometric functions can be calculated for angles of any measure. The sine, cosine,
and tangent of an angle of rotation 6 are defined using the coordinates of any point (x, y) on the
terminal side of the angle, and the distance r from the origin to the point.
e Angles can be measured in units called radians. The radian measure of an angle is defined using a
circle whose center is at the vertex of the angle. The radian measure is the ratio of the length of the
arc intercepted by the angle to the radius of the circle.

9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle

e The trigonometric functions on the unit circle can be defined as functions of angles defined by
(x, y) coordinates andacircle with a radius of 1. The x-coordinate equals cos 6. The y-coordinate
equals sin 0.
e Some equations involving trigonometric functions of an angle @ are true for any value of 6. Such
equations are called trigonometric identities. The main trigonometric identities are
sin? 6 + cos* 6 = 1,1 + tan’ 6 = sec’ 6, and cot* 96+ 1 = csc’ 6.

456 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs
A periodic function is one whose graph repeats. A cycle of a periodic function is the smallest
repeating unit of its graph. A period is the interval of the independent variable (x) that contains a
single cycle.
Sine and cosine are sinusoidal functions. The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are smooth
curves with periods of 27. The period of a sinusoidal function is 27 divided by b, the factor that is
the coefficient of the input x.
The maximum value of both sin x and cos x is 1, and the minimum value is —1. The amplitude of
these functions is 1, the maximum distance of the function’s graph from the x-axis. The amplitude
of a sin x or a cos x equals |a].
Multiplying the function sin x or cos x by a scales its graph vertically. Multiplying the input x by a
factor b scales the graph horizontally, changing its period.
When a constant is added to a function, f(x) + k, the graph is shifted up by k. When a constant is
subtracted from the input of a function, f(x — h), the graph is shifted to the right by h. This remains
true for trigonometric functions.
Some identities can help us graph the sine and cosine functions. These identities are called phase
identities. They translate the graph of the function to the left or right.
To graph the tangent function, we consider some properties of the tangent. Since the tangent is
the sine divided by the cosine, we must consider values of x for which cos x is 0 and the tangent is
undefined. At these values, the graph of the tangent will have vertical asymptotes, lines which the
graph approaches but never reaches.

9.6 Optional: Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions

The cosecant, secant, and cotangent are trigonometric ratios that are the reciprocals of the sine,
cosine, and tangent. For angle 6, each ratio can be defined: csc 6 = ~ , sec 0 = : and
in@ Ccos’
cot d= :
tané
To graph the cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions, recognize that they are the reciprocal
functions of the tangent, cosine, and sine functions.

9.7 Modeling with Functions

Functions can be used to fit data sets. Use the shape of the scatter plot to narrow down which
function to test. Function models with higher r* values are better fits for the data.

Chapter 9 Key Ideas 457

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
1. Which of the following are coterminal with 16. 30°
170°? Select all that apply. 17. 45°
EX ys De 0/02
18. 60°
Be 0" Boao)
Exercises 19-22: Convert the radian measures to
C7 F190"
degrees.
2. Which pairs of the following angles are 7
coterminal? Select all that apply. Los
3
A. 125° and 465° Cie anc ol. 20.
Beelovrwandia107 DP 70> and’ =2907
21. S|a
JA
S..lficosi6.= re and sin 9 > 0, then in which
So
Wr
quadrant is 6? a
8
A. QuadrantI C. Quadrant III 23. A circle has radius 4. What is the arc length
B. Quadrant II D. Quadrant IV of the segment cut by a central angle with
Exercises 4-8: State the reference angle for each oT
oe radians? State your answer as
angle 6.
an exact expression.
4. 6 = 290°
24. Determine the amplitude, period, maximum
5. 0 = 330° and minimum values of f(x) = sin 5x.
6. @ = 350° 25. [FMP] Derive a formula for the straight
7. 6 = —220° line distance from the maximum to the
minimum values of a sinusoidal function in
8. 6 = —330° terms of the amplitude A and period T.
9. The terminal side of angle 6 passes through 26. Write an equation for the graph below using
the point (—5, —12). What is sin 6? State the cosine function. Assume the function is
your answer as an exact expression. not shifted horizontally.
Exercises 10-13: State the acute angle defined by
the function.
10. sinx = 0.5

11. cos x = 0.5

12. tanx=1
27. [EER Write an equation for the graph
2
13. cos x 5 below using the cosine function. Assume the
function is not shifted horizontally.
14. A right triangle’s hypotenuse starts at the
origin and ends at the point (2, 6), with one
leg on the x-axis. Angle 6 is between the
hypotenuse and the positive x-axis. What is
the value of tan 6?
Exercises 15-18: State each angle in radians in
terms of 7.
15. 90° Chapter Review continues . .

458 Chapter 9: Trigonometry

Chapter Review continued . .
28. Write an equation for the sinusoidal function 29. Write an equation for the sinusoidal
below using the cosine function. The function below using the sine function. The
horizontal shift should be between —27 horizontal shift should be between —47
and +2m. and +4.

30. MP 4, 7| Use the table to write a sinusoidal function to model the mean temperature, T, in
Seattle, WA, at any given time, t, in monthly intervals, where t = 1 represents January 15 and
t = 12 represents December 15. Assume the temperature is similar to a cosine or sine curve with a
full cycle period of 12 months. You may assume the maximum temperature occurs either in July or
August.

Month | Ave. High | Ave. Low Record High Record Low

Jan 36°F 1 °F 64°F (1981) | _16°F (1980)
37°F 70°F (1986) | _11°F (1989)
Mar 39°F 74°F (1995) | _23°F (1989)
43°F | iF
51 °F |275in
i | 85°F (1976) | 32°F (1997)
Ka
| 65°F 48°F 3 8°F (1996)
53°F °F 9 3°F (1995) | 42°F (1991)
jul 56°F 47°F (1979)
Aug 57°F 48°F (1980)
so ; °F |
s15F (1985)
31°F (991)
Nov FASE (1980) | 13°F 0985)
De: °F 12°F (198)

Chapter 9 Review 459

Cumulative Review
for Chapters cl se

1. Which of the following is the inverse of 11. What is (f- g)(x)iff(x) = x — 8 and
g(x) =x — 2?
foe 7 12. Restate as a logarithmic equation: eX = 16.2
A) = a Exercises 13-16: State as a single logarithm.

0 Se 13. log; 13 + log;3

14. log, 6 — log,5

Ce) ae
15. log, 32 — log, 8
D. The inverse does not exist.
16. log;; 77 — log35 7
2. If f(x) = 3x — 2, what is (AA1)))?
Apa Cm 17. [X49 pH is a measure of the acidity
or alkalinity of a solution, and it
B. 1 eS
equals —log [H*], where H” is the hydroger
3. Ina right triangle, tan 6 = a Which is sin 6? ion concentration measured in moles
per liter. For instance, oven cleaner has
seenEY a hydrogen ion concentration of about
s Saue 2 x 10-* moles per liter, so its pH equals
(—log 2) + 13, which is 12.7. What is the
pH of coffee, which has a hydrogen ion
concentration of about 8.7 X 107°? State the
answer to the nearest tenth.
18. Express 2 log, 5 + 3 log, 2 — log, 4 asa
logarithm of a single number.
19. Find the 16th term in the sequence: —30,
4. lf(b + 2)\(b + 5) = —3b — 15 and a = 4b — 10, pe Oc
find the value of a.
20. Write the series in expanded form:
5. Factor: (x + 4)(x — 5) — 11x + 56
3 (31 + 16)
Exercises 6-8: Simplify each expression. n=4

x +2x-—3 21. EEN A small business sells $28,000

x7 -9 worth of hair care products during its first
7 V 2x?+ 16x + 32 year of operation. The owner decides to set
a goal of increasing annual sales by $3500
8. V-5 - v2 each year thereafter. Assuming the goal is
met, what is the total revenue in its first
Exercises 9-10: Solve each equation. 10 years of operation?
9047 6 = 2) 27 22. The first term in a geometric sequence is 30
To get the next term, you multiply by 2.
10. = ee:= Cy) ee What is the sixth term in the sequence?

460 Cumulative Review

3. Prove that the infinite harmonic 27. What is the equation of the graph shown?
aad in Beck State your answer using the cosine function.
4a —ta.)
SCHeSsa=e tt ... has no sum (that

is, it does not converge). In the series, the

number in the denominator increases by 1
each term. To do this, group the terms of
: hil al iL 1 it
the series as —, — + —, —-+—+=—+=
bo39 4°56 7 peau 28. [TM A person gets on a Ferris wheel
so on, and show that each of these sums is
with a radius of 27 meters at its lowest
greater than or equal to L. position. If the ride took 4 minutes and
2 made 30 complete revolutions, write an
4. For positive integers n, how do the equation that represents the vertical
displacement, d, in meters from the center of
expansions of (a + b)" and (a — b)" differ?
the Ferris wheel as a function of time, t, in
5. What angle, in radians, does the hour hand minutes.
make with th itive x-axis?
ie fae 29. [PRE Use the triangle below to answer
the questions.

2,

| bess
36
a Prove that the triangle is a right triangle
6. State sin 6 based on the diagram. The ratio by using the Pythagorean theorem.
may be undefined. b Show that the values in the triangle
satisfy the trigonometric identity
sin? @ + cos? @= 1.
c Describe a similarity with the
Pythagorean theorem and the identity
sin? 6 + cos* 6= 1.

Chapters 1-9 461

Chapter

Chapter Content
Lessons Standards

10.1 Introduction to Probability ax © S-CP.1; S-CP.2; S-MD.6

Experimental Probability
Theoretical Probability and Sample Spaces
Simulations

10.2 independent Events, the Multiplication eG © S-CP.1; S-CP.2; S-CP.4

Rule, and Compound Events
Independent Events and the Multiplication Rule

Compound Events

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules © S-CP.1; S-CP.7; S-MD.7

“Or” and the Addition Rule
Mutually Exclusive Events and the Addition Rule
The Subtraction Rule
Multi-Part Problem Practice

10.4 Conditional Probability © S-CP.3; S-CP.4; S-CP.5; S-CP.6

Conditional Probability and Independent Events
Conditional Probability and Two-Way Tables

10.5 The Normal Distribution G S-ID.4

Approximating the Area Under the Normal Curve: z-Scores

Calculation Using a z-Score Chart

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization G) 9 1C-1 $-1C.2; S-1C.3

Surveys, Observational Studies, and Experimental Studies

Randomization and Lurking Variables

Multi-Part Problem Practice

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence G S-IC.1; S-IC.2; S-IC.4; $-IC.5; S-IC.6;

Intervals, and Margin of Error S-MD.7
Means and Proportions
Confidence Interval and Margin of Error
Computing the Margin of Error

CHAPTER 10 KEY IDEAS AND REVIEW

CUMULATIVE REVIEW FOR CHAPTERS 1-10

462 Chapter 10: Probability

Vocabulary
addition rule experimental study outcome

bias independent event placebo

binomial distribution independently combined probability
probability model
coefficient of variation lurking variable proportion

complement margin of error randomization

compound event medical trial sample space

conditional probability multiplication rule side effect

confidence interval mutually exclusive standard deviation

confidence level normal curve subtraction rule

dependent events normal distribution survey

event observation theoretical probability

experimental probability observational study two-way table

LESSON 10.1 eamecscosmeee

ee

10.1 Introduction to Probability

Experimental Probability
You have learned previously that probability is the study of how likely it is
that some event or set of events will occur. There are two ways to determine the
probability of an event: experimental probability or theoretical probability.
Experimental probability is based on observation. Say you toss a coin 100 times
and record the outcome each time. Each of those results, also called outcomes,
is an observation. Based on the observations, you can calculate an experimental
probability that some event or set of events occurs.
# of times event A occurs
EA) = # of observations
The experimental probability of an event A, P(A), equals the number of times
A occurs, divided by the total number of observations.

10.1 Introduction to Probability 463

 MODEL PROBLEM
[FY What is the probability a person prefers candidate
Jones, based on the data of a survey of people about their g
preferences for candidates in an election? e
SOLUTION 3
3)
Formula for P(A) = # of times event A occurs 4 . —
experimental # of observations Jones Peters ~Undecided
probability # of ia wh f Candidate Preference
|... PiJones) ape
= pete The probability a person prefers Jones —
oe equals the number of people who prefer _
Jones divided by the number of Pee :
surveyed.
oF
Substitute PQones) = =
628 2= ———-
6B = 0.57 _The chart says 628 people
| :
prefer Jones,
628 + 428+ 44 1100 so put that in the numerator and divide.

Theoretical Probability and Sample Spaces

Unlike experimental probability, which is determined from observations,
theoretical probability is determined using reasoning and analysis. In theoretical
probability, we assume that all outcomes are equally likely. Classic examples
include the outcomes from flipping a fair coin, rolling a fair number cube, drawing
a single card from a well-shuffled deck, spinning a fair spinner, etc.
Suppose you flip a fair coin and then roll a fair six-sided number cube. What is the
probability that the outcome is (Heads (H), 5)? To begin answering this question,
we need to determine the sample space, which is the set of all possible outcomes
of some action. The sample space is shown below.

Hist H, 4 Gal T,4

a Ee} ie cS

H, 3 H, 6 Lio T6

We can see there are 12 possible outcomes and of those, only one is (H, 5). To
calculate the probability of this event, we use the following formula:

# of outcomes of event A
P(A) =
# of outcomes in the sample space
Theoretical probability equals the number of ways an event can occur divided
by the number of possible outcomes.

Thas, P(Hs5) is.= = which is about 8.3%. Note that as a decimal, probability is
always a value between 0 and 1. Recall that decimal values can be converted to
percents by multiplying the decimal by 100.

464 Chapter 10: Probability

We show one of four similar activities below. In these activities, you can simulate
hundreds or even thousands of coin tosses. If two coins are tossed, the theoretical
probability is that 50% of the time, the outcome is one heads and one tails. The
theoretical probability for both heads is 25%, and the theoretical probability for both
tails is 25%. Complete 4 simulations of tossing coins. Do the probabilities you observe
match the model discussed above? Does this make you question the model? Conduct
this same experiment 5 times. How often do the outcomes match the theoretical
model? Then run the simulation 100 times, and do this 5 times. How close are the
probabilities you observe to the theoretical model? Then run the simulation about
1000 times (you may want to let it run in the background as you work on another
task—and if it runs more than 1000 times, that's fine). How does the additional data
work to help you support or reject the theoretical model?

Three Coins Tossed

The outcomes of
theoretical and
experimental
models often are
not identical.

Number of Heads

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. Say you have a fair coin and 4 equally sized cards that are red, green, blue, and yellow,
respectively. You close your eyes and drawa card, and then you flip the coin.
a What is the sample space for this problem?
b What is the probability that the outcome is (Blue, Heads)?

SOLUTION
a Create the sample space

Red __|(Red,Heads)| (Red,Tails)_|

Blue |(BlueHeads)|(Blue,Tails)_|
b_ Use the data There is only one outcome that is (Blue, Heads)
out of the 8 outcomes in the sample space.
Then P(Blue, Heads) = - = 12.5%.
Model Problems continue...

10.1 Introduction to Probability 465

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. You have a fair spinner numbered 1 through 3 and a small bag containing a red chip, a blue chip,
and a purple chip. You spin the spinner and then select one of the chips from the bag without
looking.
a What is the probability that the spinner lands on an odd number and you select a red chip
from the bag?
b What is the probability that you spin an odd number or select a red chip from the bag?
c Explain why these two events, odd number and red chip, an odd number or red chip,
do not have the same probability of occurring.

SOLUTION
a Create the sample space

Use the sample space There are 2 outcomes in which you spin an odd number
and select a red card. Since there are 9 possible outcomes,
PiOdd. R) is :~ 22%.
b Count the number of times the The outcomes of “spin an odd number or select a red card”
events of interest occur and include (1, R); (2, R); @, R); (1, B); (3, B); (L, P); and (3, P).
compute probability The probability of spinning an odd number or drawing a
red card is 7= 78%.

c Interpret your sample space In part a, both events must occur for the outcome to count.
and probabilities There are only two outcomes in which an odd number
is spun and a red chip is drawn. In part b, either event
occurring counts that outcome in the probability. Since
there are more outcomes with either an odd number or a
red card, that probability is greater.
Model Problems continue...

466 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© /MP 1,5, 7. a If you roll a pair of dice, what is the probability that the total on the two dice will be 7?
b Graph the outcome—the sums of the two dice—based on their frequency of occurring.
If you were given only the frequency graph of the outcomes, what conclusion could
you draw about the probabilities associated with rolling a pair of dice?
SOLUTION
a Create sample The sample space represents all the
space possible outcomes when two dice are
rolled. To make it easier to see all the
outcomes in the sample space, we use one
green die and one black die. For instance,
the outcome on the upper right, 1, 6,
means the green die came up 1 and the
black die came up 6.

Count number of Number of times dice total 7 is 6 All the outcomes where the dice total 7
times event occurs are circled. There are 6 such outcomes.

Count total 36 outcomes There are 36 outcomes in the sample

number of space.
outcomes

Compute The probability of the dice totaling 7is -

probability i
or é because there are 6 outcomes where
the dice total 7 and 36 outcomes in the
sample space.

b Sample space Use the sample space to graph the

distribution frequencies of various outcomes. For
instance, there is one cell in the sample
space with an outcome of a sum of 2, so
put up a bar of height 1. Continue for each
Frequency outcome. If you were to examine only the
me TUT
frequency graph of the outcomes, you
3 4 Dao) would know that the sum with the highest
Outcome probability is 7, and that the probabilities
of the remaining sums are symmetric
about 7.

10.1 Introduction to Probability 467

Simulations
In the theoretical probabilities listed on page 467, we imagined performing a
single repetition of an experiment with equally likely outcomes. For example, we
considered flipping a coin one time and then drawing a single card and recorded
the outcome. What if we decided to perform multiple repetitions, called iterations,
of our experiment? We could flip a coin and then draw a card 25 times, recording
the result each time. This could show us if one outcome was more likely than
another, but it wouldn’t give us the whole picture of an outcome’s probability.
What if we decided to flip a coin and then drawacard for 20 sets of 25 iterations?
Or 50 sets of 25 iterations? Or 100 sets of 25 iterations? Each time we perform
and record the results of another set of iterations, we draw closer and closer to
the true experimental probability of each possible outcome in the sample space.
Performing experiments like these helps us to determine the true probability
that an event or set of events will occur (or not occur). We can also compare our
experimental outcome with the theoretical probability to test the assumptions we
used to calculate the theoretical probability. These experiments can also help us to
determine whether a number cube, coin, or spinner is truly fair, which is the usual
assumption in a calculation of a theoretical probability. Of course, it is quite time
consuming to sit and flip a coin, then draw a card, and record the results hundreds
of times. To help us with the process, we use technology to perform the simulation
and automatically record and graph the results.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. A circular spinner is divided into five sectors. A student spun the arrow on the spinner 25 times
and recorded that the arrow stopped on the space marked “1” a total of 3 times out of 25 spins.
To determine if the spinner was fair, the student then used a program to simulate the number of
times the arrow stopped on the number 1 in 25 spins of a fair spinner equally divided into five
sections. The results of 1,000 trials of the simulation are shown below. Based on the results of the
simulation, is there statistical evidence that the spinner is fair? Why or why not?
Simulation Results

_S
—_ glSo
SS

Frequency
OlSo

88 o ea
YZ

Teese O10 1 12 13-14e lS: 160171819 20h 22°23. 24 25

Number of “1” Spins
SOLUTION
Interpret When spinning a fair spinner, each of the outcomes is theoretically equally likely. Thus,
the when the outcome choices are 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, we should land on the number 1 about 20% of
graph the time. In each iteration, we spun the spinner 25 times and 20% of 25 is 5. In this graph,
LOO :
we see that the spinner head landed on the desired outcome 1,000 ~ 19% of the time.
Since 19% is close to the theoretical 20% we are looking for, we can be fairly certain the
spinner is fair.
Another type of simple simulation involves using coins, cards, a spinner, or some other type of device
that produces equally likely outcomes to simulate a certain outcome as in the next model problem.
Model Problems continue...

468 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
) 3 |MP2, 4| 78% of the students in a town go to one school, and the
rest go to another. The city council wants to decide which school Different simulations with
will get a new football field based on the probability of some different probabilities,
chance outcome, where the probability matches the student such as a deck of 52
percents. cards or a coin toss,
a How might they do this by flipping a coin? can be used to model
decisions.
b How about using a deck of playing cards?

SOLUTION

a Coin Create a sample space for a coin flipped twice. The

probability of two heads is 1 out of 4 outcomes, or
25%. The probability of any of the other 3 outcomes
is 3 out of 4, or 75%. That is not exactly 78%, but
close.

If anything but heads twice, Two heads has 25% probability, not 22%. Are there
then the 78% school gets it. better ways to use a coin? Yes. For instance, the
probability of tossing a coin 8 times and obtaining
any outcome other than 3 heads and 5tails is 78%.
You’re welcome to show this by counting in the
sample space.

b Cards Remove 2 cards (leaving 50) The probability of picking a “78% school”
Write “78% school” on 39 of the cards card is exactly 78%.
Pick a card, any card
a9
—=78
50 g

In this activity, solve various probability problems. With each question, you risk money.
> If you are correct, you win it. If not, you lose it.

YOUR WINNINGS
HUT TEU
Puy mpm eed
ais WI
‘our-sided dice, each vB cou
having numbers from
| 41to 4, which
which of of the
th ] 70 ‘gi
following isthe most ||} MIL
likely sum?

SHOW ANSWER

10.1 Introduction to Probability 469

PRACTICE
1. A jar contains 4 white, 14 blue, 18 yellow, . If you flip a fair coin and then roll a fair
and 7red jellybeans. Suppose that you 6-sided number cube, what is the probability
draw out 3 jellybeans and they are yellow, that the outcome is (tails, odd number)?
blue, and yellow. If you don’t replace those
. Shanta states that the probability of rolling
3 jellybeans, what is the probability that 2 fair, six-sided number cubes and having
your 4th draw results in a yellow jellybean?
their faces show a sum of 7 is the same as
2 Zz the probability of rolling doubles (both
Ao eS number cubes showa 1, both show a2, etc.).
20 : 5
Is she correct?
18 3
i 43 a 40 . What is the theoretical probability of rolling
a prime number with a single die?
. Annelise randomly draws a card from a
well-shuffled, standard 52-card deck, and
. What is the probability that when you roll
then she flips a coin. Which of the following two dice, they total 10?
statements is true? 10. Suppose you roll two four-sided dice,
I. The probability of drawing a jack of numbered from1 to 4.
se
des is is.—=3
spades ~ a What is the most likely sum of the dice?
b What is the probability that the dice will
II. The probability of the coin landing on total 7?
eel 11. What is the probability that when you roll
heads is —.
eads is 5 two six-sided dice, they total 5?
Ill. The probability of drawing a diamond 12. Last year in November it rained 18 days,
snowed 2 days, and there was no
is =A precipitation on the other 10 days. Based on
those observations, what is the experimental
I only probability that it will rain on a random day
II only in November of this year?
I and II only 13. The theoretical probability of flipping a coin
UOw>
I, U, and II and landing on heads is 50%. Mrs. Nuria has
each of her 30 students flip the same coin
. What is the probability that two six-sided once and records that it landed on heads
dice numbered from 1 to 6 will sum to 4?
18 times and tails 12 times. Are these results
il 1 enough to conclude the coin is not fair? Why
A. 6 c 1D or why not?
1 1 14. You pour out half a bag of jelly beans,
eee ID): See
: 9 18 and 17 of the 25 are red. Then you return
them to the bag. What is the experimental
. The tally below shows the number of times probability of randomly pulling out a red
that Jim and Rob won games of checkers. jelly bean from the bag?
What is the experimental probability that
Rob beats Jim in future games? 15. Valeri surveys 52 people and determines
that 14 of them would vote for Rodriguez
jimi TPIETITT1 for president. How could Valeri design an
Robs TIPE experiment, based on the probability of
some chance outcome, where the probability
. What is the theoretical probability of getting
matches the results of his survey?
one tail and one head when you flip a coin
twice? Practice Problems continue...

470 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued ...
16. Lule is playing a game with her
Simulation Results
brother. She notices that of the
3 color choices available on the
spinner, each occupying eof the
circle, the arrowhead lands on VY] | S| eo K

: 7 D
Frequency | VA RS

blue more often than of the

time. Lule suspects the spinner
is not fair, so she runs a Number of Blue Spins
computer simulation with
1,000 iterations of 50 spins. The results are shown above. Is Lule’s spinner fair? Why or why not?

17. A bag contains two kinds of fruit, peaches 21. The draft in a professional sports association
and apples. The probability of picking wants to determine a random method for
a peach is 0.4, and there are 60 peaches. awarding the first pick to one of the bottom
How many apples are in the bag? two teams. If they want the team with the
worst record to have a two-thirds chance of
18 A bag contains two kinds of fruit, oranges
getting the first draft pick, how would you
and pears. The probability of picking an
use a die to determine which team gets the
orange is 0.3, and there are 24 oranges.
first draft?
How many pears are in the bag?
Exercises 22-24: There are two six-sided dice.
19 Consider rolling two three-sided dice. The numbers on each die go from one to six.
a Fill in the sample space for the two 22. What is the probability that the sum and
three-sided dice. product of the dice are the same?
23 What is the probability that the sum is
greater than the product of the dice?
24 What is the probability that the product is at
least 5 greater than the sum of the dice?
25. Ten balls numbered from 0 to 9 are
consecutively placed in a bingo wheel. A
person rolls the wheel and draws a ball,
b What is the probability of an even total, places it back in the wheel, and draws
stated as a percent? another ball.
c What is the probability of an odd total, a How many possible ways can the sum of
stated as a percent? the two drawn balls be equal to 10?
d What is the probability of the dice totaling b Based on part a, determine the
5, stated as a fraction? probability that the sum is 10.
e What is the probability the total will be c Aperson rolls the wheel and draws
prime? two balls without replacement. How
many possible ways can the sum be 10?
20 Create a sample space to answer the questions
below. There are two five-sided dice. The d Based on part c, determine the probability
numbers on each die go from one to five. that the sum is 10.
e Explain how the results of the scenarios
a What is the probability that the dice
in parts a—b differ from parts c—d.
sum to 4?
b What is the probability that the dice 26. Kim was givena fair six-sided die. She did
sum to an even number? an experiment by rolling the die exactly
30 times, resulting in each number appearing
c What is the probability that the dice 5 times each, confirming the theoretical
sum to an odd number? probabilities. She then states that for any
d What is the probapility that the dice 6n rolls, the number 2 will appear exactly
sum to 8 or a larger number? n times. Is her statement correct? Explain.
Practice Problems continue. . .
10.1 Introduction to Probability 471
Practice Problems continued...
27. What are some of the uses of finding 33. EUQZY Ata party, one of the 18 guests will be
probabilities through experiments? given a special prize. To choose the winner,
each guest has an envelope, and one envelope
ee eae ee age orpsing contains a card saying “You are the winner!”
The guests open the envelopes one at a time.
29. [TEE] How might you use probability to Seven guests have opened their envelopes,
your advantage in board games involving with no winners before Christy’s turn. What
dice? is the probability that out of the remaining
GE Ea -
BOSE plain hovayouaie aaa a envelopes, Christy’s has the winning paper?
experiments and use probabilities to 34. [UPI Lucky you. You have acquired two
predict the weather on a given day. fake quarters, one that has heads on both
sides and one that has tails on both sides.
31. A report states that approximately 5.3 people You put them in your pocket with a genuine
live in a single dwelling in India. If you quarter, draw out one coin at random, and
randomly survey 1000 homes, how many place it on a table. The side you can see is
people do you expect to find? heads. What is the probability the other side
32. A study finds that each household in the is also heads?
United States owns an estimated 2.28 cars.
If you randomly survey 5000 households,
how many cars should you expect to find?

LESSON 16.2 someeemmeneormmweseneeee ee

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule,

and Compound Events
Independent Events and the Multiplication Rule
In probability, we are often interested in the likelihood that more than one event
occurs. One way we can represent the relationship among events is by using “and”
probability. For example, we might want to know the probability that a student
earns an A on our math review assignment and earns an A on the associated math
test.
There are different methods to display data associated with “and” events. One
way is to use a two-way table, which is a visual representation of the different
possible relationships between two categorical variables.

Earned A on Review Did Not Earn A on Total

Assignment Review Assignment
Earned A on Test

DidNetrant Aon Tet |ial}

| roe
Another way we might display the relationship among “and” events is to use
a Venn diagram, as shown on the next page. The expression P(A and B) is the
probability of both events A and B occurring. This set is the area in the diagram
where A and B overlap. The intersection of A and B is written A N B, so P(A N B)
is the probability that both A and B occur. In this case, let event A be “earning an A
on the review assignment” and let event B be “earning an A on the test.”

472 Chapter 10: Probability

 Then, according to the two-way table on the previous page,
16 17: 2,
P(A)
(A) = ——
30 = 053, PB)
(B) = ——
aj = 0.
0.57, and P(A N B) 5 A.
0.40
This information is represented on the Venn diagram to the right.
If one of the events that we are interested in depends on the other
event occurring, we say those events are dependent events. The
example above of earning an A on a math review assignment and earning an A on
the associated math test are dependent events. In contrast, independent events
are events in which the outcome of one has no effect on the probability of another
occurring. Another way to state this is that the fact that one event occurs does not
affect the probability of the other occurring.
The probability that two independent events both occur can be calculated using
the multiplication rule: The probability that both events occur equals the product
of the probabilities of the two events. In fact, this is the definition of independent
events: the events A and B are independent if and only if P(A and B) = P(A) - P(B). Lee
multiplication
rule holds, two
Multiplication rule: events are
With two independent events A and B, P(A and B) = P(A) - P(B). independent. If
it does not, they |
One can recognize if two events are independent using this rule. For instance, are dependent. |
let us say the probability of “rain” is 0.3 and “carrying an umbrella” is 0.1. If the
probability of both is 0.05, the events are not independent. If they were independent,
the product would be 0.3 - 0.1 = 0.03.
On the other hand, let’s assume the probability of taking a green marble from
a bag is 0.4 and the probability of drawing a diamond card from a deck is
0.25. If the probability of doing both is 0.1, the events are independent, since
0.4 - 0.25 = 0.1. These two events occurring together would be considered an
independently combined probability model.

, In this activity, solve various probability problems that get harder and harder! With
each question, you risk money. If you are correct, you win it. If not, you lose it.

ae

' QUESTION #1 || Malan

ee
| ismost
What =e Pe a Sm
ee
probable? Each guess | Vy wy —
S S you COULD PROBABLy fe Ss
is independent and |

cretpesss | | 2 a MILLIONAIRE
the probability of a |

function of the
~S
number of options. ] PICK AN ANSWER

pam yieee
Pipe epi)
SHOW ANSWER

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and Compound Events 473
 MODEL PROBLEMS
1. The two-way table below depicts the events “enrolled in a high school calculus class” and “has a
part-time job” for the student body of Springfield Senior High School. Prove the events “enrolled
in a high school calculus class” and “has a part-time job” are dependent.
, Does Not Have a
Has a Part-Time Job Pot melee

Enrolled in Calculus 370

Not Enrolled in Calculus
500
SOLUTION
If the events are independent, Apply the multiplication rule. In this case, event A is “enrolled in
we know the multiplication high school calculus” and event B is “has a part-time job.” So,
rule will be true. Otherwise, — P(4 - B) 2 P(A) - P(B)
the events are dependent. 200 » 370 500
1000 1000 1000
0.20 # 0.185
Since the left-hand side does not equal the right-hand side, the
multiplication rule does not hold and the events are dependent.

2. Suppose that you know the events “always wears a seatbelt” and “listens to the radio in the car” are
independent events.
If P(always wears a seatbelt) = 0.89 and P(always wears a seatbelt M listens to the radio in the car) =
0.55, what is P(listens to the radio)?

SOLUTION
We know the events are independent, so we We substitute and solve for the unknown probability:
can apply the multiplication rule to solve P(A NM B) = P(A) - P(B)
for P(listens to the radio). 0.55 = 0.89 - [P(B)]
0.62 ~ P(B)
62% = P(B)

3. There is a 30% chance Julie will work on Saturday and The multiplication rule can apply to
a 70% chance of rain. There is a 50% chance her favorite
3, 4, or however many independent
hockey team will win that evening. If the events are events there are. Their probabilities
independent, what is the probability that on Saturday can be multiplied as long as they
Julie works in the rain and her hockey team wins? are independent.
SOLUTION
Multiplication P(A and B and C) A represents the event that Julie works, B the
rule A = Julie works event that it rains, and C the event that her
B = It rains hockey team wins. Calculate the probability
C = Team wins that all three occur. Since the events are
independent, use the multiplication rule.

Model Problems continue...

474 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Substitute and P(A) = 30% = 0.3 Write the probabilities and multiply. The
evaluate P(B) =.70% = 0:7 probability of Julie working in the rain and her
P(C) = 50% = 0.5 hockey team winning is 10.5%.
P(A and B and C) = 0.3 - 0.7: 0.5
P(A and B and C) = 0.105
P(A and B and C) = 10.5%

4. Achain department store opened a new location in a town with a population of 1,000 people. Prior
to their grand opening, the company marketing department used a mailing list to send out an
advertisement to half of the residents, which included a coupon for 20% off a single item. When
the store opened, they counted the number of people who attended and whether or not they had
received a coupon. The segregated data follows.

Attended Store Did Not Attend

Opening Store Opening
| Received a Coupon
Did Not Receive a Coupon
Total

a_ Are the events “attended store opening” and “received a coupon” independent or dependent?
Justify your answer using probabilities calculated from the table.
b What can we conclude about the events “attended store opening” and “received a coupon”
based on this table?
SOLUTION
a Weuse the multiplication rule _ If the events are independent, then the multiplication rule will
to determine independence hold true.
Let event A = Attended store opening
Let event B = Received a coupon
P(A(1B) i P(A) PB)
4700 25, 00
1000 1000 1000
0.47 # 0.3975
Since the left-hand side is not equal to the right-hand side, the
multiplication rule does not hold and the events are dependent.
b_ Use the two-way table to Out of 1,000 people, half received a Remenen
calculate probabilities and .. coupon. Of those 500 people, Dependence + |
to draw a conclusion 470 attended the store’s opening and Causation /
30 did not. It is tempting to conclude ———ne
that receiving the coupon caused residents to attend the
opening, but dependence is not equivalent to causation.
The best we can say is that receiving the coupon increased
the likelihood that a randomly selected town resident attended
the store’s opening.

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and Compound Events 475
Compound Events
In lesson 10.1 we discussed the probability of two simple events happening
together, such as the outcomes that occur when we flip a fair coin and draw a
card from a well-shuffled deck. Although we did not formally define it as such,
a composition of two or more events such as these is called a compound event.
We can easily calculate the probability of compound events.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. If you draw 5 cards from a well-shuffled deck, what is the experimental Is the
probability that at least one of those cards is both a club and a numbered card? | theoretical
probability of
SOLUTION
this occurring
Usea Let’s imagine a simulation. Five cards are drawn, with each card equal to 0.5?
simulation returned to the deck before the next card is drawn. Repeat the No! This is an
5-card draw three more times. Now imagine that among the four experimental
5-card draws there are two draws in which at least one card is a procedure. If
numbered club: two successes in a sample space of four tries. we did several
hundred draws,
Calculate P(club and numbered card) = ae 0.5 The simulation showed an
the empirical
probability ; experimental probability of <
result would
0.5 that if you draw 5 cards at
become close to |
a time with replacement, you the theoretical |
will get at least one numbered
probability.
club card.

2. The events A, B, C, D, and Eare all independent. The probability of event A occurring is a; the
probability of B occurring is b; the probability of C occurring is c; and so on. The probability of all
these events occurring is
eed 0 Ot. +e
Pa lea
bt cck d+ é)
C. The product of a, b,c, d, and e.

D. eee
Ee SO EY 2
SOLUTION
A. This is the probability of events A or B or C or D or E occurring.
B. This is the complement of A or B or C or D or E occurring.
C. Correct answer. Since the probability of each event is independent, their probabilities can
be multiplied. Using the multiplication rule, the probability of all of the events occurring
is P(all events) =a-b-c-d-e.
D. This is the reciprocal of the probability of all of the events occurring. Model Problems continue... .

476 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

»@ DLE RTA breed of dog can be white, black, or chocolate-colored. 25% of the breed will be
chocolate-colored, and that is the color we want. What is the probability that if we visit a breeder
who hasalitter of 6 puppies, we will find a puppy that is chocolate-colored that we will take
home and love?

SOLUTION

Use ae sis|s|sias) Use cards as a simulation system. We use 4 cards (the jack,
queen, king, and ace of spades), with the ace representing
BABES the 25% probability of a chocolate-colored puppy. Draw the
cards with replacement—once a card is drawn, it is replaced
QA ASK8 back to the four cards. This means for each draw of the cards,
there is always a 25% possibility of the ace, which represents
‘als[e|S|Sfal
>
¢
a 25% probability of chocolate-colored. Six draws simulate the
six-puppy litter. Perform five simulations to get a reasonable
sfalats EV) amount of data. Our results are on the left.

Calculate © P(chocolate puppy in the litter) = == 08 Four of the five times, there were
probability ’ one or more chocolate-colored
puppies. Again, this is a small
experimental sample space so it
should not be used to draw any
conclusion.

4. Suppose that you flip a fair coin more than once. Ist flip 2nd flip 3rdflip 4th flip
What is the probability that
a_ the coin comes up heads four times in a row?
b_ the coin comes up tails six times in a row?
SOLUTION
a To determine the probability of this event, we need to
find the sample space. Listing all the possible outcomes
by hand can get tedious and it would be easy to make
a mistake. Since this is a compound event of simple
probability, we can use a tree diagram to help us.
Let H = a result of heads and T = aresult of tails.
Reading the branches of the tree, we can see that the
sample space for this compound event is:

HHHH HTHH THHH REEL

HHAT HTHT THIEL al AT.

HHTH Fhe THOn PEE EL

HAT PEEL LETTE PEE

1
There are 16 outcomes in this sample space and only 1 that is all heads. PHHHH) = Tea 6.25%.
Model Problems continue...

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and Compound Events 477
 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

b We can create a tree diagram that incorporates the outcomes for 6 flips of a coin, or we can reason
through the problem using the tree diagram for4flips of a fair coin to help us.
When we flip the coin once, there are 2 outcomes in the sample space, (H)eads or (T)ails. If we flip
the coin twice, there are 4 outcomes: (HH), (HT), (TH), or (TT). Likewise, if we flip three times,
there are 8 outcomes, and we found that if we flip the coin 4 times, that results in 16 outcomes in
the sample space. Continuing the pattern:
1 flip = 2 outcomes
2 flips = 4 outcomes
3 flips = 8 outcomes
4 flips = 16 outcomes
5 flips = 32 outcomes
6 flips = 64 outcomes
If we flip a coin 6 times, there are 64 outcomes. Notice that no matter how many times we flip the
coin, there is only one outcome that is all tails; we can reason that the same will be true for 6 flips.
Thus, P(TTTTTT) = = = 15605%.

PRACTICE
1. Patrick rolls a die and flips a coin. What is 4. Suppose that the type of car you drive is
the probability he will roll a 6 and get heads? independent from your favorite fruit. If the
1 1 probability that a randomly selected person
NGS parome pig
cae
2 S 2 drives a red car is 0.10 and the probability
i 2 that a randomly selected individual likes
| Ds oranges best and drives a red car is 0.08,
6 2
what is the probability that a randomly
2. A jar contains a ratio of 2 green to 3 blue to selected person likes oranges best?
5 white marbles. What is the probability of Exercises 5-10: Find the probabilities. Assume a
selecting a green marble first, a blue marble number cube has six sides.
second, and a white marble last?
il What is the probability of rolling a number
A
24 cube and getting the number 6 three times in
Zz a row?
Dae,
57 . What is the probability of rolling a number
3 cube and getting the number 2 four times in
es 100 a row?
D. Not enough information . What is the probability of anumber cube
coming up an even number three times in a
. The probability a randomly selected row?
individual has green eyes is 0.02. The
probability that a randomly selected . What is the probability of a number cube
individual has brown hair is 0.25. If eye color coming up an odd number four times in a
is independent from hair color, what is the row?
probability that a randomly selected person
- What is the probability of rolling a number 2
will have green eyes and brown hair?
or greater three times in a row?
Practice Problems continue...

478 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued ...
10. What is the probability of rolling a number 4 15. There are 5 green marbles, 3 blue marbles,
or less four times in a row? and 2 red marbles in a bag. If you pick
11. Suppose that you are a clerk ina 1 marble and then pick a second without
convenience store. Let A be the event that replacing the first, what is the probability
the first customer you help pays with a you will pick 2 blue marbles?
credit card, and let B be the event that the 16. An insurance agent sells car insurance
second customer you help pays with cash. and life insurance. The probability that a
What is P(A M B)? randomly selected client has car insurance
is 85%. The probability that a randomly
selected client has life insurance is 30%.
What is the probability that a randomly
selected client has both car and life
insurance?
17. An algebra class consists of 18 male students
and 12 female students. Each day, the
teacher randomly selects 3 students from
12. The following two-way table represents the the class to present their work on a problem.
Friday night plans and respective GPAs of What is the probability that the teacher
the senior class of an American high school. randomly selects 3 female students, if no one
student can be selected twice?
Goes Out | Stays In
on Friday | on Friday 18. A player’s union is negotiating new
Nights contracts. The probability that they reach
an agreement on a pay increase is 30%, the
Has a GPA of ; probability that an agreement is reached
508
3.0 or Greater | 7 a ES on work hours is 53%, and the probability
Has a GPA that an agreement is reached on both issues
Less Than 3.0 292 200 is 16%. Are the events “pay increase” and
578__| 1,000|
1,000
“work hours” independent? How do you
know?
a Are the events “goes out on Friday 19. A batter is taking batting practice.
nights” and “has a GPA less than 3.0” The probability she hits a ball is 0.4, that she
independent? Why or why not? swings and misses is 0.3, that she does not
b Suppose we would like the events “has a swing is 0.25, and that she is hit by the ball
GPA of 3.0 or greater” and “goes out on is 0.05. Each swing is an independent event.
Friday nights” to be independent. How a What is the probability that she hits the
would the value in the highlighted cell ball two times in a row?
need to change, assuming the numbers in b What is the probability that she swings
the Total column and row do not change? and misses three times in a row?
13. What is the probability that you flip a coin c What is the probability she hits the ball,
and it comes up heads, tails, tails, heads, in and then swings and misses two times in a
that order? row?
d What is the probability that she does not
14. You simultaneously flip a coin and roll a swing twice in a row, and then gets hit by
six-sided die. What is the probability that a ball?
the coin turns up heads and you roll a prime
number? Remember that 1 is not prime.
Practice Problems continue...

40.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and Compound Events 479
Practice Problems continued...

20. PRY The probability that a randomly 25. The probability of an arrow hitting a region
on the target below is proportional to the
selected person will vote for Coleman is = area of that region of the target. All triangles
for Mareike is = and for Alban is a in the image are equilateral. Each shot is
independent, and all shots hit the target.
A computer randomly dials telephone
numbers to ask voters whom they prefer.
a What is the probability of hearing
Coleman followed by Mareike?
b What is the probability of hearing
Mareike three times in a row?
c What is the probability of hearing Alban,
Alban, Mareike? a What is the probability that three
d What is the probability of hearing consecutive shots fired will hit the shaded
Mareike, Mareike, and then Coleman? region? State your answer in decimal
21. You are playing a game with a die where
form.
you only move if the die comes up an even b What is the probability that three
number. How many times must you roll the consecutive shots fired will hit the white
die so that the probability of rolling an even region? State your answer in decimal
number every time is less than 0.1? form.

22. You are playing a game with a die where 26. Suppose you draw four cards in succession
you get a bonus every time you roll a5 or from a deck, putting each card back after
a 6. How many times must you roll the die you draw it. Make a prediction about the
so that the probability of getting a bonus probability of drawing a diamond as one
every time is less than 0.05? of the four cards. Repeat this experiment
20 times and record the number of times
23. There are 25 jelly beans: 16 blue, 5 green, you draw a diamond as one of the
and 4 red. You take jelly beans from a bag 4 drawn cards. Are you surprised by
and give them to a friend, who eats them. your experimental probability?
a What is the probability of first drawing 27. Sketch a Venn diagram that represents the
a green bean then a red? probability of A and B and C.
b What is the probability of first drawing
a green bean followed by a blue? 28. Explain why P(A and B and C) S P(A and B),
c What is the probability of first drawing where A, B, and C are independent events.
a red bean then a green? 29. Give an example of 3 events, A, B, and C,
d What is the probability of first drawing in which A and B are dependent and B and
a blue bean followed by a green? C are independent.
e What is the probability of the first two 30. (TPA Stu has five pairs of matching
jelly beans being green?
socks in his drawer, each pair a different
f What is the probability of the first two color. He picks two socks at random from
jelly beans being red? the drawer. What is the probability he
24. Estimate the probability of obtaining an picked a matching pair?
odd prime from the roll of a single die 31. CEFF Given an eight-sided die
by rolling the die 30 times. Remember numbered from 3 to 10, find the probability
that 1 is not a prime number. How close that a prime smaller than 6 will appear at
is your experimental probability to the least once in five rolls.
theoretical probability? Is your experimental
probability a good indicator of future
outcomes? Explain.

480 Chapter 10: Probability

 LESSON 10.3 wnc2ueeeeee

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules

“Or” and the Addition Rule
Similar to how we can use the word “and” in probability, we can use the word “or”
to mean at least one of a set of events occurs. Probabilities that use the word “or”
are written P(A U B) and represent the probability of A or B occurring. An example
is the probability that you wear red socks or you wear jeans to school.

We can use a Venn diagram to illustrate the concept of “or.” The

probability of A or B occurring is the entire region covered by
the two ovals; it is the union of A and B. The probability of
A or B occurring is written as A U B.

We can use the diagram to derive the addition rule, which is used to
calculate P(A or B). As the diagram shows, the probability equals the
sum of the probability of A occurring and the probability of B occurring,
but minus the probability of both A and B occurring, P(A and B), so as not to
double count the events in the overlapping region of the Venn diagram.

Addition rule:
P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A and B)

MODEL PROBLEMS
)£3 CFA corporation manufacturing a car notes that 20% of potential customers would pay for
a convertible, 30% would pay for the premium sound system, and 5% would pay for both. What is
the probability that a customer would pay for a convertible or the premium sound system?
SOLUTION
Define terms P(C) = probability customers would pay for convertible = 20%
P(S) = probability customers would pay for premium sound system = 30%
PC and S) = 5%

Addition P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A and B) Restate the addition rule using the
rule PIC of S) = P(C) + P(S) — PC and 5) variables from the problem.
Substitute P(CorS)=02+03-—05 Substitute given values. The probability
and evaluate P(C or S) = 0.45 = 45% that customers would buy a convertible
or premium sound system is 45%. As we
would expect, this is less than the simple
sum of 20% and 30%, since a part of the
simple sum double counts the customers
who would pay for both. The subtraction
removes the doubling of the count.
Model Problems continue...

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules 481

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Of 100 students surveyed, 95 like chocolate or raisins, 35 like both chocolate and raisins, and
40 like raisins. How many students like chocolate?
SOLUTION
State C = likes chocolate The probability that a student likes certain
probabilities R = likes raisins foods equals the number of students who like
95 those foods divided by the total number of
P(C or R) = 100 0.95 students.

P(C and R) Joa

= 100 0.35

P(R) =Peal
100 0.4

Addition P(C or R) = P(C) + P(R) — P(Cand R) State the addition rule with C and R.
rule
Substitute 0.95 = P(C) + 0.4 — 0.35 Substitute the known probabilities.
probabilities
Solve for P(C) = 0.9 Solve for P(C), the probability that a student
P(C) likes chocolate.
chocolate likers
Find P(C) = By definition, the probability that students
number of eee like chocolate equals the number of
students Beco “chocolate likers” divided by the total
who like 0.9 ==a Sees number of students. Using this survey, we can
chocolate conclude there are a lot of chocolate fans out
chocolate likers = 90 out of 100 there because the probability that a student
likes chocolate is 0.9.

Mutually Exclusive Events and the Addition Rule

Two events are mutually exclusive if it is impossible for them both to
occur at the same time. For instance, if you roll a number cube once,
it cannot result in an outcome of both 3 and 5. Mutually exclusive
events are sometimes referred to as disjoint sets because their
intersection is the empty set, as shown in the Venn diagram to the right.
Since P(A MN B) = © for mutually exclusive events, we can simplify
the addition rule for these events:

Addition Rule for Mutually Exclusive Events

P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B)

482 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEM
In a board game, a spinner has a 0.3 probability of saying “draw again,” a 0.2 probability of saying
“return to start,” and a 0.5 probability of saying “take $200 from the bank.” Only one outcome is
possible per spin. On a given spin, what is the probability of “draw again” or “take $200 from the
bank” being the results?
SOLUTION

Define terms P(D) = draw again = 0.3

P(M) = take $200 = 0.5
Addition rule for mutually exclusive events P(D or M) = P(D) + P(M)
Substitute and evaluate P(D or M) = 0.3 + 0.5 = 0.8

The Subtraction Rule

The sum of the probabilities of all possible outcomes of an event i eee

equals 1. For instance, the probability of obtaining a heads ona
coin toss is 0.5, the probability of tails (the only other possible
outcome) is 0.5, and 0.5 + 0.5 = 1. Heads is the complement of
tails. If A is the event, the complement of A is what is not in A.

We can use a Venn diagram to illustrate the concept of “not.” The

probability of “not A” is covered by the gray region. Take the entire
area of the square, which is equal to 1, and subtract the circle A
to get “not A.”

We state the subtraction rule: The subtraction rule

states: The probability
Subtraction rule: that the event A will not
P(not A) = 1 — P(A) “= occur equals one minus
the probability that A will }
occur.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. There is a 25% probability that it will rain tomorrow. The probability that it will not rain
tomorrow is
A. Unknowable from this information C. The reciprocal of 0.25
BT UZ3 D. 0.75

SOLUTION
A. The probability that it will not rain tomorrow is the complement of the probability that it will rain
tomorrow. Since the probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.25, P(not rain) = 1 — 0.25 = 0.75.
B. This is the probability that it will rain tomorrow.
C. The complement is not found by taking the reciprocal.
i
D. Correct answer. As explained ine=11
above, P(not rain) 0.25 =
=:0.25 = 0.75
0.75: eer eta oS ae.

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules 483

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
2. Let event A be the probability that a randomly selected person prefers the color green, and let
event B be the probability a randomly selected person prefers to wear sandals. If P(A) = 0.40,
P(B) = 0.20, and the probability that a randomly selected person prefers both the color green
and wearing sandals equals 0.10, what is the probability that a randomly selected individual is a
member of the complement of (A U B)?
SOLUTION
Addition P(A U B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(ANB) First, we must determine the probability that a
rule P(A U B) = 0.40 + 0:20 — 0.13 randomly selected person is a member of (A U B).
P(A U B) = 0.47 .
Subtraction P(not AU B) =1-— P(AUB) Now we can use the subtraction rule to
rule P(not A U B) = 1 — 0.47 determine the probability that a randomly
P(not A U B) = 0.53 selected person is in the complement of (A U B).
State your _—‘The probability that a randomly selected person does not prefer green or does not
answer prefer wearing sandals (or both) is 0.53.

3. Ifa football player is from an NCAA school, the probability of that athlete being drafted into the
National Football League (NFL) after college is about 1.6%. What is the probability that a football
player from an NCAA school is not drafted into the NFL?
SOLUTION
Subtraction P(A) = probability drafted Use the subtraction rule. P(A) represents the
rule P(A) = 0.016 probability that a football player from an
P(not A) = 1 — P(A) NCAA school is drafted into the NFL after
P(not A) = 1 — 0.016 college. Substitute that value, as a decimal,
into the equation and solve.
P(not A) = 0.984
State your A football player from an NCAA school has about a 98% probability of not being
answer drafted into the NFL after college.

4. Suppose a couple has 4 biological children. None of the children are multiples (twins, triplets,
etc.). What is the probability that at least one of their children isa girl?
SOLUTION
Subtraction P(not A) = 1 — P(A) It is easier to calculate the probability of this event using
rule A = all boys the subtraction rule because we can quickly calculate
not A = at least one girl the probability the couple has no girls (all 4 children are
boys) and then we can subtract that probability from 1,
which will give us the probability that the couple has at
least one girl.
Use the P(A) = =; A >; = = a To calculate the probability of having a boy each time,
multiplication apply the multiplication rule, since each child’s birth is
rule to an independent event. We assume that the couple has a
calculate P(A) 50% chance of having a boy (or girl). The probability

of having 4 boys is =
Substitute P(not A) = 1 — a In the subtraction rule, substitute in the probability of
and evaluate 2 Pee
P(not-A)'= - all boys, which is Te The probability of at least one of
the couple’s children being a girl is a

484 Chapter 10: Probability

PRACTICE
1. The probability that a male German 5. A promotional giveaway offers three
shepherd weighs more than 77 pounds is destinations: Las Vegas, Hawaii, or San
0.70. The probability that a male German Diego. Each customer is allowed to choose
shepherd weighs less than 50 pounds is 0.15. only one destination. The probability that
What is the probability that a male German a randomly selected customer chooses Las
shepherd weighs more than 77 pounds or Vegas is 0.60, and the probability a randomly
less than 50 pounds? selected customer chooses Hawaii is 0.25.
A. 0:75 Gayi0255
What is the probability that a randomly
selected customer chooses San Diego?
Be 085 D... 0.65
Ae U6) UL
. There are two types of red berries growing Bet O35 Dio30.55
in the forest. One red berry is poisonous
and the other is not. On average, if you pick . The probability that a randomly selected
50 red-berries, 42 are fine to eat. What is student’s favorite sport is hockey is 0.18.
the probability of picking a poisonous red The probability that a randomly selected
berry? student's favorite sport is baseball is 0.21.
The probability that a randomly selected
A. 0.16 C. 0.24 student likes both hockey and baseball is
B. 0.42 D. 0.48 0.07. What is the probability that a randomly
selected student likes neither hockey nor
. If you roll a pair of number cubes, there is a baseball?
1 in 6 chance that you will roll doubles (both
number cubes show the same number). . Abag contains 12 marbles. Four of the
What is the probability that the two number marbles are purple, two are green, and
cubes do not show doubles? 6 are yellow. What is the probability that
1 5 you randomly select one of the marbles that
Ai ee= se isn’t green?
3 ‘ 36
1 oD . In the Westland housing subdivision,
Beg LOE re the probability that a randomly selected
2 6
house has exactly 4 bedrooms is 0.52. The
. Ata summer camp, there are 20 climbing probability that a randomly selected house in
ropes. Five of the ropes are thicker than Westland has exactly 2 bathrooms is 0.22. The
10 mm, six are waterproof, and one rope probability that a randomly selected house
is both thicker than 10 mm and waterproof. has both 4 bedrooms and two bathrooms is
What is the probability of a randomly 0.11. What is the probability that a randomly
selected rope being thicker than 10 mm or selected house in Westland has exactly
waterproof? 4 bedrooms or exactly 2 bathrooms?
. Ina box of 20 filled chocolates, 8 pieces have
only nuts, 9 pieces have only nougat, and
3 pieces have both nuts and nougat. What
OlR
Sie
N|R is the probability that a randomly selected
piece of candy contains nuts?
10. In a diner, the probability that a random
customer orders a cheeseburger is 0.65, that
they order fries is 0.55, and that they order
both a cheeseburger and fries is 0.35. What
is the probability that a randomly selected
customer orders neither a cheeseburger nor
fries?

Practice Problems continue...

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules 485

Practice Problems continued...

11. Each time she visits her favorite amusement 16. aeREF A teacher in a 25-student class
park, Melati rides two roller coasters, the curves the grades so that only 6 students
Ricochet and the Monster. Sometimes she is receive A’s. Joan calculated that the probability
able to get right on the rides, and other times that three randomly selected students will all
she must wait in line. The probability that
tA’ —
Sere . —.
Bite— =——.
Then Joan
Melati will need to wait in line to ride the ect AS 8 ce emma Tis? ne
Ricochet is P(ricochet) = 0.55. The
states that the probability that none of these
probability that she must wait in line to ride
the Monster is P(monster) = 0.28. The students will get A’s is 1 — Sig te
Tid 115;
probability that she must wait for both rides
is 0.43. Suppose that we randomly select one Is Joan correct? Why or why not?
day that Melati is at the amusement park. 17.(LF RPA On a television game show, there
are three curtains, A, B, and C. Behind one
a Describe, in words, the event P(not
curtain is a brand-new car, and behind the
ricochet, monster).
other two are a live goat and a fruitcake
b Calculate the probability you described in from the previous holiday season. You are
part a. a contestant on the show and have won
the right to pick a curtain and get the prize
c Calculate P(ricochet or monster) and behind it. You pick curtain B. Before it is
interpret your result in context. opened, the host opens curtain A, revealing
Exercises 12-15: Write the complement of the the goat, and gives you the opportunity to
statements without using any words of negation. switch to curtain C. Before curtain A was
opened, the probability you would win the
12. More than half of the students take part in
extracurricular activities. car was - After the curtain was opened,
13. The probability of randomly selecting a what is the probability if you don’t switch?
positive number froma set of real numbers. and if you do switch? Note: This problem
has created much debate and discussion,
14. All adults exercise at least 30 minutes each
which can be found on the Internet.
day.
18. Wad Show algebraically that P(A) =
15. The probability that two die rolls land on at P(not(not A)).
least one odd number.
19. [EI Suppose that you have two events,
A and B. If P(A) = 0, are A and B mutually
exclusive? Support your answer with
algebraic reasoning.
20. (EF Determine if:
P((A or B) and C) = P(A or (B and C))

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice e

(ZY From a group of high school seniors surveyed to find out their plans after graduating,
67% said they would be attending college, 42% said they planned to move away from home, and
21% said they planned to do both.
a What is the probability that a student surveyed will attend college or move away from home?
b_ Given the probabilities of the student attending college (67%) and of the student moving away
from home (42%), how do you know that there will be some students who plan to do both?
c What is the minimum percentage of students who could have answered that they plan to both
attend college and move away from home?
d Is there a maximum percentage of students who could have answered yes to both questions?
If so, what is it?

486 Chapter 10: Probability

LESSON 10.4 sverseecumes
mmc emmee
10.4 Conditional Probability
There are many times an event will be influenced by whether or not a related
event has occurred. This is the idea of conditional probability, or the probability
that an event A occurs given that event B has occurred. The formula below is used
to calculate conditional probability.

Conditional probability: This is a formula for calculating the probability

that A occurs, given B has occurred. It equals
P(A and B)
P(A|B) = the probability that both A and B occur, i
P(B) divided by the probability that B occurs. :
For example, consider the probability that a professional athlete will improve their
on-field performance given that they practice an additional two hours each week.
It is reasonable to consider that the probability of professional athletes improving
their on-field performance is higher for those who take on extra practice hours
than for those who do not. If we let event A be the event that a professional athlete
improves their on-field performance and event B is the event that they engage in
an additional two hours of practice each week, then the conditional probability
statement is: P(A|B) = P(improved on-field performance|additional two hours
of weekly practice).
We can use a Venn diagram to illustrate this probability concept. In the
diagram, the oval represents the number of times event A occurs; the circle
represents the number of times that B occurs; and the shaded overlap
represents the number of times events A and B both occur.
The conditional probability of A given B is the fraction of B’s outcomes that
also belong to A out of all of B. This is the shaded overlapping region divided by
the entire circle. And equally true is the fact that the conditional probability of B
given A is the fraction of A’s outcomes that also belong to B out of all of A. Again,
this is the shaded overlapping region divided by the entire oval.
Note that P(A |B) is not necessarily equal to P(B| A). For example:
P(A and B)
The probability B occurs given that A has occurred is: P(B| A) =
P(A)
P(A and B)
The probability that A occurs given that B has occurred is: P(A |B) =
P(B)
If we refer to the Venn diagram above, we can see that either the oval or the
circle divides the overlapping region, and since their sizes can be unequal, the
conditional probabilities can differ.

Conditional Probability and Independent Events

Recall from previous lessons in this chapter that events are independent if the
probability of one occurring does not affect the probability of the others occurring.
If events are independent, we can show that the following conditional probability
relationships are true:
For independent events A and B:
P(A|B) = P(A) and P(B|A) = P(B)

10.4 Conditional Probability 487

Algebraically, from the definition of independent events, we know that if A and
B are independent, then P(A N B) = P(A) - P(B). The conditional probability of
independent events A andB is then:

PAB) Start with the conditional probability formula.

P(A|B) =
P(B) The reasoning for
P(A|B) = P(A) - PB Since events A and B are independent, we can is(B |A) = P(B) is
|B) = PB substitute for P(A M B) and simplify. similar.

P(A|B) = P(A) We have shown the relationship is true for P(A|B).

We can also use this idea to show that events are dependent by demonstrating that
the relationship P(A|B) = P(A) does not hold.

Events that are not independent

If P(A) # P(A|B), then the events are not independent.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. In the diagram to the right, the numbers represent the number of a B
events in each bounded area. The conditional probability of A
occurring given that B has occurred is
A. 0.40 Cy 0225
B. 0.20 Dime C1625

SOLUTION
We can see from the diagram that there are 20 events in our sample space. Then P(A M B) = =

and the probability of B occurring (with or without A) is P(B) = a Now we can calculate
<—
PCB) 20paet
P(A|B)
A|B) = 7g) to
= ———— tofind
find that thatP(A|B)
P(A|B) = ==
= — = =5 = 0.20.

20
2. Ina certain manufacturing process, 96% of the parts produced by machine G are not defective.
If the events a randomly selected part from machine G is not defective and a randomly selected part
from machine Gis the color blue are independent, what you do know about the probability that a
randomly selected blue part from machine G will not be defective? Justify your answer.

SOLUTION
Since the events are defined to be independent, knowing that the selected part is blue does not affect the
probability that the part is not defective. This means that the probability that a selected blue part from
machine G is not defective is also 96%. PCT Brotioie aartone

488 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued
3. In a midwestern city, if a high school basketball player is a center, the probability that he or she
is left-handed is 18%. On any given team, 20% of the players are centers. What percent are left-
handed centers?
SOLUTION
Define the events A = being left-handed Start by defining event A and event B.
B = being a center

Use probability P(B) = 0.20 Restate the problem using probability

notation to state the P(A|B) = 0.18 : notation.
given information

Use the conditional P(A|B)Sew)

= Substitute the known probabilities and solve
probability formula P\B) for P(A 2 B). The result shows that about
0.18 =PAB): 3.6% of players on a team are left-handed
0.20 centers.
0.036 = P(A M B)

4. Ina certain region of the country, the probability that a woman naturally conceives twins is about
2.2%, and the probability that she conceives triplets is about 0.8%. Based on these numbers, what
is the probability that a woman has conceived twins given that she is carrying more than one
baby?
SOLUTION
Define the events A = having twins
B = carrying more than one baby

Pee (iB
P(A|B) = aaTEe)
Use probability notation to
state the given information
J 0.022
os 0.022 + 0.008
P(A|B) = 0.73
State the answer Given that a woman is carrying more than one baby, the probability
that she is having twins is about 73%.

Conditional Probability and Two-Way Tables

In lesson 10.2 we defined two-way tables, which are also sometimes called frequency
tables. These tables can be used to organize data and to determine independence,
and we can use them to calculate conditional probability.
Consider the following example: Merryweather Auto Insurance Company
performed a study to determine the number of claims filed by 1,000 randomly
selected drivers they insured over the last year. They segregated their data by the
driver’s age. The results are listed on the next page.

10.4 Conditional Probability 489

 Age 16-24 Pema14 1
Age 25-34 ae ee a erowlavee
Lo 1
pies16 3
ae i 3
| 5050 |1,000_|
We can use the table to easily calculate conditional probability. For instance, say
we want to know the probability that a driver filed 2 claims given that the driver
was aged 25-34, P(2 claims|25-34). We can read these values from the table, using

the total number of drivers surveyed, to find that P(2 claims M 25-34) = <. 3

0.59 and P(25-34) = 1000

Lane oe ium
0.178. Then P(2 claims| 25-34)
yee
0.178 0.331208

about 33.1%.

MODEL PROBLEM

© CLE Z3 Late in the evening on April 14,

1912, the British ocean liner Titanic hit an a2
iceberg and then sank the following morning.
The table shows the distribution of survivors
and non-survivors according to their class
Total 200s
500 ae
c
as a passenger.
a What is the probability that a passenger
survived given that they were a first-class passenger?
b What is the probability that a passenger was a second-class passenger given that they did
not survive?
c Was the chance (probability) for survival the same for first-, second-, and third-class passengers?
Explain.
SOLUTION
P(A and B
a Conditional P(A|B) = a Use the equation to find the probability of A
probability occurring given that B has occurred.
Assign P(S) = surviving Assign each of the possibilities a variable.
probabilities P(N) = not surviving
P(1) = Ist class
PQ) = 2nd class
P(3) = 3rd class
: _ P(S and 1)
Substitute P(S\A) = PU) Write the equation using the given variables.

Calculateie P(S and 1) = “24

1317
= 0.153 Find the probability that a passenger was both in
probabilities abd first class and survived. Then find the probability
P(1) = B17 0.246 that a passenger was in first class.

o
Divide
70.183
PG) = aio 0.622 The probability that a passenger survived given they
were in first class was 0.622, or about 62%.
Model Problem continues ...

490 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEM continued
a P(A andB
b Conditional P(A|B) = a Again, we want to find the probability of A given
probability that B occurs.
equation
P(2 andN
Substitute P(2|N) =Sere This time, we want to know the probability that a
probabilities passenger was in second class given that they were
among the non-survivors.
6
Calculate P(2 and N) = a = 0.126 Calculate the probability of being a second-class
probabilities 817 ' .passenger
orwho did not survive, and the Ppprobabilit y.
(N) =
P(N) 377 ==
= —— 0.620
0. of not surviving.

a.
Divide P(2|N) —= ae
0.126
0.203 7.
The probability that a passenger was in second class
given that they did not survive was 0.203, ora little
over 20%.

c To determine whether a passenger’s class played any role in his or her chance for survival, compare
the probability that a passenger survived, given that they were in first, second, or third class.
P(S and 1
Calculate for P(S|1) = a = 0.618 We performed this calculation in part a.
1st class
P(S and 2
Calculate for P(S|2) = oe A passenger had close to a 42% chance of survival
2nd class given they were a second-class passenger.
118/1317 _ 0.0896
P(S|2) = 284/1
317 0.2156
P(S|2) = 0.4156 = 0.416

P(S and 3
Calculate for P(S|3) = a Given that a passenger was in third class, he/she
3rd class had about a 25.5% chance of survival. It appears
P(S|3) = 181/1317 _ 0.137 __ there definitely was a greater chance of survival if
~ 709/1317 0.538 the passenger was ina higher class. :
P(S|3) = 0.255

PRACTICE
1. The junior class at Ashlake High School took 2. Suppose a red die and a blue die are rolled.
both their Algebra 2 final and Chemistry What is the probability that the red die
final on the same day. If 60% of students shows a 3 given that the sum of the two
passed both finals, and 75% of students dice is 4?
passed the Algebra 2 final, what percent ahesell cats
of the students who passed Algebra 2 also 38 Ca
passed Chemistry? het fiteried
A. 15% C. 80% ip BO iO
B. 45% D. 90%
Practice Problems continue...

10.4 Conditional Probability 491

Practice Problems continued ...

3. Out of 100 cars on a new-car lot, 60 have air conditioning, 50 have an automatic transmission, and
25 cars have both.
a What is the percentage of cars that have air conditioning given that they have an automatic
transmission?
b What is the percentage of cars that have an automatic transmission given that they have air
conditioning?

Exercises 4—7: Use the two-way table below to answer the following questions. Round each answer to
the nearest whole percent.
The two-way table below reflects the actual number of post-high school degrees earned in 2009-2010
by people in the United States as reported by the Bureau of Labor and Statistics. The data is grouped by
race.

Asian

4. Find the probability that a person has an associate’s degree given that person is white.
5. What is the probability that a person who has earned a master’s degree isHispanic?
6. What is the probability that a person with a bachelor’s degree is Asian?
7. What is the probability that a person has earned a post-high school degree given that person is
Black?
8. An aquarium contains 200 fish. There are 135 blue fish, 85 fish that are yellow, and 52 fish that are
both blue and yellow.
a If you catchafish that is yellow, what is the probability that it also has blue coloration?
b If you catch afish that is blue, what is the probability that it also has yellow coloration?
9. The probability that it is snowing is 35%. The probability that it is snowing and your car will not
start is 15%. If it is snowing, what is the probability that your car will not start?

Exercises 10-12: Use the two-way table below to answer the following questions. Round each answer to
the nearest whole percent.
A medical researcher is investigating which of three treatments, A, B, or C, best relieves the symptoms
of a chronic disease. The results are shown below.

eee ae
Did Not Show Improvement 328 197 632
Totals 400 400
10. Find the probability that a patient showed improvement given they were taking treatment A.
11. What is the probability that a patient taking treatment C did not show improvement?
12. Are the events taking treatment B and showed improvement independent? Why or why not?
Practice Problems continue. ..

492 Chapter 10: Probability

 Practice Problems continued ...
13. A typical bag of a popular chocolate candy contains 50 pieces in the following color assortment:
247% blue, 207% orange, 16% green, 14% yellow, 13% red, and 13% brown. Suppose you open a
typical bag of this candy a remove one green candy from the bag. What is the probability that you
draw a second green candy from the bag given the first one was green?
14. Ina board game where properties are bought and sold, the probability that player 1 will own three
certain adjacent properties is 31%. The probability that player 2 will land on one of these properties
on her next turn is 22%. What is the probability that player 2 will land on one of these properties
given that player 1 owns them all?

Exercises 15-18: Use the two-way table below to answer the following questions.
A manufacturing company has three machines that all make the same part for a door assembly.
A sampling of these parts was taken from each machine and tested to see if the part was defective or
not defective. The results are below.

3 8 1
7 19 Z 199

15. Given that the part came from Machine A, what is the probability it is defective?
16. Find the probability that a part is not defective given that it came from Machine C.
17. Given that it came from Machine B, what is the probability a part is defective?
18. Show that the events part is defective and part came from Machine A are not independent.

~ 19. EGE] What must be true of events A and B Exercises 23-25: Use the two-way table below
if P(A|B) = P(B| A)? to answer the following questions. Round each
answer to the nearest whole percent.
20. Define conditional probability in your own
words. There are 300 seniors at Bellmere Senior High
School who are enrolled in elective science
21. [FA Jar A contains x red marbles and y classes as shown below.

__ a ae
blue marbles. Jar B contains all blue marbles.
If one jar is randomly chosen and a marble is
then picked out, what is the probability the
marble is red given it is taken from jar A?
What is the probability the marble is blue?
22. [LRP] If Zandee studies for her test,
the probability that she will pass is 83%. 23. What is the probability that a senior student
If she does not study, she has only a chosen at random is male given that student
67% probability of passing the test. The is enrolled in chemistry?
probability that she studied given that 24. What is the probability that a senior student
she passes the test is 92%. What is the
chosen at random is enrolled in physics
probability that Zandee studied for the test?
given that student is female?
Round your answer to the nearest whole
percent. 25. Are the events gender and science elective
selection independent? Justify your answer.

10.4 Conditional Probability 493

Oe |

10.5 The Normal Distribution

We briefly pause our studies of probability to discuss graphical representations
of data sets, such as the ones that generated the two-way tables earlier in this
chapter. As we will see shortly, these two concepts, probability and graphical
representation, are connected.
Skewed Left Skewed Right
Some types of data sets, when graphed in
quadrant I of the coordinate plane, produce
a skewed distribution, which is a distribution
with the majority of its values residing at the
left- or right-hand side of the graph. Examples
of skewed graphs are shown to the right.

Other data sets, however, produce what is known as a normal distribution, which
is a bell-shaped graph that associates an event with the probability that the event
occurs. In a normal distribution, many of the values cluster around the mean,
represented in mathematics by the Greek letter mu, , which is located at the
peak of the graph. The remaining values then
taper off, in a roughly symmetric manner, 8%
toward the extreme values at the ends of the 6% The mean is
curve. Many natural phenomena can be 4% the peak of
approximately modeled with a normal Pl SN the graph.
distribution, so understanding this type of 0% secon
curve is very useful. The graph on the right 2. A. 67 8. IOI A S16
is anormal distribution with p = 8.

Normal distributions require the collection of a Average Heights of College

large amount of data, such as by performing an Freshmen Males in the U.S.
experiment many times. Say, for example, that
we wanted to know the average height of college 20
freshman males in the United States. We could «
survey 5,000 randomly chosen male college g
freshmen in the United States and calculate 2
the mean height, to the nearest inch. We could
then graph the results and create a sampling
distribution. We see that this data creates a
roughly symmetric bell curve. Height in Inches

Suppose that we were able to perform our survey of 5,000 randomly chosen male
college freshmen in the United States twice. If we graphed the results of both
surveys, would the sampling distributions be identical? No, they would not be. In
considering data, we must take into account variability among data sets. When we
can model data using a normal curve, we can measure the variability (or spread
of the data) using the standard deviation, which is symbolized in mathematics by
the Greek letter sigma, a. Note that we cannot measure the variability in data with
a right- or left-hand skew using the standard deviation.

494 Chapter 10: Probability

In the sampling distributions below, we can see that the curve on the right has a
larger standard deviation than the curve on the left. There are several factors that
might explain the variability in this data. For example, defining our population as
college freshmen males means that we are surveying traditional college students,
aged 18-24, who may not have reached their full adult height, as well as non-
traditional students who did not attend college immediately after high school, who
are at their full adult height. There may also be regional differences in height due
to ancestry or local nutrition. This survey may also include international students,
who may naturally be shorter or taller than an average American male.

Average Heights of College Average Heights of College

Freshmen Males in the U.S. Freshmen Males in the U.S.

Percent Percent

52 36> 60% 64 68° 72.76) 80) 847 Fost E 2

Height in Inches Height in Inches

Instead of a sampling distribution, let us now consider the theoretical standard

normal distribution with a mean of uw = 0 and a standard deviation of o = 1,
as shown below. The numbers on the horizontal axis represent how far, in terms
of standard deviation, the data is from the mean. For any normal distribution,
about 68% of the data will fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean. Notice
that this percentage is symmetrically distributed with 34% on each side of the
mean value. An additional 27% of the data, with 13.5% on each side of the mean,
will fall between 1 and 2 standard deviations of the mean; to represent this, we
usually say that 95% of all the data in a normal distribution is within 2 standard
deviations of the mean. The remaining 5% of the data is more than two standard
deviations from the mean, with 2.5% on each side. Remember this curve; it will be
quite important later in this section.

To calculate the range of data one

standard deviation away from the mean,
add and subtract the value of a standard
deviation to and from the mean. To
calculate two standard deviations,
multiply the standard deviation by 2, and
SE
tee
enter
mete add and subtract that from the mean.
[SOP lO LOm LO; bb [i 0) LE 20; VOC;

Normal curves can be used to describe many different sets of data including
heights, weights, grades, sizes of items produced by a machine, the time it takes
for a standardized process to be completed, and more.

10.5 The Normal Distribution 495

As you have seen in previous courses, two data sets can have the same mean
but different ranges (recall that range is also a measure of variability). Likewise,
two data sets can have the same standard deviation but different means. We can
compare data sets like these by computing the coefficient of variation, which is
the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean. Doing so will allow us to mentally
picture the normal curve that fits each data set. For example, lets say that we have
two similar data sets, both normally distributed. Set A has a standard deviation
of 5 and a mean of 10; set B has a standard deviation of 5 and a mean of 1,000. The
rod iati eee 5 i ete np = 1 Th s
coefficient of variation for set A is fa and for set B it is 1000 ~ 200 is tells
us that set A is more widely distributed than set B.

MODEL PROBLEMS
[FA The average mass of a group of wombats is |
15 kilograms, with a standard deviation of 1.25 kilograms. If you know the mean of some
Graph the normally distributed data. data, its standard deviation, and |
that it is normally distributed, /
SOLUTION you can graph the data. :

Mean is peak of 15 The problem states that the average (or mean) mass of a
graph wombat is 15 kilograms. That is the peak of the graph.
About 68% of 15+ 1.25= 16.25 The problem states the standard deviation is
dataiswithinone 15-1.25=13.75 1.25 kilograms. Add and subtract that value. We know
standard deviation this will include about 68% of the data, and we use the
standard shape of a normal curve.
About 95% of 154 2.5 = 175 Multiply 1.25 by two to calculate two standard deviations.
data is within 15-25-1125 Add and subtract that product, 2.5, from the mean. Plot
two standard points based on the shape of the curve and knowing
deviations about 95% of the data is within two standard deviations.

Graph curve Since 95% of the data falls within

two standard deviations, the rest
falls outside this region. Draw
the rest of the graph, which
represents the remaining 5% of
the data.

WWS les aby “GAS AVA5

Model Problems continue...

496 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. The mean score is 80 and the standard

deviation is 5.
a What is the probability that a student
had atest score above 90?
b What is the probability that a student
had a score between 75 and 85?

65 70 75 80 85 90 95
SOLUTION | ie =O o 20

a Score greater The test scores above 90 are

than 90 greater than two standard
deviations from the mean.
Two standard deviations
away on one side of the
mean is 2.5% of the data.

b Score between These scores fall within

75 and 85 one standard deviation on
either side of the mean.
That is 68% of the data.

65 70 75 80 85 90 95
—20 -o o 2o0

3. In data distribution A, the mean is 40 and the standard deviation is 5. In data distribution B, the
mean is 800 and the standard deviation is 50. By considering the ratio of the standard deviation
to the mean, determine which distribution has the more widely distributed data.
SOLUTION

Find the ratio for A= standard dev Find the ratio of the standard deviation to the
distribution A 5 mean for distribution A, first as a fraction, then as
A= ri = O25 a decimal.

Find the ratio for Be standard dev Find the ratio of the standard deviation to the
distribution B 50) mean for distribution B, first as a fraction, then as
iS 300 = (00625 a decimal.

Identify the larger 0.125 > 0.0625 The distribution with the larger ratio of standard
ratio Ae ab deviation to mean has the more widely distributed
data. Distribution A has the more widely
distributed data.

10.5 The Normal Distribution 497

 We show one of two similar activities below. In the activities, we simulate tossing
coins, and count the number of heads we see. The data is not continuous—the
number of heads has to be an integer, which is why the graph is made up of bars.
However, it can be shown that as the number of outcomes increases, a binomial
distribution can increasingly be better described by a normal distribution. It can be
shown that a normal distribution describes a binomial distribution as the number of
outcomes increases. As you can see, you can also change the probability of heads
in the simulation. For instance, you can decide that 70% of the time, the result of
a coin toss is heads. With a probability of heads 70%, is the data consistent with a
model of normal distribution? How does increasing the number of coins change the
distribution?

Six Coins Tossed A binomial

distribution
results from a
ers AtEr cits}
collection of data
with two possible
peretehieal |mrerneed
outcomes, each
ewFee equally likely.
Tossing a coin
is an example
of binomial
distribution.

a In this activity, simulate the results from a science experiment where the landing
location of a projectile is recorded. Data like this is often normally distributed.
Let’s say a lab report states the data is consistent with a model indicating the data is
normally distributed. Would you agree with the report’s conclusion? Why or why not?
We would suggest allowing the simulation to record hundreds of results.

Landing point of balt

Q Ed oOBR

NM oo bee
nest
Dy
ennai Ws
poranenesiamimetinruirnnasid 60 |

498 Chapter 10: Probability

Approximating the Area Under the Normal Curve:
z-Scores
Let’s return to our normal curve that represents the heights of 5,000 randomly
selected male college freshmen in the United States. The mean of this distribution
is w = 70 inches, and we will tell you that the standard deviation is 4 inches.
Suppose that we randomly select one male college freshman in the United States.
What is the probability that his height is less than 74 inches?
We begin this problem by sketching the normal curve. Notice that Heights of College Freshmen
the curve and the horizontal axis form a space that has area. We can pialesgn the U.S,
use the area to calculate the probability of an event approximated
by anormal distribution by determining the area it occupies under
the curve. We mark the mean and the value of the random variable
we are interested in; in this case, 70 and 74. We want to know if the
randomly selected person’s height is less than 74 inches, so we
shade to the left of 74 as shown. The shaded region is the area we
will find. Since the total area under the curve is 1.00 (100%), we can
use the standard normal curve that we discussed on page 495 to
70 74
approximate the probability that x < 74. At this point in your
Height in Inches
mathematical career, you do not have the tools to directly calculate
this area by hand; instead, we will use a z-chart, a calculator, or a
spreadsheet to help us.

Calculation Using a z-Score Chart

First, we must convert our real-world data to the theoretical normal distribution.
This is easier than it sounds, and the process standardizes the data so we can
calculate the area as well as make comparisons across data sets. We use the
z-score formula, shown below.

Converting to the Standard Normal Distribution:

Z=—
x >ph
Oo

For our data, x = 74, uw = 70, and o = 4, then:

Substitute Zi
_ 74-70
4
Simplify z= 1.0

On the standard normal distribution, a value of x = 74 is equivalent to z = 1.0.

Since we want to know x < 74, we want to find the probability that z < 1.0.
We look at the chart on pages 500-501. The green column labeled z is z-scores
precise to the tenth; we use the green row across the top of the chart to increase
our precision to the nearest hundredth. The entries in the body of the chart reflect
the cumulative probability under the curve up to that particular z-score. Follow
the row labeled 1.0 to the column labeled 0.00. The cumulative probability for
z = 1.0 is 0.8413, so we know the probability that a randomly selected college
freshman male in the United States is less than 74 inches tall is 84.13%.
10.5 The Normal Distribution 499
 Cumulative area
/\
Standard Normal Curve Areas

z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 ~—_0.09
-3.8
ees

“3.0

SBS
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500 Chapter 10: Probability
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10.5 The Normal Distribution 501

z-Score Calculation Using a Graphing Calculator
Calculating z-scores with the aid of a printed chart is relatively simple if the chart
is available. In cases where a chart is not provided, we can perform the same
calculation using our graphing calculators. For this type of operation, we do not
need to convert the random variable to a standard z-score by hand; the calculator
will do this for us.
Again, suppose that we randomly select one male college freshman in the United
States. What is the probability that his height is between 68 and 74 inches if u = 70
and o = 4?
1. Find the probability. Here we want to know the normalcdf(68, rd,
probability that the random variable x falls fO.43
between 68 and 74 inches, so 68 = x = 74. On your 352807
graphing calculator, press 2:normalcdf(lower
boundary, upper boundary, mean, standard deviation).
In this case, the key sequence is normalcdf(68, 74, 70, 4).
We see that the probability of the outcomes between
68 = x = 74 is approximately 0.5328.

2. Graph and shade the region. Use[Y=] to get to the

equation entry screen and select one of the Y variable
lines. Enter the key sequence as described in step 1.
For the window parameters, make Xmin the
mean minus three times the standard deviation
(70 — (3 - 4) = 58), and Xmax the mean plus three
times the standard deviation (70 + (3 - 4) = 82). Once
the window is set, press [DRAW] 1:ShadeNorm(lower boundary,
upper boundary, mean, standard deviation). Press to graph the
normal distribution. The graph confirms our calculation from step 1; the
probability of outcomes between 68 = s = 74 is approximately 0.5328.

Calculation Using a Spreadsheet

We can perform these same types of calculations using a spreadsheet. It is
sometimes easier to work with a large data set in a spreadsheet rather than by
hand or by using the graphing calculator.
1. Determine mean and standard deviation. Enter your data in the
spreadsheet and use the AVERAGE and STDEV.P functions to calculate
the mean and the standard deviation. We’ve done this in cells B1 and B2.
2. Calculate y-values. Use the normal distribution
function to generate the curve: =NORM.DIST(x, mean,
standard deviation, FALSE). We show one cell as an
example of how the formula is displayed. This plots
the probability of an x-value located in cell A7 of the
normal distribution. The function looks to cell B1 for
the mean and to cell B2 for the standard deviation.
The $B$1 means that the function will always use
the number in column B, row 1. FALSE means that
we want the probability of that value, not the
cumulative probability of all the values up to B7.
Use the handle to fill all the cells in column B.

502 Chapter 10: Probability

3. Use scatterplot with line option to generate Average Heights of College Freshmen
the curve. Select the data under the labels x-values Males in the U.S.
and y-values, and then graph the distribution using a 0.09
ODS et Arid
scatterplot, selecting the line option to show the O07 te:
curve. 0.06
ONS te
0.04 +-
0.03
0.02 +~
0.01

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. University presidents receive a housing provision that averages $32,658. Assume that a normal
distribution applies and that the standard deviation is $5,500. What is the minimum annual
housing provision for the 10% of college presidents receiving the largest provision?
SOLUTION |
In this problem, we would like to know the value of the random variable that produces the
probability that a randomly selected college president receives a housing provision that is in the
top 10% of provisions. We will solve this using our calculator, but to understand the situation, it is
helpful to draw it.
Sketch and label the normal mean = $32,658
distribution. oa = $5,500

32,568

Since the calculator reads 1.00 — 0.10 = 0.90

probability from the left-hand
side over and the total area under
the curve is 1.00, we must subtract
to find the unshaded area under
the curve.
Now we can use the calculator to Press invNorm<a@. 98,
find the random variable given a’ ' 3:invNorm(probability, 32658; re =
probability of 0.90 with a mean of mean, standard deviation)
$32,658 and a standard deviation
of $5,500.
Restate the answer in terms of the The minimum annual housing provision for the 10% of college
problem. presidents receiving the largest provision is $39,706.50.
Model Problems continue...

10.5 The Normal Distribution 503

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

2. Mensa is the international society for individuals with a high IQ. To be a Mensa member,
a person must earn a score of 132 or higher on the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. Suppose that
IQ scores are normally distributed with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. What is the
probability that a randomly selected person qualifies for Mensa membership?
SOLUTION
As always, when confronted with a question about the normal distribution, it is helpful to sketch the
situation before jumping immediately to a solution strategy.

Sketch and label the normal distribution. Here we

are being asked the probability that a randomly
selected person has an IQ of 132 or greater on a
specific scale. We are trying to calculate the shaded
area.

40 60 80- 100 120 140 160

To solve this using our calculator, we must Press normaledt¢ 132;

play a little trick. Notice from the drawing that 2:normalcdf(lower Le93.1H6;15)
there is no upper limit to enter; the tail of the boundary, upper B. BIB446565
distribution stretches to infinity. To input this into boundary, mean,
the calculator, we enter the largest number most standard deviation)
calculators can compute, 10” , which looks like
1E99 on the calculator. E is entered by pressing
[2nd](.].
Restate the answer in terms of the problem. The probability that a randomly selected
person qualifies for Mensa membership is
approximately 1.65%.

504 Chapter 10: Probability

PRACTICE
1. The results of a math exam follow a normal 4. [EY The distribution of ball-bearing
distribution with mean p and standard diameters produced by a certain machine
deviation m. What is the probability that is approximately normal with a mean of
your friend who took the math exam had a 20 mm and a standard deviation of 4 mm.
score between p — mand p? a About what percentage of the ball
A. 95% bearings will have diameters between
B. 68% 16 mm and 24 mm? Round to the nearest
percent.
C. 34%
D. m% b About what percentage of the ball
bearings will have diameters between
2. Use the following graph of a normal 12 mm and 28 mm? Round to the nearest
distribution to answer the questions below. percent.
c About what percentage of the ball
=0
Mh
Co
bearings will have diameters between
= 20; 20
16 mm and 28 mm? Round to the nearest
= OOi 3a tenth of a percent.
30 aD 80 105 130 15 180 5. [EMA Use the graph of a normal
distribution to answer the following
a What z-score is associated with the questions.
random variable x = 92?
b Ifaz-score of 1.96 is calculated using
the formula for converting to a standard
normal distribution, what was the value
of x?
c What z-score is associated with a
cumulative probability of 20%? What
is the x-value that produces that
probability?
85 129
3. Use the graph of a normal distribution to
answer the following questions. a What is the mean of the distribution?
b What is the standard deviation of the
distribution?
c About 68% of the data is found between
what two values that are displaced
equally from the mean on either side?
d What is the probability that a random
value is between 85 and 129? Round your
answer to the nearest hundredth.
Exercises 6-8: Determine whether each scenario
ZLOMTE 240) FH270 Vi BB0OS $3301 T360" 390 results in a normal or non-normal distribution.
Justify your answer.
a Approximately what percentage of the
6. Selecting a volunteer from a group of 30
data is above 300?
students.
b Approximately what percentage of the
data lies between 240 and 300? 7. The sum of the toss of two six-sided dice.
c Approximately what percentage of the 8. The number of years people live.
data is below 240 or above 360?
Practice Problems continue...

10.5 The Normal Distribution 505

Practice Problems continued...
9. Describe in your own words what it means 16. For a set of data, the mean is 5.2, and the
for a set of data to be normally distributed. ratio of the standard deviation to the mean
(A sketch may be helpful in your explanation.) is 0.25. What is the standard deviation for
this set of data?
10. In 2014, American college seniors graduated
from school with an average student 17. A zookeeper is doing a presentation on
loan debt of $29,400. Assume this debt small mammals. She originally planned to
is normally distributed with a standard display data about the animals’ weights
deviation of $6,500. using kilograms, but has now decided to
a What is the probability that a randomly use grams. When the weights of the animals
selected person who graduated college in were measured in kilograms, the ratio of
2014 has a student loan debt of less than the standard deviation to the mean for the
$25,000? group was 0.34. What is the ratio of the
b What percent of these college graduates standard deviation to the mean when their
have student loan debt between $27,000 weights are measured in grams?
and $32,000? 18. A tire manufacturer estimates the mean
c The uppermost 5% of student loan debt is life of one of their tires to be about 50,000
in excess of what amount? miles if properly inflated and cared for. The
standard deviation is about 3,500 miles.
11. The last digit of a telephone number is not
What percentage of tires manufactured by
normally distributed. Give an example of
this company will have a useful life of more
a different set of data that is not normally
than 52,000 miles?
distributed.
19. Pedro examined two sets of data
12 Research a few natural phenomena in which and determined that they had different
the data can be represented by a normal means but the same standard deviation.
curve. He says that this means the data sets will
13. [TP RE3 The game warden for an ocean have a similar spread. Is he correct? Why
sanctuary wants sports fishermen to release or why not?
the smallest and biggest fish that they catch. 20. If you are presented with a frequency
They must release fish that weigh less graph of data that have been grouped
than 27 Ib or more than 33 lb. Statisticians into intervals before they were graphed,
calculated these guidelines to ensure that is it possible to calculate the mean and
only those fish with weights in the middle standard deviation of the data? Explain your
68% of the population are caught. Assuming reasoning.
the weights of fish in the sanctuary are
normally distributed, what is the mean and 21. Five hundred employees at one company
standard deviation of the weights of fish in were asked about their commuting habits.
the sanctuary, in pounds? The data on the distance of their commutes
was determined to be normally distributed,
14 In the 2014 regular season, the Detroit Lions with 68% of the workers’ daily commutes
scored an average of 20.1 points per game ranging between 14 and 38 miles.
with a standard deviation of 3.2 points. If a What is the mean distance that a
the number of points scored per game is surveyed worker commutes daily,
normally distributed across the season, what assuming that the given values are
is the probability that the Lions scored more displaced equally from the mean on
than 21 points in a randomly selected 2014 either side?
regular season game?
b What is the standard deviation for the
15. Mrs. Andrews gave a math quiz to her commuting data?
190 Algebra 2 students. The quiz scores c What set of commuting ranges that are
were normally distributed with a mean of symmetric about the mean are composed
8.2 points and a standard deviation of 1.6 of the extreme 5% of commuters?
points. At least how many points did each
of the top 10% of students earn on the quiz? Practice Problems continue...

506 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued...
22. [TPR] Ms. Stine teaches high school 23. [FANE Based upon 50 years of data, the
algebra to a total of 176 students. The annual rainfall for Damp City, U.S.A., had a
scores on her last midterm were normally normal distribution with mean 43.5 inches
distributed, with a mean score of 74.3 and a and standard deviation of 4.7 inches.
standard distribution of 9.6. a What is the probability of any given year
a Approximately how many students having less than 34 inches?
scored between 74 and 84? b What rainfall range, symmetric about the
b What is the probability that a randomly mean, contains 68% of the years?
selected student scored between 84 and c Use a spreadsheet or graphing calculator
93.52 to estimate the probability that a given
c What percentage of students likely scored year had between 45 and 48 inches
above 93.5? of rainfall. Round your answer to the
d If one of Ms. Stine’s classes has a mean nearest tenth of a percent.
score of 86 with a standard deviation of
6.5, what can you conclude about one or
more of her other classes? Give a reason
why this might occur.

LESSON 10.5 ammo corm

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization

Oftentimes, we have a question we would like answered, such as what a
population’s opinion is on a certain issue, whether a new educational method The population
is more successful than current methodologies, or if a new experimental drug is the set of
effectively combats a disease. To find the answers to these questions, we rely on all elements
research and statistics. Statistics is formally defined as the science of collecting and of interest in
analyzing numerical data, usually in large quantities, for the purpose of making a particular
inferences (drawing conclusions) about the population from which the sample is study. A sample
drawn. There are several methods we can use to collect the data we seek, including is a subset
surveys, observational studies, and experimental studies. In this lesson, we define drawn from the
some of these data collection methods and discuss their natural benefits and biases. population.

Surveys, Observational Studies, and Experimental

Studies
A survey is a method of gathering data where all participants answer the same
A questionnaire
questionnaire. Surveys are often used because they are simple to administer
is a set of
and can gather information across a wide range of variables. It is also relatively
questions with
easy to organize the collected data because all of the survey responses are in the
predefined
same format. Disadvantages of collecting data via a survey include the fact that
answers to
responses are voluntary. Additionally, the accuracy of the survey depends on
be asked of
each participant’s honesty as well as their interpretation of the question and the ©
a number
available responses. Also, certain subgroups of the population may be more likely
of people in
to respond to certain surveys; for example, people with strong feelings, either
order to gather
positive or negative, about a certain issue may be more likely to respond than
information or
people who are not as interested. For these reasons, surveys are the least effective
opinions.
data collection method, but we do often rely on them to learn about social and
political opinions.

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization 507

In an observational study, a researcher observes the participants as they are,
without any type of intervention or influence. For instance, a researcher might
wish to determine if there is a link between eating foods high in protein and weight
loss. To conduct an observational study, the researcher would find participants
who already eat a protein-rich diet and observe their weight over time. At no time
would the researcher directly influence the diet eaten by the participants; she would
only gather the data and investigate possible correlations. Observational studies
are beneficial because they provide access to people in real-life contexts. They
can also provide an in-depth understanding of situations not easily measured by
surveys. A pitfall of observational studies is that the researcher must avoid observer
bias, which is when a researcher unconsciously influences the participants in the
observation. These studies are also quite time-consuming. Note that a survey is
considered a type of observational study because the researcher simply observes
the answers to the questionnaire and does not attempt to influence the answers.
In both surveys and observational studies, there is no direct manipulation of the
participants by the researcher. This is in contrast to an experimental study, where
the researcher intentionally imposes a treatment, procedure, or program on the
participants and then measures outcome(s). Perhaps the best-known experimental
studies are medical trials.
A medical trial is a test of a new medication on humans. A sample is assembled A placebo has |
and the participants are divided into groups. One group is given the experimental no medical
treatment, while the other group, called the control group, is given a placebo. Over benefit but
time, aspects of the health of all members in both groups are measured. If the physically
participants who received the treatment show more positive results than those resembles the
who received the placebo, then the treatment may be beneficial. drug being
tested.
To use the vocabulary of conditional probability, let H represent a healthy patient
and let D represent a medication. For an effective medicine, P(H|D) >> P(H), which
means that the probability of a patient taking the medication becoming healthy is
significantly greater than the probability that a patient becomes healthy whether
they are taking the medication or not. If P(H|D) = P(H), then the medication is
having no effect, or perhaps even a negative effect, and it should not be marketed
or sold.
In these trials, researchers also measure the side effects of the treatment. A side
effect is a result of the treatment that is outside its intended purpose. For example,
a drug designed to reduce blood pressure might harm the liver or cause bone
weakening.
These tests are often conducted so that neither the participants nor the researchers
know whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo. This
is called a double-blind methodology, and it is one of the major advantages of an
experimental study. In this way, observer bias is eliminated. Other advantages
include researcher control over variables and being able to determine a cause-
and-effect relationship. This type of research, however, is very time-consuming,
expensive, and complicated.

Randomization and Lurking Variables

No matter the type of data collection method used, it is important to ensure that
the participants included in the sample reflect the overall population. To this end,
statisticians and researchers use randomization, which is the process of randomly
selecting individuals to participate in a survey or observational study, or assigning
participants to groups through the use of chance methods, such as flipping a coin

508 Chapter 10: Probability

or using a random number generator. In surveys and other observational studies,
randomization helps to minimize the effects of selection bias, which happens
when the group selected does not accurately reflect the overall population. In
experimental studies, randomization also ensures that there is no systematic
difference between the participants receiving the treatment and those who receive
the placebo.
It is important to reiterate that unless the data comes from an experimental study,
no cause-and-effect relationship can be established. Surveys and observational
studies can only establish an association among the variables considered. However,
when studying variables that appear to have an association, researchers must be
very careful to account for any lurking variable(s). A lurking variable is one that
causes two other variables to have what appears to bea relationship even though
there is not one. A classic example of this phenomenon is that as ice cream sales
increase, the number of drowning accidents increases. Can we conclude that ice
cream sales cause drowning accidents? No, of course not. The lurking variable
here is time of year. More ice cream is sold in the summer than in the winter, and
there is more opportunity for drowning in the summer than in the winter. A well-
designed experiment includes randomization and features that allow researchers
to eliminate lurking variables as an explanation for the observed relationship.

MODEL PROBLEMS
1. For your statistics class, you must survey residents in your town to determine their preferences
of dogs or cats for a pet. Explain why each of the following populations would or would not
exhibit bias:
a) Residents of an apartment complex
b) People at a dog park
c) Shoppers at a grocery store
d) Students at your high school
SOLUTION
Answers will vary. We list one possible solution for each situation.
a) Residents of an Many more apartments allow cats as pets than allow dogs. This population
apartment complex _ is likely to be biased toward cats.
b) People at a dog It’s not likely that anyone would visit a dog park who did not like dogs.
park This population is certain to be biased toward dogs.
c) Shoppers at a This is most likely an unbiased population because everyone needs
grocery store groceries.
d) Students at your This is also most likely an unbiased population, unless you know something
high school about your school that would change this.
Model Problems continue...

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization 509

 MODEL PROBLEMS continued

© es Cir Anew drug is intended to end a type of rash. You read a report about a small, early trial
with 50 patients. Of the 30 who get the drug, 18 have their rash disappear and 4 report severe
headaches. Of the 20 who get a placebo, 13 have their rash disappear and 3 report severe
headaches.
a_ Does the drug seem to be working?
b Does it seem to be causing severe headaches?
c Based on the data, should the FDA approve the drug?
SOLUTION
a Create Rash Disappears Total Record the outcomes
frequency in a frequency table.
table
1
Calculate Rash Disappears Calculate a conditional
frequency table. In other
fg lenin BOPviced
conditional
frequencies words, calculate the percent
of people who received
the drug who had the rash
18 had rash disappear _ disappear.
Example: 60%
30 received drug

Analyze the In this small trial, the drug does not seem to be helping. The rash disappears in
data 60% of the patients taking the drug, while it disappears in 65% of those not taking
the drug. The rash disappears “on its own” in 65% of the cases. With a survey
of only 50 patients, it seems unwise to draw the conclusion that the drug causes
the rash to remain. For instance, if only two more people had reported success
with the drug, both groups would be approximately the same. On the other hand,
although this is a small group, it is not consistent with a model that shows the
drug has a positive effect, which of course is the model the drug company hopes is
true. Our hypothesis from this data is that the probability of the rash disappearing
is independent of taking the drug. If a person took the drug or not, the resulting
probability seems to be roughly the same.

Create Severe No Severe Total Record the outcomes in a

frequency Headaches | Headaches frequency table.
table
26 30
V7 20
Calculate Severe No Severe Calculate a conditional frequency
conditional Headaches | Headaches table. In other words, calculate the
frequencies percent of people that received the
87% drug who had severe headaches.

4 had severe headaches :

Example: 13%
30 received drug
Model Problems continue...

510 Chapter 10 : Probability

MODEL PROBLEMS continued

Analyze the 13% of those who received the drug had severe headaches, but 15% of those who
data did not receive the drug also had severe headaches. The drug does not seem to
be increasing the number of people with severe headaches. People have severe
headaches whether they take the drug or not. Again, the resulting probability
seems to be independent of the drug. To put it another way: P(A) is about the
same as P(A|B), with A having a headache and B having taken the drug.

c The FDA should not approve the drug. Those using the placebo had a better outcome than those
using the drug. The effect is both minor and negative.

3. Anemergency room found that of the people they treated for sprained or broken wrists, 70% had
injured their right wrist and 30% had injured their left wrist. Why might this occur?
SOLUTION
There are more people who are right-handed than there are people who are left-handed, so people
may be more likely to reach out with the right hand while falling.

PRACTICE
1. A researcher doing a project on recycling 3. You are giving a survey to students. In
wants to determine the amount of trash which of the following surveys would it
produced by a household in Monroe County matter on which day of the week the student
in one day. Which of the following methods was taking the survey? Select all that apply.
of selecting households for his study will
A. Finding out if the student was going out
lead to the least bias?
that night
A. Asking for participants at a local B. Finding out the student’s birthday
meeting on environmental issues C. Finding out how much homework the
B. Randomly selecting households from a student had been assigned that day
recent census that lists the addresses of D. Finding out the student’s hat size
all residential units in the county
C. Choosing all the households in a large 4. A drug being tested in a medical trial is
apartment complex manufactured as a red pill, and it has a
D. Running an ad ona local country radio distinct bitter taste. Would a green pill with
station, asking for volunteers no taste make a good placebo for this trial?
Why or why not?
2. Anthony is doing an experiment while
blindfolded. He tosses two similarly shaped 5. In an experimental study on a new allergy
objects and then reaches out to touch one of drug, a coin is flipped to determine whether
them. Which of the differences below is most a participant should be placed in a group
likely to increase his chance of touching one receiving the drug or in a group receiving
object over the other? the placebo. Using a coin flip to assign
A. Color G» 4Cost
participants to study groups accomplishes
what crucial element of an experimental
b. * Size D. Texture
study?
Practice Problems continue...

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization 511

 Practice Problems continued...

6. Ina study of a blood pressure medication, 13. What is one possible disadvantage of
many participants reported developing itchy allowing patients to choose whether they
rashes on their arms and legs. What term is receive a drug treatment or a placebo?
used to refer to results like this, which are
14. Mike asks his 9 friends who sit at his lunch
caused by a drug but are not related to its table if they will vote for him for class
main purpose? treasurer. They all say that they will vote
: Cie) In the context of a survey, what is bias? for him, so Mike is confident he will be the
next treasurer. Describe why the survey of
8. For a survey of a sample of typical voters in
his friends may not give him an accurate
a town, which location would likely result
in the least biased results: a supermarket, prediction.
a baseball game, or a senior center? 15. The library receives a donation to buy new
A city collected data about the number of books for the library. The head librarian
surveys people at a retirement center and
firefighters sent to fight fires and the amount
of property damage that resulted. The children at the local elementary school
mayor noticed that the greater the number to decide what types of books the library
of firefighters involved ina call, the greater should order. Is the survey biased? Why or
the amount of resulting property damage. why not?
He concluded that sending more firefighters 16. A company tested a new asthma medication
to a call would result in more property with a double-blind trial. Of the 180 test
damage. Is this a valid conclusion? Why or subjects, 100 received the new medication
why not? and 80 received a placebo. Of the test
subjects who received the medication, 70
10. A school offered an optional, free SAT prep
reported they had fewer asthma attacks
class for juniors. Students could choose
during the testing period than prior to
whether to attend the class. Juniors who
the test. Of the test subjects receiving the
took the class, on average, scored 300 points
placebo, 20 reported they had fewer asthma
higher on the SAT than their classmates who
attacks during the test period.
did not attend the class. The principal says
this proves the class is very successful and a What percentage of subjects receiving the
should be offered again next year. new medication reported fewer asthma
attacks?
a State at least one reason the principal
might be wrong about the class. b What percentage of subjects receiving the
placebo reported fewer asthma attacks?
b State one way enrollment in the SAT prep c [YGJERA Does the drug appear to be
class could have been changed to provide decreasing the incidence of asthma
a better measurement of the relationship attacks? Support your answer.
between taking the SAT prep class and a
student's score on the SAT. Exercises 17-21: Explain why the population
described for the given survey is biased.
11. An airport needs to order a new X-ray
machine for luggage, and a survey is 17. For a survey on the merits of gambling, the
conducted to determine the size of the population is the citizens of Las Vegas.
average suitcase. Fifteen business travelers 18. For a survey on weather preferences, the
have their suitcases measured. Describe why population is the citizens of Seattle.
this survey may exhibit bias.
19. For a survey on sleep habits, the population
12. [EY Two college students are collecting is high school students.
data on which sport is more popular among
students: basketball or football. Jarrod surveys 20. For a survey on favorite TV shows, the
all of the students in the marching band that population is high school students.
performs for football games. Brad surveys
all of the students in a freshmen residence
hall. Which student’s survey has less bias and Practice Problems continue. ..
should give more accurate results?

512 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued...
21. For a survey on favorite cars, the population 23. [ERNE A drug was developed to treat
is people exiting a grocery store on eczema, a skin condition. Some people who
weekdays between 10:00 A.M. and 2:00 PM. take the new drug report a side effect of
22. Coe Wolhave been selon teeaiece severe headaches. Researchers decide to
data about how a typical voter in your town eee Da ie aiae and
feels about building a new fire station to a placebo to determine if the headaches
service the northern section of the town. may be related Ke the drug. There are. 120 :
State three types of bias you need to avoid people enrolled in the trial. Of the 54 receive
in selecting voters for your survey. the drug, 15 of them report having severe
headaches. Of the 66 receive the placebo, 17
of them report severe headaches. Does the
drug appear to cause headaches?

24. Explain why using a double-blind

methodology in a medical trial might
be preferable to allowing researchers to
know which participants have or have not
received a placebo.

e Multi-Part PROBLEM Practice «

Cor You want to survey members of your community to see if the town wants to pass a law
to raise the minimum wage.
a Determine whether each of the following locations would be likely to provide a biased or
unbiased population to survey:
i. The corner pub
ii. The country club
iii, The grocery store
iv. A game of the town’s minor league baseball team
b Turns out, the baseball game is where everybody goes. There is a wide cross section of citizens
from all socioeconomic levels. Of the 1000 people, you can only survey 100. How could you use
decks of cards to choose the 100 people?
Determine another method for randomly selecting 100 of the 1000 people that is a fair method.

LESSON 10.7 source

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and

Margin of Error
In the previous lesson, we saw some different ways in which we can gather data
and how randomization can be used to ensure the validity of the data collection
process. In this lesson, we discuss some of the analysis procedures data is put
through after it is collected.

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 513

Means and Proportions
Often, statisticians or researchers are interested in defining a value that describes
some characteristic of the population they’re studying. To this end, measures of
central tendency are used. The most common measures of central tendency are
mean, median, and mode, which you have studied in previous math classes. Recall
that the mean is a data set’s average value, the median is the middle value, and the
mode is the value that occurs the most often.
A measure related to mean, median, and mode is proportion, p, which is the
fraction of the total collected data that possesses the characteristic in which we are The notation
interested. For example, suppose that we are interested in knowing the proportion np refersto |
of high school freshmen in a metro area that participate in after-school activities. If the proportion |
our collected data reflects that 65 out of 100 high school freshmen in that metro area of the total |
participate in after-school activities, the proportion, p = 8 — 0.65. We can also collected data |
100 that does |
compute np, the proportion of high school freshmen in that metro area who do not
participate in after-school activities: np = 1 — p = 1 — 0.65 = 0.35. Nt eeeSs
the desired |
characteristic. |
Calculating Proportions:
_ number with characteristic
total number
number without characteristic
eee ‘Al as
a total number P

For any set of collected data, we can calculate the mean or a proportion, depending
on what we are trying to determine.

MODEL PROBLEM
Members of a school board are considering spending some of the district budget on upgraded
technology for the middle school math classrooms. To determine if the community supports this idea,
a survey is conducted which shows that 160 out of 400 survey participants support spending money
to update technology in the middle school math classrooms. What is the proportion of participants
that support this idea?
A. 0.16 C20.60
B. 0.40 DU .52

SOLUTION

Calculate p, the proportion of participants who support p= = = 0.40

upgraded technology in middle school math classrooms
The correct answer is B.

514 Chapter 10: Probability

Confidence Interval and Margin of Error
When analyzing a data set, the calculated mean or proportion gives us an
incomplete snapshot of the data. This is because data is spread out around the | Standard
mean value or proportion. In order to quantify and account for this spread, we deviation :
determine a measure of variability such as the standard deviation. Calculation of | @0breviated S. D., |
the standard deviation is beyond the scope of this course, but it is important that | 'S the numerical |
you understand its definition and how its value affects other calculations, such as ‘ian that is used
value |
margin of error and confidence intervals. We will use an election poll scenario to o Dos
illustrate these concepts. re aouee
in a data set
Suppose that a local election poll results in 52% of the respondents for Mr. Cooper | vary. The higher
and 48% for Ms. Raimundo. The poll is reported with a margin of error of plus or | the standard
minus 2 percentage points at a 95% confidence level. The results are being reported | deviation, the
with terms that are parameters in statistics; they are used to state how confident a | more widely the
statistician is in the results of her survey. values vary.

Margin of error The margin of error provides the values that are
e Plus or minus a added to and subtracted froma reported statistic to
constant account for possible error due to sampling. This value
is a function of the standard deviation, so the higher
the standard deviation, the higher the margin of error
and vice versa. A two-percentage-point margin
of error does not mean plus or minus 2% of the
result—when the result itself is a percentage—but
rather (37 + 2)% for a result of 37%.

Confidence level The confidence level gives a sense of how likely the
e A percent true value for a parameter is to be within the margin
of error of the statistic. It states the percent of times, if
the study were conducted multiple times, that the true
value would be within the margin of error.
Confidence interval | The confidence interval is the range of values that
e Arange of values | is found by adding the margin of error to and
subtracting it from the statistic at the given confidence
level.

For instance, perhaps the pollster in this scenario surveyed 1,500 people out of the
larger population and found that p = 780. = 0.52 of them said they would vote
1500
for Cooper. The standard deviation of the survey is not reported, but the margin of
error, 2 percentage points, is. We know the confidence level is 957%. We can interpret
these parameters to mean that if the survey were conducted multiple times within
the same population, 95% of the results would fall between 50% and 54%, i.e.,
(52 + 2)%, of survey respondents preferring Cooper. This also means that 5% of the
time, the survey results will be outside the confidence interval of 50% — 54%.

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 515

 MODEL PROBLEM
A poll says that 58% of voters will vote for Thieu, plus or minus 3 percentage points, and the pollster is
90% confident of his results. State the margin of error, the confidence level, and the confidence interval.
SOLUTION
Margin of error Plus or minus 3 percentage The poll said that the results were accurate to within
points at 90% plus or minus 3 percentage points at a 90% confidence
level. The margin of error is 3 percentage points.
Confidence level 90% The pollster says he has a 90% confidence level.
Confidence 58% + 3 percentage points Add and subtract the margin of error to 58% to
interval at 90% 55% to 61% at 90% calculate the confidence interval.
confidence level confidence level

Computing the Margin of Error

We now explain how to compute the margin of error for means and for proportions.
Different types of statistics have different techniques for computing margin of error.
If the mean, standard deviation, and number of participants in a sample are known,
the margin of error can be estimated using the following formula:

mamrein oferror = 2 - standard deviation

= VN
N = sample size

This formula assumes that the data are normally distributed (see lesson 10.5) and
that the confidence level is 95%. In this formula, it is easy to see how the standard
deviation affects the margin of error—the higher the deviation, the higher the
margin of error and vice versa. It is also easy to see that as the sample size, N,
increases, the margin of error decreases. This is due to the division by VN.
If, instead of working with the mean of a data set, you are working with a
proportion, the margin of error can be calculated using this formula:

margin of error = 2, jo
How does one
N = sample size reduce the
p = survey results as a decimal, not percent margin of error?
One way is to
This method assumes that the data have a binomial distribution. This type of increase the size
distribution differs from the normal distribution discussed in lesson 10.5; of the survey.
however, if we repeat a statistical study a sufficient number of times with a large * With everything
enough sample size, the binomial distribution can be approximated by the normal else being equal,
distribution. As such, the mean becomes equivalent to the value of p and the a larger survey
formula above gives the margin error for a confidence level of 95%. Again, it is will have a
easy to see how the margin of error is affected by the number of participants in the smaller margin of |
sample—the larger the sample, the smaller the resulting margin of error. error.

516 Chapter 10: Probability

 MODEL PROBLEM
1. Of 500 surveyed, 47% prefer SuperGloss Shampoo. What is the margin of error at a 95%
confidence level?
SOLUTION

Use the formula margin of error = 2,| a Start with the formula and
substitute 0.47 for the 47%
P=a7e 047 stated in the problem, and
N = 500 substitute 500 for N.

_ Margin of error = 2, jee

500
Margin oferror margin of error ~ 0.045 = 4.5 percentage points Compute the margin of error in
percentage points.
Confidence (47 — 4.5)%, (47 + 4.5)% Calculate the 95% confidence
interval (42.5%, 51.5%) interval.

2. The mass of 150 chimpanzees had a standard deviation of 1.25 kilograms. At a 95% confidence
level, what is the margin of error?

SOLUTION

Use the formula margin of error = Se Start with the formula and
substitute.
standard deviation = 1.25
N = 150
margin of error =eee
° V150
Margin of error margin of error ~ 0.20 kilograms Compute the margin of error.

The margin of error is an important statistical measure. It defines the maximum

expected difference between the true population parameter and the estimate
provided by the statistical study. For a study repeated a sufficient number of times,
either through real-time questioning or by simulation, the margin of error can help
us determine whether the results we observe are so unusual that they wouldn’t
happen by chance.

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 517

 MODEL PROBLEM
Divinda’s Divine Snacks is thinking about
producing a new snack mix variety. The
company will produce the new snack mix if
at least 28% of people who eat snack mix will
buy the product. Fifty people who eat snack
mix are randomly selected to take a blind taste
test of products X, Y, and the new snack mix.
Ten participants preferred the new snack mix to
products X and Y. Divinda’s Divine Snacks mean = 0.268
then devises a simulation where the computer See
repeatedly took samples of size 50 from a
population with a true proportion of 0.28 for
those who prefer Divinda’s Snack Mix. The
company will compare the results of the
simulation to the results of their taste test. Each
dot in the graph to the right represents the
proportion of people who preferred Divinda’s
new product.

a Assume the data are normally distributed.

If the company wants to be 95% confident
: : 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24
of its results, does the sample proportion, ice,0.28 0.32 0.36 0.40 0.44

10 out of 50, fall within the margin of error Proportion Preferring Divinda’s Product
developed from the simulation? Justify your answer.
b Divinda’s Divine Snacks decided to continue developing the new product even though only
10 out of 50 participants preferred its brand of snack mix in the taste test. Describe how the
simulation data could be used to support this decision.

SOLUTION
1 =
a Calculate the margin of error We use the margin of error formula, 2 - ral where
predicted by the simulation.
0.2 = (1.268
p = 0.268, to find that 2 - cae = 0.125.
Interpret the margin of error. The margin of error indicates that 95% of the observations
fall within +0.125 of the mean simulated proportion, 0.268.
The sample proportion, 0.20, falls within this margin of
error.

b The company has evidence that the population proportion could be at least 28%. As seen in
the dot plot, a sample proportion of 0.20 (10 out of 50) or less could be obtained several times,
even when the true proportion is 0.28, due to sampling variability. Given this and the results
of the taste test, product development should continue at this time.

518 Chapter 10: Probability

in this activity, the results of a voting survey are shown. Two candidates are running for
office. You control how many people are polled. We set rules (theoretical probabilities)
for the outcomes, but the experimental results you get are randomly generated, like
drawing a card from a deck to see if it is a club.

Poll results

“PAUSE” F asiaci-4y

Smith Jones # polled QD

In this activity, view the results of an experimental drug trial. Some study members
receive a placebo, while others receive the experimental drug. The members are
either cured or not cured. We set rules (theoretical probabilities) for the outcomes,
but the experimental results you get are randomly generated, like drawing a card from
a deck to see if it is a club.

Placebo
PyareRagrics

Cured Not cured Cured Not cured

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 519

PRACTICE
1. Asurvey of a sample of registered voters 5. You are given the formula to find the margin
reports that 47%, with a margin of error pip) . Which example best
of plus or minus 2 percentage points, of error: 2
N
are expected to vote for the Democratic describes what happens to the margin of
candidate in an election. Based on the results error as N increases?
of this survey, what percentage of votes
would the Democratic candidate not be A. The margin of error ina political
likely to receive? survey will increase as more people are
surveyed.
A. 45%
B. The margin of error in a medical study
B. 48% will decrease if fewer people participate
C. 49% in the study.
D5 -507%6 C. The margin of error will be two times
larger than the number of people
. Ina medical trial with 70 patients, 40 participating in a shopping survey.
received the experimental drug. What
proportion of the patients did not receive the D. The margin of error will decrease
experimental medication? as more people are polled for an
automobile survey.

A. cS . 1,000 voters are surveyed, and 62% prefer

the candidate from the “Math for All”
B. D. party. What is the margin of error at a 95%
Qo
NT]
NIB N[N
NI]
confidence level? Round your answer to the
. Asimulation estimates the standard nearest tenth of a percentage point.
deviation of a sample proportion to be 0.062
when the sample size is 85. What is the . The heights of 225 plants are measured,
margin of error? and the standard deviation is 3.75 cm. Ata
Ac 0:352 95% confidence level, what is the margin of
B. 0.249 error?
Ce 0.134
D. 0.031 8. A poll says that 62% of voters support an
increase in social services spending, plus
. Apollster takes a poll of 200 voters in a or minus 4 percentage points. The pollster
small town and finds that the incumbent, is 90% confident of his results. State the
Mayor Parsons, will receive 54% of the vote, margin of error, the confidence level, and the
with a margin of error of 4 percentage points confidence interval.
at 90% confidence level. If all 1000 residents
of the town were surveyed, 51.1% would say
they would vote for Parsons. Is the actual
population value within the margin of error
of the statistic?
A. Yes
B. No
Practice Problems continue. . .

520 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued ...
Anneka owns a small T-shirt printing 12. A college psychology professor theorizes that
business. She currently offers 8 different solid 45% of her students spent at least 15 hours
colored T-shirt choices and is considering studying for the last exam. She conducts a
expanding to 10 solid color varieties. She will survey and finds that 19 of her 50 students
move forward with her plan if she is 95% spent at least 15 hours studying for the exam.
confident that 35% of her customers will buy The professor then devises a simulation
at least one of the two new color choices. She where the computer repeatedly took samples
conducts a survey and finds that 13 of 50 of size 50 from a population of students with
people will buy at least one of the two new a true proportion of 0.45. She will compare
colors. To see if her results are indicative of the results of the simulation to the results
the true proportion of the population that of her survey to determine the validity of
will buy the two new colors, Anneka then — her hypothesis. Each dot in the graph below
devises a simulation where the computer represents the proportion of students who
repeatedly takes samples of size 50 from a studied at least 15 hours for the exam.
population with a true proportion of 0.35 for
those who would buy at least one of the two “ |
new colors. Anneka will compare the results ;e .° /
of the simulation to the results of her survey. mean = 0.4504 ee
ee
e@
|
Each dot in the graph below represents the S. D. = 0.019 ©, a(S Hye |
proportion of people who would buy at least e
ee @
e @ ‘
i
one of the two new colors. © © @ e@ |
eee e¢ e
ee ee¢ @ :
e | e eee e |
i e ' eo e©«ee¢ e |
bd eee e¢ e |
i mean = 0.353 : ' eo © eee i
i ee e \ eee e @
i S. D. = 0.023 e e e : eeeee8 6 @ |
eee @hle eeefmlUmtmlUCOUmUmUC OC i
eee eee eee ee8ee868 ¢6 @
eee eee eeeeee eee i
eee eee e oo «© eee e@ e@ @ @ i
eeeee e ii
eeeee ee
eeeee ee 0.41 0.43 0.45 0.47 0.49 |
eee ee8 @ @ | Proportion Who Spent at Least 15 Hours Studying
er |
eeee.e e686 ®@ SSURLAA NSAI AMESBSEDEMISSIONS
HH ERI HANES

eeeeee%oeee e®
eeeee%e«eoee e @
With 95% confidence, what conclusions can
0.31 0.33 0.35 0.37 0.39 the psychology professor draw about her
Proportion Who Will Buy at hypothesis that at least 45% of her students
Least One of the New Colors spent 15 hours studying for the last exam?
13. The manufacturer of a candy coated
Should Anneka move ahead with her plan chocolate states that in a standard bag of
of expanding to 10 solid color choices for her their product, 38% of the candies are red.
T-shirts? Justify your answer. Fishel opens 30 standard-sized bags of the
10. Laelia weighed 25 five-pound bags of flour product and finds that 32% of the candies
and found their average weight to be 5.15 were red. What is Fishel’s margin of error
with a standard deviation of 0.84 pounds. at a 95% confidence level? How does this
At a 95% confidence level, what is the experimental result compare with the
margin of error? manufacturer’s claim?
i1. A manufacturing plant makes a certain part 14. A survey of a sample of supermarket
for automobile engines. The average length shoppers reported that 44% buy generic
of the part is 3.25 cm. The floor supervisor mustard, with a margin of error of plus
is 95% confident that 92% of these parts that or minus 5 percentage points. What is
are stamped out by machine K are 3.25 cm the maximum percentage of all shoppers
in length, plus or mirus 3 percentage points. that the survey predicts will buy generic
What is the floor supervisor’s confidence mustard? |;
Practice Problems continue...
interval for her estimate of 9270?
10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 521
Practice Problems continued .. .

15. A survey of 100 people shopping for a new 21. A government researcher hypothesizes that
car indicated that 16% planned to buy a 50% of the homes ina certain county have
hybrid vehicle, with a margin of error of basements. He surveys the records of home
plus or minus 3 percentage points. Based purchases for the last year in that county
on the survey, what range of all people and finds that 20 out of 50 homes purchased
buying a new car could be expected to buy a have a basement. The researcher then
hybrid? devises a simulation where the computer
repeatedly took samples of size 50 from a
16. In a close race for a seat on the local school population with a true proportion of 0.50.
board, a poll of registered voters reported The researcher will compare the results of
that Candidate A led Candidate B by 52% to the simulation to the results of his survey.
48%, with a margin of error of plus or minus Each dot in the graph below represents the
6 percentage points. Does the survey predict proportion of homes with a basement.
Candidate A will win the election? Support
your answer.
ee
s i
17. The confidence interval for the experimental e e@ @ i
e e@ @ |
results of a coin toss is 90%. If the coin toss e ee @ f
experiment was conducted 10 times, how e e @ }
e e@ e@ i
many times would the experimental results mean = 0.5003 e e ® i
be expected to fall outside the margin of S. D. = 0.018 Cr
ee
eae
«© @®
|©
®@
|
'
error? eo eee
eo «© @ @
|
'
ee © ee e@ @ i
18. As the number of trials run on a coin toss eee
e eee
e¢e
@
i
/
simulator increases, what happens to the @ 2 @ ® @ [
e © e @® ® '
margin of error? ee eee i
oo eeeee e i
ee e« eee 8 @ |
19 A group of students ina science class is ee eee eee ®@
using a simulator to model inheritance ‘
;
eeeeeeoe eee oe @® :
:
of different genetic traits. One trait they ‘ t
0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54
are testing is leaf shape, and they have
Proportion of Homes with a Basement
determined that a group of plants should,
theoretically, have pointy leaves 25% of
the time and round leaves 75% of the time.
The students run their simulation 500 times Based on the results of the simulation, can
and determine that 140 plants have pointy the researcher conclude that at least 50% of
leaves. What percentage of plants in the the homes in this county have a basement?
simulation have leaves that are pointy? Justify your answer.

20. With 95% confidence, a researcher expects 22. DET A polling company conducted
between 9% and 13% of the units of a new a survey of 50 people who were running
product to fail during the first year of use. in a local road race. Based on the runners’
Express this estimate as a single percentage estimations of their finishing times, the
with a plus or minus margin of error. polling company expected 57% of the
runners, plus or minus 4 percentage points,
to finish the race in under 2 hours. Their
confidence interval for the results was 70%.
During the event, 63% of runners finished
in under two hours. The race organizer says
the polling company did a lousy job because
the actual results of the race fell outside their
margin of error. Do you agree? Support your
answer.
Practice Problems continue...

522 Chapter 10: Probability

Practice Problems continued .. .
23. Cherice conducted a survey of the type of 24. [TPA The confidence level for the results of
music most preferred by 500 of her peers. a survey is k%. What is the chance the actual
She found that 185 prefer pop music, 200 results will fall outside the margin of error?
like rock music, 150 most like rap music, and
35 enjoy country. What is the margin of error
for students who like rap music?

Chapter 10 Key 1oc35 see

10.1 Introduction to Probability
e Experimental probability is calculated by recording the outcomes of a series of observations. The
probability of an event A, P(A), equals the number of times A is observed, divided by the number
of observations.
e Asample space is the set of all possible outcomes of an event. Theoretical probability equals the
number of ways an event can occur divided by the number of outcomes in the sample space,
given the outcomes are all equally likely.

10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, and Compound

Events
e In probability, the word “and” means that all events occur.
e¢ Two events are independent if the occurrence of one event does not affect the probability that the
other event will occur.
e The multiplication rule for independent events states that P(A MN B) = P(A) - P(B).

10.3 Addition and Subtraction Rules

e “Or” means at least one of a set of events occurs. The addition rule is used to calculate the
probability P(A or B). It says P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A and B).
¢ Two events are mutually exclusive if it is impossible for them both to occur. If A and B are
mutually exclusive events, P(A and B) = 0 and P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).
e The sum of the probabilities of all the outcomes of an event equals 1. The probability
P(not A) is the probability that the event A does not occur. To calculate it, use the
relation: P(not A) = 1 — P(A). Another name for mutually exclusive events is disjoint sets.

10.4 Conditional Probability

¢ Conditional probability is the probability that the event A occurs, given that event B has already
occurred. A conditional probability is written P(A|B). The formula that follows is used to
P(A and B)
calculate it: P(A|B) =
PB)

10.5 The Normal Distribution

e Normal distribution is a pattern of data that represents many random variables; its graph has a
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve.
@ Calculating the area under part of a normal curve allows one to determine the probability of an
outcome, or range of outcomes, of an event that has a normal distribution of outcomes.

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Margin of Error 523

10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization
e There are several different methods to gather data, including surveys, observational studies, and
experimental studies.
e Randomization is an essential process whereby participants are randomly selected for studies or
randomly grouped once chosen to minimize selection bias.
e Cause-and-effect conclusions can only be drawn from experimental studies.
e Researchers must account for lurking variables when drawing conclusions based on their
collected data.

10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals,

and Margin of Error
e We use the data from astatistical study to estimate a population mean or proportion.
e Means and proportions are values that describe characteristics of the population being studied.
e Standard deviation is a measure of the variability, or spread, of the data.
e The margin of error is a value typically added to and subtracted from either the mean or
proportion. It is related to the standard deviation, and it provides a range of values for the
variable of interest at some confidence level. The range of values is called the confidence interval.

LA
LAS IG
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW
1. Which of the following numbers could be 3. Which of the pairs of events below are
probabilities? Select all that apply. independent? Select all that apply.
iy a Ph 2564 A. Acoin coming up heads, and then the
aes same coin coming up tails.
3 B. The weather being sunny and people
By ae4 E. 2 carryi ying umbrellas.
brell
C. Drawing a5 from a deck of cards,
C. 0.999 replacing it in the deck, and then
2. In the graph of the sample space below, the drawing a queen.
height of the bar for the outcome “6” is D. Drawing a red gumdrop from a bag,
eating it, and then drawing a blue
° gumdrop.
m5 4. The probability that event Z occurs is 0.4;
3 4 the probability that event K occurs is 0.5;
5 3 and the probability that events Z and K both
2 occur is 0.2. This means
;DEE A. The probability of Z is conditional on
234567 8 9 101112 the probability of K.
arcane B. The probability of K is conditional on
ae Cue the probability of Z.
BO D7 C. The two events are independent.
D. The event Z is the complement of the
event K.

Chapter Review continues .. .

524 Chapter 10: Probability

Chapter Review continued . .
Laetitia is relating probability and sets. (GA There is a 70% chance that it will
She states: “In probability, we can compute rain, and a 30% chance that the temperature
the probability that A and B may occur. will be above 80°F. There is a 20% chance
We might also compute the probability that that it will rain and the temperature will be
X or Y may occur.” To relate this to sets, above 80°F. What is the probability that it
Laetitia should say, will rain or the temperature will be above
A. “The probability of A and B occurring is 80°F?
a union of two sets, and the probability . Create a sample space to answer the
of X or Y occurring is an intersection of questions below. There are two six-sided
two sets.” dice. The numbers on one die are even
B. “The probability of A and B occurring (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12) and the numbers on the
is an intersection of two sets, and the other are odd (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11).
probability of X or Y occurring is the
union of two sets.” a What is the probability that the dice sum
to 7?
C. “The probability of A and B occurring
is the complement of two sets, and the b What is the probability that the dice sum
probability of X or Y occurring is the to an even number?
intersection of two sets.” c What is the probability that the dice sum
D. “The probability of A and B occurring is to an odd number?
a union of two sets, and the probability d What is the probability that the dice sum
of X or Y occurring is the complement to 8 or a larger number?
of two sets.” Exercises 10-12: Sketch the graph to represent
Robert is finding the probability of the sample space.
randomly drawing a queen or diamond 10. The sum of two 5-sided dice.
from a deck of 52 cards. His solution steps
11. The sum of two 8-sided dice.
are stated below.
12. The number of heads when flipping
Step 1: P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) — P(A and B)
3 fair coins.
4 13 i
Step2:5 P(A or B) == —5) +
52
— -
5D
—
13. Wilae Sea A survey asked people which
days of the week they usually go grocery
4
Stepep 3: P(A
(A or
or B)B) = —3 shopping. 70% of those surveyed went
grocery shopping on Saturday or Sunday,
Which is the first incorrect step shown 50% went shopping on Saturday, and 30%
above, if there are any errors at all? went shopping on Sunday. What percentage
Ae Step of people went shopping on both Saturday
pe otStep2 and Sunday?
Cx step 3 14. An efficiency researcher collected data
D. All the steps are correct. about the number of miles that ten different
types of cars can drive on a single gallon
(2 3A Customers order one or two of gasoline. She calculated the mean miles
scoops of ice cream at the corner store. per gallon for the cars, as well as the
The probability that the store serves a standard deviation for the data set. Another
chocolate scoop is 0.4; the probability that a researcher in Canada asked if the first
customer orders two scoops is 0.3; and the researcher could convert her measurements
probability that they order two chocolate to kilometers per liter, which will change
scoops is 0.1. What is the probability they the mean and the standard deviation of the
order chocolate or two scoops? data. Will the conversion affect the ratio of
the standard deviation to the mean? Explain
your reasoning.

Chapter Review continues .. .

Chapter 10 Review 525

Chapter Review continued . . .
15. Shaquille (Shaq) O’Neal played 20 seasons 20. A company testing an asthma medication
in the National Basketball League. Over is concerned the medication may increase
that time, he amassed 8,890 regular season the risk of infections. Of the 100 people
defensive rebounds (DRB). Suppose he who used the new medication in the test,
averaged 7.4 DRB per regular season game 8 reported they had some type of infection
with a standard deviation of 2.3 DRB. If during the test period. Of the 80 people who
his number of DRB per game is normally received the placebo, 9 people reported they
distributed across his career, what is the had some type of infection during the test
probability that Shaq gained more than 12 period.
DRB in a randomly selected regular season
game? a What percentage of subjects receiving the
medication reported having an infection?
16. In Data Set M, the mean is 32 centimeters, b What percentage of subjects receiving the
and the standard deviation is 4 centimeters. placebo reported having an infection?
What piece of information can be used to c Does the drug appear to increase the risk
compare the spread of data in Data Set M to of infection? Justify your answer.
the data in Data Set S, which has a different
mean and a different standard deviation? 21. The average annual starting salary for a high
school math teacher in the United States is
17. Azra is considering buying a treadmill. He $43,000 with a standard deviation of $4,500.
knows that the average life of a treadmill Suppose Anton takes a job where he earns
from a certain manufacturer is about 10,000 less than what 75% of his national colleagues
miles with a standard deviation of 1,800 earn. What is the maximum amount of
miles. If Azra buys a treadmill made by this money Anton could be earning annually?
manufacturer, what is the probability that
the treadmill will last between 8,000 and 22. rir A survey reports that a% of a sample
13,000 miles? of fishermen surveyed wear life jackets, plus
or minus b percentage points.
18. How does increasing the size of the
intervals into which data are grouped affect a Based on these results, write an
the apparent distribution of the data in a expression that represents the smallest
frequency graph? percentage of all fishermen who might be
expected to wear life jackets, based on the
19. In a study of a new flu vaccine, the syringes survey.
containing the vaccine and those containing b Express the range of fishermen who wear
a placebo were prepared ahead of time, life jackets as a function of b.
and neither the doctors giving the shots
nor the participants receiving them knew 23. The Law of Large Numbers states
who received the vaccine and who received that as the number of trials of an experiment
the placebo. What term is used to describe increases, the experimental probability of an
this type of study, in which neither the event occurring approaches the theoretical
researchers nor the participants know who probability of the event occurring. Jake
has received the drug and who has received received a “magic” coin from his uncle.
the placebo? He flipped it 100 times, and found that it
came up heads 64% of the time. He flipped it
another 500 times, and it came up heads 57%
of the time. He then flipped it 1000 times,
and it came up heads 58% of the time. Then,
he flipped it 1500 times, and it came up
heads 62% of the time. Based on the Law
of Large Numbers, what do you think the
theoretical probability of the magic coin
coming up heads is? Explain how you could
test your hypothesis.
Chapter Review continues...

526 Chapter 10: Probability

Chapter Review continued . .
24. A polling firm is conducting research 28. Cir Peter calculated that the theoretical
on Internet use by calling the landline probability of obtaining exactly two heads
telephone of every tenth person listed in a when flipping six coins is 23.4%. What
local phone book. What bias may exist in the number of heads also has a 23.4% theoretical
method they are using to do the poll? probability of coming up when 6coins are
flipped?
25 What could a person collecting data for a
survey do to avoid age bias in the results? 29. It is estimated that about 44% of
26. Derek has a jar of marbles—half are red and American households have consumer
half are blue. The red marbles are slightly debt. A researcher conducts a survey of
smaller than the blue marbles. Derek 50 randomly selected American households
assumes that because the jar contains the and finds that 20 of them have consumer
same number of marbles of each color, if he debt. The researcher then devised a
closes his eyes and picks a marble, he will simulation where the computer repeatedly
draw a red marble 50% of the time. Is Derek took samples of size 50 from a population
correct? Why or why not? where the true proportion of American
household with consumer debt is 0.44. The
27. A statistician was asked to examine the researcher will compare the results of the
weights of the members of the wrestling simulation to the results of their survey.
teams at two different high schools. The
information he collected is shown below.
e
ee@ |i
i eo e @ '
Garfield High School Cleveland High School i a e e @ :
| mean = 0.4445 a ge ae i
Weight | Number of Weight | Number of bon ae Ui eee .e@ i
(pounds) | Wrestlers (pounds) | Wrestlers i ee e@ @ e@
| oe ee i
111-120 isspee
i! '
:
ee
e
e«©
eo «© © ®
e@
eee
ee
e@ @
|
i
i
121-130 ' eeee oe e |
| ee e©«© eee @ |
| e e« eee e@ :
i eeee oo e
' eeeeeeeoe
i ee © ee ee © ® @ @
i eo eee ee 8 e@ @ i
e «© eee eee e eo @ |
i
0.40 042 044 046 0.48 i

Proportion of American Households

Z
with Consumer Debt ¢

ssstnsocntnmanseneiuentesstentscennanssemenNN >

a Make a bar graph to display the data

from Garfield High School. If we want to be 95% confident of our
b Make a bar graph to display the data estimate, does the sample proportion
from Cleveland High School. obtained, 20 out of 50, fall within the margin
c Based on the two graphs, which school of error developed from the simulation?
would you expect to have a greater Why or why not?
standard deviation from the mean, and
why?

Chapter 10 Review 527

 ert iirc
aadm Cd ale
for Chapters io ot

1. Which of the following is true about the Exercises 7-8: Simplify. Assume the radicand is
graph of y = 3 sin(x — 4) + 2 compared to positive.
the graph of y = 3 sin x?
7. V(x + 3)(x — 3)(x + 3)(x — 3)
A. Itis shifted up by 2.
B. It is shifted down by 2. 8. V3x2 + 10x — 14 — (2x? + 4x — 23)
C. Itis shifted up by 4. 9. Consider the radical expression V abxy
7 D. It is shifted down by 4. where ab = 2 and xy is a perfect square less
than or equal to 100. For which value(s) of
2. You have two dice. One die has m sides and xy is the radical a rational number?
the other die has n sides, and all of the sides
are different. If you roll one die and then the Exercises 10-14: Decide if each equation
other, how many possible outcomes are in represents exponential growth or decay.
the sample space? Explain your answer.

10.[TE
y=2
Dx
A. mt+n
B. mn
Ce i mn 11. y = (3*
D. mm 12. y = (3)”
3. Which of the following cannot be used to
examine the spread ofa set of data? 13. aS
2 =<
Mean of the data 3%
14. y= 5
B. Bar graph of the data
C. Box-and-whisker plot of the data Vn.
15. Express logs —; in terms of logs n, logs t,
D. Standard deviation of the data and logs 3.
4. To avoid making a rash decision, a drug 16. Express as a single logarithm with an integer
company tests its new drug again with 70 argument: log, 10 + log; 8 — log; 4
patients. Forty received the drug, and 25
had their rashes disappear. Of the 30 who 17. State as a difference of logarithms: log, ~
received a placebo, 20 had their rashes 5
disappear. In this trial, does the drug seem 18. [PRY A bank pays 8% interest
to be working? compounded annually. You deposit
$1,000,000. In how many years will you
A. No have $10,000,000 in your account? State your
Bar exes answer to the nearest hundredth ofa year.
C. Not enough information to tell
19. Match the sequence to the function that best
5. Solve: (x + 4)? = 5x + 20 models the graph of the sequence.
2 —4 an 16,1224,
4S a. Ayia 3X
. Simplify th i
6. Simplify the expressiono n : = eS Doar], BY y= 3F 2"
Ge = 1200, 1087524,.... C. ye adu(—3y

20. Consider the sequence 5, 13, 21, 29, ... . Give

a linear function that would best model the
line formed by the graph of the sequence.

528 Cumulative Review

21. The sum of the 1st and 7th terms of an 26. What is the equation of the graph shown?
arithmetic sequence is 2, and the sum of State your answer using the sine function.
the 2nd and 10th terms is 14. What is the
5th term?

22. Cie) Assume 41, 4, 43, ... iS a geometric

sequence and m is a constant not equal
to 0. Prove that ma,, ma, ma3, ... is also a
geometric sequence.

23. [TRARY The second square is created

by connecting the midpoints of the
20-centimeter square, and this pattern
is continued. If this pattern is continued
forever, what is the sum of th f all
of the squares? Sian Ey a 27. The value of the sine ofiz is
aa What is

the exact value of the sine of(= ~ =)

28. A spinner is divided into 3 equal sections:

20 cm red, green, and blue.

a What is the theoretical probability

of spinning red two times in a row,
expressed as a percentage to the nearest
whole percent?
24. Use the difference of squares b A simulator runs 300 trials of two spins in
and the trigonometric identity a row. During the simulation, the number
(sin x)? + (cos x)* = 1 to show that of times red is spun twice in a row is 42.
(cos x)* — (sin x)* = (cos x)? — (sin x)’. What percentage of the trials produced a
result of (RED, RED)?
25. [EMEA Use the Pythagorean theorem
and the diagram below to prove c If the simulator runs through 3000 trials,
(sin 6)* + (cos 6)? = 1. should you expect the absolute value
of the margin of error to be greater or
x
smaller?

29. Calculate the theoretical probabilities of

obtaining 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 heads when
tossing 6 coins. Express your solutions as
percentages rounded to the nearest tenth,
and present them inatable.
LES
Gs
Cy

Chapters 1-10 529

addition rule (p. 481) In probability: P(A or B) = bias (p. 509) A flaw in the method of collecting
PAjer P(B)— P(Arand B). or analyzing data ina statistical survey that
results in an inaccurate representation of the
adjacent leg (p. 394) Ina right triangle, the leg population. Bias prevents a survey from being
next to the angle under consideration. random.
amplitude (p. 425) In the graph of a periodic binomial (p. 39) A polynomial with two terms.
function, the amplitude is the distance from
the midline to the highest or lowest point, or binomial coefficients (p. 374) The coefficients of
the distance to a peak or a trough. the terms in the power expansion of a binomial,
(a + b)".
angle of rotation (p. 406) In a rotational
transformation, the angle through which a binomial distribution (p. 516) In probability
figure is rotated about a fixed point. theory, the distribution that results from a
collection of data with two possible outcomes,
argument (p. 295) In a logarithmic expression, each equally likely.
log, x = y, x is the argument of the logarithm.
It is the value of base b raised to the power y binomial expansion (p. 370) The polynomial
and must be greater than 0. expression of a binomial raised to a power,
(a + b)".
arithmetic sequence (p. 334) A numerical
sequence in which each term equals the sum binomial theorem (p. 377) The formula for
of the previous term and a constant, called the calculating any term in a binomial expansion.
common difference. To find the term with b‘ in (a + b)", evaluate
n
arithmetic series (p. 342) The expression of the the formula (a eo.
sum of the terms in an arithmetic sequence.
boundary line (p. 32) In the graph of an
asymptote (p. 48) A line that a graph inequality on a grid, a line that defines the
approaches but never reaches. solution set of the inequality.
axis of symmetry (p. 41) A line across which a central angle (p. 414) An angle with its vertex
figure is “flipped” to create a reflected image. at the center of a circle.
Each point in the figure has a matching point
in the image an equal distance from the axis of change-of-base formula (p. 313) The formula
symmetry. that rewrites a logarithm with one base as a
logarithmic expression with a different
base (exponents) (p. 223) In an exponential log, x
expression, the base is the number or variable base: log, x = ieee
raised to a power. In the expression, 7°, 7 is the
base. closed system (p. 185) A set of numbers is
closed under a mathematical operation if,
base (logarithms) (p. 295) In a logarithmic when that operation is performed on any
expression, log, x = y, b is the base of the two or more numbers in that set, the result is
logarithm. It is the value raised to the power also a number in the set. For example, the set
y so that it equals x. The base must be greater of whole numbers is closed under addition
than 0 and cannot equal 1. because adding any two whole numbers will
always yield a whole number.

530 Glossary
coefficient of determination (p. 57) When compound event (p. 476) A combination of
creating a mathematical model to fit data, the two or more simple events, such as drawing a
coefficient of determination, 1”, provides a club and then drawing a three when playing
measure of how well the model fits the data. cards.
The value of 7” varies from 0 to 1; the closer it
is to 1, the better the model fits the data. conditional probability (p. 487) The
probability that event A occurs, given that
coefficient of variation (p. 496) The ratio of the event B occurs.
standard deviation to the mean.
confidence interval (p. 515) In probability, the
combined function (p. 278) The result of range of values that a parameter might have at
adding, subtracting, multiplying, and/or a given confidence level.
dividing two or more functions.
confidence level (p. 515) In probability, a
common difference (p. 334) The number added percent representing the degree of certainty
to each term of an arithmetic sequence to get assigned to a margin of error of a measured
the next term. parameter.

common logarithm (p. 297) A logarithm constant function (p. 279) A function with the
with base 10. A logarithm written without same output for all input values.
a base number is assumed to be a common
logarithm, e.g., log 5 is equivalent to logy) 5. converge (p. 364) In an infinite geometric series,
when the partial sums get closer and closer to
common ratio (p. 350) The number by which a number, the series is said to converge to that
each term of a geometric series is multiplied to number, or is convergent.
get the next term.
cosecant (p. 441) The reciprocal function
complement (p. 483) The complement of event of the sine, or the ratio of the length of the
A is the event that A does not occur. It is hypotenuse to the length of the leg opposite to
denoted “not A.” For a coin toss, heads is the the angle.
complement of tails.
cosine (p. 394) In a right triangle, the cosine
complete the square (p. 94) A technique for of an angle is the ratio of the length of the
solving quadratic equations; to complete the leg adjacent to the angle to the length of the
square means to add a constant to a binomial hypotenuse.
to create a perfect square.
cotangent (p. 441) The reciprocal function of
complex conjugates (p. 106) Complex the tangent, or the ratio of the length of the leg
numbers with the same real parts, and adjacent to the angle to the length of the leg
imaginary parts that are opposites: a + bi and opposite the angle.
a — bi. Their product is a real number equal to
a+b. coterminal (p. 407) Two angles with the same
terminal ray.
complex numbers (p. 103) Numbers written in
the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers cubic equation (p. 152) A polynomial equation
of the third degree; that is, the variable
and iis imaginary, i = V —1.
appears to the third power and no higher.
complex rational expression (p. 189) An
dependent events (p. 473) Two events are
algebraic expression written as a fraction
where the numerator and/or denominator dependent if the outcome of the first affects
contains a rational expression.
the outcome of the second so that the
probability is changed.
composite function (p. 286) A function made
up of two functions in which the output of Descartes’ rule of signs (p. 165) A technique
one function is used as the input of the other for finding the number of positive and
negative roots to a polynomial equation with
function.
real coefficients.

Glossary 532
difference of cubes (p. 85) The description exponential decay (p. 263) The graph of an
of a polynomial in which one perfect cube is exponential function with a base greater than
subtracted from another. For example, x? — 27. 0 but less than 1.
difference of squares (p. 81) The description exponential function (p. 261) A function with
of a polynomial in which one perfect square is a constant raised to a variable power. For
subtracted from another. For example, x7 — 9, example, y = 2’.
directrix (p. 119) A line not through the focus of exponential growth (p. 262) The graph of
a parabola used to establish the locus of points an exponential function with a base greater
of the parabola such that the distance to the than 1.
focus equals the distance to the directrix.
exponent notation for roots (p. 239) The use
discriminant (p. 106) In the quadratic formula, of fractions as the exponent in expressions,
the expression b* — 4ac is the discriminant. as opposed to radical signs. For example, a
The discriminant determines how many real denominator of n in the exponent represents
solutions there are to the quadratic equation. taking the nth root.
If it is positive, the equation has two real
solutions; if it is zero, the equation has one real extraneous solution (p. 201) A solution
solution; and if it is negative, the quadratic acquired during the solving of an equation
equation has no real solutions. (usually a rational equation) for which the
equation does not hold true.
domain (p. 22) The set of all possible inputs in a
relation. factorial notation (p. 374) An efficient way
to write the products of integers. It is
e (p. 305) An irrational constant whose first denoted by n!, representing the product
digits are 2.718281828459... . It is used as the of n and the number reduced by one (n — 1),
base number for natural logarithms and can be and the number reduced by one more (n — 2)
evaluated as the convergence of the down to 1. For example, (5-factorial)
5l=5-4-3-2°1 = 120.
function f(n) = (1+ iy
factoring by grouping (p. 84) Grouping
end behavior (p. 49) The tendency of the value factorable terms of a polynomial so that those
of a function to become increasingly positive groups then have a common factor.
or negative, or approach a certain value, as the
independent variable approaches positive or factor theorem (p. 148) A polynomial P(x) has
negative infinity. x — rasa factor if and only if P(r) = 0.

even function (p. 52) Functions whose graphs feasible region (p. 65) The graph of possible
are symmetric with respect to the y-axis. For solutions, or choices, in a linear programming
an even function, f(—x) = f(x). problem.

event (p. 463) A set of outcomes that are of finite sequence (p. 333) A sequence that comes
interest in probability. to an end.

experimental probability (p. 463) Determining focus of the parabola (p. 119) A parabola is the
a probability based on observation. set of all points in a plane that are the same
distance from a point, called the focus, and a
experimental study (p. 508) A study where the line, called the directrix.
researcher intentionally imposes a treatment,
procedure, or program on the participants and frequency (p. 424) The number of cycles
then measures outcome(s). contained in one unit interval of the
independent variable in a periodic function.
explicit formula (p. 335) A formula that The frequency is the reciprocal of the period.
produces the nth term in a sequence, defined
in terms of n, as opposed to defined by other
terms in the sequence relative to the nth term.
532 Glossary
function (p. 22) A correspondence between one least common denominator (p. 195) The least
quantity (the input) and another quantity (the common multiple of the denominators of a set
output), in which each input pairs with exactly of fractions.
one output.
least common multiple (p. 195) The smallest
fundamental theorem of algebra (p. 160) integer or simplest algebraic expression that
Every single-variable polynomial function of is divisible by two or more given numbers or
degree n = 1 has at least one zero in the set of expressions.
complex numbers.
like radicals (p. 232) Radical expressions with
general term (p. 333) In a sequence, the general the same radical index.
term is denoted a,,, or the nth term.
limits (p. 49) Constraints on the domain and
geometric sequence (p. 350) A sequence range of functions.
in which each term equals the product of
the previous term and a number called the linear factorization theorem (p. 160) A
common ratio. polynomial of degree n = 1 has n complex
zeros. A zero that occurs k times counts
geometric series (p. 361) The expression of the as k zeros.
sum of the terms in a geometric sequence.
linear programming (p. 65) A way to solve
horizontal scaling (p. 427) The compression or some real-life problems, linear programming
stretching of a function’s values horizontally involves maximizing or minimizing some
(increasing or decreasing the x-values). function (such as profit or cost), where the
Horizontal scaling of a periodic function variables defining the function are subject to
changes its frequency and period. some linear inequalities.

hypotenuse (p. 387) The side opposite the right line of best fit (p. 58) The best possible trend
angle in a right triangle. line for a set of data.

imaginary numbers (p. 103) An imaginary logarithmic function (p. 295) The inverse of an
number is denoted by the product of a real exponential function. If bY = x, then y = log, x.
number and i, which represents the square
lurking variable (p. 509) A variable that causes
root of —1.
two other variables to have what appears to be
independent event (p. 473) Two events are a relationship even though there is not one.
said to be independent when one event has
no effect on the other. The probability of two margin of error (p. 515) A value typically
independent events occurring is equal to added to and subtracted from astatistic from
the product of the probabilities of the two a survey. It provides a range of values for the
parameter at a given confidence level.
events.
medical trial (p. 508) A test of a new drug or
independently combined probability model
treatment on humans.
(p. 473) See independent event.
midline (p. 424) A horizontal line about which a
index (p. 223) In V/b, n is the index.
periodic function oscillates.
infinite sequence (p. 333) A sequence that does
model (p. 54) An attempt to describe the
not terminate.
behavior of a system and to determine a
intercept (p. 14) The point at which a graph relationship between an independent variable
crosses either the x- or y-axis. and a dependent variable, usually with
mathematical equations.
inverse function (p. 281) A function that
reverses the effect of another function. It is monomial (p. 39) A real number, a variable, or a
denoted with a raised “—1.” For example, product of real numbers and variables, which
sin! x is the inverse function of sin x. might be raised to various powers.

Glossary 533
multiplication rule (p. 473) In probability, a parabola (p. 41) A conic section most simply
rule that states that the probability of two described by an equation of the form y = ax*.
independent events occurring equals the It can also be described as the set of points
product of their individual probabilities. equidistant from its focus and directrix.
With two independent events A and B,
P(A and B) = P(A) - P(B). parent function (p. 49) The most basic function
in a family of functions.
multivariable polynomial (p. 133) A polynomial
partial sum of a geometric series (p. 361) The
with more than one variable.
sum of a limited number of terms of an infinite
mutually exclusive (p. 482) Two events that geometric sequence.
cannot occur at the same time.
partial sum of an arithmetic series (p. 344)
natural base exponential function (p. 306) A The sum of a limited number of terms of an
function of the form f(x) = ae, where e is the infinite arithmetic sequence.
base.
percent rate of change (p. 265) The increase
natural logarithm (p. 305) A logarithm with or reduction over an interval expressed as a
base e. A natural logarithm is written as “In,” percent of the initial value.
Can /,
perfect square trinomial (p. 81) The product of
normal curve (p. 494) A graph with a two identical binomials.
symmetrical, bell-shaped curve; indicates a
period (p. 424) The interval of a periodic
normal distribution.
function that contains the smallest repeating
normal distribution (p. 494) A pattern pattern of the function’s graph. It is the
of data that represents many random reciprocal of the frequency.
variables. Its graph has a symmetrical, periodic function (p. 424) A function with a
bell-shaped curve. pattern that repeats exactly throughout its
objective function (p. 65) In linear domain.
programming, the function to optimize—that
phase identity (p. 435) A relation between
is, to maximize or minimize.
a periodic function and another periodic
observation (p. 463) In probability, the noting of function that is translated horizontally with
an event. respect to the first.

observational study (p. 508) A type of research phase shift (p. 431) The amount by which a
in which individuals are observed or certain periodic function is translated horizontally.
outcomes are measured, e.g., a medical trial.
placebo (p. 508) A fake drug that physically
odd function (p. 53) Functions whose graphs resembles a drug being tested, but that
are symmetric about the origin. For an odd actually has no medicinal qualities; used as a
function, f(—x) = —f(x). control in a medical trial.
opposite leg (p. 394) In a right triangle, the leg polynomial (p. 39) An expression made up
opposite the angle under consideration. of the sums and differences of two or more
monomials.
order of operations (p. 5) The order in which
mathematical operations must be performed power of a power rule (p. 36) When raising
in an algebraic expression. a power to a power, multiply the exponents
together and keep the base the same:
outcome (p. 463) In probability, a possible result (a™)" = qin”,
of an observation, such as “heads” or “tails”
for a coin toss. power of a product rule (p. 37) When raising
a product to a power, raise each factor to the
power and then multiply the factors’ powers:
(ab)” = ab”.

534 Glossary
power of a quotient rule (p. 37) When raising quadratic equation (p. 89) An equation that can
a quotient to a power, raise the numerator and be written with a quadratic polynomial on one

mie(2)<22x.2
denominator to the power and then side and zero on the other side. The standard
diceeheal form is ax* + bx + c = 0, where a <= 0.

quadratic formula (p. 97) A formula for solving

power principle (p. 248) If a = b, thena” = b".
In other words, if a = b, then you can raise —b + \/b? — 4ac
quadratic equations: x =
them to any same power, and the equality still 2a
holds. quadratic trinomial (p. 79) A polynomial in one
variable with three terms: a second-degree
power rule for logarithms (p. 313) The
(squared) term, a first-degree term, and a
logarithm of a power of M can be calculated as
constant.
the product of the exponent and the logarithm
of M: log, M? = p - log, M. quartic equation (p. 153) A polynomial
equation where the highest degree (power) to
principal root (p. 224) The positive root of a
which a variable is raised is 4 (x*).
number.

probability (p. 463) The study of how likely it is quotient rule (p. 36) When dividing powers of
the same base, subtract the exponent of the
that an event will occur. The probability of an
divisor from the exponent of the dividend and
event is expressed by a number between 0 and 1, a it
inclusive. keep the base the same: — = a~”,
a
product rule (p. 36) When multiplying two quotient rule for logarithms (p. 312) The
powers with the same base, add the exponents logarithm of the quotient of two numbers
and keep the base the same: aa" = a"*"), equals the difference of the logarithms of those
product rule for logarithms (p. 311) The numbers: log, = = log, M — log, N.
logarithm of a product of numbers equals
the sum of the logarithms of the factors: quotient rule for radicals (p. 228) The radical
log, MN = log,M + log, N. of the quotient of two numbers is equal to the
radical of the numerator divided by the radical
product rule for radicals (p. 227) The radical
of the product of two numbers is equal to of the denominator: ne =
nla _ Va =.
the product of the radicals of the same two aan
numbers: Vab = V/a- Wb. radian (p. 414) A unit of measure for angles. One
radian is defined as the angle created when
proportion (p. 514) the fraction of the total the arc length equals the radius. One radian is
collected data that possesses the characteristic
in which we are interested. equal to et degrees.

Pythagorean identity (p. 420) A trigonometric radian measure (p. 414) In acircle, the ratio of
identity that is derived using the Pythagorean the length of the arc intercepted by an angle to
theorem. It states that for any angle 6, the radius of the circle.
sin? 9 + cos? @ = 1, |
radical equation (p. 245) An equation
Pythagorean theorem (p. 387) Ina right with a variable under a radical sign,
triangle, the square of the length of the Crea Vx +3 =8.
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
radical expression (p. 224) An expression
of the lengths of the legs: a” + 0? = c’.
that contains one or more radical signs,
Pythagorean triple (p. 93) A set of three e.2., V6, Ve!
integers that satisfy the Pythagorean theorem.
radicand (p. 223) The number under a radical
sign. In Vb or Vb, b is the radicand.

Glossary 535
randomization (p. 508) Process by which data scatter plot (p. 54) A graphical representation
of a survey or study is randomly selected with of data in which data points are plotted in
no selection bias. order to determine if there is a correlation
between variables.
range (p. 22) The set of all possible outputs of a
function. secant (p. 441) The reciprocal function of
the cosine, or the ratio of the length of the
rate of change (p. 18) A relationship between hypotenuse to the length of the leg adjacent to
two quantities that describes how much one the angle.
quantity changes with respect to the other.
sequence (p. 333) An ordered list of objects,
rational expression (p. 185) An expression that such as numbers.
can be written as a quotient of two polynomials.
series (p. 342) The sum of the terms in a
+4
F or example,le, “— ; sequence.

rationalizing the denominator (p. 235) side effect (p. 508) A result of a medical
Restating a radical expression without a treatment or drug that is outside its intended
radical in the denominator. purpose.

real numbers (p. 103) All numbers represented sigma notation (p. 343) A way to write a series
by points on the number line. using the summation sign and the summand,
6
Cen a
reciprocal function (p. 205) The function
fla) = =. sine (p. 394) In a right triangle, the sine of
an angle is the ratio of the length of the
recursive formula (p. 334) A formula that leg opposite the angle to the length of the
shows how to calculate a particular term hypotenuse.
of a sequence (a,,) based on the value of the
slope (p. 14) The measure of the steepness of a
previous term (a, _ ,) or terms.
line. Slope is a number calculated by dividing
reference angle (p. 408) An angle between the rise—vertical change between any two
the terminal side of an angle and the x-axis. points on the line—by the run, or horizontal
Reference angles range from 0° to 90°. change between the same two points, with
respect to a coordinate system.
regression (p. 57) The process of finding a
function that matches a data set. slope-intercept form (p. 14) The form of a
linear equation written y = mx + b, where m is
remainder theorem (p. 147) For a polynomial the slope and bis the y-intercept.
P(x), the value of P(c) equals the remainder
when P(x) is divided by x — c. square root principle (p. 88) Principle that
states that the solutions to x* = k are the
residual (p. 57) The difference between an positive and negative square roots of the
observed y-value and the predicted y-value in constant k. In other words, if x* = k, then
a regression. x = Vkorx = —Vk.

roots (p. 89) Values that make a polynomial squaring principle (p. 245) The key to solving
function equal to zero; also called zeros. radical equations, the squaring principle states
that if a = b, then a? = b?.
sample space (p. 464) In theoretical probability,
the set of all possible outcomes. standard deviation (p. 494) When analyzing
data, standard deviation supplies a measure of
the extent to which values are spread out from
or clustered around the mean.

536 = Glossary
standard form of a polynomial (p. 39) A transformation (p. 49) A change in the location,
polynomial written in descending order of orientation, or size of a figure or curve ona
degrees and with no like terms. graph.
standard form of the equation for a parabola translation (p. 49) A change that shifts a figure
centered at the origin (p. 120) Vertical or curve on a graph without changing its
parabola (opening up or down): y = 4d. orientation or shape.
4p trend line (p. 56) A line that passes close to the
horizontal parabola (opening left or right):
points on a scatter plot; used to predict points
Benl nb2
C=: not shown on the plot.
4p
structure of an equation (p. 71) The properties trigonometric identity (p. 419) An equality
that enable recognition of a known, workable involving trigonometric functions of an
form of an equation. angle @ that is true for any value of 0.

subtraction rule (p. 483) In probability: trigonometric ratio (p. 394) A ratio of the
P(not A) = 1 — P(A). lengths of two sides of a right triangle.
Examples are sine, cosine, and tangent.
summand (p. 343) The algebraic expression for
the nth term of an algebraic series. trigonometry (p. 394) The study of the
relationships of the sides and angles of
summation sign (p. 343) = (the Greek letter triangles.
“sigma”); means to add the series of terms that
two-way table (p. 472) A table with categories
follow.
for both its columns and its rows to show
sum of cubes (p. 85) A term used to describe counts or probabilities.
a polynomial in which two perfect cubes are
unit circle (p. 417) A circle with a radius of 1,
added.
used to calculate trigonometric ratios.
survey (p. 507) Collecting information about a vertex (p. 41) The point at which the graph of
population by gathering data on some of its a parabola changes direction. The vertex
members. is the highest or lowest point on the graph
synthetic division (p. 142) An algorithm of a parabola opening downward or
that provides an efficient way to divide upward.
polynomials when the divisor is of the vertex form for a parabola (p. 42) The equation
form (x.--6): for a parabola in the form, y = a(x — h)* + k,
where the point (i, k) is the vertex.
system of equations (p. 25) Two or more
equations with the same set of variables that vertical scaling (p. 427) The compression or
you seek to solve together. stretching of a function’s values vertically
(increasing or decreasing the y-values).
system of inequalities (p. 33) Two or more
Vertical scaling of a periodic function changes
inequalities with the same set of variables that
its amplitude.
you seek to solve together.
zero-product property (p. 89) If the product of
tangent (p. 394) In a right triangle, the tangent
factors is 0, at least one factor must equal
of an angle is the ratio of the length of its
Zero.
opposite leg to the length of its adjacent leg.
zeros (p. 89) The zeros of a polynomial function,
term (p. 333) A number in a sequence. also called roots, are the values that make the
theoretical probability (p. 464) Probability function equal to zero.
determined using reasoning and analysis.

Glossary 537
Digital Activities
Pee ICM Crm or iit
This Algebra 2 text includes Digital Activities, This text also includes Real-World Model
which are indicated by the open computer icon on Problems, indicated by the globe icon on the
the page numbers listed below. For access to these page numbers listed below. These problems are
activities, please visit www.amscomath.com. examples of situations that students might find in
the real world.
Activities eG
Real-World Model Problems ©
R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions, 5, 9
R.4 Solving Systems of Linear Equations and R.1 Expressions, Equations, and Functions, 10-11
Inequalities, 33 1.2 Models, 55, 56
R.6 Parabolas, 43 1.3 Working with Models, 64-65, 65-67
1.1 Functions, 52 2.3 Patterns and Equations, 93
1.3 Working with Models, 68 2.4 Algebra 1 Review: The Quadratic Formula, 99
2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions, 115 2.7 Modeling with Quadratic Functions, 115
2.8 Parabolas at the Origin, 120, 121 2.8 Parabolas at the Origin, 123-124
3.5 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions, 155 3.8 Modeling with Polynomial Functions, 171-172
4.3 Rational Equations, 198, 199 4.1 Multiplying and Dividing Rational
5.5 Radical Function Graphs, 251 Expressions, 191
6.1 Exponential Function Graphs, 264 4.3 Rational Equations, 198, 202-203
6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions, 282 4.4 Graphing Rational Functions, 210-211, 212
7.1 Logarithms, 296 5.5 Radical Function Graphs, 252
8.1 Arithmetic Sequences, 339 6.2 Modeling with Exponential Functions, 269-274
8.3 Geometric Sequences, 355, 356, 357 6.3 Combining Functions, 279
9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions, 6.4 Inverse and Composite Functions, 283-284
395 7.3 Natural Logarithms and e, 306-307
9.3 Angles of Rotation and Trigonometric 7.5 Modeling with Logarithms, 318-322
Functions, 415 8.1 Arithmetic Sequences, 338
9.4 Trigonometric Functions and the Unit Circle, 8.3 Geometric Sequences, 353-354
417 8.4 Geometric Series, 363, 366-367
9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs, 428, 431, 432, 9.1 Geometry Review: Right Triangles, 392
435 9.2 Geometry Review: Trigonometric Functions,
10.1 Introduction to Probability, 465, 469 396, 399-400
10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule, 9.5 Trigonometric Function Graphs, 434-435
and Compound Events, 473 10.1 Introduction to Probability, 468
10.5 The Normal Distribution, 498 10.2 Independent Events, the Multiplication Rule,
10.7 Means, Proportions, Confidence Intervals, and Compound Events, 477
and Margin of Error, 519 10.3. Addition and Subtraction Rules, 481
10.4 Conditional Probability, 490-491
10.6 Statistical Studies and Randomization,
SLC ott

538 Digital Activities

A Angle(s)
Absolute value, slope of, 45 central, 414
Absolute value functions, 45-48 complementary, 397-401
reflection of, 46 coterminal, 407
slope of, 45 of depression, 399
Activities of elevation, 399
arithmetic sequences, 339, 356-357 initial side of, 406
evaluating rational equations, 198-199 radian measure of, 414-415
geometric sequences, 355, 356-357 reference, 408
graphing polynomial functions, 155 right, 387
inverse functions, 282 of rotation, 406-411
linear programming, 68 terminal side of, 406-407
logarithmic functions, 296 Area, under normal curve, 499, 502
normal distribution, 498 Argument, 295
observational studies, 513-514 Arithmetic sequences, 333-339, 349
parabola, 120-121 activity, 356-357
phase identities, 435 determining type, 355-357
probability, 465, 469, 473 explicit formula for general term, 335-339
quadratic regression, 115 infinite, 344
radian/degree conversions, 415 real-world model of, 338
radian measures, 415 recursive formula for, 334-335
scaling trigonometric function graphs, 428 Arithmetic series, 342-347
solving equations, 9 derivation of formula for, 344-347
square root graphs, 251 in history, 347
translating exponential function, 264 partial sum of infinite, 344
translating function, 52 sigma notation for, 343
translating trigonometric function graphs, 431, 432 Associative properties, 9
trigonometric ratios, 395 Asymptote, 48, 205
unit circle, 417 Average rate of change, 46, 265-266
writing equations, 5 Axis
horizontal, 24, 54, 263
Acute triangies, 389
Addition of symmetry, 41-42
with common denominator, 192-193 vertical, 24, 54
of complex numbers, 104
of like radicals, 232-233 B
properties of, 9 Base, 223, 295
of rational expressions, 192-194 Bias, 507
Addition property, 9 Binomial coefficients, 374-376
Addition rule -o Binomial distribution, 498, 516
mutually exclusive events and, 482-483 Binomial expansion, 370-373
“or” and, 481-482 Binomials, 39
Adjacent leg, 394 product patterns, 80-82
Algebraic expressions Binomial theorem, 377-378
evaluating, 5-7 Boundary line, 32
writing, 7
Algebraic solutions C
to polynomial equations, 152-153 Calculators. See Graphing calculators
to systems of equations, 177 Central angle, 414
Amplitude, 425, 427 Change-of-base formula, 313-314, 326

Index 539
Circles graphing, 426. See also Trigonometric function
circumference of, 414 graphs
unit circle, 417-419, 421-422, 426 identities, 435-436
Circumference, 414 for special triangles, 401-403
Closed system, 185 trigonometric identities and, 419-421
Coefficient of determination, 57-58 unit circle and, 417-419, 421-422, 426
Coefficients Cotangent, 420, 441-445
binomial, 374-376 Coterminal angles, 407
binomial expansion, 371-372 Cube root functions, graphing, 253
Combined functions, 278-280 Cubes
domain of, 278-279 difference of, 85
evaluating, 280 sum of, 85
real-world model of, 279 Cubic equations, 152-153
Common denominators Cubic regression, 170-172
least common denominator, 195-196, 200-201
with rational expressions, 192-194 D
Common difference, 334, 338
Data
Common logarithms, 297
analysis, 54-56
Common ratio, 350-351
modeling, with trend lines, 56-58
Commutative properties, 9 normal distribution of, 494-504
Complementary angles, 397-401
real-world model of, 56
Complements, 483
standard deviation, 494
Complete the square, 94-96
Decibels (dB), 317
Complex conjugates, 106 Decimals, rational numbers as, 367
Complex numbers, 103-104, 160
Denominators
addition of, 104
addition and subtraction or rational expression
conjugates of, 106
with different, 194
factoring, 107
addition and subtraction or rational expression
multiplication of, 105
with same, 192-193
as solutions to quadratic equations, 110-111
least common, 195-196, 200-201
subtraction of, 104
rationalizing, 235-236
Complex rational expressions, 189
Dependent variables, 54
Composite functions, 286-288
Descartes’ rule of signs, 165-166
domain restrictions of, 287-288
Difference
Compound events, 474-475
common, 334, 338
Compound interest, 99, 270-271, 277, 318-319
of cubes, 85
formula for, 99, 271, 306-307
of squares, 81, 82
Computer algebra systems, 146
Directrix, 119
Conditional probability, 487-491
Discontinuous functions, 47—48
defined, 487
Discriminant, 106, 109
frequency tables and, 489-490
Distributive property
independent events and, 487-488
of division, 9
Confidence interval, 515
of multiplication, 9, 234
Confidence level, 515
Division
Constant function, 279
distributive property of, 9
Constraint inequalities, 65-67
of fractional powers, 242
Continuous functions, 47
of polynomials, 138-140, 141-146
Continuously compound interest, 306-307
of radical expressions, 242-243
Converge, 364
of rational expressions, 189-191
Conversions
synthetic, 142-145
degrees to radians, 414
using computer algebra system, 146
radians to degrees, 414
Division property, 9
Cosecant, 420, 441-445
Domain, 22, 23, 48-49
Cosine, 394-403
of combined functions, 278-279
angles of rotation and, 408-411
of composite functions, 287-288
complementary angles and, 397-401
limits on, 49

540 Index
Doppler effect, 210 Exponent notation
Double-blind methodology, 508 derivation of roots as powers, 241
fractional exponents, 242-243
E for roots, 239-241
e, 305-307 rules of exponents, 242
Earnings, education and, 55 Exponents, 36
End behavior, 49 base of, 223
Equality, properties of, 9 binomial expansion, 370-371
Equations fractional, 242-243
cubic, 152-153 negative, 38
exponential, 316 rules of, 242
factoring, 71-72 zero, 38
form of, 71 Expressions
graphing, 16, 64 evaluating, 5-7
literal, 13 mathematical, 22
logarithmic, 297-298, 309 with multiple variables, 7
parabola, 119, 120 radical. See Radical expressions
polynomial, 152-153, 175-178 rational. See Rational expressions
quadratic, 89-91, 97-101, 108-111 structure of, 71-72, 92-93
quartic, 153, 156 writing, 7
radical. See Radical equations Extraneous solutions, 201-203, 246-248, 309
rational. See Rational equations
real-world model of, 10, 93 F

simplifying, 71 Factorial notation, 374

slope-intercept form, 14-17 Factoring, 71-72
solving, 9-11, 88-89, 92-93 complex numbers, 107
solving systems of, 25-26, 28-30, 64, 72-73 differences of cubes, 85
square root principle and, 88-89 by grouping, 84
structure of, 71-72 identities and, 93, 107
writing, 5 polynomials, 79-84, 85
Eguilateral triangles, 389 quadratic equations, 110
Evaluating, algebraic expressions, 5-7 structure and, 82-83
Even functions, 52 sums of cubes, 85
Events, 463 two-variable polynomials, 86-87
independent, 472, 473, 487-488 Factors, 79
mutually exclusive, 482 greatest common, 83
Experimental probability, 463 linear, 79
Experimental studies, 508 zero-product property and, 89-91
Explicit formula Factor theorem, 148-150, 161
for general term of arithmetic sequence, False negatives, 490
335-339 False positives, 490
for general term of geometric sequence, Feasible region, 65-68
351-355 Finite arithmetic series, 342
Exponential decay, 263 Finite geometric series, 361
Exponential equations, 316 Finite sequences, 333
Exponential functions, 45, 47, 48 Focal length, 191
defined, 261 Focus of the parabola, 119
graphs of, 262-265 FOIL method, 40, 81
modeling with, 268-274, 448 Formula(s)
natural base, 306 for arithmetic series, 344-347
rate of change in, 265-266 change-of-base, 313-314
real-world model of, 271-274 circumference, 414
translations of, 264-265 complex conjugates, 106
Exponential growth, 262, 266, 270-271, 319 compound interest, 99, 271
Exponential regression, 263, 323 explicit formula for general term of arithmetic
sequence, 339-339

Index 541
 explicit formula for general term of geometric step, 48
sequence, 351-355 symmetrical, 46
for geometric series, 361-363 translating function graphs, 49-52
for infinite geometric series, 365 vertical line test for, 154
population, 171 Fundamental theorem of algebra, 160
quadratic, 97-101
recursive, 334-335, 350-351 G
slope, 14, 15 Gauss, Karl Friedrich, 347
45-45-90 triangles, 390, 402 General terms, 333, 335-339
Fractals, 366 Geometric sequences, 350-357
Fractional exponents, 242-243 activity, 355, 356-357
Fraction bar, 7 common ratio for, 350-351
Fractions, evaluating expressions with, 7 convergence of, 364
Frequency, 424 determining type, 355-357
Frequency tables, 489-490 explicit formula for general term, 351-355
Function(s), 22-24 real-world model of, 353-354
absolute value, 45-48 recursive formula for, 350-351
with changing slope, 46 Geometric series
combined, 278-280 derivation of formula for, 361-363
composite, 286-288 infinite, 361, 364-367
with constant slope, 45 partial sums and, 361
continuous, 47 real-world model of, 363, 366-367
cube root, 253 Graphing calculators
defined, 22 approximating area under normal curve using, 502
discontinuous, 47-48 drawing scatter plot using, 55-56
domain of, 22, 23, 48-49 generating normal distribution curve using, 502
even, 52 graphing polynomial functions using, 157-158
exponential. See Exponential functions graphing quadratic equations using, 109
graphs of, 23-24 linear models using, 59
horizontal line test for, 285 modeling exponential functions, 269
inverse, 281-285, 300 modeling logarithmic functions, 318
linear, 14-17, 23, 45, 47 modeling polynomial functions, 171
logarithmic, 295-296 modeling with quadratic functions, 114
modeling with, 448-451 quadratic formula using, 99-101
non-symmetrical, 47 solving system of polynomial equations using, 176
notation, 22 Graphs
objective, 65-68 cube root function, 253
odd, 53 end behavior of, 49
one-to-one, 284 equations, 16
parent, 49-52 exponential functions, 262-265
periodic, 424 functions, 23-24, 283
phase of, 431-434 inverse functions, 283
phase shift, 431-434 line, 15-17
piecewise, 45, 48 linear inequalities, 32
polynomial, 154-161, 168, 170-172 logarithmic functions, 300-303
properties of, 45-48 ordered pairs, 23
quadratic, 45-47, 114-115 parabola at the origin, 120-124
radical, 251-253 parabolas, 42
range of, 22, 23, 48-49 polynomial equations, 175-176
rate of change and, 46 polynomial functions, 154-161
rational, 205-211 quadratic equations, 108-109
real-world model of, 64-65 radical functions, 251-253
reciprocal, 205-211 rational equations, 212
scaling graphs of, 52 rational functions, 205-211
sinusoidal, 426 scaling functions, 52
square root, 251-253 scatter plots, 54-56

542 Index
 square root functions, 251-253
L
of systems of equations, 25-26, 64, 300-301
Law of supply and demand, 64
tangent functions, 436-437
Least common denominator (LCD), 195-196, 200-201
translating functions, 49-52
Least common multiple (LCM), 195-196
trigonometric functions, 424-437 Legs, of triangle, 387
Greatest common factor (GCF), 83
adjacent, 394
Grouping, factoring by, 84
opposite, 394
Grouping symbols, 7, 185, 224 Like radicals
addition of, 232-233
H defined, 232
Hertz, 286 subtraction of, 232-233
Horizontal axis, 24, 54, 263 Like terms, combining, in multivariable polynomials,
Horizontal bar, of fraction, 185 134
Horizontal line test, 285 Limits, 49
Horizontal scaling, 427-429 Linear equations, solving systems of, 25-26
Horizontal translation, of rational function, 206 Linear factorization theorem, 160, 161
Hypotenuse, 387 Linear factors, 79
Linear functions, 14-17, 45, 47
I graphing, 23
Identities
Linear inequalities
cosine, 435-436
graphing, 32
factoring, 93, 107
solving systems of, 33
Linear models, 56, 58-59, 448, 450
logarithmic, 308
phase, 435-436 Linear programming, 65-68
real-world model of, 65-67
Pythagorean, 420
Linear regression, 57, 58-59
sine, 435-436
Line of best fit, 58-59
trigonometric, 419-421
Lines
Imaginary numbers, 103-104
directrix, 119
Independent events, 472-475, 487-489
slope-intercept form of, 14-17
Independently combined probability model, 473
slope of, 14, 15-17
Independent variables, 54
Literal equations, 13
Index, 223, 242-243, 333
Logarithmic equations, solving, 297-298, 309
Index of summation, 343
Logarithmic expressions, breaking up and
Inequalities
combining, 324-326
constraint, 65-67
Logarithmic functions, 295-296
graphing linear, 32
graphs of, 300-303
solving systems of linear, 33
modeling, 317-322
Infinite arithmetic series, 342, 344
translations of, 302-303
Infinite geometric series, 361, 364-367
Logarithmic identities, 308
derivation of formula for, 365
Logarithmic regression, 317-318
real-world model of, 366-367
Logarithm(s)
Infinite sequences, 333
argument of, 295
Integers, products of, 374
base of, 295
Intercept, 14, 16, 17
breaking up and combining, 324-326
Interest, compound, 99, 270-271, 277, 306-307, 318-
change-of-base formula, 313-314, 326
319
common, 297
Inverse functions, 281-285, 300
laws of, 308-314
graphing, 283 modeling with, 317-322
testing for, 284-285
natural, 305-307
Irrational constant (e), 305-307
of powers, 313
Irrational numbers, 103
product rule for, 311, 314
Isosceles triangles, 389
quotient rule for, 312, 314
real-world model of, 318-322
rules of, 324-326

Index 543
 solving exponential equations using, 316 evaluating, 135
Long division operations with, 136-137
of polynomials, 138-140 Mutually exclusive events, 482
of polynomials with remainder, 141
Lurking variable, 508
N
Natural base exponential function, 306
Natural logarithms, 305-307
Margin of error, 515 Negative exponents, 38
computation of, 516-519 Negative numbers, 6
Mathematical expressions, 22 square roots of, 103-104
Mean, 514 Negative radicands, 231-232
Medical trials, 508 Negative roots, 224
Midline, 424 Non-symmetrical functions, 47
Modeling Normal curves, 494
data, 56-58 approximating area under, 499
exponential functions, 268-274, 448 Normal distribution, 494-504
functions, 64-65, 448-451 activity, 498-499
geometric sequences, 353-354 defined, 494
infinite geometric series, 366-367 graphing calculator problems, 502-504
logarithms, 317-322 margin of error and, 516
parabolas, 123 spreadsheets and, 502-504
polynomial functions, 170-172, 448, 451 standard deviation and, 494-496
probability, 469, 477, 481, 486 Numbers
quadratic formula, 99 complex, 103-104, 160
quadratic functions, 114-115 imaginary, 103-104
rational equations, 198, 202-203, 212 irrational, 103
rational expressions, 191 negative, 6
right triangles, 392, 396, 399-400 real, 103
solving equations, 10, 93
trigonometric ratios, 396, 399-400
O
Models Objective function, 65-68
defined, 54
Observation, 463
linear, 56, 58-59, 448 Observational studies, 508
polynomial, 448, 451 Obtuse triangles, 389
real-world, 55, 56, 64-65
Odd functions, 53
regression, 57-58
One-to-one functions, 284
scatter plots, 54-56 Operations, order of, 5, 6
trend lines, 56-58
Opposite leg, 394
working with, 64-65 SOr, SA77.
Monomials, multiplying, 39 Ordered pairs, 25
Multiplication graphing, 23
of complex numbers, 105
Order of operations, 5, 6
distributive property of, 9, 234 Origin, parabolas at, 118-124
of fractional powers, 242
Oscillation, 424
of monomials, 39
Outcome, 463
of multivariable polynomials, 137
of polynomials, 39-40
properties of, 9
Pp
of radical expressions, 227-228, 231-232, 234, Parabolas, 41-42
242-243 activity, 120
of rational expressions, 187-188 axis of symmetry, 41-42
Multiplication property, 9 directrix, 119
Multiplication rule, 473 equation for, 119, 120
Multivariable polynomials, 133 focus of, 119
combining like terms in, 134 geometric definition of, 118-120

544 Index
 graphing, 42, 120-124 Population formula, 171
at origin, 118-124 Population problems, 171-172, 174, 269
properties of, 121 Power of a power rule, 36, 240
real-world model of, 123 Power of a product rule, 37
translating, 42-43 Power of a quotient rule, 37
vertex form for, 42-43 Power principle, 248-249
Parent functions, 49-52 Power rule for logarithms, 313, 324-326
Parentheses, 7 Power rules, 36, 37, 240
Partial sum of a geometric series, 361 Powers, 223
Partial sum of an arithmetic series, 344 derivation of roots as, 241
Pascal, Blaise, 371 logarithms of, 313
Pascal’s triangle, 371-372, 375-376 Principal root, 224
Patterns, polynomial, 85 Probability
PEMDAS, 5, 6 addition rule and, 481-483
Percent rate of change, 265-266 compound events and, 476-478
Perfect square trinomials, 81, 82, 94-96 conditional, 487-491
Period, 424, 427 experimental, 463-464
Periodic function, 424. See also Trigonometric independent events and, 472-475
functions introduction to, 463-469
Phase, 431-434 means and proportions, 513-515
Phase identities, 435-436 multiplication rule and, 472-475
Phase shift; 431-434 mutually exclusive events and, 482-483
Piecewise functions, 45, 48 normal distribution, 494-504
Placebos, 508 randomization and, 508-511
Plotting points, graphing by, 155 real-world model of, 469, 477, 481, 486
Polynomial equations simulations and, 468-469
graphing, 175-176 statistical studies and, 507-511
solving algebraically, 152-153 subtraction rule and, 483-484
solving systems of, 175-178 theoretical, 463-467
Polynomial functions z-score and, 499-504
finding zeros of, 154-161 Product patterns, 80-82
fundamental theorem of algebra and, 160 Product rule
graphing, 154-161 for exponents, 36
linear factorization theorem and, 160, 161 for logarithms, 311, 314, 324-325
modeling with, 170-172, 448, 451 for radicals, 227-228
real-world model of, 171-172 Products
transformations of, 168 of integers, 374
Polynomials logarithms of, 311
degree of, 133 to a power, 37
Descartes’ rule of signs for, 165-166 Properties
division of, 138-140, 141-146 addition, 9
factoring, 79-84, 85, 86-87 associative, 9
factor theorem, 148-150 commutative, 9
models, 448 distributive, 9
multiplication of, 39-40 division, 9
multivariable, 133-134, 135, 136-137 of equality, 9
patterns, 85 multiplication, 9
power rules, 36 substitution, 9
product patterns, 80-82 Proportions
products and quotients to a power, 37 calculations of, 514
Pythagorean triples and, 93 Pythagorean identity, 420
remainder theorem, 147-148 Pythagorean theorem, 387-388, 390, 418, 419
standard form of, 39 Pythagorean triples, 93
structure of, 82-83
two-variable, 86-87
zero and negative exponents, 38

Index 545
Q Radical sign, 224
Radicand(s), 223, 242-243
Quadratic equations, 89-91
complex solutions to, 110-111 negative, 231-232
discriminant of, 109 Radioactive decay, 265
graphing, 108-109 Randomization, 508-509
solutions of, 108-111 Range, 22, 23, 48-49
solving, 97-101 limits on, 49
Quadratic formula, 97-101, 110 Rate of change, 18-19
discriminant of, 106, 109 average, 46, 265-266
graphing calculator problems, 99-101 in exponential functions, 265-266
real-world model of, 99 percent, 265-266
Quadratic functions, 45, 46, 47 real-world model of, 321-322
modeling with, 114-115 Rational equations
real-world model of, 115 defined, 200
reflection of, 46 evaluating, 197-199
Quadratic regressions, 114 extraneous solutions to, 201-203
Quadratic trinomials, 79 graphing, 212
Quartic equations, 153, 156 real-world model of, 198, 202-203, 212
Quotient rule solving, 200-201
for exponents, 36 solving systems of, 212
for logarithms, 312, 314, 324-326 Rational expressions
for radicals, 228-229 addition of, 192-193, 194
Quotients complex, 189
logarithms of, 312 defined, 185
to a power, 37 division of, 189-191
least common denominator of, 195-196
multiplication of, 187-188
R real-world model of, 191
Radian measure, 414-415 simplifying, 185-186
Radians, 414-415 subtraction of, 192-193, 194
Radical equations Rational functions
defined, 245 graphing, 205-211
extraneous solutions to, 246-248 horizontal translation, 206
power principle, 248-249 real-world model of, 210-211
solving, 245-249 reflecting, 208
squaring principle, 245, 250 stretching and shrinking, 208
Radical expressions vertical translation, 207
binomial, 234 Rationalizing the denominator, 235-236
defined, 224 Rational numbers, as decimals, 367
with different indices but same radicand, 242-243 Ratio(s)
division of, 242-243 common, 350-351
monomial, 234 trigonometric, 394-403
multiplication of, 227-228, 234, 242-243 Real numbers, 103
rationalizing the denominator, 235-236 Reciprocal functions, 205-211, 441-445
simplifying, 225-226, 228-229, 237 Recursive formula, 334-335, 350-351
Radical function graphs, 251-253 Reference angles, 408
real-world model of, 252 Regression, 57-58
translating, 251 cubic, 170-172
Radical operations, 223-224 exponential, 268, 323
Radicals linear, 57, 58-59
addition of like, 232-233 logarithmic, 317-318
multiplying, 231-232 quadratic, 114
product rule for, 227-228 Remainder theorem, 147-148
quotient rule for, 228-229 Residuals, 57
square root, 231-232 Richter scale, 327
subtraction of like, 232-233 Right angles, 387

546 Index
Right triangles, 387-388 rate of change and, 18-19
30-60-90, 390, 401-402 Slope-intercept form, 14-17
45-45-90, 390, 402 Sound intensity, 317, 320
complementary angles in, 397-401 Sound level, 317, 320
hypotenuse, 387 Speed
Pythagorean theorem, 387-388, 390 modeling logarithmic functions, 318
real-world model of, 392, 396, 399-400 vs. time, 56
special types of, 389-392 Spreadsheets
trigonometric ratios, 394-403 approximating area under normal curve, 502
Roots, 89, 223-224 See also Zeros generating normal distribution curve, 502-503
derivation of, as powers, 241 linear models, 58-59
exponent notation for, 239-241 modeling exponential functions, 269, 270
negative, 224 modeling polynomial functions, 170
principal, 224 modeling with quadratic functions, 114
square, 223, 231-232 scatter plots, 55
Square root functions
S graphing, 251-253
Sample spaces, 464 real-world model of, 252
Scalene triangles, 389 Square root principle, 88-89, 92, 110
Scaling function graphs, 52 Square roots, 223
Scatter plots, 54-56, 114, 118 of negative numbers, 103-104
Secant, 420, 441-445 with negative radicands, 231-232
Sequences Squaring principle, 245, 250
activity, 356-357 Standard deviation, 496-497
arithmetic, 333-339 Standard form of a polynomial, 39
defined, 333 Standard form of the equation for a parabola
finite, 333 centered at origin, 120
geometric, 350-357 Statistical studies
identifying type of, 355-357 types of, 507-508
index of, 333 Step functions, 48
infinite, 333
Structure of an equation, 71-72
terms in, 333
Substitution property, 9
Series, 342
Subtraction
arithmetic, 342-347
of complex numbers, 104
of like radicals, 232—233
geometric, 361-367
infinite, 342, 344, 361, 364-367
of multivariable polynomials, 136
of rational expressions, 192-193, 194
Side effects, 508
Subtraction rule, 483
Sigma notation, 343
Summand, 343
Simple harmonic motion, 434
Summation sign, 343
Sine, 394-403
Sum of cubes, 85
angles of rotation and, 408-411
complementary angles and, 397-401 Supply and demand curves, real-world model of, 64
Surveys, 507-508
graphing, 426. See also Trigonometric function
Symbols, grouping, 7, 185, 224
graphs
Symmetrical functions, 46
identities, 435-436
Synthetic division, 142-145
for special triangles, 401-403
Systems of equations, 25
trigonometric identities and, 419-421
with more than two variables, 72-73
unit circle and, 417-419, 421-422, 426
polynomial, 175-178
Sinusoidal functions, 426
rational, 212
Slope, 14-17
solving, by elimination or substitution, 28-30, 177
absolute value of, 45
solving, by graphing, 25-26, 64, 175-176, 212,
functions with changing, 46
300-301
functions with constant, 45
Systems of inequalities, solving, by graphing, 33
negative, 16, 18
positive, 16, 18

Index 547
T scaling, 427-429
Tables tangent function, 436-437
frequency, 489-490 translations of, 431-435
two-way, 489-490 using unit circle, 426
using, 10 Trigonometric functions, 394-403
Tangent, 394-403 angles of rotation and, 406-407, 408-411
angles of rotation and, 408-411 phase of, 431-434
graphing, 436-437 phase shift, 431-434
for special triangles, 401-403 reciprocal, 441-445
trigonometric identities and, 419-421 reference angles and, 408
unit circle and, 417-419, 421-422 unit circle and, 417-419, 421-422
Term, general, 333, 335-339 Trigonometric identities, 419-421
Theorems Trigonometric ratios, 394-403
Descartes’ rule of signs, 165-166 complementary angles and, 397-401
factor, 148-150, 161 real-world model of, 396, 399-400
fundamental theorem of algebra, 160 Trigonometry, defined, 394
linear factorization theorem, 160 Trinomials
Pythagorean, 387-388, 390, 418, 419 perfect square, 81, 82, 94-96
remainder, 147-148 quadratic, 79-80
Theoretical probability, 464 Two-way tables, 489-490
30-60-90 triangles, 390, 401-402
Time, vs. speed, 56 U
Transformations, 49 Unit circle, 417-419, 421-422, 426
of logarithmic functions, 302-303
of polynomial functions, 168
Translations, 49-52
V
Variables
of exponential functions, 264-265
dependent, 54
horizontal, 206
expressions with multiple, 7
of logarithmic functions, 302-303
independent, 54
of rational functions, 206—207
lurking, 509
of trigonometric functions, 431-435
relationships between, 57-58
vertical, 207
substituting value for, 6
Trend lines, 56-58
Venn diagram, 472-473, 480, 487
line of best fit, 58-59
Vertex, 41
real-world model of, 56
Vertex form for a parabola, 42-43
Triangles
Vertical axis, 24, 54
30-60-90, 390, 401-402
Vertical line test, 154
45-45-90, 390, 402
Vertical scaling, 427-429
acute, 389
Vertical translation, of rational function, 207
equilateral, 389
isosceles, 389
legs, 387 Y
obtuse, 389 y-intercept, 14, 16, 17
real-world model of, 392
right, 387-392, 394-403 Z
scalene, 389 Zero exponents, 38
trigonometric functions, 394-403 Zero-product property, 89-91, 92, 152, 161
Trigonometric function graphs, 424437, 441 Zeros, 89
amplitude, 425, 427 of polynomial functions, 154-161
end behavior of, 425 z-Score
frequency, 424 formula, 499
midline, 424 table, 500-501
oscillation of, 424
period, 424, 427
phase identities and, 435-436
reciprocal, 444-445
548 Index
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