Precalc ulus

Concepts and Applications

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Precalculus Concepts and Applications

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Karen M. Brunner, M.S. Diane M. Mayer, MLS.

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Michigan Virtual University Oak Harbor High School
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Table of Contents

Polynomial Functions ............................ 4

Chapter Exploration: Deriving the Quadratic Formula ............. 4

Polynomialis aSiCS mate here es hs Ae pr deans Lf Seeds 6

BOM ORAL NOCHIME mrcue aki ed ce ves uk buck A woah eeiea swe le goee eS 6
WeRUICeS ACL IMCS OL SV MICU Mar wee oie Fine, Goucae eae eho lie Dene hha Stat eg x 2
EGAN ONO OVA CLIICY alUnencaa oscar oles cS tm WR Mat ect, Oe a ok har cMecgetetul din 10
isSimei vacuo
i Oun ee WW mmek wma ete) that cool ute ace tte exited eater ee 13
Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and
Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations ................. 18
SoOning @vadraic cauiations Using Factoring Patterns sc, ata. s a ae | ae ez
Descaies Rule co clone ana the: Wines actorization | meOreniea see 4 lve: lassie mami aue 22
eOmee ORO ImGGReN Tf c.ug 4 kn feu Gace a a GhGoce minal ate Ao mae ieee 28
Remedi ancrractormineOreniS sia.) 11 a 4.0 melee as eeanass eet ee wee 24
TeeHNOlIaVAGITINVAZ. Fet0e Oa SE ee ee een: AK x 28
Greoningsovnopilal PunchOnsh memat. no-eearonive! 1m Fey So ss ES)
Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations and
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra ..........5..........45.. 36
SOperalipns lak Onnple xINUIMDES. 0a sehose oer co) wi eg as es eh Gee ae 36
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra and Complex Polynomial Solutions ........ Sy)
Complex solutions andthe Quadratic Formula. 5 ae a age @ Geka 40

Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems ............-...- 44

Algebraically Solving Higher Order Polynomial Equations . 2... AG
OCvine systems, Ol FON MOMMidl EQUALIONS 5 nny oe ec ie e Fe oetas Pe a7

Chapter! Key ldeassigeyc74. seyaumt BAe fee

29Si2eGcmo. 55

Chapters A REVICW nook outs wt inieevoined 4eIAR 56

Radical and Rational Expressions .................. 58

Chapter Exploration: Rational Functions .........-.-++++-+5: 58

Zl Parent Functions and Their Graphs ........-.-.- 0-5 2+ ee eee 60

PReviewot FURCHOMIEHINOIOGY | hc. 6 Bee legis orimenk = Es S 60
Tea ONTO PUMCLIONS 6 a LA Paci a sbaleets Dimes ea rsiyyyonl ee ee © em a 62
Sea areeriGu OMS stamae ks ec aki i toe Sone Gly Geile FHXS Se 66
PEC O) SALIVA aA Rite rie ton Sea ate voh tyes Pay 2h Oe ES 6/
Hypesourunetions and their Graphs< yc ee Ce Re oe ee 68

Table of Contents iii

 79 Radical Functions ; ¢.«6 ses & aa ee ee ee ne

Solving Radical Equations... ¢ 00.0 2: os Senn mem MiMi ear oan 1

2. <4 4 8 oe ae ee dd
Graphing Radical PURCIONS#
identifying Demain and: Range: <5) oe secgyeeeer= mais tren econ em eae We

2.3 Rational. Expressions ........ 2: < « yee URRe? ee 83

Simplifying and Operating on Rational Expressions... 6). ee ee et 83
PartialiPraction: DEeOMmpOSition) 1 aking, Bo Gee ie e ge om wee gamte roe aces ca 89
GIOSUPE eee ok oe wee a Pee Snake de ete eo ee ea pe

2.4 Rational Functions © 24205 5: sc. 4 ees ue een ee a 95

ldeftiiving aiack Domain REStricUiOnS: 7 (ake. asa saat Regen ee) lege 25
ERCP BGI EMIO Wc: f Tac vehigiccetcgs ols os1 hua) eo le ce Co e e 98
mialeeloucliciamelecinel sielavracrmm@enees Gok Me ee Oye oe 99
Graphics Rational RUNCHOMC™ i sess t seer nde stcee setiene remem ore ee 103

2:5 Transforming Rational Functions ............-....-.++-+2+-. 107

Tramstornaing Rationale UtiGttems c= tus tes Giacteealsc lacy: Mie le eae 1Q7
TOGHACIOOVACEIMIOY 2 nest d Sehgal
gk a 110
EGUIValent hOmimssOm ination EXPrESStOMS: We cements
st 112

2.6 Piecewise Defined Functions .................2..22.00048. 114

Detinivontaine: Nestrictions. of tne) Do innalin iil arelin amv) leemennrvn ten See een Wee:
Grapning: Piecewise Detined FUNGHONS ss uiienan aa cee en Seer ae ne 116
Evaluating Piecewise Defined FUnétiOnS m2. Aeataeme © ckaceernewE neat GRRE ten a ce 118

2.7 Step Functions 29.85a. <8 eae ee ee een ee oe oe ee ee 122

WeiniwlonranadrrrOpertics- ©, + . a weak ven n\n ene ane ee |22
Greatest mbesemPUNCtON: « ynmt. s 4 See weenie ona genes, eee ee [23

Chapter.2 Key Ideas a eee ee ee ee ee P27,

Chapter 2ReViqw 5568 Shy oho et oe ke 9 ee 129

Compositions and Inverse Functions .............. 130

Chapter Exploration: Graphing the Inverse ofa Function ......... 130
3.1 Function Compositione«: ioamejsah S. 1 cmb eae Sd ee ee 132
Defining, Writing, and Simplifying Function Composition. .............04. 2
Determining Domain and Range Restriction of Compositions. ............., 35
nterpreting Function Compositionsim@entex tan) iim nti Sanne Ten 136
chy? Inverse Functions, Part yy. 0 138
Constiuicting-Inverse Functions tron Iablecn. a. jit a i ee 138
jlgebraically Creating a: Function Siimvekse: se Aan enmity (a See ae 14]
Using Composition to Prove One Function is the Inverse of Another. .........
(43

iv Table of Contents
 3.3 Inverse:EUunccionss hart live a ypneimedniy. MineGlteiesetenac®. ok. . 146
Graphing Functions and their Inverses. ws ws ep vl ew 146
Producing a Function’s Inverse by Restricting the Domain. ...........00.., [42
3.4 PogarithiniccLUNCtONSmarm im eri ae me ee Shere 2 ase eee e 153
CommonsMogaritnime amdivheieGrapns .....2.05.....)2. 0. nce ba D4
Iine:Graphs of Logarithmic and Exponential tunctionsas mast! eeevel.o28, .. Rey)
Te COOOVMELIVICY 2|tar, aee aia Syeo REN SET Sr eae ster, ole. eae 160
BRP erties aiciUay/> ols. OPapitanismius ieee amma! Kink Onkehet 2.5, . l6|
SOL VINeseO Cali pager eGUAtIONS kek mk cn tee Ee ek Ge bes on os)
3.5 Exponential: RUnCtiOnS sis i mur i a Ge a eee te was oe es 169
E OCnemialiRunctions.and linein Graphs: 05 Ano aw ahs ke eee we a 169
SOM eexponentiakEquations. wR om belie tot. omer ce emaget. JTS. at
Solving Logarithmic and Exponential Problems in Context ..............., 176
NCR NOOOVE COVIN) Sg we cis OME. Coe eet Righaen 5 igen tee Coutee see MeL 18|

Chapter siKeyslGGas a. en eer oa cat ee ee ae en ere See eae 184

ChapterisiReviewsmern © re ao es ip a ie A ee re 186

Chapter 4: Trigonometric Functions and Their Graphs ......... 188

Chapter Exploration: Radian Measure ..................... 188

4.1 Basicilrigonometry, cog Sesacies eet ake ait ee) PE cts Wee 190
VieenOmeley OF the ICM Manges .caue 8+ secs ou nay vRene ener Mtuaeeeriee. oka chcuhn 190
Denving tie iigonomenicArea-on 2 Ian Sie bei a tae hohe ftaos) 194
Rise OvencracliahmMGasure <x.) trical ual pein tie ART Mate taht ieee Wie ere S 196

4.2 STAN OR
TICE CLE Mi ge aa tek ho a es aerials ci, em aA Oe aesBM eee: MS acca 206
Die, hone sine, Cosine, and langent.a: . WMO BNE IES ey ie 206
Gene rwennec ine arse LOS One. 57. ae mee a, CEI Bab 210
Sines osine, anc langent jor Special Nentliiangles. 0 Ml Wea oily

4.3 Reciprocal Functions and Graphs ...........---.--...-..5.-. 224

Cosecanr Scant ata Olan gent PUNCHONS mrt este Serb e See 2 ee Pee a aa oo 225
eranns- of ihe Six IngonOMetic UNCHONS Hm wae! Linen ek ME ke 228

4.4 Periodicity asymmetry) 26s = ston: BEL ee ee. 240

(iC
PEIN en ee eC ae ee ee ok Pe Pe, ee ae 240
De MO OVIACTIVILY Vee ek Oe ote Alas al eae eG os we Mee ey Cele 242
Bean a ee ce aN ra ge Al oe A aS 243

Table of Contents Vv
 4.5 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions .......--++-++-++:: 248

Araplitude: (cache So wc teh ode re ae 248

Horizontal Stretches, Vertical Translations, and Phase Shifts ............+... vis
Technology ACRVIRY 2? OPS a oe it 2 ee oe ee ee 255
Reciprocal Eumetions liransformmations 7.1. . c ieaee epson cine seinen 258

4.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions ........---.-5-+ 222255555 263

Inverse TrigOMOmmetric FUMCEOMS: 2 a 2)a Ga) ee oe) ee ee apieenee enna te er 26S
Modeling with Inverse Trigonometric Functions . 6. 6 6 2 ee 268

Chapter’4 Keyldeas: (24 S55 8p 5 275

Chapter 4 Review ©. 5.3.03 <5 40s oe sea ce ey 276

Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations ...... 280

Chapter Exploration: Double Angle Identities ................ 280

pal Basicldentities.. 4. gies 2 eb eo ei eee 282

Reciprocalvainar Quotient Identities 29, ce4 ae cok 6 eySecuian Bie tee neta ee 282
PytinaSOreaiiglCS Utes sve conde tmneey ey coo ein cee nee oe 284
TECHNOLO
SYA CUVIEV EN oh aie de, SiaKo eset Aeesgs.Meh gee ec ceges 288

5.2 Special Trigonometric Identities ........................, 291

Slim aly WD IMEneMES Oh NUlASe gem cts ap cn a)ae fe hy ee ce 29 |
Pouble-AnelewOnmulas + sacs ees ee a er ee 296
clalteAmehe: POrmUlas atk <. ley eecl yee yap ee Se 299
5.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations ........................ 305
ricsuDeoneeicigonometne Equations se acm ny once ae eee 306
SOWING IDY FACTORING” Fae setncas “su vas aot AM ra oe cen ee 309
Using une: Quadratic Formulas: cesarean Aven UNCntcien se Daneel comer een one 312
SOlMiing DY SUDSERULORT vac. 2cuets kOe as eee eee oie
JECINOLOCVA CUNIDY. clin. MesLariat: Lwte STDel gn) aera erate, Svea aa ae eee ee 38
5.4 Law of Cosines and Law of Sines ........................ 316
ine"Eaw or Cosines-and: AD Diicallicisane neween met ee eri entre 316
TEMES SMES Clie (NODES 4 0 ah a eo 320
Chapter’ 5 Key Ideas’. ¢ a0. 2 4 20. 4 ee a ee 326
Chapter: 5 Review (50. (23 ts. Sui ais ee ce ee 328

vi Table of Contents
Chapter 6: The Complex Plane ........................... 332
Chapter Exploration: Multiplying a
Complex Number and its Conjugate ...................... 332
6.1 Complex Numbers and their Conjugates ................... 334
COMMAS SOc Ue SS tae ee ee ee he oem a Boa
Srapmmes@omplod Numbers: «lye 4.4 ca 5 Pe eee 815)5)
Bech solves Geometianoalonc. ae vo ele ee ee 336
ConmplexiNumbers and Scalar’ Multiplication’... ews a. a3
IS ROC CN it i rer oe ee oe ee 337
6.2 Complex Moduliiand Quotientss.....5°.0) “oe eee 341
Pauinipticanive inverses omGomplex Niimbers ee
"sna he oe 34
PECMMGOOV CIVIC Ze: ae A oly Wy ee ee Le ee eR. 2a! Ce Bae
BIMGINCA@Om Pie NUMBERS |, wl. Wes 6%. Yak: gate eel Eee 2 2 ee 343
MOGUIMS"6ira Sompiox Number ae 404 Gone by es ee a ee ee ee ee 3441

6.3 Distances in the Complex Plane ..................0000.0. 347

MICOS HM Ne. COMPIEXIPIANG ua: The kG wsGt a a ee Sai/,
ener srance ormmlatamd MOCUINS: Fo on agen ee ee he Soe ee ee oo 347

6.4 Transformations with Complex Numbers ................... 352

SeOnmen ican sienmalOMon ware nha wan die Roe he Ca UES Gee Gece Sm oeadal Sv
Pare lexaNWiriner KOLAUOMS xiii 8s ee ee oo 8 eet tee Sale Ghee oFSut So"
COmMmpexINUIMDEr INCHECUONS pcg ae ay ee ee ee 356
Borg Pre a mer IAUOMSs wis lal wee ones Hk han) ny tag Wane en ae ok ge 358

Chapter, 6 Key, |deas ©. 4nc te Oe ba ee eh es 362

Chaptern6:Review scents cif fare eee a te es ea ee Gh 364

The Complex Plane and Conics ................... 366

Chapter Exploration: Graphing the Roots of a Complex Number .... . 366

7.1 Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex Numbers ............. 368

Dervevcnroruie moamronm of a ‘ComplexiNumber i. 05 52 eo Pe ek ek 368
Converting Between Polar and Rectangular Forms... 1. 16 ete ee 370
@énnecting Polar Complex Numbers to Geometry °2 Gae/ 4 a: eeiosv . 28... Sy)

dik Raising Complex Numbers to Powers ...........---5+5+++55. 377

Raising Complex Numbers to Powers in Rectangular Form 2... oe ee 3//
. ... 378
Raising Complex Numbers to Powers in Polar Form (deMoivre's Formula)...
Un Oot a Cemple INUMDEer My son pat se eo ee ie a 380

Table of Contents Vii

 7.3 Complex Circles and Ellipses .....- eee et tt -es
2+ +e .--
Gireléstand Gomplex Numbers: 4) Saya ee ec 385
Derivation of the: Ellipse Equationiy teu. .o aig see iroral ue ee 387
Ellipsestand Gomplex NUMBERS 255 2 eee ort eo ee yw!
Technology AGHVIty Ve. ee ee css om code ae a eee ean 393

7.4 Complex Hyperbolas (12 092". 5.0 eee eR ee 396

Derivation of the Hyperbola Equation) «10. sent Gas a ee eee 396
Fiyperbolas and GomplexiNumbers 2:5. 28. dee 1c soe spe ere eee 400

7.5 Parametric Equations: <=..2-2 keen. aie ea eee 403

Parametric Equations Defined: . . . .ctpeuie ..:8
sian )-a0
SeeenO ee50 403
Sketching: Simple Parametnic IECUSTIOIMS 9%, miracqa Wy 5 ia yan ee meer nies teenie 405
GonieSectionsiin Parametric Forint: 2° Cram ids aie eeu ee oe a 408
. ee
Chapter 7 Key- Ideas)..ee 412

Chapters 7 Review ©. 4 sisce sho ca ulahs Gh2S hn ee 415

Chapter 8: VO CEOMS eos sw ent ET eg 418

Chapter Exploration: Dot Products =... .... 24] .))) 2 eee 418

8.1 Recognizing and Representing Vectors ..................... 420

DIRSELE A LNG, SCOMMENES Met a: heaeSparama nN ial ae one ee a 420
Vector Notation, Component s, and Representa tion in the Coordinate Plane ...... a
A
eDetenmning Veccor Direction-and Magnittide: «7 se.5 1 neues eee ee eee 423
8.2 Vector Arithmetic#ss.. oe ere «aims cla eee ee ee ee 426
Vector Addition and ther arallelogram, RUIG% 905.) .84 405 sages ani Se eee ne we 426
Properties onvectOr AdCILONe. <a ete ~ th ac. ee ee 429
VECLOM SUD URACHON Nay Bit lla aS) 4 Bh actin smack koe ou an aea 430
TechiQologyAGUVIQG Nl Boe et oe te ee ene eee eee een ee Ae
8.3 Vector’ Multiplication® 2209) 97 Eye rge ee aiegas Seeeeee 435
SaciclaiM Billick Reh AES eee ee Meee ORM Pe a) 435
SCallar Tater yibUcle ta WSSee EONS, tase ila Ae 437
VectonmDOtrrocuicts "(ih y Rane arch bias ue a ee 440
8.4 Vectors in Ry and R? © ets. Oe Ai a Sed ee ee 443
Vector /ransiation.@f Figures iin: ERS a see sua) ei ee ira 443
VECt TrayOr
islationpap RisUies tris \rs ctu ete a.) ee a ee 446
VSCLON, MSS TUCe SUD ay aslstcheek 4 aeuiall aids ea ue es ee ea
Technology ACUVIY 2s se ym ek ace rai re en 449

Viii Table of Contents

 8.5 oO ae. Meee ceetaes RE NIC GOO: oii bo: 451
Vectomand eapaimeldarquatons finesse... s+... mn.. ..80)
. es 45)
Chapter8 KeyildeaSa @ece tents, hs ok ee os eee hoes hahaa oat 456
Chapter b Review nets new we 6 hss ohadel bance peaeee, Ae 459

Chapter 9: MEAT ALTER Ty a ea Rao trae Or en a 462

Chapter Exploration: Matrix Inverses ..................... 462
9.1 Defining Matrices: 2% sak ti nie nek ae ON BO TR oe ee 464
sire UiatinGem Onc presemt Dalai mae eette Le .o.. eM) See Me A o> a 464
INEtvors anckOten Applications Of Matrices samiee ewciiaa aeadeeteh far «+ 466
9.2 Matrix Arithmeticu 202 toe oon, eee ce ek mim inined Sete ee oa2h 47|
Seotaal era CatON, ace aid cay ee Mee: ne ees Nee ee cre OU et UPR ee oe 47 |
FACIE IEICE Mesuc, ig beers ehvr uMoriats wid adore etawapitl “AT «as AT2
SUOULACHON IANRCES >. nlc. 5) OpeaW RELA? Gdkctud eeurtinmns er bauree. ote ae 476

9.3 Ma trixcMAULCipliCa a eee

nee e
CLOMig 7 ars AY Ee
ies te 479
PIC UN aUCeSen ae. ceA mot. MEER ay oe ie 5.kn a Oar aNTe Oey, meee lant eta mi)
AntimevlcsProperties and-Matix Actihmetiowacncn 249. « 483
city! eaewniningeoset)
Zeer ORANG aSintiby aAthiCSS us ares cyan welled & Ref el bess cos canta” dos, wet 485
at Steiner
DSernlita tao ot arrat-§ hey wih cht ih Wacater a. epee mA fe eae 488

9.4 Solving Systems Using: Matricesins% 55440.) linc steV batieexe S42 =: 492
IIWVEPSEAMICES. ae sehicl coc <r epee’, Rath Adee PexG rps eee ees & Gh ode 492
DOlWinetsy stems Im iwoVanables with Matrices) =... come mercies A eeeate « ne 496
FEGUIOIOOY
ACUVIIV S| tena te eetcck aul Saks wsohne a Se gs Sere nesucaer gs 500
Solving Systems in Three or More Variables with Matrices... .... Sre ee 502
Greer cule ae Mak itn denen lca, Woh Bp Blot eee oak eae GA ceFed of aie tenets 506

9.5 Matrices as Iransforms: 9.22 2 ca as come ea dae ee Se 512

jivanstonms of > Ih? IR? and R* > RR... so tee BS eindaaes oe eae!
TSG DOG AGRIVIRY ie seers te Sek teon Phgly Spit kere dustbin go eS 518
iirahsionmaten of Fisures in the Plane Using Matrices... open orth ye 2 a eS be |
Composition of Lineal Transformations vo. no 9. eee 8 a Ps Ok ee es S49)

Chapter) Key ldeasits sees eee ee een ie ease 529

tone
Chanter 9 REViGW sninate eet a lpn Rete: 532

Table of Contents ix
Chapter 10: Probability and Statistics ...........---+-+++++5: 534

Chapter Exploration: Counting 2-22

...... eee
..--- 534

Multiplication and Counting ......5-5 5 eee

..- ---tes 536
Independent Everts «.:ie.50. woh. Ss aets, ee te GRP RSI os emer peace li 536
The Fundamental Counting Principle, 9 a 29.6) = in et eee 540
Permutationsand Gombigauioms’. 50s sed) neue ere hee ee 54 |

Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem ...........-.-.-+++:-. 545

Binomial Coemicients aid Pascal's Iriangies . 2 2.) aeeeee eerie eel ee eee ene
Binomial THEOrEM ~. 6 4 0)eae. 4 > Skee gears a cee aoe mai eee 548

Discrete: Random Variables 9 <7. 2). 7 8 72 2 ees ee ee 551

Discrete and Continuous Random Variables. 2... ceiiemempapemee tt eee ge er Dol
Tabular Discrete Probability Represemtations. ... 22: eunuueeie tenia aac ieanene Dao

Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value ...... Sew!

Gtapning(Discrete Probability Distributions’) cle...) 2 eee ee ee ee ley
Technolosy Activity |. Gi Bats Bes 8 eeee eee 560
LoneTerin Behavior of Random Variables: = ea) sua = maaan ite earn eee 56|

10.5 Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions .... . 566

Determining the Probability Distribution for a Discrete Random Variable... ..... 566
Using Data to Estimate Probabilities of Discrete Random Variables ........... 568

10.6 Expected Value and’ Chance’ Probabilities #4 2] 4 7s)eee 574

Chance Outcomes dnd iexoeciechPayOutse.o 50. enna
ee cr 54
StRALeey?COMMDANISOMS =aa)2cFT A P. 1 ANee ae Cede to ee, ee ee oe 5/8
10.7 Decision, Making 2 2005 2.5 © ss at ea een age 583
Reali EySCISIOMm= MaKe rani niyo lusc-a ie40th eee ee 583
RECOLOR NCUA ZY ara. ooa5; So hg Bsahem ce ahs she Sieat Spec eee ele
RalNess In aarMmes: © tk yee ey ho A 586
10.8 Decision Analysis 035.00 visas Re G eee ee ee 591
Using Propability 1d Guide Decisions: = rye) 0a 1) nt en ee ekg,
Using I ObeDIIt tor \Malyze.CUtCOncs aman 0, ae
Chapter 10:Key Ideas’ <7). 4 204 ass 4.5 eee 599
Chapter; | 0,Review oc an im, 0 ses eee 600

x Table of Contents
KES §=Concepts in Calculus Sor Obs, Cane gSgrees: Ghee ee ie ame eee em 604
Chapter Exploration: Zeno’s Paradox ..................... 604
ikLh EGS orhe Gee, eal eats en «5 en ee a a DERN Aart 606
WC ts a rE EMR ad rt ec Ge aha a ak ace eh eee 606
ake ROMO a Seamer s en oa eke ee ERG yarn oe A eee 607
veal at UINCHOM comeing ye save 28 lei ep wae Ale eon & tu ete Se tees 610
(ONES
IGSLG BINNS: ee oeieAntes oe ne ey ee ee 612
PelIRAUICI RENTS: on pate neon ah Sn a ee mg 615

11.2 Continuity and The Difference Quotient ................... 620

SSN AUT 8S aXe os a eegeal ce Sk ae Rar ig Ger ated 620
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Table of Contents xi
To the Student

Welcome to Precalculus! This course serves as a bridge between basic high school mathematics and
the college mathematics of Calculus and beyond. Having a solid grasp of the concepts and skills
taught in this book is important as you move into the next phase of your mathematical studies.
In this textbook, we explore some new perspectives on previously seen material, discuss topics
related to those previously seen concepts, and present some entirely new ideas that are unique to
this course alone. Through the explanatory text, we endeavor to sew up any loose ends left from
your study of Algebra 1, Geometry, and Algebra 2, and we prepare you for your upcoming study of
Calculus, knitting together the strands of mathematics in an understandable way.

As you work through this textbook with your class, make note of the features that we designed
to facilitate your understanding of sometimes difficult concepts. Each chapter opens with an
Exploratory Activity, which will ignite your prior knowledge about the topics in the chapter.
These Exploratory Activities also introduce some interesting aspects of mathematical history,
helping you understand mathematical concepts and the process of mathematical discovery
throughout the ages. Within each chapter, vocabulary words are in boldfaced type, and several
fully solved Model Problems are provided for each concept. You will notice that some of the
Model Problems in the textbook are tagged with a particular Mathematical Practice Standard.
Just as in basic high school mathematics, it is important that you continue your work with these
eight standards throughout this course. We list these standards as a review on the next page.

Each chapter also provides Technology Activities and Practice problems designed to help you
fully understand how to use your graphing calculator within the context of upper mathematics.
Having a thorough knowledge of the technology that sits upon your desk will be important as
you move into AP Calculus (high school) or Calculus (college).

Finally, we provide words of encouragement as you embark on this course. Know that mastering
the ideas of precalculus can be a challenging exercise for even the most hard-working student.
In this course we present familiar concepts in innovative ways, highlight new notations, and
we introduce many new ideas. It is important, especially if you are considering entering into a
Science, Technology, Engineering, or Mathematics (STEM) career, to practice problems daily and
endeavor to truly understand what is presented. There will be times when you become frustrated
or lost in the material or notation. Do not give up. Instead, ask questions of your teachers
and peers to help you understand the concepts. Continue working and practicing problems,
using the explanatory text and Model Problems as a resource. It is vital to your future study of
mathematics that you understand all the concepts presented in this book because they will again
appear in your AP Calculus or Calculus course and beyond.

Best wishes for success!

To the Student
Eight Standards for Mathematical Practice
The Standards for Mathematical Practice describe ways in which you, as a student practitioner of
mathematics, should engage with this subject as you continue to grow in mathematical maturity.

(L287 Make sense of problems and persevere in solving them.

Approach new problems by analyzing what you already know. You should understand that the
majority of problems have several solution strategies.

[T28) Reason abstractly and quantitatively.

Represent problems using mathematical statements, mathematical symbols, or a clearly labeled
picture.

CLF} Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.

Ask questions, defend your answers, and make speculations using correct mathematical
vocabulary.

[GX Model with mathematics.

Show the relevance of mathematics by solving real-world problems and look for opportunities to
use mathematics in all subject areas and outside of school.

(2FW Use appropriate tools strategically.

Choose appropriately from available tools.

(ZLXj Attend to precision.

Use precise and detailed mathematical language.

(ded Look for and make use of structure.

Recognize patterns and the significance of given information and objects, and use these to solve
complex problems.

(LE) Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning.

Understand why a mathematical process works and appropriately apply it to new situations.

Eight Standards for Mathematical Practice

 Polynomial Functions

Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Deriving the Quadratic Formula

Polynomial Basics
Part of this chapter is dedicated to
Finding Zeros reviewing and solving quadratic
of Polynomial equations using the quadratic
Functions and
Roots of Quadratic
formula. You’ve seen this formula
and Polynomial in every math class you’ve taken
Equations since Algebra I, but where does
Complex Solutions it come from? The quadratic
to Polynomial — formula was first proven by the
Equations and famous 9th-century Persian
the Fundamental
Theorern of Algebra mathematician Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Musa
al-Khwarizmi
Musa al-Khwarizmi. As time
Higher Order
passed, mathematicians from many
Polynomial
Equations and different countries refined the formula, but it was a
Systems Flemish mathematician named Simon Stevin who
first published it in the Western world in 1594. Then,
Chapter | Key Ideas
in 1637, the French mathematician and philosopher
Chapter | Review René Descartes published the version of the
quadratic formula that we know today. We find this
phenomenon throughout mathematical history:
mathematicians who had no contact with each
other deriving the same formula or solution process
independently. It’s quite amazing.

In this exploration, we follow in al-Khwarizmi’s

footsteps and derive the quadratic equation by
completing the square.

Solve by completing the square: 9x? — 11x + 3 = 0.

9x? -11x—~—3 | Move the constant term to the

right-hand side.

(0) | __3 | Factor out the leading coefficient

ax on the left-hand side.

Polynomial Functions
 Divide the coefficient of x by 2 and then square the
of. iM = __3,,121 | quotient. Add the result to both sides of the equation.
-) 324 36 | Note that when adding the result to the right side,
we need to multiply it by the outside coefficient, 9.

11 413 | The left-hand side is now a perfect square trinomial

of ~ 36, | Within the parentheses. Factor it and simplify the
right-hand side.
1 2

(.= a as Divide through by 9.

18) 324

x= o == vI3 Take the square root of both sides.

18 18

te ia Isolate the variable.

In questions 1 — 4, solve for x by completing the square.

I. 3x°-6x-S=0
2. 4x?+20x-3=0
3. 3x?+12x+1=0
4. -2x?+10x-7=0
Now that we have some practice solving quadratic equations by completing the square,
we are ready to derive the quadratic formula in the same way.

5. Solve for x by completing the square: ax* + bx + c=0.

Exploratory Activity
 Chapter I Vocabulary
axis of symmetry Descartes’ Rule imaginary number Remainder Theorem
of Signs leading coefficient root(s)
binomial
discriminant Linear Factorization standard form
coefficient
end behavior Theorem system of equations
complex conjugates
factor monomial trinomial
complex number
Factor Theorem multiplicity vertex
cubic function
Fundamental Theorem polynomial vertex form
degenerate zero
of Algebra quadratic function
degree zero(s)
greatest common Rational Zeros Theorem
factor (GCF)

Lesson I.l
Polynomial Basics
In the study of mathematics we use variables, expressions, and
equations. With quadratic and higher order polynomial functions, it is
both important and useful to classify the different types of polynomials
in order to determine solution strategies.

WE Polynomials Defined
Polynomial expressions are named in two ways: using the number of
terms in the polynomial or using the degree of the polynomial. In the
table below, first consider the monomial. A monomial is a constant, a
variable, or the product of a constant and a variable or variables. It is a
single term. A binomial is the sum or difference of two monomials. A
trinomial is the sum or difference of three monomials. Any expression
with four or more terms is generally called a polynomial.

Number Name Using the

of Terms Number of Terms

Sew .2ox
3x + 7,-14x° — 8x

Trinomial
2 2

2x* + 4x — 19, Ae eo

4 or more Polynomial M+ + 2x +6.

—5x° + 18x° — 9x4 + 3x3 — 5x?

6 Polynomial Functions
Polynomials can contain more than one variable such as Sx’y? + 3xy
— 4y’ or a single variable as in 4x? + x — 9. Polynomials in one variable
can be classified by their degree. The largest exponent found ona
variable determines a polynomial’s degree, as shown in the table below.

Degree _|Name Using the Degree

—2x° + 3x4 + 4x3 — 9x? + 5x -2

Often, polynomials with degree 4 or higher are classified as “fourth,”

“fifth?or “sixth” degree. So the polynomial x!" + 9x has degree 10 and
would be classified as “tenth degree”

It is also important to note that polynomials are usually written in

standard form, which is when the terms of the polynomial are written
from highest degree to lowest degree. The table shows some examples
of polynomials written in standard form and some that are not in
standard form.

Standard Form Not in Standard Form

x+9 O+x
x? +3x-10 —10+x?+3x
4x° —2x7+x%4+4 —2x7°4+x%+44+4¢

Besides the polynomial’s classification, another way to determine

information about the function and its graph is by examining the
coefficient(s). The coefficient on any given term of the polynomial is
the constant factor. When a polynomial is written in standard form, the
leading coefficient is the constant factor on the term with the highest
degree.

Lesson |.1 * Polynomial Basics

 MODEL PROBLEM

I. For each of the following, write the expression in standard form. Then classify the
polynomial by the number of terms and the degree.
a —-4
2
b -8+ BCs + 6x
Com 4c ox

SOLUTION
a __ The expression, —4, has only one term and already is in standard form.
Because x° = 1, the expression can also be written as —4x°. Since —4 has a degree
equal to 0, it is classified as a constant monomial.

b Rewriting the expression in standard form gives a + 6x — 8. The expression has

three terms and the largest exponent is found on the first term, so the degree of
the polynomial is 2. This polynomial is classified as a quadratic trinomial.

c This expression has two terms, 14 and 5x. Writing the terms in order from highest
exponent to lowest gives the polynomial in standard form: 5x + 14. The variable
in the expression 5x has an exponent of 1, so the degree of the polynomial is 1.
Therefore, this is a linear binomial.

When multiplying polynomials, it is important to recall a few rules

of exponents:

When like bases are When a power is raised to Any expression

multiplied together, add another power, multiply the | raised to the zero
the exponents. exponents. power is 1.
m+n m1 Ht m:n

MODEL PROBLEM

1. For each part, multiply and write the expression in standard form.
a 3x - 4x3
b —6x?(4x? + 3x - 1)
c (8 — 2x)(4x? +7)
d (x +5)(x? + 3x +4)

MODEL PROBLEM continues...

x ENN

Polynomial Functions
 SOLUTION
a _—Using the commutative property, the given expression can be rewritten as
3-4-x!.x°, Adding the exponents and multiplying the constants gives us 12x*.

b -6x? - 4x? + -6x? - 3x + -6x?--1 = Distribute —6x? to each term in the trinomial.

=24x* — 18x + 6x? Use rules of exponents to simplify and write in

standard form.

c 8-4x°+8-7+-2x -4x?+-2x-7= Distribute both 8 and —2x to each term in the

second binomial.

32x? + 56 — 8x? - 14x = Simplify each term using the rules of

exponents.
—8x> + 32x? — 14x + 56 Write the expression in standard form.

d XxX? +x-3xX4+x-445x7> 4 Distribute both x and 5 to each term in the

D2 3k45°4'= trinomial.
x3 +3x*+ 4x 4+5x?+15x+20= Simplify using the rules of exponents.
x3 + 8x? + 19x + 20 Combine like terms and write in standard form.

MH Vertices and Lines of Symmetry

The function y(x) = ax? + bx +c, where a, b, and c are Line of symmetry

numbers with a # 0 is a quadratic function in standard / “8Line of symmetry

form. The graph of a quadratic function is a curve that
is called a parabola. Two significant parts of a parabola
i]

waiertex
are its vertex and its axis of symmetry. In the diagram
at the right, two parabolas are drawn with their vertices
and lines of symmetry labeled. As you can see, the line
= q
of symmetry is the vertical line that divides the parabola
into two symmetric sides. A parabola’s vertex lies on its
line of symmetry, and it is either the minimum or
maximum point on the curve, depending on which
way the parabola opens. q#--------- v

Lesson |.1 * Polynomial Basics

a Technology
Activity |

We can use our TI-graphing calculators to determine the coordinates

of a parabola’s vertex. From this we can find the equation for the line
of symmetry. Please note that this technique will only yield decimal Fleti Filetz Pilot
answers. For exact answers, use the algebraic technique taught in this
x4 BSK-6K42
chapter. 7 a

State the vertex and line of symmetry for f(x) = 5x’ — 6x + 2 using your
graphing calculator.
Step I: First graph the function in Y..
Step 2: Alter the window so the parabola’s vertex is easily visible.
For this parabola we used [—5, 5] for the x-axis and [-S, 5] for
the y-axis. 3

Step 3: We press [GRAPH] so we can determine whether the vertex is a

minimum or a maximum. In this case, it’s a minimum.

Step 4: To calculate the coordinates of the vertex, press TRACE].

From the calculate menu, choose minimum.

Step 3: Follow the on-screen prompts and select a point to the left
of the vertex and to the right of the vertex. You can move 5
the cursor with the left and right buttons and select a point (pie =
by using the button. After this, you will need to enter <5 PE ons
a guess as to where the vertex is, so select a point that looks smaxilmum
close
‘ to the vertex by moving
i
the cursor with the left and Stintersect
: x
right arrows and pressing again. = Veena

Step 6: The calculator shows the vertex coordinates at the bottom of

the screen. In this case, the vertex is (0.6, 0.2). The equation
of the axis of symmetry is x = 0.6.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

10 Polynomial Functions
 Exercises 1 - 3: Use your graphing calculator to find the coordinates of the vertex
and the equation for the line of symmetry for each of the given functions. Round
values to the nearest hundredth if necessary.
bee f(x) = 3x? —5x +2

2. flxy= 5x2+4r~1

3. f(x) =-0.13x? + 0.47x — 3.26

The equation for the axis of symmetry and for determining the vertex’s
coordinates relies on having the quadratic function written in standard
form.

Axis of Symmetry Determining Vertex

Equation
The x-coordinate of the vertex is the value of the
axis of symmetry. The y-coordinate of the vertex
is found by substituting the x-value back into the
original quadratic function.

Other pertinent parts of a parabola’s graph can be calculated using the

standard form of the quadratic function. The function’s y-intercept, if
it exists, is the value of c such that the intercept is (0, c). The leading
coefficient, a, tells us which way the graph opens. If the value of a is
positive, the graph will open up and the vertex is a minimum. If the value
of a is negative, the graph will open down and the vertex is a maximum.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find the equation for the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the vertex for
y(x) =x? + 2x — 5. State if the graph has a minimum or maximum and justify your answer.

SOLUTION P
In this function, a is 1, b is 2, and the value of c is —5. Using the equation x = ae the
(
ys ae
axis of symmetry is the vertical line x = ayeN) — x = -1. Note that this is also the value
of the x-coordinate of the vertex. To determine the coordinate’s y-value, substitute

x =-1 back into the original quadratic function:

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson |.| * Polynomial Basics |

 y=(-1)?+2(-1) -5
Pes Ns SS
we =6

The coordinates of the vertex are (-1,—6). Finally, this graph has a minimum because
a =+1, and the parabola opens up.

IMP 3, 5| Find the axis of symmetry and the vertex for the quadratic function
y(x) =—-2x? - 3x. Describe what the graph of the function will look like.

SOLUTION b
Using the values of a and b and the equation x = 5: the axis of symmetry is

X= - . This is also the x-coordinate of the vertex. To find the y-coordinate,

: a 3 1
substitute x = =>into the original function. Then y=— 2{-2] = 3-3] = L :

The vertex of the parabola is (-3.12]. This will be the function’s maximum since

a =-—2. Because c = 0, the function’s y-intercept is (0, 0).

3. A cross-country skier is on a course with a hill that is shaped like a parabola. The
hill’s shape can be modeled using the function A(x) = —0.3(x — 5)* + 7, where x is the
horizontal distance and /(x) is the vertical distance, in meters, from a certain point
on the ski course. Assuming the skier moves in a straight line from that point to the
top of the hill, what is the horizontal distance the skier has traveled? What is the
vertical distance to the top of the hill?

SOLUTION
The question is asking for the vertex of the parabola. First we must write the equation
in standard form:
h=-0.3(x7—10x+ 25) +7
h=—0.3x? + 3x =75+7
h =—0.3x? + 3x —0.5
3
From this, a =—0.3 and b=3.Then x =—-—— a
2(-0.3)
Substituting this back into the original equation gives the h(x)-coordinate of the
vertex:
h(S) =-03(5 — 5+ 7=7
The vertex of the parabola is (5,7). This means the skier has traveled a horizontal
distance of 5 meters and is 7 meters above the start when he is at the top of the hill.

12 Polynomial Functions
 The last model problem used a quadratic function written in vertex
form rather than standard form. In vertex form, the parabola’s vertex
can be read directly from the function itself.

Vertex Form fora > y=a(x-h)y +k

Quadratic Function (h, k) is the vertex of the parabola

Both vertex form and standard form for the same quadratic function
are equivalent and have characteristics that are useful when examining
quadratic functions and their graphs.

MMH Elementary Factoring Review

Factoring helps to reveal structure within algebraic expressions. It can
be especially helpful when solving or graphing polynomial functions.
Here we review several different types of factoring, all of which you
have previously learned.

Factoring using the GCF

One type of factoring is removing the greatest common factor or GCF.
A polynomial’s GCF is the product of the largest constant and variable
terms that divide all the terms without a remainder.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Factor the GCF out of each expression.

a 12x 4 Ox? + 24x
b 27xy> — 9x’y + 54x’y?

SOLUTION
a 12x?+6x*+24x Examine the expression. The largest term
common to all the terms is 6x
3 2

A ogSEEN ea Divide each term by the GCF.

6x Ox) OX

6x(2x? +x +4) Write the sum of the quotients in the parentheses.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

EEEEEE EEE

Lesson |.1 * Polynomial Basics 13

 b 27xy> — 9x’y + 54x’y° Examine the expression. Here the largest term
common to all the other terms is 9xy’.

Dixy? 7 9x7 y if54xy

: - Divide each term by the GCF.
Oxy Oxy Ixy

Oxy?(3y? — x + Oxy) Write the sum of the quotients in the parentheses.

Factoring Trinomials
Factoring trinomials is the process of finding two binomials that when
multiplied together result in the original trinomial. There are several
ways to factor trinomials: guess-and-check, the AC method, and looking
for special patterns.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Factor x? + 16x + 63 using guess and check.

SOLUTION
Any time we are factoring, we should first look for a GCE. In this case there is not one,
SO we move on to the next step.
(Re ey) (eS ee) Our answer will have the form shown to the left.

(x + )(x+__) The first terms in the parentheses should multiply to x°.

The only terms that will work are x and x.

1, 63; 1 + 63 = 64 The last terms in the parentheses should multiply to 63.

Sal ae Ales IZ List all the factors that multiply to 63. Note that the correct
7,9, 749 = 16 factors will also sum to 16, the coefficient of the b term.

(x + 7)(x + 9) Since 7 and 9 multiply to 63 and sum to 16, they are the :
proper values.

2. Factor 6x? + 11v — 35 by the AC method.

SOLUTION
Pee =e eee) Identify a, b, and c.

6 --35 =-210 Multiply the a and c terms.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue... ssnenepazece

TEC

14 Polynomial Functions
 210, —1; 210 + (-1) = 209
10Sr S52) 103
TOF 37104 (—3) = 67
AO P42 (—5)237 Now we need to find two factors that multiply to -210
35, -6;35 + (-6) = 29 and sum to the coefficient of b, which is 11.
0/2304 (=7 ) 23
21,7102] -(-10)-11
6x? + 21x — 10x — 35 Rewrite the trinomial by replacing 11x with 21x and —10x.
(6x? + 21x) (-10x — 35) = Notice that the first two terms have a common
& a) eee 35 7 factor of 3x and the second two terms have a
a i ee ecenees common factor of —5. Group and factor each set of
terms using their GCF.
3x(2x + 7) — 5(2x +7)
(2x +7)(3x = 5) Notice that the parentheses contain the same binomial.
2x + 7 is the GCF of this new expression. Factoring this
out leaves 3x — 5 remaining.

Special Patterns
There are some special patterns to look for that can be helpful when
factoring trinomials.

Difference of Squares Perfect Square Trinomial

a@—b?=(a+b)(a-b) a’ +2ab+b?=(a+b)
a? —2ab + b? =(a—b)’

There are also special patterns when factoring third degree cubic
polynomials.

Sum of Cubes Difference of Cubes

a? + b?=(a+b)(a’—ab
+b’) a — b> =(a-—b)(a’+ab
+b’)

eeEEEUEEEEE EEE

Lesson |.1 * Polynomial Basics 15

 MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Factor 75 + 12x’ — 60x completely.

SOLUTION
12x27 60K 75 Rewrite the expression in standard form.

3(4x? — 20x + 25) Factor out the GCF. Notice that the trinomial is a perfect
square trinomial because the leading coefficient and the
constant term are both perfect squares. Thus, a = 2x and b=5.

3(2¢ 5). Factor using the pattern.

2. Factor 32y? — 18x° completely.

SOLUTION
2(16y? — 9x’) Factor out the GCF.

2(4y + 3x)(4y — 3x) Notice that the rewritten binomial is the difference of squares
where a = 4y and b = 3x. Follow the pattern to factor.

3. Factor 8x + 343.

SOLUTION
Begin by noting that there is no GCF. You know that 8 = 2° and the variable is also
raised to the third power, so try factoring using the pattern for the sum of cubes:
a —b?=(a-—b)(a’ + ab +b’).
(2x + 7)[(2x)? — (2x)(7) + (7)?] Use the pattern a° + b> = (a + b)(a* — ab + b?),
where a= 2x and b= 7

(2x + 7)(4x? — 14x + 49) Simplify the squares and products in the trinomial.

4. Use factoring patterns to write the quadratic function y(x) = 3x? — 30x + 75 in vertex
form. What is the equation of the graph’s axis of symmetry?

SOLUTION
y(x) = 3(x? — 10x + 25) Factor out the GCF.
yx) =3(¢-5) The trinomial is a perfect square trinomial, where
a=x and b=5.The function is now in vertex form.

In vertex form, we can easily see that h = 5 and k = 0, so the vertex is (5, 0). The
axis of symmetry is a vertical line passing through the x-coordinate of the vertex.
The parabola is symmetric about the line x = 5.

16 Polynomial Functions
 To summarize, when factoring a polynomial:
ik Begin any factoring problem by looking for the GCF and
removing it, if it exists.
Look for special patterns, such as sum or difference of cubes,
difference of squares, or perfect square trinomials. Factor those
polynomials according to the prescribed patterns.
If no special pattern applies, you can factor by guess and check or
by using the AC method.

Me Practice siete et
I. Which of the following best describes 5. What is the complete factorization of
the classification of the polynomial Ax? + 32x — 80?
Ax? + 3x3 — 9?
AY G10) 2)
A. cubic trinomial B. 4(x + 10)(x — 2)
B. quadratic trinomial C. 4(x + 20)(x - 1)
C. cubic binomial D. 2(2x + 20)(x — 2)
D. linear polynomial
Is the polynomial 6x* — 9x + 7x? — 16x? in
What is the degree of the binomial 6x — x”? standard form? If it is, state so. If it is not,
write the polynomial in standard form.
A. 0 Ce
Bett Dh ~ Expand 5x*(—2x + 18).

What is the equation for the axis of

se Expand and simplify the expression
(x + 9)(8 — x). Write your answer in
symmetry for the function y(x) = 9x* + 4?
standard form.
es (ore a9
18 Expand and simplify the expression
(x — 3)(x? + 3x + 9). Combine like terms,
hones Dare 0 if necessary.
9

4 Which function has a maximum vertex at In the quadratic function, y(x) = 2x? —
(1,-1)? x +1, find the values of a, b, and c. Then
find the coordinates of the vertex and the
A. y(x) =-(x + 1)? +1 equation for the axis of symmetry.
Boyt) = (ce —1)7— 1
Gay (41) — |
DD. yix)=—( —1)?-1

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson |.! * Polynomial Basics 17

 Exercises | f=15% Completely factor the 21. Sahin is snowboarding. He purposefully
given expression. jumps off an obstacle into the air where
his path roughly follows the shape of
30x? + 13x - 10 a parabola. The data in the table show
Sahin’s vertical height, in feet, t seconds
12. 3x3 — 27x after he became airborne.

13. —32x3 + 16x? — 2x

feqimey fo] 2[4 |6 |8 [10]
14. 7x(x — 4) + 2(x - 4)

Use the table to determine when Sahin

15. x* + 64x — x3 — 64
reached his maximum height. Justify your
16. A student factors the trinomial x? + 2x + 3 answer.
into (x + 3)(x + 1). Is the student correct?
Why or why not? 22. A scientist records the diving patterns
of a tagged shark. After collecting the
17 Multiply (6.3x + 7.01) (0.91x2 +x — 3.85). recorded data, the path of the shark
diving under water is modeled using
18. To the nearest hundredth, find the vertex the function y(x) = 0.1x? — 2.458x — 8.12,
and axis of symmetry for the equation where x represents the shark’s horizontal
f(x) =-1.2x? + 5x +2. distance from the point where data
recording began and y represents the
19 Write the quadratic function f(x) = x? — shark’s vertical distance under the water.
2x + 1 in vertex form, and then determine Both measurements are in meters.
the function’s vertex and the axis of
symmetry. a At what water depth was the shark
when recording began?
20 Describe the characteristics of the
graph of y(x) =x? + 6x — 1 and write b Using the model, determine the
the function in vertex form.
shark’s furthest underwater depth.
Round to the nearest tenth of a meter.

Lesson 1.2
Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions
and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial
Equations
In order to solve polynomial equations, it is necessary to calculate
the polynomial’s zeros, which are the equation’s roots. Consider the
definitions of these terms:

18 Polynomial Functions
 Zero(s) of a Function Root(s) of an Equation
Value(s) of x that make the Value(s) of x that satisfy the
function equal to 0. equation when it is equal to 0.

These definitions seem the same, but when working with a function,
such as f(x) = 3x° + 4x? — 9x + 1, we are looking for its zero(s), or the
value(s) of xthat make the function equal to zero. Yet when we solve an
equation, such as 3x* + 4x? — 9x + 1 = 0, we are looking for its roots. The
roots are the value(s) that make the equation true. They are also called
the solutions of the equation.

MME Solving Quadratic Equations Using Factoring

Patterns
As reviewed in Lesson 1.1, a quadratic equation is second degree.
Consider the following quadratic equation: 4x? — 13x = -3.

Recall that to solve this equation for x, we need to calculate the values
of x that satisfy the equation. In other words, we are looking for the
equation’s roots. To find the roots, we use the zero-product property and
factoring strategies.

Zero-Product Property
If a- b =0, then either a = 0 or b =0, or both a and b equal zero.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve 4x? — 13x = -3 by factoring.

SOLUTION
Ax? — 13x =-3 2 4x2-13x+3=0 Touse the zero-product property, restructure the
equation to have one side equal to zero.
4x? —~12x —1x+3=0 Factor. In this case, we use the AC method.
4x(x — 3) -1(x —3) =0
(4x — 1)(x -3) =0
4x -1=0 x-3=0 Now that the quadratic polynomial is factored,
Ax = 1 x=3 either (4x — 1) = 0, (x — 3) =0, or both equal 0.
1 We set each factor equal to zero and solve.
x= -—
4
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
sosmenu name ecrmmamenaente

19
Lesson 1.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations
 2. Solve 98 + 28x = —2x’ by factoring.

SOLUTION
98 + 28x =-2x*? > Restructure the equation so that the polynomial is in
2x? + 28x + 98 =0 standard form and equal to zero.
24° 2814-98 iS0
Divide through by the GCF to eliminate it.
2 D
x? + 14x +49 =0

(Gees seo) The quadratic expression in the parentheses is a perfect

square trinomial in the form a’ + 2ab + b? = (a+ b)’. Use
the pattern to factor the expression.

oe =e nese PW) Use the zero-product property, set each factor equal
i =i) to zero, and solve. There is one value that satisfies the
equation, x =—7 Because there are two factors that
give a solution of x =—7, the equation has a root with
multiplicity 2. This information will be important to
use in future lessons.

Sometimes a quadratic equation is not factorable. In these cases, we use

the quadratic formula.

_ -btVb’ —4ac
Xx
Quadratic Formula P 2a
for a quadratic equation ax’ + bx +c =0, where a+ 0.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Solve the equation -11 = 5x — 7x*. Write your answer as a completely simplified
radical.

SOLUTION
—l1l =5x-7x* > 7x?-—5x-—11=0 Rewrite so that one side of the equation equals
() and the other is expressed in standard form.
a=7b=-5,c=-11 Since the equation is in standard form, the
values of a, b, and c are easily identified.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

20 Polynomial Functions
 is —e\2 Substitute the values of a,b, and c into the
x= ( S)#V( XT)
gee. q uadratic formulula.

_ 54/254 308 Soe 543/37 Simplify the expression, being careful with
x si id signs and calculations.

It is sometimes difficult to know if an equation is factorable. We use the

sign of the discriminant to determine the number and types of solutions
a quadratic equation has, which can help us know if it is factorable.
Recall that the discriminant is the expression under the radical within
the quadratic formula.

If b?7=4ac > 0 it b?—4ac <0 lif? —4ac—0

There are 2 real There are 2 non-real | There is one real
solutions. solutions. solution.

MODEL PROBLEM

1. Use the discriminant to describe the solutions of 6x? — x — 126 = 0. Then solve the
equation.

SOLUTION
The equation is already in standard form, which makes it easy to identify that a= 6,
b=-1, and c=-126.
b? — 4ac Calculate the discriminant, substituting in the values from
(-1)* — 4(6)(—126) the equation. The value of the discriminant is greater than 0,
1 + 3024 = 3025 so this equation has two real solutions.

4/3025 = 55 The number 30235 is a perfect square. This means the

equation is factorable.
(3x — 14)(2x +9) =0 Determine the binomials by factoring and then use the zero
14 9 product property to solve. You could also calculate the roots
ae 3 are >, using the quadratic formula.

Lesson |.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations 21
WE Descartes’ Rule of Signs and the Linear
Factorization Theorem
Similar to the discriminant of a quadratic equation, Descartes’ Rule
of Signs tells the possible number and type of zeros for higher order
polynomial functions.

Descartes’ Rule of Signs

For a polynomial function f(x) in standard form, the number of
positive zeros is equal to the number of sign changes between terms
with non-zero coefficients or less than that by a factor of 2.
For a polynomial function f(—x) in standard form, the number of
negative zeros is equal to the number of sign changes between terms
with non-zero coefficients or less than that by a factor of 2.

Note: If a zero of the same value occurs more than once for a function,
it is counted the number of times it appears when using Descartes’ Rule
of Signs. This rule is illustrated in the first model problem below.

Along with Descartes’ Rule of Signs, the degree of a polynomial

corresponds to its maximum number of zeros. For example, quadratic
functions are of degree two and they have two zeros. Higher order
polynomial functions have the same relationship. When solving higher
order polynomial equations using factoring, the Linear Factorization
Theorem helps to determine the number of factors and therefore the
number of roots.

Linear Factorization Theorem

A polynomial has the same number of factors as its degree.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Determine the number and type of zeros in the function f(x) =.° + 6x2 + 3x — 10.

SOLUTION
Since the polynomial is of degree 3, the linear factorization theorem guarantees there
are, at most, three factors and 3 zeros. Now we consider the types of vere
fe) = 3 Pox 37 — 10 First consider f(x). There is only one sign change from 3x
to -10. Descartes’ Rule of Signs states one sign change
means the function has one positive zero. :

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

22 Polynomial Functions
 f(—x) = (x)? + 6(-x)? + Next, consider the negative x case. Substitute —x in for x in
3(-x) -10 > the function and simplify.
f(-*) = 7 + 6x? - 3x-10- There is a sign change from —x> to 6x? and from 6x? to —3x.
Two sign changes means that at most there are two
negative zeros.
From the Linear Factorization Theorem, this polynomial has 3 factors. The results
from Descartes’ Rule of Signs reveal that there is 1 positive zero, 2 negative zeros, or
no negative zeros. Note that zeros that are neither positive nor negative can be either
zero or non-real.

2. Determine the number and type of zeros in g(x) = x4 — 5x? + 4.

SOLUTION
The degree of the polynomial is 4, so there are 4 factors. Considering g(x), there are
2 sign changes from x* to —5x? and from —Sx’ to 4. Thus, there are either 2 positive
Zeros Or no positive zeros.
Considering g(—x) = (—x)* — 5(—x)? + 4, there are also 2 sign changes. This means there
are 2 negative zeros or no negative zeros.

Since there are 4 zeros altogether, the greatest possible number of positive or negative
zeros consists of 2 positive and 2 negative zeros. Otherwise, there might also be no
zeros and/or non-real zeros.

MMH Rational Zeros Theorem

Descartes’ Rule of Signs and the Linear Factorization Theorem help
us know how many zeros a function has, and how many of them will be
positive or negative. The Rational Zeros Theorem, also known as the
Rational Root Theorem, provides more information about the possible
values of the zeros of a function.

Rational Zeros Theorem

Consider a polynomial function P(x) with integer
coefficients. If p is a factor of the constant term and
q is a factor of the leading coefficient, then the
y
possible rational zeros of P(x) are given by te

Lesson |.2 ° Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations 23
 MODEL PROBLEM |

@ (DIAAE) For the function P(x) = 2x° + 3x’ — 2x — 3, identify the values of p and
q and then use the rational zeros theorem to find all of the possible rational zeros.

SOLUTION
For this function, p is a factor of —3 and q is a factor of 2. The factors of —3 are +1
and +3. The factors of 2 are +1 and +2. The possible rational zeros of P(x) are found
using the ratio of p to q, including both the positive and negative values. The possible

combinations of a are + au> 7 = +5 . Simplifying shows there are eight possible

rational zeros for P(x): 1, -1, L a i 3.3 a 3 . Remember, these are not all the
2 2 2
zeros of P(x), only a list of possible rational zeros.

WN Remainder and Factor Theorems

While it is nice to be able to produce a list of all of the possible rational
zeros for a polynomial function, we must be able to determine which of
the possible zeros actually are zeros of the polynomial. The zeros and
the factors of a polynomial are related in the following way:

If x =a is a zero of a polynomial P(x),

then x — ais a factor of P(x).

There are two theorems that help determine the factors of a polynomial
from the list of possible rational zeros.

Remainder Theorem
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x — a, then the remainder is P(a).

Factor Theorem
(x — a) is a factor of a polynomial P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0.

24 Polynomial Functions
Consider the polynomial from the last model problem, P(x) = 2x3 +

3x? — 2x — 3, with possible rational roots of 1,—1, am - Ls 3, -3, ae — 3)

Z, alia?)
From this, the possible factors of P(x) are (x + 1), (x + 2) [«+ a and

3
(:ze >]. There are several ways to test the possible factors to see if

they are,in fact, factors of P(x).

Method |: Long Division

If f(x) is divided by (x — 1), and the remainder is 0, then (x — 1) is a
factor of f(x).

2x°+5x+3

—(2x* — 2x’)
5x° 2x3
— (5x? = 5x)
aes)
— (3x
ee -3)

The division’s remainder is 0. This means that (x — 1) is a factor of the

polynomial f(x). It should be noted that the quotient 2x? + 5x + 3 is also
a factor of f(x), although it may be able to be factored further.

Method 2: Synthetic Division

Although we have shown that (x — 1) is a factor of the given polynomial,
we will use this binomial to demonstrate method 2. For this method,
be sure the polynomial is in standard form and note that if a power is
missing, place a 0 in for the coefficient. This will be shown in a later
model problem.
1| 2 3 —2 —3 For the possible factor (x — 1), the possible zero is x = 1.
Use 1 in the starting box and the coefficients of
fey = 2x? + 3x? = 2x =3 in the first line:

1| 2 3 —2 —3 Bring down the 2.

2
1| 2 3 an —3 Multiply the 1 in the box by 2 you brought down and
7 2 place that product under the next coefficient.
Ps
a
25
Lesson |.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations
 2 3 —2 3 Sum the 3 and the 2 and place the result under the line.
2
2 5

2 3 = ~3 Multiply the 1 in the box by 5 and place the product

2 >) under the next coefficient.
2 5

2 3 —2 —3 Sum the —2 and the 5. Multiply the sum by 1 and

2 5) 3. place it under the final coefficient. Sum 3 and —3. The
”) i 3 9 last term under the line, 0, is the synthetic division’s
remainder. When the remainder of the synthetic
division is 0, the number in the box is a zero of the
polynomial.

Method 3: Apply the Remainder Theorem

The Remainder Theorem states that if a polynomial P(a) is divided by
x — a, then the remainder is given by P(x). In other words, the value of
the polynomial evaluated at a gives the remainder when the polynomial
is divided by x —a.

For f(x) = 2x? + 3x? — 2x — 3, f(1) gives the value of the remainder for the

division
f(x)
x-1

ft) =2(01)' + 302 -2(1) =3

Oe
l =e
Oe
This shows that x — 1 is a factor because the remainder is 0.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Use the Remainder and Factor Theorems to show that (x + 3) is not a factor of
P(x) = 2x° + 3x? -— 2x - 3.

SOLUTION
The possible factor (x + 3) corresponds to a zero of x = —3. To show that (243) 1s nota
factor off(x), the value of f(—3) must not equal to 0.
fl-3) = 2(3) + 3(-3)? — 2(-3) - 3
f(-3) =-54+27+6-3=24
The value of f(-3) = 24, so x = -3 is not a zero.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

26 Polynomial Functions
 2. Given the polynomial function g(x) = 4x4 — 17x? + 4,
a___ find the possible rational zeros of the function.
b use the factor theorem to show (x — 2) is a factor of the polynomial.
¢ find the remaining rational zeros of g(x).

SOLUTION
a___ Let p be the factors of the constant term, 4: +1, +2, +4.
Let q be the factors of the leading coefficient, 4: +1, +2, +4.
Next, we list all of the possible rational zeros using the ratio ae , Simplifying

and eliminating any duplicates: fe + | sie A A fia é ree ar

Lr ee el: 4
1 L
+1,+—,+—,+2,+4. This gives us 10 possible rational zeros for g(x) and
4
10 possible factors: (x +1), [.on =}[«as=} (x7) anda = ye

b Each possible zero can be tested using the remainder or factor theorem. We start
with the factor theorem: Is g(2) = 0?
gH) =2)*— 13(2)? + 36
g(2) = 16 —-52 + 36=0
We have used the factor theorem to show that (x — 2) is a factor of the polynomial.

c Since (x — 2) is a factor, use long or synthetic division to find the polynomial

that is the quotient when g(x) is divided by (x — 2). We will use this quotient to
determine the other rational roots of g(x) = 4x4 — 17x? + 4.

Just like long division with real numbers, long division with polynomials is rife
with opportunities for mistakes. For this reason, we use synthetic division.

2| 4 0 lente) 4 We place the 2 in the starting box and

the coefficients of g(x) = 4x4 — 17x? +4
in the first line, filling in zeros where
the powers are missing.

2| 4 0 -17 O 4 We bring down the 4.

4
2| 4 0 -17 O 4 Multiply the 2 in the box by the 4
A 8 and place the product under the next
4 coefficient.

2| 4 0 —17 0 4 Sum 0 and 8 and place the result below

the line.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

; 27
Equations
Lesson 1.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial
 2| 4 0 —17 0 4 We continue the process, multiplying
8 16 224 and summing numbers until we reach
4 8 mee] = 1-25, 0 the remainder of 0. The 4, 8, -1, and —2
are the coefficients of quotient. Since the
original polynomial g(x) was a fourth
degree polynomial and was divided by
a linear binomial, the quotient will be
a third degree polynomial. The cubic
polynomialis 447 62> le 2.
The polynomial g(x) = 4x* — 17x? + 4 factors into (x — 2)(4x° + 8x* — Lx — 2).
We finish factoring the cubic polynomial to determine the remaining rational zeros.
(4x3 + 8x2) (-1x —2) > 4x?(x +2) -1(x +2) Factor by grouping.

(x + 2)(4x° —1) The GCF is (x + 2) leaving (4x? — 1).

(x2 )(2x +I2x — 1) The binomial (4x? — 1) is the difference of
two squares and can be factored further.
The final factorization of g(x) is (x — 2)(x + 2)(2x + 1)(2x — 1). The zeros
if 1
of f g(x) are 2,-2, —,and-—.
5 an 5

Technology
Activity 2

The graph of a polynomial tells us how many real zeros it has. We can use our graphing
calculators to easily graph polynomials and determine the number of real zeros.

State the number of real zeros for f(x) = —2x’ + 5x + 1 by graphing the function on your graphing
calculator.
Step I: Enter the function in Y,.
Step 2: Adjust the window so you can clearly see the whole function.
Step 3: Press [GRAPH] to view the graph of the polynomial.
We count
how many times the graph crosses or touches the x-axis.
In this case it’s 2, so this function has two real zeros.

Exercises 1-3: Graph each function using your graphing

calculator. Then state how many real zeros each function has.
I. f(x) =-3x3 - 6x? -3
Ze f(x) = 3x" — 3x) — 6x? + Ax
3. fix) = 9x° + 3x3 — 6x?
4. Of the functions listed in exercises 1-3, which have non-real or degenerate zeros? How do
you know?

28 Polynomial Functions
MH Graphing Polynomial Functions
A polynomial’s degree, factors, zeros, and the roots of the corresponding
polynomial equation are all related to the x-intercepts of the
polynomial’s graph. The degree of the function tells the total number
of zeros, both real and non-real. The x-intercept of a function is a point
on the graph where y = 0 and thus a root of the polynomial equation.
The x-intercept(s) give the values of the real zeros of a polynomial
function. Although polynomial functions can be graphed by hand, using
a graphing calculator or other graphing utility allows us to focus on the
graph’s properties.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Use a graphing calculator to identify the real zeros of the function y(x) = x? — 5x — 3.

SOLUTION
We graph the given function using a graphing calculator. It is a parabola that opens up
and crosses the x-axis in two places, between —1 and 0 and between 5 and 6. This graph
indicates the function has two real zeros.

Examining the function’s table can also help identify where the zeros are located.
Remembering that the zeros are the x-values where y = 0, we look for where the sign
of the y-value changes from negative to positive or from positive to negative. In this
case, the y-values change sign between x = —1 and x = 0 and between x =5 and x =6.

The exact zeros can be calculated one at a time using a graphing a calculator. Below
we give the instructions for the TI-84 Plus, but the instructions are not significantly
different for most of the other TI models.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

29
Lesson |.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations
 While in the graph screen, press TRACE] and select 2: zero.

JDMEaTE =

zero
>mMinimum
4: maximum
Se eecenn
6: dy“dx
7s fSfCxIdx

This will bring you back to the graph screen. To choose the left bound, move the cursor
to the left of the zero and press [ENTER]. To choose the right bound, move the cursor
to the right of the zero and press [ENTER]. The calculator will ask you to guess the zero.
Simply press again.

The calculator will then return the exact value of the zero:

Zero
&=".8413813 I¥=0

Repeat the steps listed above to calculate the other zero:

aero
8=S.S413813 IVY=2E°12

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

30 Polynomial Functions
 2. Consider the function y(x) = 2° — 5x? + 6x — 1. Use the graph to determine the
number of real zeros.

SOLUTION
The function has degree 3, so it has a total of three zeros, both real and non-real.
The graph of the function has one x-intercept, and it appears to be positive and very
close to zero.

We use the function’s table to confirm there is only one real zero.

The function y(x) = 2x? — 5x? + 6x — 1 has one real zero between x = 0 and x = 1.

3. Use the graph of h(x) = x* - 8x° — 21x’ + 188x — 160 to factor the polynomial.

SOLUTION
Graph the function using a graphing calculator.

From the linear factorization theorem, we know this polynomial will have 4 zeros.
The graph appears to cross the x-axis four times, so all the zeros will be real. There are
several methods we could use to determine the zeros of the function, but the simplest
is to access the function of the TI and look for where h(x) = 0.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
sesseactccoatenc cesarean tienen cnet oretenneenzezyin sssceerteoe secnaernneaee

; 31
Lesson |.2 ° Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations
 The factors of the function are (x — (-5)), (x — 1), (x — 4), and (x — 8). In its factored form
h(x) = (x + 5)(x - 1)(x — 4) =8).

End Behavior
The end behavior of a graph describes what happens to the function's
output values as the x-values approach positive infinity and negative
infinity. We write “x approaches positive infinity” as x — oo and “x
approaches negative infinity” as x > —c,
Consider the graphs of the quadratic and cubic functions below.

Quadratic Cubic
y y

The end behavior for the quadratic function can be described like this:
As the values of x approach positive infinity, the values of y approach
infinity. In symbolic notation, we write: x > ©, y > o, As the values of x
approach negative infinity, the values of y approach infinity. In symbolic
notation, we write: x > —00, y — oo,

32 Polynomial Functions
The end behavior for the cubic function can be described like this:
As the values of x approach positive infinity, the values of y approach
infinity. In symbolic notation, we write: x > 0, y > ©, As the values of
x approach negative infinity, the values of y approach negative infinity.
In symbolic notation, we write: x — —co, y —» -co, Less technically, both
ends of the quadratic function point in the positive (upward) direction.
In the cubic function, one end points in the negative (downward)
direction and the other end points in the positive (upward) direction.
Polynomial end behavior can be summarized based on the degree of the
polynomial function.

Even Degree (2, 4, 6, etc.) Odd Degree (1, 3, 5, etc.)

If the polynomial is of even If the polynomial is of odd degree,
degree, each end of the graph will | the ends of the graph will point in
point in the same direction. Either |opposite directions. One end will
both ends will point up or both point up and one end will point
ends will point down. down.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. For each of the given polynomials, describe the end behavior and write it in symbolic
form.
Alex) =—*% Ox Dae e(y) (0 2)

SOLUTION
a __-~We look at the function’s degree to determine its end behavior. The function
f(x) has an even degree. Both ends of the function will either point up or point
down. The leading coefficient is —1, which means the function will open down.
In symbolic notation, the end behavior is x > »—, y + —o and x — —c0, y + —oe,

b 4 The function g(x) is an odd degree

function, so the ends will point
in different directions. We graph
the function and write the end
behavior in symbolic notation:
rs sear 2ae
X > 0, y> co and x > -o9,
ESTES Vi 23;

When graphing a polynomial function, knowing the end behavior based on the degree
of the function can help determine if all of the real zeros have been identified.
SOUTER
AS OMT ENT LI I TEE

Lesson |.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations 33
MMMM Practice” aaa aaa
1. Which of the following gives the solutions 6. Solve the equation 9x + 5 = 2x’ by
to the equation 3x? + 20x =—25? factoring.

Ayx= es Solve by factoring: —2x? = —30x.

3)
Describe the relationship between the
lbh 8S 12 LG Ae)
3 degree of a polynomial function and the
total number of its factors.
Cx ep lamas
3)
Use Descartes’ Rule of Signs to determine
ID), he, = I the possible number(s) of positive and
negative roots for the function
fH 98 Beet.
om Using the linear factorization theorem,
how many zeros does the polynomial
10. The polynomial g(x) has 5 sign changes,
fix) = 2x — 10 have?
and the polynomial g(—x) has 3 sign
A. 2 Cal changes. What does this mean about the
1BB Dap number of positive and negative roots?

State the rational zeros theorem and

Using the rational zeros theorem, which
describe what the variables represent in
of the following is not a possible rational
zero of f(x) = 6x7 + 2x — 3? the expression se ;

1 List all of the possible rational zeros of

IN SG Cat ==3
6 the function h(x) = 3x° + 2x7 - 7.

Dae a De 10
2 Consider the function f(x) = 4x3 — x? —
16x + 4.
- In a given polynomial function p(x),
a student tests x = m and finds that x —m a What is the remainder when f(x) is
is a factor of p(x). Which is true about
divided by [«= *]2
p(m)?
A. p(m)=1 Ce (7) 30 b What is the remainder when f(x) is
a, jeg Da p@)=m
divided by [:+ t)?

A polynomial has 4 real zeros. How many

X-intercepts should the graph of the ¢ What do the remainders tell you about
polynomial have? 1
the expressions [«— 7] and Gr ?
A.4 ‘Call
B.0 D. None

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

34 Polynomial Functions
14. Without graphing, use your calculator 21. In the function y(x) = nx”, describe the
and the remainder theorem to check values of m and n such that the end
if (x + 4.3) is a factor of f(x) =x? — behavior of the function approaches
16.49x + 8.6. negative infinity as x approaches both
positive and negative infinity.
Without graphing, use your calculator
and the remainder theorem to check 22. Jytte argues that the function
if the point (3.2, 0) is a solution to y(x) = (x + 1)*—5 will have only one real
Oy = 03% 15x? ee zero because the power on the x variable
is 1. Is Jytte correct? Why or why not?
Describe the possible end behavior for
the graph of a polynomial whose 723. The height of a ball as it is thrown in the
degree is 18. air is given by the equation h(t) = —-16¢ +
50t + 5, where h(t) is the height of the ball
17. Use the graph of the function f(x) =x° - in feet and ¢ is the time in seconds.
re Oe: een, =
a = ae = 5 to identify the function’s a To the nearest hundredth, at what
real zeros. Then write the function in point does the ball hit the ground?
factored form. b ‘To the nearest hundredth, at what time
is the ball at its highest point?
is. Use your calculator or graphing utility
to examine the graph of y(x) =x*+ c Suppose the ball is being thrown inside
Ax? + 3. a high school gym, whose ceiling is 50
feet above the ground. Will the ball hit
a How many real zeros does this the ceiling? If so, at what time? If not,
function have? How do you know? explain.
b How many total zeros does this
function have? Use the Linear
Ad24. For 0 <t<4, the equation h(t) =f- 40 +
8t+ 4 models the movement of a certain
Factorization Theorem.
roller coaster, where h(t) is the height
c What is true about the function’s of the track in feet and fis the time in
number of non-real zeros? seconds. The x-axis represents the ground.
Suppose Pero is riding in the front car of
Use symbolic form to describe the end the roller coaster’s train.
behavior of f(x) = x° + x4 -— 3x3 + 4x7 +
a How many times in the first 4 seconds
< aes will Pero be at ground level?

20. Provide an example of each of the b At what time will Pero be at ground
following: a quadratic function with level? Round your answers to the
2 distinct real zeros, a quadratic function nearest hundredth, if needed.
with 1 distinct real zero, and a quadratic Suppose that we change the equation
function with no real zeros. What does the to h(t) = -— 46 + 8t+ 7. Does this
graph of each look like? equation still model the movement of
a roller coaster? Why or why not?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson I.2 * Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic and Polynomial Equations 35
 how
LAA25. State how many real zeros each equation has without graphing the function. Explain
you used your calculator to expedite your process.

a f(x) =2.3x2+1.2x+82 b g(x) =9.8x?-2.7x+0.02 c¢ h(x)= —1.69x? + 4.32x — 0.81

Lesson |.3
Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations
and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
So far we have solved polynomial equations and examined polynomial
functions that have real roots or zeros. We know from the linear
factorization theorem that the degree of a polynomial function is
equal to its number of factors, both real and non-real. In this lesson we
examine polynomial functions with non-real zeros.

MME Operations on Complex Numbers

A complex number is composed of a real number paired with an imaginary
number. Every real number can be written as a complex number.

Recall from previous math courses that you can take the square root of
a number only if it is positive. But what about a number like /—4?
What number multiplied by itself is equal to —4? The only way this is
possible is by using imaginary numbers.

Imaginary Number, i » Let i represent the imaginary number i= J-1 andi’ =-1.

Using the definition of the imaginary number, we can determine /—4:

V-4 + V-1-J4
(ho ii ON) Use the definition of i= J—1 and simplify.
We can show that /—4 = 2i by squaring 2i.

(2i)? + 23 - 23 = 4?
4(-1) =-4 Use the definition of = —-1 and simplify.

We can now define a complex number, z.

z=atbi
Complex Number P
z is a complex number, where a and b are real numbers and i= J—1.

36 Polynomial Functions
 MODEL PROBLEM

I. For each of the following, determine if the number is real, imaginary, or complex.
Then write each as a complex number.
a Tea)

b y—L0

c 2+ /-16

SOLUTION
a Simplifying the radical results in 7 — 3 = 4. This is a real number. Written in
complex form, the number is 4 + Oi. Note that all real numbers can be written as
complex numbers where b = 0.

b = This radical simplifies to ¥10-V—1 and since i= J—1, the expression is imaginary.
Written in complex form, the number is 0 + iV10. Note that we wrote i in front of
the radical to make it clear that it is not under the radical sign.

c¢ The —2 is areal number, but since it is added to an imaginary number, V—16,

the number this expression represents is complex. The radical is the same as
V16-V-1 = 41. Written in complex form, the number is —2 + 4/7.

Like real numbers, complex numbers can be added, subtracted,

multiplied, and divided. Always simplify any radicals first, remembering
that J—1 =i. For addition and subtraction, combine real terms together
and then combine imaginary terms together. Be sure to write your
answer in a + bi form. The commutative, associative, and distributive
properties all apply to the set of complex numbers.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Perform the operations and simplify. Write the final answer as a complex number in
a+ bi form.
a (3+1)+(2-4i)

bee er) 2 (4 5)
ce (V9 -J-25)-(-8+
V-64)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

iss
37
Lesson 1.3 * Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
 SOLUTION
a 34+1+2-4i= Since the operation is addition, the parentheses
are not needed.

= Sh This is the final answer.

b (-7-8i) —(4+5i) = Use the distributive property to multiply the

-7 —-81-4-—Si= terms in the second parentheses by —1.

silil= thay Combine the like terms. This is the answer.

c (J9 - J-25) 32(-8 i J-64 )= Simplify the radical terms by finding the square
root of the real numbers and by applying the
(3-J25V-1)-(-8+V64V-1)= definition
i= V1.
(3-5i) -(-8+ 8i) =
2) sei = SH = Use the distributive property to multiply the
terms in the second parentheses by —1.

11-131 Combine the like terms. This is the answer.

2. Multiply and simplify. Write the final expression in a + bi form.

a (—2+i1)(-3-11))
b (J2+V-3)(/2-V-3)

SOLUTION
a (-2+i)(-3 - 111) =6+ 191-117 FOIL and simplify.
6-197 = 11(-1)=6 4197-11 = Substitute —1 for ? and simplify.

ieee 1) Combine like terms.

b (V2 +V-3)(J2 -V-3) = (V2 +iv3)(V2 -iv3 ) Simplify the radicals that have a
negative radicand, remembering
that i= J-1.
V4 —J6i+/6i-??/9 =2-(-1)-3524+3=5 FOIL. Recall that 2= 1.
1a Oy Write the expression in a + bi
form.

38 Polynomial Functions
Ml The Fundamental Theorem ofAlgebra and
Complex Polynomial Solutions
Consider the polynomial function P(x) = x4 + x2. The linear factorization
theorem guarantees this polynomial will have 4 factors. We can factor
this polynomial into P(x) = x°(x? + 1) > x - x(x? + 1). But this is only
three factors: x, x, and (x? + 1). What is the fourth factor? The factor
(x? + 1) isnot reducible within the real numbers, but the complex
numbers give us the ability to factor expressions such as these and
examine functions for complex zeros. It turns out that all polynomial
functions have at least one zero in the complex number set, which leads
us to the fundamental theorem of algebra.

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every single variable polynomial function of degree n > 1 has at least
one zero in the set of complex numbers.

By this theorem, we know that P(x) = x++x*has at least one complex

zero, which we can-find by solving x7+1=0 > x* =-lo> x=Hi.

Sometimes a function, such as P(x), has two zeros that are identical.
When a zero is repeated, it is called a degenerate zero. When finding the
zeros of this function you would say the zero x = 0 has multiplicity 2.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Factor the expression 9x? + 64 using complex numbers.

SOLUTION
9x? and 64 are both perfect squares that can be written as (3x)* and (8)’. If the
expression were 9x? — 64, the factors would be (3x + 8) and (3x — 8). However, this
problem involves a sum and so it must be factored using complex numbers.

8i - -8i = 647° We know the first term of each binomial will be 3x, but what
—64(-1) = 64 about the second terms? We need to find two factors that
multiply to positive 64. Consider the product of 87 and —8i.

(3x + 81)(3x — 81) = Using a positive and negative 8/7 provides the needed 64 and
Ox? + 24ix —24ix +64= results in two ix terms that cancel out.
9x? + 64
(3x + 8i)(3x — 87) The expression can be factored using complex numbers and
the difference of two squares pattern reviewed in Lesson 1.2.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

r ee
M
_.. . LULU
Lesson 1.3 * Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 39
 2. Solve x? + 4=0 by factoring and then by taking square roots. Write any complex
solutions in a + bi form.

SOLUTION
Factoring

(x + 2i)(x — 2i) =0 Factor using complex factors.

x4 21=0" x—21=0 Use the zero-product property to solve.

a) SD) There are two solutions.

Sates 2) Write the solution in a + bi form.

Square roots

Vr?+45x=-4 Isolate the variable.

x=tV4 ~ Take the square root of each side of the equation.

x=+2i50+21 Simplify the radical and write the solution in a + bi form.

As expected, both solution strategies yield the same answer. You can use either
strategy to solve problems of this type.

3. The two solutions to an equation are x = +i/7. Write a quadratic equation in factored
form that could have these solutions. Then write the equation in standard form.

SOLUTION
x—J/7i=0, x+/7i=0 Work backwards using the zero product property.

(x—/71)(x+7i) =0 Multiply the two factors together and set equal to 0.

x +ixJ7 —ix/7 —77 =0 FOIL and simplify.

x° —7(-1)=0
x 0)

ME Complex Solutions and the Quadratic Formula

For polynomials that are not easily factored, we can use the quadratic formula to determine
complex solutions to the corresponding equations.

eee aae ae
Quadratic Formula » 2a
for a quadratic equation ax* +bx+c=0,where a +0.

40 Polynomial Functions
MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve the equation x? + 2x + 3 = 0. Write any complex solutions in a + bi form.

SOLUTION
We use the discriminant, b* — 4ac, to quickly determine if the equation is factorable
and what type of solutions it will have: b° —-4ac > 2? — 4(1)(3) =-8. Since the
discriminant is negative, all the solutions to this equation are imaginary and because
—8 is not a perfect square, the equation is not factorable.

ey We already calculated the discriminant.

c= an Ws Substitute the values of a, b, and the
discriminant into the quadratic formula.
“ Diy 8 Simplify, remembering that i= J-1.
2
9h AB UA) Continue simplifying and write the equation
mee, or a £ ie in a + bi form. Remove the common factor of
2 to achieve the final answer.
c= —1ti/2

2, (WGN Solve x? — 3x? =-I1r.

x? —3x?+11x=0 Write the equation in standard form.
ax 3x4 11) 0 Factor out the GCF. This equation has two
factors: x and x? — 3x + 11. Keep in mind that
the linear factorization theorem guarantees
this equation will have 3 solutions.

b? — 4ac > (-3)? — 4(1) (11) Use the discriminant to determine the types
9 —- 44 =-35 of solutions and if the equation x? — 3x +
11 = 0 is factorable. Since the discriminant is
negative, the equation is not factorable and
it will have non-real or complex solutions.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

en yea EEE
the Fundamenta l Theorem of Algebra 4!
Lesson 1.3 * Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations and
 x=0orx-—-3x+11=0
Using the zero-product property, x = 0 or
x? — 3x + 11 =0. We use the quadratic formula
to solve x? — 3x + 11=0.

The three solutions to the equation x° — 3x? =—11x are the real solution x = 0 and the
3 V35 .
two complex solutions x = 5 one
2

ME Practice. 8) ee ee ee
I. Of the following, which is an imaginary 3. Which is the factorization of x* + 10 using
number? complex numbers?

A. -V14 AL C10 )\@ar 10))

B. -14 Bo Ges 10 yGe ey
10n)
C. J-14 C. (x + 10i)(x — 107)

D. 14+ (-1) DD (x + 10)(x — 10)

2 Which expresses the number /—25 in 4. The equation 2x? — 5x —3 = 0 will have
a+ bi form?
A. two real solutions.
Axo B. two imaginary solutions.
B. 5-i Ce one real and one imaginary solution.
D. one imaginary solution.
C. 0+5i

D. 0-5:

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

42 Polynomial Functions
 5. The graph of a quadratic function f(x) is 8. (leee aes)
shown below.
9. (5+ V-9)-(7-J/-25)

10. Yeo)
ee ANS
Simplify oS and write your
answer in a + bi form.

Exercises 12-143 Factor using complex

Which of the following correctly explains numbers.
th e number
b and dt type of f solution(s) for Ph ee
fix) =0?
A. The function has one real solution I3. 121x7+ 13
because the graph has a minimum
value. | 14. 10.24x? + 1.5625

B. We are told the function is quadratic, 15. State the fundamental theorem of algebra
so by the fundamental theorem in your own words. Explain how this
of algebra we know there are two theorem relates to real and complex
solutions. Since the graph nearly solutions of a polynomial equation.
intercepts the x-axis twice, this
function has two real solutions. 16. An equation p(x) = 0 is quadratic.
Describe the number and types of
C. There is one imaginary solution
solutions that are possible for the
because the graph does not intercept
equation.
the x-axis but it does intercept the
y-axis.
Exercises | 7=22: Solve the given
D. The function is quadratic, so the linear equation. Express any non-real solutions in
factorization theorem guarantees there a+ biform. Round to the nearest hundred,
are two solutions. The graph does not if needed.
intercept the x-axis, so both solutions
are non-real. 17. x* +48 =0

‘ 18. 3x ==2x74+9
Exercises 6-10: Simplify the expressions.
Write your answers in a + bi form. 19. Kode
1 =O

6. (7+ 3i) + (-12+7i) 20. 3x? =—2x-1

7. (4-21) -(64+1) -(5-1) 21. 7=-—x?

+ 6x -—3

\AA22. 0.0484x? + 0.49 = 0

Lesson 1.3 * Complex Solutions to Polynomial Equations and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 43
 Lesson 1.4

Higher Order Polynomial Functions and

Systems

MEM Algebraically Solving Higher Order

Polynomial Equations
We have discussed several theorems related to determining the zeros
for a given polynomial function. Identifying zeros helps us to calculate
the solution(s) of a polynomial equation. Our work so far has been
isolated to quadratic functions, but the same theorems and rules apply
to cubic, quartic, and higher order polynomial functions, which can also
have real and non-real solutions. The table below shows a summary of
the theorems that we can use to help us solve polynomial equations.

Linear Factorization Theorem |A polynomial has the same number of linear factors as
its degree.
Rational Zeros Theorem In a polynomial P(x), if p is a factor of the constant
term and q is a factor of the leading coefficient, then

the possible rational zeros of P(x) are given by a

Descartes’ Rule of Signs For a polynomial function P(x) in standard form, the
number of positive zeros is equal to the number of sign
changes between terms with non-zero coefficients or
less than that by a factor of 2.

For a polynomial function P(—x) in standard form, the

number of negative zeros is equal to the number of sign
changes between terms with non-zero coefficients or
less than that by a factor of 2.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra Every single variable polynomial function of degree
n2 | has at least one zero in the set of complex
numbers.
Zero-Product Property Ifa-b=0, then either a=0 or b=0, or both a and b
equal zero.

—b+J/b’ —4ac
Quadratic Formula | x = for ax? + bx +c = 0, where a +0.
2a

44 Polynomial Functions
For a quadratic function, there are always two solutions. The solutions
can consist of two real numbers, two complex numbers, which are
called complex conjugates, or there can be one real number and one
degenerate root. Recall that complex conjugates are numbers with
identical real number values but the imaginary number values are
opposites, such as 5 + 27 and 5 — 2i. Since complex conjugate pairs
always appear together, a quadratic function cannot have one real
number solution and one complex number solution.

Regardless of solution type, when we solved quadratic equations

we used the theorems mentioned, as well as factoring, utilizing the
quadratic formula, and taking square roots. We use the same strategies
for polynomials of higher degree, keeping complex conjugate non-real
solutions in mind.

Look for and factor out the GCF. Sometimes this change in
structure will make a quadratic equation apparent.
Graph the polynomial using your calculator and look for
x-intercepts. The x-intercepts give the values of real solutions.
If a rational zero is known, use synthetic or long division to find
other factors of the equation.
Always remember that the degree of the polynomial tells the total
number of real and non-real solutions.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Solve x —- 4x? - 19x -14=0.

A cubic polynomial has degree 3, so there will be a total of three solutions. The
polynomial is in standard form and the equation is set equal to 0. It has no GCF and it
does not seem factorable by grouping. We move to using the rational zeros theorem to
list the polynomial’s possible rational zeros.

y eal beahd ea a Ca | The constant term is —14 and the leading

coefficient is 1. Let p be the factors of 14 and q be
cad sojgan fired
Ve.
|
Q the factors of 1. The ratio a gives the possible

rational roots for the polynomial.

MODEL PROBLEMS continues...

nn SLU EEEEEEE EEE

Lesson 1.4 * Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems 45

 lie tes4 1014 Use synthetic division to see if any of the possible
{veo 02 rational roots are roots of the polynomial. Start
1 3 -22 Ba with x = 1.

The highlighted —36 indicates that x = 1 is not a

root of the polynomial.

ie oe Move to x =-l.
Siero 4
rete The highlighted 0 at the end of this synthetic
division indicates that x =—1 is a root of the
polynomial and so x + 1 is a factor. The other
numbers in the bottom row are the coefficients for
the quotient polynomial when x + 1 is divided into
x? — 4x? — 19x - 14.
(x + 1)(x? -— 5x - 14) =0 The polynomial can be rewritten after completing
the synthetic division.

(x + 1)(x-—7)(x +2) =0 Factor.

wee x= 7=00 x2= 0 Use the zero-product property to find the three
x=-1 ea x= 2 real solutions to the equation.

The cubic equation’s three real-number solutions can be confirmed using a graphing
calculator and noting the x-intercepts.

Higher Degree Polynomial Equations

We use the same strategies to solve polynomial equations of degree 4,
5, or higher. Factoring, testing possible rational roots, and inspecting
graphs are all viable methods. Always remember that the total number
of solutions, real and non-real, will be equal to the degree of the
function and includes any repeated, or multiple, roots.

46 Polynomial Functions
MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve x4 - 5x? - 36=0.

SOLUTION
This equation is 4th degree, indicating that it has exactly four linear factors with up
to four complex solutions. Notice that rewriting the equation as (x?)? — 5(x?) — 36 =0
shows the equation’s structure.
x* — 5x*-36=0-> Factor using the structure of a
(x* — 9)(x? + 4) =0 quadratic equation. The first terms in
the parentheses are x’. Next, find two
factors that multiply to -36 and sum
to —5.

(x + 3)(x —3)(x2 + 4) =0 Factor the binomial x? — 9 using the

difference of squares pattern.

(x + 3)(x — 3)(x + 2i)(x — 21) =0 The binomial x’ + 4 can also be

factored using imaginary numbers.

ei ee te iat) Xt Ot er = 0 Use the zero-product property. As

x=-3 je= Ss) = Sh = expected, there are 4 solutions to the
fourth degree equation, two real and
two imaginary.

2. Solve (x -1)7(x + 3)?=0.

SOLUTION
In this problem our first instinct might be to expand the binomials into x* + 4x° —
2x? — 12x + 9 = 0, but if we do, we will need to refactor the polynomial.The polynomial
is given to us in factored form, so we can just begin solving.

(x-1)(x+ 3) =0-> Write out two factors for each of the

(x —1)(x —1)(x +3)(x + 3) =0 squared quantities.

eo) ee t= 0 44+3 03 =0 Use the zero-product property to find the

eel | = hie solutions.
The solutions x = 1 and x = —3 are both
repeated. These are degenerate roots of
the polynomial, so we say that x = 1 and
x =—3 each have multiplicity of 2.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Le SS ee
Lesson 1.4 * Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems 47
 x=landx=-3 When stating the solution of the equation,
each value is listed once because those
values satisfy the equation.

Examining the graph of this polynomial function,

we see that the graph touches the x-axis at x = 1
and x = —3, as expected. The graph does not pass
through the axis at these points; it only touches.

a. TER Solve x5 — 4x1 + 100° - 30x? + 9x + 54=0.

SOLUTION
Begin by graphing the polynomial. Its degree is 5,
so by the linear factorization theorem, there are
5 solutions. The graph shows only three places
where the equation crosses the x-axis. Thus, there
dre (itee real zeros ai xX = 1 x= 2, and 123. This
indicates that the remaining two zeros are non-real.

Since three of the factors of the polynomial are (x + 1), (x —2), and (x — 3), we can
use long or synthetic division to determine the remaining quadratic factors of the
polynomial.

ll 4 10 -30 9 54 Use synthetic division with the factor x + 1.

= 5S 215 45 254
1-5. 15 -45 54 0 The coefficients for the quotient are the
results of the synthetic division with an x4
x — 5x + 15x* — 45x 4+ 54 term, since the original polynomial was of
degree 5. This is still a difficult polynomial
to factor, and so we divide again.
21 <5 15.45 54 Use synthetic division for the factor x — 2.
Deb 18 54
be 3 Den] 0

x — oxe + Ox — 27 We use the results of the synthetic division

as the coefficients of new polynomial.
x(x — 3) + 9(x — 3) = (x -3)(x2 +9) Factor out the GCF and then factor by
grouping.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

48 Polynomial Functions
 (x? + 9) — (x + 3i)(x — 3) We already discovered the factor (x — 3).
The binomial x’ + 9 can be factored using
complex factors.
(x + 1)(x — 2)(x — 3)(x + 31)(x — 31) =0 We have found all the factors of the
original polynomial.
Re Lee ee 8 ee a x 3 Using the zero-product property, we
determine all five solutions.

MH Solving Systems of Polynomial Equations

In previous algebra classes, you learned how to solve systems of linear
equations. Recall that a system of equations is a group of two or more
equations that, when considered simultaneously, can have the same
solution. To find solutions to linear systems, we used various methods to
solve for coordinate pairs that satisfied all the equations. For example,
if two lines intersected at a single point, there was one solution. If
two lines were parallel, they would never intersect and there was no
solution. If the two lines were actually the same line, called coinciding
lines, there were infinitely many solutions. In this section we will apply
those same ideas to solving systems of polynomial equations.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve the system of equations by graphing. Round any coordinate values to the
nearest thousandth, if necessary.
Lae
=——x° +2x-3
NG:
ya=—x
+4x° 4+2x-1

SOLUTION
We solve this system by graphing. We use our
graphing calculator to generate the graph and
we use that graph to look for the points at which
the curves intersect, if any. The parabola and the
cubic polynomial appear to intersect at one point
in quadrant IV.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

iw a
Lesson 1.4 * Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems 49
 We will use the calculator to determine the point
of intersection. Press then [TRACE] to get to the four Fe =

CALC menu. Choose 5: intersect. 2: zero

S=minimum
42 maximum
intersect

The calculator will prompt you to choose the first curve. Press [ENTER] to choose the
equation entered in Y, as the first curve. The calculator then prompts, “Second curve?”
Pressing [ENTER] chooses the function entered in Y, as the second curve.

V2= "HKSe4ksech-1

First curve? Second curve?

n=O n=0 f IW=

Finally, the calculator prompts “Guess?” Use the arrow keys to move the cursor as
close to the intersection point in quadrant IV as possible. Then press [ENTER].

VES rR SHR seen 1

BOBSi i¥=-1.40858

The calculator locates the coordinates of the intersection point. Rounding to the
nearest thousandth gives (4.595, —4.366), which is the solution to this system.

Intersection
B=4.S94P34? W=o-4. 366324

There are no other intersection points for the two curves and so there is only one
solution to this system.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
sissy renunciation

50 Polynomial Functions
2. Solve the system of equations by graphing. Round any coordinate values to the
nearest thousandth, if necessary.

y =0.5(x —3)(x+2)(x +5)

y= Oe +1)

SOLUTION
Graph the system. There appear to be two
intersection points in quadrant II.

Use the intersect function under the CALC menu

two different times to find the points where the
curves intersect. When the calculator prompts
“Guess?” use the arrow keys to move the cursor
as close as possible to each intersection point.
Recall that the calculator can only find one intersection point at a time.

Intersection Intersection
a= "3.911894 ¥=7.1895S567 8= "2.014913 1¥=.10577287

The curves intersect at (—3.912, 7190) and (—2.014, 0.1058). These are two solutions to
the system of equations. When solving these systems using the graphing calculator, it
is important to check whether there is another intersection point that is off the screen.
To do this, we change the window scaling.

It does not appear that the polynomials intersect again.

Lesson 1.4 * Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems 51

 We can solve systems of polynomial equations using algebraic methods
such as substitution and elimination. Because higher order polynomial
equations can quickly become fairly complicated, these methods are
not always the fastest or simplest way to solve a system. However,
when graphing technology is not available, algebraic methods can work
for some systems.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve the system of equations using an algebraic method.

y=x°
y=x

SOLUTION ~~
This is a system of higher order polynomials. Solve using substitution.

Ree Both equations are equal to y, so solve by

substitution.
R= Set the equation equal to zero.
(x-1)=05%x-x-x(x-1)=0 Factor out the GCF. Note that the most factored
form of the equation reveals that the factor x
appears 3 times.

x=0 x-1=0 Use the zero-product property. These are the

x=1 x-coordinates for the intersection points.

y=(0)' ~ y=0 Substitute x = 0 into either equation from the

original system. One solution is (0, 0).
y= (1) syst Substitute x = 1 into either equation from the
original system. The other solution for the
system is (1, 1).

@ IMP 2,5 Solve the system of quadratic equations algebraically.

y=x'-9
y=-2.25x744

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

mph ieeceri
ninee hiii n

52 Polynomial Functions
 This is a system of parabolas; one opens up and the other opens down. Parabolas can
intersect at two distinct points, one point, or at no points. This means there can be two,
one, or no solutions.

x -9= 2,257 +4 Use substitution since both equations are

equal to y.

x -9=-2.257°
44 3 3.25 = 13 Collect the like terms.

V=4 57-12 Solve for x.

y=(2)P-9=-5 Both x = 2 and x = —2 are x-coordinates where

the parabolas intersect. Substitute x = 2 into one
Intersection at (2, —5) of the original equations to find the y-coordinate
for that intersection point.

y=(-22-9=-5 Substitute x = —2 into one of the original

equations and solve for the other point of
Intersection at (—2, —5) intersection.
The two solutions to the system are (, -5) and (-2,-5).

Note that some parabolas coincide, so they intersect at all points. In the previous
model problem, we knew the parabolas were not coinciding because one opened up
and the other opened down.

WH Practice
1. Use your graphing calculator to examine 3. Which is the complex conjugate of —4 — 97?
the graph of x* + 5x — 6 = 0. How many
A. 44+ 91 C. -91-4
real solutions does this equation have?
B. -—4-91 D. -44+ 91
A. 3 eal
Be D. 0 4. When solving a 4th degree polynomial
equation, which is a possible combination
- Which of the following is a possible of solutions?
combination of solutions for 2x* + 2x? —
A. 2 real and 2 non-real solutions
5x-1=0?
B. 3 real and | non-real solution
A. 3 non-real solutions C. 1 real and 3 non-real solutions
B. 1 non-real and 2 real solutions D. 4 real and 4 non-real solutions
C. 2 real and 0 non-real solutions
D. 3 real solutions

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson |.4 ¢ Higher Order Polynomial Functions and Systems 53

 5. Which of the given coordinate pairs is a 13. 2x4 + 7x? — 66x? + 91x — 30 =0
solution to the system
14. x4+25x?+ 144=0
Pe (x-5)
y= (x+1)(x+5)(x-5) Exercises 15-16: Solve the given system
by graphing. Round solutions to the nearest
A. (5,0) C. (-1,5) thousandth,if necessary.
1, (LS ID (Gal :
a \ Wepe dh ope
15. oe
6. Multiply the number 3- iV2 by its complex Mie Ula
conjugate. Is the result a real or non-real Stay Bie
number? 16. 4 ;
y= 0.5(x-1) +3
Exercises 7=93 Solve each equation for
the given variable. Exercises 17-183 Solve the system of
equations algebraically. Round solutions to the
7. x +5x-6=0 nearest thousandth, if necessary. Ignore any
non-real solutions. Show your work.
8. x -—4x°4+ 7x — 28 =0
Vee
17. 4 :
9. 24x =2x4+1 yest

10. Use a graph below to determine the igs e

number of non-real solutions to the Va ieee
. Ane? =
equation x* —5x° + 2=0. 19. Suppose you have a system of equations
such that y, = f(x) and y, = g(x). What
must be true for a coordinate pair (a, b)
to be a solution of this system?

20. Does the product of a complex number

and its conjugate result in a real number
or a non-real number? Support your
reasoning mathematically.

Exercises 1 1=143 Solve each equation.

If needed, round solutions to the nearest
thousandth.

HE. x*—106x7+
2025 =0

H2. x*+ 6x? — 41x? — 294x — 392 =0

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

54 Polynomial Functions
 21. You are attending a weekday baseball game, seated in the 4th row up from the ground. The
first row is 6 feet off the ground and is 360 feet away from home plate. Each successive row
is 2 feet higher than the one below it and 3 feet further away from home plate. You would
like to catch a homerun ball, and very few people are seated around you, so if the batter
hits a ball a bit short or long of your position, you can still get to it.

a Suppose a fastball comes to your favorite hitter. She hits the ball in your direction and
the ball’s movement is modeled by the equation h(t) = —-16/ + v,t + h,, where fis the time
in seconds after the ball is hit, v, is the initial velocity of the ball, and h, is the initial
height of the ball. The ball is 3 feet in the air and she hits it with a vertical bat speed of
60 feet/sec and a horizontal speed of 102 feet/sec. What system of equations describe the
height of the ball, the distance the ball travels, and your position in the stands? Use y for
height, x for distance, and ¢ for time.

b Use the system you developed in part a to determine if the ball is a homerun that you
can take home.

WH Chapter | Key Ideas

|.| Polynomial Basics
Polynomials can be classified by their number of terms and by their degree. A polynomial’s
largest exponent determines its degree.
We can perform arithmetic operations on polynomials.
A quadratic polynomial in standard form, y = ax* + bx + c, gives information about the
graph of the parabola it describes. b
A parabola’s axis of symmetry is found using the equation x = —-_.
A parabola can have a vertex that is a maximum or a minimum.
There are many strategies we can use to factor a polynomial, including GCF, as a product
of two binomials, and special factoring patterns.

|.2 Finding Zeros of Polynomial Functions and Roots of Quadratic

and Polynomial Equations
Quadratic equations can be solved by taking square roots, factoring and using the
zero-product property, or by using the quadratic formula.
We use the sign of the discriminant to determine the number and types of solutions a
quadratic equation has.
The Rational Roots Theorem helps us determine the possible rational roots of a
polynomial.
For a polynomial P(x), if P(a) = 0, then x — ais a factor of the polynomial.
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x — a, then the remainder is P(a).

KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter | Key Ideas 55

 The x-intercepts of the graph of a polynomial function give the values of the real roots of
the corresponding polynomial equation.
For polynomials of even degree, both ends of the graph will point in the same direction
(either both up or both down)
For polynomials of odd degree, the ends of the graph will point in opposite directions, one
end pointing up and the other end pointing down.

|.3 Polynomial Identities and Fundamental Theorem ofAlgebra

All numbers can be written as complex numbers, z = a + bi, where a and b are real numbers
and f= =
The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra states that every single-variable polynomial
function of degree n= 1 has at least one zero in the set of complex numbers.

|.4 Higher Order Polynomial Equations and Systems

Non-real solutions to polynomial equations come in pairs known as complex conjugates,
a+ bi and a— Di.
There are several ways to determine the solutions to polynomial equations, including
factoring and examination of the polynomial’s graph.
We solve systems of polynomial equations in the same manner we solve linear systems:
graphing and substitution. The real number solutions that satisfy the system are the
intersection points of the curves.

Ws Chapter | Review
We can name the polynomial —5x*+ 6x asa 3. Simplify the polynomial (4x — 9)
(2x* — 3x + 1) and write your answer
A. cubic monomial ;
in standard form.
B. cubic binomial
C. quadratic binomial Exercises 4-5: Completely factor the
, ; given expression.
D. quartic monomial 2
4. 5x? -— 980

a What are the vertex and the line of

5S. —2x*-13x+7
symmetry for the parabola y = —2x? +
Sx +1?
Exercises 6=7: Solve the equation for
A. vertex: (9, 2), line of symmetry: x = 2 the given variable. Round your answers to the
B. vertex: (2,9), line of symmetry: x= 9 nearest thousandth, if needed.

C. vertex: (2,9), line of symmetry: x = 2 sic aust: hash!

D. vertex: (9, 2), line of symmetry: x = 9 7. 2x°+3x=8

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

56 Polynomial Functions
 8. List all possible rational roots for the 19. Solve the following system of equations
equation 4x° + 6x —9=0. algebraically. Show your work.

9. What is the remainder when p(x) = aes

eee GY i2usdividediby (x=)? pau

LOIS (4-1) a factor of p(x) =x°— 6x7 + 20. Describe a system of two equations that
11x — 6? Use the remainder and factor has no real solutions.
theorems to explain your answer.
21 One root of a quadratic equation is three
If. Describe the end behavior of the more than the other. The sum of the roots
polynomial f(x) = 4x’ - 8. is 15. What is the quadratic equation in
simplest standard form?
12. Simplify the expression (3 — 97)(-10 + 7).
Write your answer in a+ bi form. 22. Use the quadratic formula to show that
the sum of the roots of the equation
Factor x* + 97 using complex factors. 2 _
ax -bx- c= 1s — and the product
a
Solve the equation x” — 3x + 11 =0. Write ca.
is —. Hint: The roots of the equation
any complex solutions in a + bi form. a
-~b + |b’ — 4ac
Describe the types of solutions possible ax’ +bx+c=0 are x=
2a
for a 5th degree polynomial equation
using the linear factorization theorem A avd 23 Let f(x)=x°+3x* —2x-6 and let
and the fundamental theorem of g(x)=2x° + 6x* —4x-12 be two cubic
algebra. Assume there are no degenerate polynomial functions.
roots.
a_ Use your calculator to determine the
Exercises 16-17: Solve the given zeros off(x) and g(x). Round to the
equation. Write any complex solutions in nearest hundredth, if needed.
a+ bi form.
How do the zeros off(x) compare with
16. 2x°+ 13x?- 15x =0 the zeros of g(x)?

c¢ What can you conclude about f(x) and

P70 tx lx + 9x —180=0
g(x)?
18. Solve the given system of equations using
a graphing calculator. Round solution
coordinates to the nearest hundredth,
if needed.
y= x°+6x? -2x-2
.= 0.5x°-2x+4

Chapter | Review 57
 Radical and Rational
Expressions
Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Rational Functions

2.1 Parent Functions and Consider the following questions, which will help us
Their Graphs
create the graph of a rational function.
P49) Radical Functions
Let’s say you and your friend play 10 rounds of a game
2:3 Rational Expressions
against each other. If you express the number of rounds
2.4 Rational Functions you win as a fraction of the rounds you've played, what
is the maximum? What is the minimum? If we graphed
2.2 Transforming
Rational Functions — these situations, what would the graphs look like?

2.6 Piecewise-Defined The maximum number of games you can win is 7 =]

Functions
and the minimum number is aL —(). All the numbers here
2.7 Step Functions are rational. 10

Chapter 2 Key Ideas

Chapter 2 Review What happens to the graph if you and your friend play
100 rounds of this game where you won the first 10
rounds but lose the remaining 90? What does this graph
look like? We plot the points x = 10,20, ..., 100, where x
as the number of rounds played and y as the fraction of
rounds you’ve won.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

We can perform some

simple transformations
to move toward the
result we desire. We
reflect the graph across
the line y =x and
connect point A to point
K using a smooth curve.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

———————————

58 Radical and Rational Expressions

 We finish by reflecting all of the points across
the line y = —x. We see that as the x-values
approach either positive or negative infinity,
the y-values approach 0. Additionally, as x
approaches 0), y moves toward positive or
negative infinity. Because of this, there are . pomp ppoefecnentctineton :
asymptotes at x =0 and y=0. oo ABCDERCHI |

@eeeoeeesneeeeeeeseeeseseeeeeeeeeeeeeesceeaeneeeoneoeeeeeoeseeveseseeeeeeeeovnenveeeee2

Use your prior knowledge, the brief explanation given, and the graphs we
created to answer the following questions.

I. Use your knowledge about transformations to state how the last graph pictured
above has been transformed from the parent graph f(x) = 2
2. Use your knowledge of transformations to write a rational equation for the parent
function f(x) =< that shrinks the graph vertically by a factor of > vertically reflects

the curve across the x-axis, and translates it up 4 units and left 2 units.

3. The general form of a rational function is f(x) = ae k, where a,h, and k are real
numbers (a #0). State how changes to a,h, and k affect the parent graph.

4. Rewrite f(x)= aa by simplifying the right-hand-side of the equation.

oye
5. Using the ideas from exercises 1-4, rewrite f(x)= 5 into a form that we can
more easily graph by hand.

6. Graph the function you generated in exercise #5. Draw the asymptotes as dashed
| lines.

Exploratory Activity 59
 Chapter 2 Vocabulary

1-to-1 extraneous solution odd function range

greatest integer onto rational expression
asymptote
closed
function parent function rational function
hole partial fraction set builder notation
constant function
horizontal asymptote decomposition slant asymptote
domain
horizontal line test piece-wise defined step function
element
function
index vertical asymptote
equivalent
radical function
least common vertical line test
even function
denominator (LCD) radicand
function

Lesson 2.1
Parent Functions and Their Graphs

ME A Review of Function Terminology

In Algebra 1 and Algebra 2, you explored many types of functions
and their graphs. We know that each of these functions has unique
properties and a corresponding graph. Recall that a function is a
relation for which each input has one and only one output.

Function Not a Function

y=x 2
Xe Vera

We choose any value for x and Subtracting x* from both sides of

compute a unique y-value. the equation yields y* = 1 — x7. We
take the square root of both sides
to find that for each input value
of x, there are two possible output
Valles Ol ewan =
Each value of x has more than
one possible y-value, so this is not
a function.

Each value of x has only one

possible y-value, so this is a
function.

Recall also that the possible values of the input (usually the x-values)
make up the function’s domain, and the possible values of the output
(usually the y-values) make up the function’s range.

60 Radical and Rational Expressions

Linear, quadratic, cubic, exponential, absolute value, and logarithmic
graphs all represent functions. Consider the table and graph shown
fomehe function V(x )\i= 2(3)7,

We see that for each x-value, there is only one y-value.

The vertical line test can help us determine if a graph represents a

function. If a vertical line passes through a graph and intersects or
touches the graph at only one point, then the graph is a function.
Consider the graph of the exponential function shown below. When we
draw vertical lines on the graph, each line intersects the graph at only
one point. This indicates that for each x-value, there is only one y-value.

In contrast, we show the graph of x? + y* = 1. When we draw a vertical

line through the graph, that line intersects the circle at two points. This
indicates that for each x value there can be more than one y-value, so a
circle is not a function.

2
Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 61
 MODEL PROBLEMS.

& [YT] Does the equation y = 2x‘ + 3x? - 9x — 5 represent a function? Why or why not?

SOLUTION
This is a fourth-degree polynomial equation. As we see below, the graph passes the
vertical line test, and this equation represents a function.

EEHE
CHOOKSSSSHSHHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSHSHHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSSSSHSHEHSSSSHEHESEHEHE

2. Consider the relation shown in the table of values below. Is the relation a function?
Why or why not?

SOLUTION
The given relation does not represent a function. The input x = 5 has an output of —4
and an output of 0.6. These points, (5, —4) and (5, 0.6), lie on the same vertical line
x =5.The graph of the relation would not pass the vertical line test.

MW 1-to-1 and Onto Functions

1-to-1 Functions
We call a function 1-to-1 if every element in the domain, or input,
matches a unique element in the range, or output. In other words, each
element in the range goes with only one element in the domain. Consider

62 Radical and Rational Expressions

the function tables below. The table on the left is a 1-to-1 function, but the
table on the right is not 1-to-1 since the x-values 1,2, 3 are all paired with
y =7 and the x-values 4 and S are both paired with y = 8.

There are two tests we use to see if an equation represents a 1-to-1

function. One utilizes the graph and the other is an algebraic method.

Graphically Algebraically
First determine if the given equation is a If f(x,) =f(x,) implies x, = x,, then the
function by using the vertical line test. If function is 1-to-1.
it passes, use the horizontal line test. If a
horizontal line drawn through a single
y-value crosses the graph only once,
the function is 1-to-1. If the horizontal
line crosses the graph more than once,
the function is not 1-to-1.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Is the equation y = 2x —7 a 1-to-1 function? Explain your answer graphically and

algebraically.

SOLUTION
By prior knowledge, we know the equation y = 2x — 7 is linear. A vertical line passes
through a linear graph at only one point. Likewise, a horizontal line passes through a
linear graph at only one point. So, y= 2x — 7 is a function and is 1-to-1. Graphically,
Vertical line test Horizontal line test

MODEL PROBLEMS continue... |

yee tee e977

ee
Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 63
 Algebraically, if f(x,) = f(x,) implies that x, = x,, the function is 1-to-1. Substitute x,
and x, into the function:

I) = 27 Substitution
f(x,) za 2X, =i)

PARES ISG ma Ol Set the expressions equal to each other.

2X ON a) ie) Add 7 to both sides of the equation and divide by 2.

2x, = 2x,

2 = 2% Since x, =x,, the function is 1-to-1.

2 ys 3
6 So

2. Is the function graphed below 1-to-1?

SOLUTION
The function is not 1-to-1 because the graph does not pass the horizontal line test.
A horizontal line passes through the curve in more than one point as shown below.

ee
64 Radical and Rational Expressions
Onto Functions
Let the set of function input values be called A and let the set of output
values be contained in a possibly larger set called B. A function is said
to be onto for A > B if, for all values y within B, there is a value x
within A such that f(x) = y. Stated another way, in an onto function all
the elements of B appear as output values. Consider the tables below.
The table on the left shows an onto relation since each value in column
y corresponds to a value in column x. On the left, we see that the values
y =9 and y= 10 do not correspond with any values of x, so this is not
onto.

When is a function not onto? When considering functions graphed in

the xy-plane, let both sets A and B be the set of real numbers, R, unless
otherwise noted. We must find out if every real number is represented
in both the input and the output.

On the right we see the graph of y = 2x. It is linear, so both z

its domain and range is all real numbers. The values of the
range each have an associated value in the domain. For
example, y = 6 goes with x =3, and y =—5 goes with x = —2.5.
There are no values of y that are not accounted for on the
graph. This means that y = 2x is onto for all the real numbers
(reals). ie

Compare this to the graph of y =—|2x]. Is this function

onto from the input to the output? No, it is not. We can
see there are values of y for which there is no f(x) = y
represented. For example, when y = 2, there are no
x values for the function that would make —|2x| = 2. /

Now let’s consider what happens when we set A equal to /

the real numbers but B is equal to [0, —ce). Is the equation
y = -|2x| onto from A— B now? For all y values in B, [0, —se), there is
an x such that y =—|2x|. So, for these sets A and B, the function 1s onto.

Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 65

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. Is the function y(x) = (v + 1° onto for R > R? Explain your answer.

SOLUTION

Yes, the function is onto for the set of real

numbers. From the graph we see that for
i all the y-values, there is an x such that
(x+1)3=y.

WM Even and Odd Functions

Consider a function f(x). We call the function even when f(—x) = f(x).
The function is called odd when f(—x) =-f(*).

Odd Function
Evaluate f(x) for f(—x): Evaluate the eens for f(=x).
if=%) = (ox)4 Ge Das x)
= x4 De
iit) s(x). Knis function ise ven: =
.. f(-x) =-f(x). This function is odd.

Even functions are symmetric about the Odd functions have rotational symmetry
y-axis, as Shown in the example here. If we about the origin. If we rotate the graph 180°
reflect the graph over the y-axis, it remains | about the origin, the graph remains the
the same. same.

66 Radical and Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEM

@ CTF] Determine algebraically if each of the given functions is even, odd, or neither.
&@ fxy)=—2c-5
D eye
C Ait) 3x

SOLUTION
a. f(x) =2(-x)-5 The function is neither even nor
=-2x—5 odd. It is not symmetric about the
—2x — 5 does not equal f(x) or -f(x). y-axis and it does not have rotational
symmetry about the origin.

Bb gCx)=(-x) 4 (2)
=x — x
= (4a) The function is odd.

g(—x) =—g(x)
© ht-x)-3(C2)
= 3(-1)7(x)°
=< a 1) The function is even.
=X
h(—x) = h(x)

Technology
Activity |

Being able to classify a function as even, odd, or neither can reveal

interesting properties about the function in equation. The Desmos
online graphing calculator (https://www.desmos.com/calculator) can
help us visualize functions and assist us in making these determinations.

State if the function f(x) = 3x° — 5 is even, odd, or neither.

Step I: Graph f(x) = 3x? - 5 in Desmos by inputting the

function into the field on the left.

Step 2: If f(x) is even, then f(x) = f(x). We graph

f(-x) = 3(-x)* — 5. As shown, the graphs do not
coincide, so the original function is not even.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY I! continues...

Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 67

 Step 3: If f(x) is odd, then f(x) = —f(x).
Using a fresh screen, we graph both f(x)
= 3x3 — 5 and —f(x) =—(3x° — 5). These
graphs do not coincide. We conclude f(x)
is neither even nor odd.

Exercises 1-5: Use the Desmos online graphing calculator to

determine whether each of the given functions is even, odd,
or neither. State your answer. Caution! Be careful with your
placement of the negative signs and parentheses as you enter
the functions intothe Desmos software.

5. Cana function be both even and odd? If so, provide an example.

If not, state why. Support your answer mathematically. Hint:
Refer to page 10 and consider what it means, algebraically,
for a function to be even or odd. Use that information to
determine if a function exists such that it is both even and odd.

GGG Types of Functions and Their Graphs

Knowing some basic properties of parent functions can help you
describe, solve, and interpret more complicated functions. A parent
function is the most basic function within a family of functions. For
example, y = x is the parent function for all linear functions. Applying
transformations to the parent function results in other functions in the
same family. Translating the function y = x vertically up 5 units results
in y =x +5, which is still a linear function, but it is no longer the parent
function. The table shows the parent function, graph, and other useful
properties for many functions you studied in previous math courses.

68 Radical and Rational Expressions

 -
Linear Quadratic
VX We ee

Domain: (—»», 00) Domain: (—9, oo)

Range: (—e, oo) Range: [0, )
Absolute Value Cubic
y=|k Vane

Domain: (—», <) Domain: (—s9, ©)

Range: [0, -) Range: (—s9, oo)
Quartic Radical
Ves y= vx

Domain: (—9, °°) Domain: [0, e)

Range: [0, -) Range: [0, e)

Exponential
y = a@ (The graph shown is y = 2*) y=logx

Domain: (—~, °) Domain: (0, -)

Range: (0, °°) Range: (9, °°)
The graph approaches a horizontal The graph approaches a vertical asymptote
asymptote as x approaches negative infinity. as x approaches 0 from the right.

Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 69

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. Use the table on page 69 to determine which parent functions are

a 1-to-1.
b ontoforR—-R.
c both 1-to-1 and onto for R ~ R.

SOLUTION
a__ Linear, cubic, radical, exponential, These functions all pass the horizontal
logarithmic line test and so are I-to-1.
b Linear, cubic These functions have an assigned x-value
for each y-value in the real numbers.

ce Linear, cubic These functions are both 1I-to-1 and onto

for R > R.

Being able to recognize the parent function when looking at a transformed graph
or equation can help with identifying important properties. Also, sometimes we
are able to use similar strategies to solve equations that reside in the same family.
Understanding the properties of functions and their related graphs is essential to the
study of precalculus. E

MMMM Practice
I. Which of the following does not represent 2. Which table represents a function?
a function?

IN SS tg
B. SA
Cyan 3
Da Vi=a

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

fe
ee i
70 Radical and Rational Expressions
 3. Which function, pictured below, is 1-to-1? -Y /Ca ane

asa X= aut?

8. Show algebraically that the function

Fe) =x 7 isi 1-to-1.

Exercises 9=13: Determine if each of the

functions is even, odd, or neither.

9. f(x) =x?-10
5:
10. f(x) =x

Wie Ke= bea illerw

12. f(x) =5
13. f(x) =3x4 +2
14. Describe how to determine if f(x) is an
even or an odd function by looking at its
graph.

15. Use a graphing calculator to graph

DP VN = = ee anc
y =x°. Which of the functions are 1-to-1
and onto for R R? Howis this related
to the exponent of x?

Exercises 16-19: Give the equation of

the parent function shown in each graph.

16. y

t Sea > Xx
-10 -5 i BLO) 15: 20) 25) 30) 35) 40

-10--

Exercises 4=73 For each given function, “15+

state if it is 1-to-1, onto for R — R, both, or
neither.

4. TS) = Ox?

5. f(x) =|x+3|
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.1 * Parent Functions and Their Graphs 71

 20. The function f(x) = x’ is an even function.
x Does that mean that g(x) = (x —2)?+6
aly <= is also an even function? Explain your
rail answer.

Lesson 2.2
Radical Functions
A radical function is a function that includes a radical expression,
which is an expression with a variable under a radical sign.
The most basic radical function is y(x) = Vx, which we show
to the right. The domain and range of y(x) = Vx is [0,) since
the square root of 0 is 0, but the function is not defined for any
negative values of x. For example, the square root of —4 results
in a non-real number.

y(x) = Vx

The function y(x) = Vx is the parent square root function.

There are other radical functions with different indices.
The parent cube root function is y(x) = Vx, which is
illustrated in the graph shown at the right. Notice that
the function has a domain and range of (—~, «) because
we can take the cube root of a negative number and the
result is negative.

jane

a ee ee ee
72 Radical and Rational Expressions
MH Solving Radical Equations
To solve equations involving radical expressions, use the power
principle:

Power Principle
lita = b then! az =.b™

Raising both sides of the equation to the same power preserves equality,
much like adding or multiplying by the same number on both sides
preserves equality. Using an exponent that is the same number as the
index cancels out the root so the variable expression that was originally
under the radicand will stand alone.

n xf =a) —X

Note: In the case where n is an even number, the value of x must be a

positive real number in order to have a defined expression in the real
numbers.

If an equation contains only one radical, it may be helpful to isolate that

radical on one side of the equation. Recall that when solving radical
equations, we must always check the solutions by substituting them
back into the original equation. The manner in which we solve radical
equations can create extraneous solutions, which are values of x that
seem to be solutions, but when checked, do not make the equation true.
This is especially important for radical equations with an even root.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve /x-—3+5=10.

SOLUTION

=o)= 10
Start by isolating the radical.
Whee)
; Dis Use the power principle to write an equation without
( ac 3) 7 a radical. Since the index is 3, raise both sides of the
%—3=125 equation to the power of 3.

D> WHERE SY Isolate the variable.

ls
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.2 ¢ Radical Functions 73

 3199922 Now we must check our solution to make sure it is not
extraneous. Check x = 128 in the original equation.
. . . .

= ae
\ at = 1

¥125+5=10
Sura HO Since the result is a true statement, x = 128 is the solution
10=10 to the equation.

2. Solve -14 =-13-—7/2x.

SOLUTION
ie Ate 7 S/F x
ae Benet : Isolate the radical.
-1=-V2x
sles
Sei Divide both sides of the equation by —1.
ta 2e
= (;2x) Use the power principle and raise both sides of the
1a equation to the 5th power.

1 re
x= 5 Divide both sides of the equation by 2.

1 shee rae
Vl eee 2 >| Check x= 5 in the original equation.
Z
SMe Sei
-14+13=-13+13-V1
il

Rea The result is a true statement, so x = is the solution.

=? >

3. Solve 4/3x+8 =-2.

SOLUTION

ne
AY =— . * 5
wae The radical is already isolated on the left-hand side.
(43x +8) = (227 Use the power principle to raise both sides of the
Bn 16 equation to the 4th power.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

74 Radical and Rational Expressions

 3x+8-8=16-8
3X28
Solve.
8
x= =

pQ)+s-2 So ee
Checkex = 3 in the original equation.

V8+8 =-2 The result is a false statement since 2 4-2. Thus, x ==

4/16
= -2 is an extraneous solution. Since there are no other
2=-—2 solutions to try, this equation has no solution.

We can use a graph to confirm the solution(s) to an equation. For model problem #3,
the solution lies at the intersection of y= V3x+8 and y =-2.

Ploti Flotz Plots

ed pee Se
2B

We see that the graphs of y= ¥3x+8 and y =-2 never intersect, confirming that there
is no solution to the equation /3x+8 =—2. Note: To graph a root with an index higher
than 2, access the menu and select 5: */ .Type the index in front of the ¥ sign
and make sure to use a full set of parentheses around the quantity 3x + 8.

@ IMP 2,5 Solve Jx -1= 2x.

When solving radical equations, sometimes we need to use the power principle more
than once.

SOLUTION
Here we have radical expressions on both sides
Jx-1=2x of the equation. Use the power principle to
square both sides of the equation. Be careful to
(Jx-1) =(V2x) square the entire left-hand side of the equation.

(Je-1) = (2x)
(Vx -1)(vx -1) =X
Expand and simplify the expressions.

LON
41 =2x
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
sentient rnc eer Resi tea cre NATE NT

Lesson 2.2 * Radical Functions 75

 yu - 2071-1 21-1 Isolate the radical on the left-hand side of the

yen) equation.

Square both sides of the equation. Be sure to

(2x) =-1) square both the —2 and v0

4x=x°-2x4+1
Expand and collect the like terms. Now we have
Ay—dx
=x’? —2x-—4x+1 to solve the quadratic equation.
O=x —-6x41

6) VE 40)
2(1) Use the quadratic formula to determine the
62/22 approximate solutions of the equation.
oe
x = 5.828, 0.172
V5.828 — 1 =./2(5.828)
2.414-1=3.414 Substituting x ~ 5.828, 0.172 into the original
1.414 43.414 equation results false statements. Neither
0.172 -1=./2(0.172) solution is valid and both solutions are
extraneous. There is no solution to this equation.
0.415—1=0.587
0.585 ¢ 0.587
Graphing the two related equations y= J2x and y= J/x—1 onthe same xy-plane
shows that the graphs never intersect, confirming that there is no solution to the
equation Jx -1=~2x.

Flski Flake Flats

Sue e=| :

The power principal is useful when solving radical equations, but

as shown in the model problems, there are many instances when
apparent solutions are actually extraneous. Always check the solutions
algebraically via substitution or graph the equations using your
calculator.

76 Radical and Rational Expressions

MH Graphing Radical Functions
As with other types of graphs, we can transform radical functions from
the parent function using reflections, vertical stretches and shrinks, and
horizontal or vertical translations.

For a parent radical function f(x) =x, where n > 2, we can

transform the function to

f(x) =aNx-h+k

e astretches the function vertically when a> 1

e a vertically shrinks the function when 0 <a<1
e¢ areflects the function over the x-axis when a < 0, and possibly
stretches or shrinks the graph
e h horizontally translates the function
e k vertically translates the function

To graph a radical function we must first determine the parent function.

This gives the general shape of the graph. Then we apply any reflections
or stretches, followed by the horizontal and vertical translations. We
show the graphs of parent functions for a few radical functions.

eekRoot Cube aa PiaRoot

f(x)= f(x)=Vx fix)=

After finding the parent function and the general shape of the graph,
use transformations to graph the new function. A table of values might
be helpful when working with changes in the a value.

Lesson 2.2 * Radical Functions 77

 MODEL PROBLEMS

@ IMP 3,5 Graph y =—Vx+2 —3.

SOLUTION

Here the parent function is y(x) = “JX.

The negative sign in front of the radical in
y=-Vx+2-3 indicates a reflection over the
x-axis as compared to the parent function.

Now, the value / = —2 translates the graph

2 units to the left.

Finally, we translate the graph down 3 units.

2. Describe the transformations of f(x) = 23/x +5 compared to the parent function

f(x) = Vx. Sketch the graph of the function, using a table of values to help.

SOLUTION
The function is a cube root function with a vertical stretch of factor 2. The graph is
translated 5 units up vertically.

Using a table, start with the values of the graph for f(x) = V/x.To stretch the function,
multiply the y values by 2. Then add 5 to the y values to shift the function up vertically
5 units.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

rarest

78 Radical and Rational Expressions

 HES Oe fix) = 23/45

Plot the points and connect to draw the graph.

Knowing the parent radical functions and the basics of transformations

can help you both sketch the graph and confirm the accuracy of
what you are seeing on your graphing calculator screen. Accurately
identifying the parent function can help to correctly give the domain
and range of radical functions.

MH Identifying Domain and Range

The domains and ranges of radical functions containing an even root
are based on the sign of a, and on the horizontal (h) and vertical (x)
translations of the graph (see page 77). The domain of a radical function
with an even root starts at the 4 value such that [h, -). Because the
value of x= h makes the radical equal to zero, values smaller than h
will make the number under the radical negative. This means that the .
function is undefined for all values of x less than h. The range of a
radical function with an even root starts at the value of k. Then, if the
value of a is positive, the range will be
[k, c¢). If the value of a is negative, the range will be (—c, k].

The domains and ranges of radical functions containing an odd root are
all real numbers, (—-9, «). Although the graph does not always look like
the range is all real numbers, be assured the graph continues to infinity
in both directions and can have infinitely large or small values of y.

Lesson 2.2 * Radical Functions 79

 MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Find the domain and range for y =—4 (x +3— 8. Check your answer by graphing the
function using your calculator.

SOLUTION
The parent function is an odd 7th root radical function. The domain and range are
both all real numbers (—<9, ©).

as a ot

2, (YT) Find the domain and range for y = —-2/x + 6 —1. Check your answer by
graphing the function using a calculator.

SOLUTION
The domain starts at the 4 value. Here h =—6,so the domain is [—6, ©). Values smaller
than —6 will make the radicand negative, and the expression undefined.

The a-value is negative so we reflect the graph over the x-axis. The highest value in the
range is —1 so we express the range as (—, —1]. ;

We graph the function.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

eee
80 Radical and Rational Expressions
 3. What are the domain and range of the radical function represented by the table of
values below?

SOLUTION
We see x 2 5 gives valid values for y. The domain must start at x = 5 and go to infinity.
The range starts at y = 9 and then goes to infinity. We write domain: [5, 7), range: [9, ~).

As seen in this lesson, radical functions have two basic shapes based on
the index. To graph these functions, first identify the parent function and
then transform the graph according to the equation. To solve radical
equations, use the power principle to write the equation without a
radical. Always check solutions to confirm which actually satisfy the
equation and which are extraneous.

MH Practice
1. Which of the following is a radical 3. What is the domain of y= Vx-1+7?
function?
| A. [7, =)
A. y=log(x) B. [1,-)
Pao CNees
Ge y=vx \D), [-1, 7]

D. y=x" 4. What makes a function a radical function?

2. How many solutions exist for Exercises 5-10: Solve each of the given
—6=2Vx+3? equations. Round decimal solutions to the
nearest thousandth. Be sure to check your
A. 0 solutions.
Big
C. 2 Si 2xe 1 = 4/5745
D. 6
6. 33x41 =2/2x

7 Vx+7=x
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.2 * Radical Functions SI

 x=V4x7-4 21. Suppose that you and your friend are
travelling separately, but that you begin
9. Jx +3=—J2x+6 travelling at the same time. You are
moving at a rate of J2x +3 feet per
10. 13x =x second and your friend is moving at a
rate of Vx+1+3 feet per second.
Exercises 1 1=12: Solve the equation by
graphing. Round any solutions to the nearest After how many seconds are you and
thousandth. Sketch your graphs. your friend moving at the same rate?
Round to the nearest second.
28[x =-3x+7 At what rate are you and your friend
moving? Round to the nearest tenth of
A | 2. —2,./3x=5
=Jx +6
a foot/sec.
13. Use your calculator to make a table of c At what time are you moving faster
values for the function y(x) = J/3x and than your friend?
a table of values for the parent radical
function, y = Jx. Describe how the ra nwa 22. Rebecca and Walt both go for a run,
values of the function change from the starting at the same place. Rebecca runs
parent function. at a constant speed of 12 feet/second, but
Walt runs at a variable rate. In fact, his
14. Graph y= 4Vx-1+3. distance, in feet, as a function of time, in
seconds, is m(t) = ¥1000r.
15. Graph f(x) =-2Vx —-2.
a Walt thinks that he can run faster
16. Describe the series of transformations
than Rebecca, so he gives Rebecca a
required, in order, to take the graph
5 second head start. If the function
of the parent radical function to
that defines Walt’s pace remains the
f(x) =-=Jr+18 — 40. same, what is Rebecca’s distance as a
function of time?
Exercises 17=20: Use interval notation b At what time will Walt catch up to
to give the domain and range of each function. Rebecca?
¢ Justify your answer to part b by
17. y= Vx-7+6 creating a single graph that shows
both Walt and Rebecca’s pace as a
y=-Yx-8 function of time.
19. y=-Vx-1

20. y=4-Yx+1

—e.erernrnrreee

82 Radical and Rational Expressions

 LESSON 2.3
Rational Expressions
A rational expression is a fraction where both the numerator and
denominator are polynomials. An expression where the numerator is
not a polynomial but the denominator is a polynomial is also considered
to be a rational expression. We show some examples in the table.

x Ox 9
Dx 38x = Ox 412

: x+4
The expression x + 4 can be written as a fraction, as , but generally

we do not refer to this as a rational expression, since the expression has

a polynomial in the numerator only.

Recall that we can perform arithmetic operations on rational expressions.

We can also graph functions that include rational expressions, and these
graphs have unique properties. Being proficient in simplifying and
operating on rational expressions will help you to see the structure and
properties of functions that contain rational expressions, which will help
you determine information about their graphs.

In this lesson, we focus on simplifying and performing operations on

rational expressions. In subsequent lessons, we will discuss graphing and
the properties of functions that contain rational expressions.

MH Simplifying and Operating On Rational

Expressions
When simplifying rational expressions it is important to remember that
fractions can be simplified only when there are common factors in both
the numerator and denominator. Consider the examples on the next
page. In the left-hand column, we have a fraction that contains common
terms, which are added together. This is different from the right-hand
column, which shows common factors that are multiplied together.
Common factors can be simplified. Common terms cannot.

Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 83

 Common Terms Common Factors

4+9
4+9+3

The 4 and 9 are common terms in | The 4 and 9 are common

the numerator and denominator. | factors in the numerator and
These do not cancel out. denominator. These do cancel out
because the 4 and the 9 can be
simplified, by division, to 1.

4+9 13
AGOPS16

To see the true structure of a rational expression, you must factor it

completely so you can cancel common factors. In the factored form, a
rational expression can be simplified when there is a common factor in
the numerator and denominator.

MODEL PROBLEMS
2 _— —

1. Simplify the rational expression Stated

oe Rhee ibe
SOLUTION
Start by factoring the numerator and denominator. Then look for common factors.
5x°-15x-50 _ 5(x* -3x-10)
Factor out the GCE.
x°—3x°-10x x(x*-3x-10)

(X= 2x — 10) - BCL) . S) Notice that both the numerator and denominator
x (x°=3x=10) ce (ter have the same quadratic factor, which cancel.

a: (T25 Simplify the rational expression vocal

6x +11x-7
SOLUTION
~1(9x? — 49) _-1Gx+DGx-7) Factor the numerator and denominator. Recall
6 aie Acer). that we can factor out negative integers to
change the sign on the terms. Factoring a —1 out
of the numerator shows that expression is the
difference of two squares.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

eevee eter egies anil.

84 Radical and Rational Expressions

 GBer7) (2x-1) CO, 1) ancel common factors.

—3x+7
a Distribute —1 to the numerator only.

3. Simplify the rational expression :

SOLUTION
The factors in the numerator and denominator are not the same, but they look similar.

x—-9 red so. We factor —1 out of the denominator to change

22x —-l(-94 x) the signs on the terms.

BaD eee = Now we can cancel common factors and

—1(x-9) -1(1) simplify.
Xx: —

In general, the expression z , where (a—x) #0, simplifies to —1.

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

The process for multiplying and dividing with rational expressions is
the same as with numerical fractions. To multiply fractions, multiply
the numerators together and then multiply the denominators together.
Simplify the result.

Division is multiplication’s inverse operation. To divide, keep the first

rational expression as is, and multiply it by the reciprocal of the second
rational expression. Simplify the result.

MODEL PROBLEMS

12xem15
1. Multiply and simplify: cre aa :

SOLUTION
123, oxy) aS Ky
Multiply the numerators together and multiply
the denominators together.
(oye 2 8 Sy Ay.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 85

 Oe sx Use the commutative property of multiplication
View to rearrange the factors ue the MUN ORELICYE Do
: the same for the factors in the denominator.

12-15x?y The 12 and 15 can be inulpled together as can

Tae = the 75 and 4. However, rewriting the numbers
; as products of their factors makes it very easy
BAZ Bx Y a 3x" to see their structure so we can cancel common
fey yey sy" factors. The same is true of the variable terms.

3x—5 14x?
2. Multiply and simplify: ——
PY Se 2x 3x’-8x+4+5
SOLUTION
3x-5 ; 14x?
Start by factoring the polynomial 3x? — 8x + 5.
2x (3x-5)(x-1)

(Bro) 14xe
Multiply the numerator and then the denominator.
2X(3%—5)(x-1)

== a Simplify by canceling.
ee

ES CT} Divide and simplify va +(x—-1).

2 —

x+
SOLUTION
Start by factoring the x? — 1 expression. Also, it
1)(x- -
Sao 1) might be helpful to rewrite (x — 1) in fractional
x+1 1
notation.
Division is the same as multiplying by the
reciprocal of the second fraction. Keep the first
(x+1)(x-1) oe rational expression the same and change the
xt (x-1) division to multiplication. Then write the reciprocal
of the second expression: : :
(x-1)
(1DG-1)
(+1) 5-1) =f Now Itipl
we multiply and d cancel.

86 Radical and Rational Expressions

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions
When adding and subtracting rational expressions it is necessary to
have a common denominator, just like when adding and subtracting
numerical fractions. To change the denominator of a fraction, we must
multiply the numerator and denominator by the same expression,
usually the least common denominator (LCD) of the rational
expressions.

MODEL. _PROBLEMS

1 2
|e For —=sF 7p add the expressions and then simplify. Leave the denominator in
xX xt
factored form and write the numerator in standard form.

SOLUTION
We need to find the LCD. The first expression has
ihCN alate ae a denominator of x and the second expression has
tee (eel a denominator of x + 1. Multiply these to find the
least common denominator x(x + 1).

: 1
Now we multiply the first fraction by 2zs:
x+1 bs spa
Lisa ae and the second fraction by * Note that
x(x4+1) x(x+1) x
putting parentheses around the sums helps when
distribution is needed to prevent multiplication
errors.
Now that the denominators are the same, we can
aya add the numerators together and put the result
x(x +1) over the common denominator.

ee Anas ae: Pier.

= Pane Simplify the numerator by combining like terms.
(4-71)

The question often comes up, “Why can’t I just add a | to the first fraction to make a
common denominator?” Adding 1 to a number increases its value, where multiplying
by 1 results in the same value. So it is important to find a common denominator using
multiplication and not addition.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 87

 the
2. Subtract roe oo 7 Leave the denominator in factored form and write
2x+3
numerator in standard form.

SOLUTION
Find the LCD. The first denominator
has one factor (2x + 3) and the second
denominator has a factor of 2. The
G2 Oe common denominator is 2(2x + 3).
(es) (2) , 2
Multiply the first fraction by — and the
(2x +3)
second fraction by
(2n4)\"
Oe ire) = 1(2x+3)
Simplify each fraction.
(2203) | DOE) 20x43) 20x83)
Now that the denominators are the same,
ONCLSES) Ome SDSS 8
subtract the numerators and put the result
2(2x +3) ORGS) © PAO ene)
over the common denominator.

3 x+2
Subtract —____ — dito, Leave the denominator in factored form and write the
x7 43x42 x+2
numerator in standard form.

SOLUTION
For more complicated polynomial denominators, start the problem by factoring to
reveal structure that might help with finding a least common denominator.
sie oe ee! x+2 2 Factor the trinomial in the first
x 43x42 x+2 (x+2)(x+1) x+2 denominator.

Both fractions have (x +2) as a factor in

the denominator. The first fraction also has
(x+2) _ 2(x+)) a factor of (x + 1) in the denominator. The
(x+2)(x+1) (x+2)(x+1) LCD is (x + 2)(x + 1), so we multiply the
(x+1)
second fraction by . The result is
(x-+1)
shown at left.
Subtract the numerators and write the
Ce ER) —Xx result over the common denominator.
(x+2)(x4+1) — (x+2)(x4+1) Simplify the numerator and write it in
standard form.

88 Radical and Rational Expressions

 Generally, simplifying and performing basic operations on rational
expressions follows the same process as simplifying and performing
basic operations on numerical fractions. By noting the differences
between common terms and common factors, we can prevent typical
calculation errors.

MH Partial Fraction Decomposition

As shown, we must determine a common denominator when adding
or subtracting rational expressions, preferably the LCD. But what if
we wanted to start with the sum and find the rational expressions that
created it? We call this process partial fraction decomposition, and it
will be helpful in your future studies of calculus.

The process shown in the model problems for partial fraction

decomposition is used when the numerator of the rational expression
has a smaller degree than the denominator.

MODEL PROBLEMS

: . 4x+5
I. Find the fractions that compose the sum ————-.
je apa =I

SOLUTION
Check to see that the degree of
the numerator (1) is smaller than
AX#
ee 4x +5 the degree of the denominator (2).
x tx-2 (x+2)(x—1) Then factor the denominator. The
LCD in this case is (x + 2)(x — 1).

Set up the partial fraction equation.

We use A and B to represent the
4x+5 A B values of the numerators for the
(x+2)(x-1) 5D "JEy fractions. Note that partial fractions
have linear denominators, so the
numerators will be constants.

(eee) eke = a cae — Multiply both the left- and

: CAE ae right-hand sides by the LCD.
4x+5= A(x-1)+B(x+2)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

On ee ee

Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 89

 Simplify the right-hand side.
4x+5=Ax-A+Bx+2B= Then group the linear and constant
4x+5=(A4+B)x+(-A+2B) terms.
Since x has a coefficient of 4 on
the left-hand side, we set it equal
to the coefficient of x from the
right-hand-side. We follow a similar
process for the constant terms.

Now we solve the system. Add the

equations to eliminate A and then
solve for B.

Substitute B = 3 into one of the

equations in the system to solve
for A.

Now replace A = 1 and B=3

into the partial fraction equation,
giving the final partial fraction
decomposition.

3x +2
2, (iI Find the partial fraction decomposition of
VeVi ee

SOLUTION
Note that the degree of the numerator is
rete Ou te
less than the degree of the denominator.
Ae x (x1) We factor the denominator.

Set up the partial fraction equation.

To account for the repeated x factor,
write a fraction with a denominator x
and another fraction with a denominator
x°. In the original sum, there may have
been a denominator of x or of x? or two
fractions with both.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

90 Radical and Rational Expressions

 Sie
a 3x42
| oe AB
tt FO Multiply both sides of the equation
1 Mix ly el
by the LCD and simplify the
3x +2=Ax(x—-1)
+ B(x—1)+ Cr’? =
right-hand side.
oxy422Ax
> Av+ Be B41 Cx?

Collect the like terms on the

sx +Z—(A+C)x’+ (-A+B)x—B right-hand side.
Write a system of equations for the
values of the coefficients. The coefficients
of the terms on the left-hand side side
must equal the coefficients on the
right-hand side. As there is no x? term
on the left-hand side, the coefficient
O=A+C on the x° term is 0. The equation for the
es x? termisO={=A+C.

The coefficient on the x term is 3

which will be equal to —-A + B from the
right-hand side. The constant term on
the left is 2, which will be equal to the
constant —B on the right-hand side.

Solve the system for A, B, and C. The

third equation, 2 = —B, is solved easily by
dividing both sides by —1.

Substitute B = —2 into the second

equation to solve for A.

(-5)+C=0 Substitute A = —5 into the first equation

to solve for C.

3x42 59 5 Place the values of A, B, and C into the

2 partial fraction equation.

ae 4x =1
3. Write the partial fraction decomposition for a
tix
SOLUTION
Sometimes we cannot factor the denominator into linear factors. For example, in the
case where the denominator has degree 2, the numerator must be of degree 1 or 0. So,
instead of using a constant coefficient like A or B, we use a linear expression for the
numerator, such as Ax + B.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 91

 on that
The denominator factors into x(x? + 1). The factor x? + 1 is a quadratic expressi
is not factorable further using real numbers.
Factor the denominator and write
the partial fraction decomposition
4x-1_ 4x-1 _ A, Bx+C
= . equation. Use a linear expression for the
——— = ——
etx xt) x x ed numerator of the fraction with a quadratic
denominator.

x(x? +1) 4c=1 AW Bx

1 2 |) ental Multiply both sides of the equation by the
LCD. Simplify.
4x—1= A(x? +1)+(Bx+C)(x)

Ani AN eA BAe Cx= Distribute on the right-hand side and

4x-1=(A+Bjxr?+Cxt+A gather the like terms.
Write a system of equations for the
values of the coefficients. The quadratic
coefficient on the left-hand side is 0, the
a ae linear is 4, and the constant is —1. On the
nee right-hand side, the quadratic coefficient
ale A will be equal to A + B, the linear
coefficient equal to C, and the constant
equal to A.

=-1
ay ae Solve for B.

apo l aT x4 Replace the values ofA, B, and C into the

(cau) esac & partial fraction decomposition equation.

Me Closure
Consider the set of integers, {...-3, -2,-1, 0, 1, 2,3, ...}. This set is closed
under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. This means that if, for
example, you add two integers, their sum is also an integer. Now consider

the set of rational numbers, which are all the numbers that we can express
as 2 where q#0.If we sum two rational numbers, will the result be

rational? Yes. What if we subtract two rational numbers? Multiply them?

Divide them? It turns out that the set of rational numbers is closed for
addition, subtraction, and multiplication but not for division. We show the
proof for closure of the rational number under addition.

92 Radical and Rational Expressions

 Proof of Closure for Rational Numbers for Addition

m ;
Let — and be rational numbers where
n
m,n,p,and q are integers and n, gq #0.
We find their sum.

For these rational numbers, the LCD is ng. mq , pn _mq+ pn

We create equivalent fractions with this LCD nq qn nq
and then simplify.

Since m,n, p, and q are all integers and

integers are closed under addition and
multiplication, the numerator mq + pn is also
an integer. The denominator nq is also an
integer and is non-zero. So, the expression
mq + pn
is a rational number.
nq

Similarly to the way that rational numbers are closed under addition,
subtraction, and multiplication, rational expressions, too, are closed
under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. In other words, when two
rational expressions are added, subtracted, or multiplied, the result will be
a rational expression.

| reveals se a es |
I. What is the least common denominator 3. Completely simplify the expression
that should be used to simplify the Nan, Ee
1 4 X 9 x+1 x x-2
expression ————— + ?
tae pe 2
x°-2x’ +2x+8
Aer ya 2) x(x 1) 2) x(x-1)(x-2)
B. G@G4D)@=2) D.xe—1)@+2)
yee OK S
il B.
fy, ANGE eee x(x +1)(x-2)
iva Msee Ke

abc Y= 2x +28
ey bc+ac+ab (xt) @e2)

B be +ac+ab x°+2x°-2x-8
abe ea
bc-—ac—ab
Cc. —————
abc

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

abc +ac
D. ———
ab
Lesson 2.3 * Rational Expressions 93
 Exercises 4-193 Simplify each of the PoOmnn Gi
given expressions. Factor when necessary. Gin De Sal
If the final result is a rational expression,
write the numerator in standard form and the 19. oe a
denominator in factored form. I SN
=r 1
20. A student added —+ using the steps
4. 64xy : 5 Se
below:
5g, ~3x+18
—2x +12 eo 1
+ Step
6 x+2+3(x-6) x4+2 x+2
‘
x 2 -16 4 1
ais Step 2
7 2x7 +9x—-5 xt+2 x+2
ye Bese ’
Step 3; final answer
yd Re ee x+
x+7 a
2 Is the student’s answer correct? Why
iL po (x+2) ve
9. (x—-2) : a or why not? If the answer is incorrect,
(x+2)" (x-2) provide the correct answer.

7x+7 121(x* +10x +25)

10. ipo Lh) erRee 21. Ifm,n,p,and q are all non-zero integers,
prove that the product of two rational
Be ae 1 Bik rae 2.
Hl. al el cS ew eee numbers ~ and & is a rational number.
x -9 —x° -l1lx-18 qd
eRe 22. Give an example of two rational
12. Bee 4 expressions. Use your examples to show
that rational expressions are closed under
13. (x’ -2x-8)+(x+2) addition and multiplication.

14. 3x? -22x+7 _3x=1 Exercises 23=273 Find the partial

von noe fraction decomposition.

i I a 23. _o*73
eo 2 ee x +Ox+5
fie? 4x
16. —+— 24s oe
De OS (x+2)°

hy See yiol 25. one

x-3 x Ave

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

94 Radical and Rational Expressions

 D 6
11x—30
ae ee
10x? — 50x

ig7
aE S

‘AA 28. Suppose your friend Jarl can paint a room in a certain number of hours. You can paint 3
rooms in an hour longer than 4 times the amount of time it takes Jarl to paint one room.

Express your rate of painting as the rational function g(x).

Express Jarl’s rate of painting as the rational function f(x).
What is your combined rate if you and Jarl work together?
Find the value of (f— g)(4).
& Interpret
one the meaning of the rational function in part d.

LEsson 2.4

Rational Functions
A rational function is an algebraic fraction where both the numerator
and the denominator of the fraction contain polynomials. Recall that
the denominator cannot be equal to zero. The most basic rational

function is y(x) = ce which is graphed below, right.

i
Notice that this graph has two curved branches. Some graphs
of rational functions have two branches, and others have more
than two pieces. Unlike some functions, rational functions
often have both domain and range restrictions since not all
values of x and y will be valid for every rational function.

MB Identifying Domain Restrictions

To be a rational function, there must be a polynomial in the oh

denominator. The graphs of rational functions approach & s wsWww

‘
certain values depending on the functions themselves.
1 E
As shown above, the graph of y(x) = — approaches x = 0 i
x
from the left and from the right, but never actually reaches it. WV
wsRas uy
1
Why is this so? Consider the table of values for y(x) = —. As the

function approaches x = 0 from the left and from the right, the function
produces valid y-values. However, the value of the function at x = 0

Lesson 2.4 * Rational Functions 95

 1
gives an error. If we substitute x = 0 into the function, we find y(O) = a

Division by zero is undefined, so the function is undefined when x = 0.

We must remove this value from the domain for the function to be valid.
This is called a restriction on the domain. We can describe the domain

Of yx) = u using set builder notation {x |x € R, x #0}. Decoding

x
this notation, the function’s domain is all values of x, such that x is
an element of the real numbers, with the restriction that x cannot be
equal to zero. Note that we can also describe the domain using interval
notation, as we did previously in this chapter.

When working with rational functions, we need to determine if there

are any values of the independent variable that will make the function
undefined. If so, we need to exclude those values from the function’s
domain.

MODEL PROBLEMS

© IMP 3, 5| Identify if the function is a rational function. Explain how you know.
4
a
a. —

b y(x)=4x-2
1
c x)= —_———
v(x) x 3x4i
dd yixnj=x9

SOLUTION
This is a rational function because
a
4 ‘ cae
Vie) = oe has a polynomial expression in

the denominator. If we graph this function,

we see the graph is made of two curved
branches.

b We see from the structure of the function that

it is clearly linear. We know from previous
math classes that the graph is a straight line
with m = 4 and y-intercept —2. We do not need
to graph the function.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a I eh
96 Radical and Rational Expressions
 c This is a rational function because
i
x) =————_
eae has a polynomial expression
in the denominator. The graph has three
curved parts.

d Again, we use our previous knowledge. This

function is quadratic. The graph is a parabola
that opens up with a vertex at (0, —9).

2. State the domain of y(x) = 5 using both set builder notation and words.
1 ° . hd

Be
SOLUTION
First we determine if we need to exclude any x-values from the domain. Does there
exist a value or values for x that will make the denominator equal to 0?

x-2=0 We set the expression in the denominator equal to 0 and

L=Z solve for the variable.

We need to exclude x = 2 from the domain since the function will be undefined at this
value. Using set builder notation, we write {x |x € R, x #2}. In words, the function is
defined for all real values of x, except x =2.

3. State the domain of y(x) = ieacesheet using both set builder notation and words.
x +2x—35
SOLUTION
Again we start by determining if there are values to exclude from the domain.

x* + 2x=—35=0 Set the expression in the denominator equal to zero.

(x +7)(x —5)=0 Factor and use the zero-product property to solve for x.
L=—-/]| X=)

Here we have two values to exclude from the domain. In set builder notation we write
{x |xe R, x #-7, 5}. In words, the function is defined for all real values of x, except
akan =:

Lesson 2.4 * Rational Functions 97

WW End Behavior
As we did in Lesson 1.2, we can describe a rational function’s end
behavior. Recall that end behavior describes what happens to the
y-values of the function as the x-values become increasingly large or
increasingly small. Again, we can describe end behavior using symbols
or words.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1
I. Use the graph to describe the end behavior of the function y(x) = er both
symbolically and in words.

SOLUTION

Consider the function’s graph.

We can see that as the values of xapproach positive infinity, the y-values approach 0.
As the values ofx approach negative infinity, the y-values again approach 0.
Symbolically we write x — too, y > 0. In words, we say that as x approaches
positive or negative infinity, y approaches 0.

Note that we can confirm a function’s end behavior using the function of the
graphing calculator. We enter arbitrarily large absolute values for x and negative x.
We see that in both instances, y approaches 0. If we were to enter even larger values
for x, the function would be even closer to 0.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
98 Radical and Rational Expressions
 2. Symbolically describe the end behavior of y(x)=- 3
bee oe)
SOLUTION

We graph the function.

It looks like x — te, y > -2. We confirm using the calculator’s function:

MH Horizontal, Vertical, and Slant Asymptotes

In the previous two problems, it appeared that as the values of x
approached positive or negative infinity, the y-values of the function
approached a single value. This single value is an asymptote, which is
a line that the graph of a function approaches very closely but never
touches. Rational functions often have one or more asymptotes.

Asymptotes can be vertical, horizontal, or a slant. Often asymptotes

are represented on the graph of a rational function using a dashed line.
When using your calculator to create the graph of a rational function,
you may have noticed stark, solid vertical, horizontal, or slanted lines.
These lines represent the asymptotes. If you have a TI-84+, you can turn
off the asymptotes by going into your settings and changing the
X-res value to 1. On the next page, we show the difference this setting
! 3
can make with the function y(x) =-——--2.
XO

Lesson 2.4 * Rational Functions 99

 X-res value of 2 X-res value of 1

If you are using a different calculator model, consult the user guide
for instructions on controlling asymptote display.

To find a rational function’s existing vertical asymptotes, consider the

function’s domain values. Any x-value that is excluded from the domain
creates a vertical asymptote at that point. The equations of vertical
asymptotes are of the form x =a, where a is a real number.

To find a rational function’s horizontal asymptote, consider the degree

of each polynomial in the function. We can represent rational functions

as ran where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials, so there are three
q(x
possibilities for the degree relationship between p(x) and q(x): they
can be equal, or p can have a higher or lower degree than gq. The table
below shows how to find the equation for the horizontal asymptote
after identifying the degree relationship between p(x) and q(x).

deg(p) = deg(q). deg(p) < deg(q). deg(p) > deg(q).

For example: For example: For example:
We ee _ ; ye yeeaerers 2"
SS a wa 4x
If the degrees are the same, | If the degree of the If the degree of the
divide the leading coefficient |numerator is /ess than the numerator is greater
of the numerator by that degree of the denominator, | than the degree of the
of the denominator. In the horizontal asymptote is | denominator, there is
this case the horizontal ved. no horizontal asymptote.
asymptote is y= >

y=2

Remember that because a horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line,

the equation will be y = b, where b is a real number. Any given rational
function will have, at most, one horizontal asymptote. The graphs of the
three functions are shown on the next page. Note that in the first graph,
the window is set so you see y = 1 to y=3. The solid horizontal line is the
eee ee
100 Radical and Rational Expressions
asymptote. In the second graph, observe that the curve crosses the line 0),
In the third graph, the y-values increase as x increases and decrease as
x decreases, and there is no horizontal asymptote.

DS ——
A) = 2x! +6x+5
(x)= ———__—
15 2 ey 6

eae we % jal ed mais

==

Although the third graph above does not have a horizontal

asymptote, the degree of the numerator is exactly 1 digit greater
than the degree of the denominator. When this happens, the function
has a slant asymptote (sometimes called an oblique asymptote).
We can determine the equation of the slant asymptote by dividing
the denominator into the numerator.
1
—xX +
3
—=

4 4
4x./x*4+3x+9

(ee)
3x+9

ek)
9

The remainder can be disregarded because as the absolute

values ofx get increasingly large, the remainder will become
very, very small. The graph of the function and its slant asymptote:

Occasionally, a rational function will have a value of x that is

excluded from the domain, but that value does not create an
7x +10
asymptote. Consider the function y(x)
eee
= If we factor the

pO)(x+
SEE) Clearly there
numerator and denominator, we findy es

is a vertical asymptote at x = 3, but what happens at x = a Does the

cancelation of the binomial factor (x + 2) affect the graph? We investigate
using our calculator. Here is the graph of the function with its associated
table.

Lesson 2.4 * Rational Functions 10]

 The graph indicates the vertical asymptote at x = 3, but nothing
interesting at x = —2. Yet the table shows an ERROR at this value. What
is happening? We zoom in, setting the values for x at [—3, -1].

There is a hole in the graph at x = —2. This phenomenon occurs

when there is a factor you can cancel in both the numerator and
the denomintor. In calculus, you will define these graphical holes
as “removable discontinuities,” which will be important for limits,
derivatives, and integration.

MODEL PROBLEM

@ IMP 3, 5) Find the equations for all the asymptotes of the function y(x) = ans,
bia Ps aha
SOLUTION
Since the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, there
is no slant asymptote and there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0. Factoring the
a
denominator gives , So the values x = 1 and x = —3 make the denominator
(x-1)(% +3)
equal to zero and there are vertical asymptotes at these points. There are no LYE

cancelable factors in the numerator and denominator of this function,

so the graph
does not contain a hole. The equations of the asymptotes are y= 0.x = 1 andx = —3)

a a ee
102 Radical and Rational Expressions
MM Graphing Rational Functions
With modern technology, we can easily graph rational functions and
adjust the window size and scale to examine them. Even with the ready
availability of such items, it is still important to know how to graph
these functions by hand. It is easy to make mistakes when entering
functions into input fields, so we need to know if what we are seeing on
our screen is reasonable and accurate.

The first step in graphing rational functions is to identify any horizontal

or slant asymptotes. For the right-most and left-most sections of the
graph, the horizontal asymptote guides the end behavior. Then we
must determine any slant asymptotes. These exist where the degree of
the numerator is one larger than the degree of the denominator. Next,
determine the location of any vertical asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes
divide the coordinate plane into sections for the different parts of the
function and serve to guide the viewable ends of the curves. For the
sections between two vertical asymptotes, the curves must have end
behavior guided by the asymptotes. Finally, create a table of values
for each section of the coordinate plane, plot the points and draw the
curves. Note that it can also helpful to find the x- and y-intercepts for
the graph as well.

MODEL PROBLEMS

x-4
Sket
the
chgraph h of of y(x) PGx?
) -8x Ps
+16
by hand.

SOLUTION
The degree of the numerator is less than the
i Ay=4
degree of the denominator, so there is no slant 10 t
9 1
asymptote and a horizontal asymptote exists 8
7 |
é I
at y = 0. Factoring the denominator gives 5 |
4 |
vox) = eee ce showing that there is a A \
(x-4)(x-4)
2
I
tine
vertical asymptote at x = 4. It appears that 5 6 7 8 9 10111213

there would also be a hole at x = 4, however

the vertical asymptote overrides the hole and
the function is undefined at x = 4. Sketch the
asymptote on a coordinate plane.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

een ete Le
OS IT ea

Lesson 2.4 © Rational Functions 103

 The vertical asymptote separates the plane into two parts, to the left of x = 4 and to
the right of x = 4. Make a table of values around x = 4 in order to see the general shape
of the graph.

From the table, we can see that as the values of x increase, the y-values get closer
to zero, approaching the horizontal asymptote of y = 0. Similarly as the values of x
decrease, the y-values also get closer to zero, approaching the horizontal asymptote.
As the x values approach x = 4 from the right and from the left, the y-values increase
and will continue to increase, following the guide of the vertical asymptote x = 4.
We use the table of coordinate points and our analysis to graph the function.

28° 9 TOT 1278

We check our graph with our calculator. They match!

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a ee
104. Radical and Rational Expressions
eS [02] Graph y(x)= by hand.
= 2
SOLUTION
The degree of the numerator equals the degree
of the denominator, so a horizontal asymptote
exists at y = ee
1. the denominator gives

y(x) = ——————_ indicating that the values

(x- ies 2)
of x = 1 and x = —2 are vertical asymptotes.
When a function has two vertical asymptotes,
the xy-plane is divided into three sections.
Draw the vertical asymptotes and horizontal
asymptote.

Now, make a table of values including x values

to the left of x = —2, between x = —2 and x = 1, and to
the right of x= 1.

Plot the points and draw the curves. To the far left and the far right, the curves are
guided by the vertical and horizontal asymptotes. Between the two vertical
asymptotes, we plot enough points to get a general sense of the curve’s shape.

We check our graph with

our calculator. They match!

Lesson 2.4 * Rational Functions 105

MMS éPractice
1. Which of the following is a rational 9. Ilona graphs the function
function? 2x°+5x-3
MCG) ee ae using her graphing
x -x-
A. y(x) = —x 2 calculator. She describes the function’s
end behavior, saying that as the x-values
Bay) ele
a
approach infinity, the y-values approach
negative infinity. Is Ilona correct? Why
or why not?
C. y(x) = V4x

Describe how the end behavior of

Day: a rational function is related to the
horizontal asymptote.
3 Which value represents a restriction on the
—2 Exercises | 1-12: Find the equation of
domain of y(x) = mr RTs
the vertical asymptote(s) of each function,
if they exist. If not, state so.
A.x#-5
B. x #-2 2
ll. A
(C. se 2=15 yx) x+2
D. x#-1
by iene =e ee
x +x°-6x
Exercises 3=5: State the domain of each
of the given functions using both set builder Exercises 13-153 Find the equation of
notation and words. the horizontal asymptote for each function,
eh ioe xX 4 +2x°— 2
9x +1 if it exists. If not, state so.
bear aa
a 3x? +6x—5
ee
a 2x 2x°+5x-1

Siew) 14. (x)=

ea) ee ro
IS. y(x)=
al
Exercises 6-8: Symbolically describe the
end behavior of each function. Exercises 16-173 Find the equation of
the slant asymptote for each function, if there
6.
y(x)
16) =
rere is one. If not, state so.
i6.ne Sata
7. y(x)= 8x-21
3
x-5

=
8. y(x)= = x L 17. y(x) = 3x7 +5x-2
ve fey il

en ae ee EE Se PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

106 Radical and Rational Expressions
 ecurl Exercises 19=21: For each of the
18. Consider the function Vii=
x°—3x—28 given functions, state the equations of any
a Describe the function’s domain. asymptotes or holes and provide a sketch of
b What is the equation of the function’s the graph. Use a graphing calculator only to
vertical asymptote? check your results.
¢ What is the function’s y-value when IS. jae Teale
x =—4? Is this an asymptote? Why or ane x +4x—-5
why not? F
20. y(x)= xa 2x41
Nie

2 I. y(x) = a
Ker

Lesson 2.5
Transforming Rational Functions
The most basic rational function is the parent rational function
1 ome ;
Ea x: the graph of which is shown at the right. Note that

the vertical axis is the function’s vertical asymptote and the

horizontal axis is the function’s horizontal asymptote.

We can transform the parent function using translations,

reflections, and dilations. Consider the function in the box:

a
y(x) = +k
(x—h)
where a,h, and k are real numbers

The values a,h, and k each have a unique affect on the parent
, 1
function y(x)=—.
x
e The /-value translates the function / units horizontally to the

right. Look at the graphs of the functions y(x) = a and

Wx) = : , shown on the next page.

x43

ee
ee
Lesson 2.5 * Transforming Rational Functions 107
 For this function, the h-value is 3. For this function, the h-value is —3.
i} 1
The parent function y(x) = = The parent function y(x) = 2
moves 3 units right horizontally. moves 3 units left horizontally.
The function’s vertical asymptote The function’s vertical asymptote
also moves right 3 units.
also moves left 3 units.

¢ The k-value translates the function vertically k units, up for k > 0

and down for k < 0.
¢ The a-value determines how the graph is stretched or shrunk and
also controls reflections of the graph over the x- and y-axes.

1
W(x) = -" yx) =2JG UGS am3

Ee
In this function a = —1. The Here a =5S. This stretches the
negative value of a reflects the |function vertically and the SER ;PERSE II DRESS
parent function over either y-values will all be 5 times a vertical shrinking of the
the x- or y-axis. Notice that larger than in the parent parent function. The y-values
the branches of the graph are | function. The function’s
will all be half the size as
in quadrants II and IV, where | branches are farther away
in the parent function. The
the branches of the parent from the axes. branches of the function are
function are in quadrants I
closer to the axes.
and III.

ee Se ee ee
108 Radical and Rational Expressions
When dealing with more than one transformation in a single function, perform them in the
following order.

e stretch or shrink (consider the a value)

e reflection (consider if a is negative)
¢ horizontal translation (consider the h value)
e vertical translation (consider the k value)

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Describe the transformations of the function ea) — 2 1 +2 compared to the

parent function y(x) = .
x
SOLUTION
The function g(x) is a vertical stretch of y(x). The a-value is 3, which makes all
the y-values three times larger in g(x) than in y(x). Additionally, g(x) is one unit
horizontally to the right of y(x) and 2 units vertically up from y(x) since h = 1
ane.

2 IMP 1,7 Sketch the graph of y(x) = ay _ using transformations of the parent
1 a
function y(x)=—.
x
SOLUTION
: a
The function y(x) = aoe ° is not written using the structure y= mags k . In this
Do i

form, it easy to see the transformations. We use long division to transform the function
into the desired form.

4
x-1)4x-5
—(4x —4)
—]

We find a quotient of 4 with remainder 1. We restate the original function as

VG)= 4-— or y(x) = +4, Now it is easy to see that the value of h = 1,
X= x-
a=-1,and k = 4.The function will be reflected over the x-axis, translated right
1 unit, and then translated up 4 units. The progression of transformations of the
parent function is shown.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.5 * Transforming Rational Functions 109

 v(x) = y(x)=-——+4

Technology
Activity 2

We can use Desmos to help us transform graphs.

;
Transform the function 4x-3 ee
f(x) = merry by shrinking it by a factor
ae
of =,translating it right 9 units, and up 2 units.

Step I: Graph the given function in Desmos.

Step 2: Recall from previous math classes
that we can make the function easier
to transform by rewriting it.

We graph the rewritten function,

25
f(x) = -—— +4, to ensure we
xD

did our algebra correctly.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

je Aertel olin SST UCIa ante Heemiblata alidy ot SDy,
110 Radical and Rational Expressions
Step 3: Apply the transformations in the order

described on page 109, starting with

shrinking the graph by a factor of =
46 -8
This results in f(x) =—-
a Gone) er
We add this equation to Desmos.

Step 4: We check to make sure we shrunk the

graph correctly. When we confirm this,
we want to pick a y-value that will work
easily for us to monitor the changes
in the graph. We choose y =7 since we can

easily multiply 7 by =Now we graph

yey and y=7-5=2 and see that y =7

intercepts the original graph at the same

time that y = 2 intercepts our transformed
graph.

Step 5: Finally, we apply the translations right

46 22
and up to arrive at f(x) =— +—.
7(x-4) 7
We add this equation to the graph and
observe that the point where y = 2 intercepted the transformed graph moved right 9
units and up 2 units, so our transformed equation is correct.

Exercises 1-5: Perform the following transformations. State the equations of the
horizontal lines you used to confirm your transformations were correct.

1. Stretch f(x)= oe 7 by a factor of =then translate it left 6 units and down 3 units.
XG —

ox : mae 1
2. Vertically reflect f(x) = OT across the x-axis, shrink it by a factor of a and then
x+
translate right 3 units and up 2 units.

3. Shrink f(x)= — 6 —
by a factor of “ and then translate left 1 unit and up 9 units.

2x-3
A. Stretch f(x)=- by a factor of 5 and translate right 8 units and then down 4 units.

5x +6 7
5. Reflect f(x)= vertically across the x-axis, stretch it by a factor of = and then
Ox Z
translate left 2 units and up 1 unit.

EE
Lesson 2.5 * Transforming Rational Functions ie |
ME Equivalent Forms of Rational Expressions
As seen in Model Problem #2 on page 109, we can use the structure
of rational functions to restate them as needed. For example,
Tee 4x-5
and y(x) = —- 4 are equivalent functions that
x-1 3G —

have the same graph. We can create additional equivalent rational

expressions. If we multiply the numerator and the denominator by
the same number, we produce an equivalent expresssion. Relying on
technology to graph the related functions confirms that the expressions
are equivalent when the calculator produces only one graph, similar to
our exploration in Technology Activity 2. If we multiply the expression
2 D

a by at the result is ee . We use a calculator to

5-x -1 -1(5-x) -5+x
_x2
graph y(x) = ke and y(x) =
5-x —54+x

Ploti Pilotz Plot3

V4 BX (5-%)

PS
We also know that the expressions are equivalent because

multiplication by i (for a #0) is the same as multiplying by 1.

a
Multiplication by 1 does not change the overall value of the rational
expression, giving an equivalent expression.

MMMM Practice
ee x —2
1. Which expression is equivalent to eat iQ 2. Which function has a horizontal shift of
K Se 2 units to the left from y(x)=49
eT i mr
ON Qube =
B. —x+2 y(x) yD
—2x—7
Beye)= 5
UIs GS
C.
it
feria C, y(x)=—+2
my
2x+7
D. 5 i
x- DY Wa)j=o=2
,
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
112 Radical and Rational Expressions
 3. Write a function that shows
Exercises I 1-12: Consider each of the
y(x) = i
x graphs below, which represent transformations
stretched vertically by a factor of 3 and 1
Oh Weny= = . What is the equation of each
reflected over the x-axis.
function shown?
: : i
4. Write a function that shows y(x)=—

a
v4
reflected over the y-axis, translated 5
units to the left, and translated 2 units
down.

Exercises 5-6: Use your calculator to

sketch the graph of each function. Then give
the equations of any asymptotes that exist.
12.
5. y(x)=——
+2
x-1

=
1
6. y(x)=7- x+3

7. What are the equations of the asymptotes

2,
+59
a i) nl
8 13. The table below shows the values of the
8. Compare the graphs off(x) = a) 5 and
1
8 function y(x)= cs after it undergoes a
20) — si+5. Consider their asymptotes
vertical shrink. What is the equation of
and their relationship to each other.
the transformed function?
1
9. If we start with the function Oty ix) =
Soe
vertically stretch it by a factor of 3 and
translate it down 2 units, what is the new
equation y'(x)?

10. What is the equation that represents a

1
vertical shrinking by a factor of 3 anda
reflection over the y-axis of the function : jOG1N)
14. Using the function y(x) = aeai &
1 1
yt) ee which is a transformation of y(x) = =

a_ use long division to restate the

function and reveal its structure.
b describe the transformations.
c provide a sketch of the transformed
function.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
eats ga eee tncal rR ee SR ana anasto ade
Lesson 2.5 * Transforming Rational Functions 113
 15. Find the rational expression that is 18. What equation describes the following
i il
equivalent to a 5 by multiplying the transformations of y(x)= z 9

numerator and denominator by —1. oe Raat Se ee

= | 1
16. Show that the expression > is e Shrunk vertically by a factor of a
equivalent to by factoring a —1 e Vertical asymptote of x =8 anda
: ; horizontal asymptote of y= —3.
out of the numerator and denominator.

Teese We) : :
17. Consider the function y(x) = ia 19. Describe the relationship between the
- value of / and the vertical asymptote in
a Use long division to write the equation (hetuncGan eae a - a2
a =
im (he LORI Gy GG) peta on
x-h ;
b Multiply the numerator and 20. Compared to y(*)=— , by what factor is
denominator by —1 to write another ‘ :
equivalent form. the function y(x)= : — 7 shrunk?
5x-
c Use your calculator to graph the
original function, the function from
part a, and the function from b on
the same axes. Are the functions
equivalent? How do you know?

LESSON 2.6
Piecewise-Defined Functions
A function’s degree, the value and sign of the leading coefficient, and
the family to which the function belongs often characterize the graph of
a function. For example, a second-degree polynomial is quadratic and
has a parabola-shaped graph. A linear function is a straight line, and
an exponential function is a steadily growing or decaying curve. Some
functions consist of one or more types of functions together, where each
function is defined for only a certain domain. These graphs can include
different types of curves or curves and straight lines together. These
functions are called piecewise-defined functions.

a
c a e ee.
114 Radical and Rational Expressions
MMB Definition and Restrictions
on the Domain and Range
Consider the graph below.

It consists of two pieces: a horizontal line from x = —4 to x =0 and then a

line with a positive slope from x = 0 to x = 5. Each part of the graph is a
function because there is only one y-value for each x-value.

We define the overall function using the equations for the graph’s two
pieces, designating the interval of the domain that corresponds to each
3 SS GU)
iece. The notation is f(x)= :
P F(x) oxt3 O<#HE5

Sometimes piecewise functions are defined for all values of x, which is

indicated on their graphs by smooth lines and solid curves with no open
points. As seen in the graph above, the endpoints x =—4 and x =S are
solid dots, but the point x = 0 is open, indicating the function is undefined
when x = 0. We can also see that the function is undefined at this point by
examining the domain assigned to each piece off(x). We can represent
the domain off(x) using interval notation: [—4, 0) U (0, 5]. Recall that the
square brackets show that the endpoint is included in the domain and the
curved parentheses show that the point is excluded.

Determining the range is similar to determining the domain. The smallest

y-value for any of the function pieces is 3 and 5 is the largest value. In
interval notation, this is [3, 5].

Some piecewise functions have restrictions within their respective

domains and ranges while others do not. It is important to not only look
at each part of the piecewise function but also the function as a whole
when determining its domain and range.

Lesson 2.6 * Piecewise Defined Functions 115s

 MODEL PROBLEM

@ (203 ~—sCFiind the domain and range for the piecewise function shown.

SOLUTION
Reading off the graph, the domain is all real numbers, except x-values between 0
and 1. We show the domain using interval notation: (—~, 0] U [1, ©). Notice the curved
parentheses used on the ends with infinite boundaries and the square brackets are
around 0 and | to indicate these points are included in the domain.

For the range, the smallest y-value is -1. The arrows on the ends of the lines show
that the y-values continue toward positive infinity. Expressed in interval notation,
the range is [—1, ~).

MM Graphing Piecewise Functions

When graphing piecewise-defined functions, we must graph each part of
the function separately, paying close attention to each domain. Consider
the piecewise-defined function below.

F(x) —2x (-, 0]

30 |) =

2X [0, 00)

The first function, f(x) =—2x is true for the

domain from negative infinity to 0 (inclusive).
This is a linear function with a negative slope
and a y-intercept of 0. We draw the graph in
its domain.

116 Radical and Rational Expressions

The next function, f(x) = 2x, resides in the domain from 0 to positive
infinity. This is a line with a positive slope and a y-intercept of 0.

NO
—-
©

We combine these functions to create the piecewise-defined function.

In this case, we can also define the piecewise function the single
function f(x) =|2|. Be careful though, as this is not always possible.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Graph the given piecewise-defined function and then state its domain and range.

x+1 (—», -3]

f(x)=)-1 Ah 0] k
xe (0, ~) E
SOLUTION
This piecewise function is broken up into three functions defined over specific
intervals of the domain. Start with the function f(x) =x + 1. This is a line with slope 1 SE
AL
SN

and y-intercept 1. Begin drawing the line at x = —3 (inclusive) and continue to the left.
Next, draw a horizontal segment from —3 to 0 (inclusive) for the function f(x) =—1. i
Put an open circle at x = —3 to show that the point is not included for this part of the
function. Finally, draw the part of the parabola for f(x) = x* from x = 0 to infinity with
an open circle at x = 0.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Ht sa a NN UU steamer LE
NS REREAD AERRE pe crc trey meme t nett ee a er

Lesson 2.6 * Piecewise Defined Functions 117

 Notice that the piecewise function is still a function because there is only one y-value
for each x-value.

The domain off(x) is all real numbers, (—ce, co). The range for the function is all real
numbers except there are no y-values for the function between y = —2 and y =—1 and
between y =—1 and y = 0. Using interval notation, the range is (—e2, —2] U [-1] U (0, ~).

Overall, when graphing piecewise functions, pay close attention to the

domain for each of the component functions. Use open and closed
endpoints to show when an x-value is included or excluded for each
function.

MG Evaluating Piecewise Defined Functions

Consider the function below.

2x-5 -o<x<0
egies (Oke ress
LOS 9
As we can see, this piecewise-defined function has three parts. To
evaluate f(x) for an arbitrary value of x, first determine which function
includes the value of x in its domain. After isolating the function to use,
evaluate the function using substitution when needed.

MODEL PROBLEMS

2x-5 -wcx< 0
© CTW Evaluate f(x) =41 0<x<3 for each of the following values:
IKE Rie
ae ae)
bf)
ec f(S)
days)
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

———
ee
118 Radical and Rational Expressions
 SOLUTION
a f(-4) = -13 The value x = —4 falls in the domain of the first function
f(x) = 2x —5.To find f(—4), substitute x = —4 into 2x — 5.
Dea) 1 The value x = 2 falls in the domain of the second function
f(x) = 1. This means for any x-value in the domain 0 < x < 3, the
value of the function is equal to 1.
Ca () => The value x = 5 falls in the domain of the third function
f(x) = 10 - x. To find f(5), substitute x = 5 into 10 - x.

d= f(15) is The value x = 15 falls outside the domain of f(x). The input x = 15
undefined does not have an output for the function and f(15) is undefined.

2x—-5 —coo< xs 0
2. Give the domain and range for f(x) =41 0<x<3 and graph the function.
102 reece 9
SOLUTION
Look at the specific domains for the three functions. The values ofx go infinitely far
on the graph’s left and to x = 9 (not inclusive) on the graph’s right. Using interval
notation, the domain is (—s, 9).

Since the x values can be infinitely negative, the values of y can also be infinitely negative
for the first function 2x — 5. The largest value of y for f(x) occurs in the interval defined
by 10 —x. When x =3, y = 7. However, since x = 3 is not included in the domain of the
function f(x) = 10 —x, the y-values cannot be equal to 7, the y-values only approach 7.
Thus, the range is (—~, —5] U [1, 7). We use this information to create the function’s graph.

<I
-10 -8 -6

Piecewise-defined functions are useful for real-world applications when

more than one function describes a situation, depending on the domain.
In the next lesson, we explore a type of piecewise function called a step
function, which can be useful when describing costs for applications
such as tolls and postal services.
Lesson 2.6 * Piecewise Defined Functions 119
MA Practice
1. Which value is not included in the domain 7. Evaluate f(1).
x+9 —3<x<0
8. Evaluate f(11).
AICI ce O0<x<0o :
9. Sketch f(x).

Exercises 10-14: Use the graph below.

>TOW
a Which is true about

ve —o<
x <-]
EO) == 3 a ee
Se Ss
A. All of the equations that make up
Wi rahe linear
B. The function f(x) is a parabola.
C. Two pieces of f(x) are linear and the
remaining part is a parabola.
D. The linear parts of f(x) have negative
slopes. 10. Using interval notation, give the
function’s domain.
—3x+7 x<0
3. For fla)=] which gives the Using interval notation, give the
4x+9 x>0’
function’s range.
correct value for f(-1)?

A. f(-1) =-10 What piecewise-defined function is

B. f(-1) =4 pictured on the graph? What is the
©, FIMNSS domain of each piece?
D. f(-1)=10
Find f(-2).
Exercises 4-9: Use the piecewise
What is f(6)?
auceenn
unction ites
f
site) Mec)
(x)= Does the set of equations shown below
a [1, o)
represent a piecewise-defined function?
4. Which part of the domain graphs as part Why or why not?
of a parabola?
x+3 = (-3, -1)
5. Describe the piece of the function defied f(x)}-2 (-1, 2]
by the domain (—c9, 1). = es |

6. Evaluate f(-3).
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

120 Radical and Rational Expressions

 Exercises 16-20: Use the function f(x) =
x-5 [2, &)
16. Sketch f(x).

17. Which values are restricted from the domain?

18. Find f(-10).

19. What is f(1)?

20. What is the range of the function?

bi an. Two friends, Nada and Undine, live a few miles apart and decide to meet up by running
or walking toward each other. Both of them are working toward improved fitness, and
need to take occasional exercise breaks. Nada can run at a rate of 7 mph and walk at a
rate of 3 mph. Undine can run at a rate of 9 mph and walk at a rate of 4 mph. Nada runs
for 2 minutes, walks for 2 minutes, rests for 2 minutes, and then repeats this cycle. Undine
runs for 1 minute, walks for 2 minutes, rests for 3 minutes, and then repeats this cycle.

a Write a piecewise function for each person’s distance over the first 6 minutes.

b Sketch the graph of each person’s function.

c If Nada and Undine live 4.1 miles apart, after how many minutes will they meet?
Round to the nearest second.

d When they meet, how far has each friend traveled? Round to the nearest hundredth
of a mile.

e When the friends meet up, what is each doing: running, walking, or resting?

KA 22. Classmates Knute and Yama enter a sprint triathlon. They will compete in a half-mile swim,
then a 12.4 mile bike ride, and finish with a 3.1 mile run. Knute can swim at a rate of 2 miles
per hour, cycle at a rate of 12 miles per hour, and run at a rate of 8 miles per hour. Yama
swims at a rate of 3 miles per hour, cycles at a rate of 10 miles per hour, and runs at a rate of
9 miles per hour.

a Write a piecewise-defined function that defines each person’s distance as a function of

time, rounding to the nearest ten-thousandth as necessary.

b Create a sketch of each piecewise-defined function.

c How long will each person take to complete the race? Round to the nearest second.

d At what time does Knute overtake Yama? Round your answer to the nearest second.

Lesson 2.6 * Piecewise Defined Functions 121

 Lesson 2.7
Step Functions

Me Definition and Properties

Consider the equation y = 3. This is a constant function because for
every input value of x the value of the output y is always 3. The value
of the function is the same, or constant. Now consider the piecewise
function shown below.

—3 if x<0
Ho) al it Osx
4 ie eae)

The piecewise-defined function consists of ‘

three constant functions, each associated
with a different domain. The graph of
f(x) is shown at the right.
A a a

A piecewise function made up of only iaed eas nape (a hae SR TA

constant function pieces is called a ai
step function. As seen by the shape ial |
of the graph, it is also sometimes BEDE
called a staircase function.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Write the equation of the step function shown in the graph below.

_——
54

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a ee ee
122 Radical and Rational Expressions
 SOLUTION
The function consists of three constant functions associated with different domains,
one that is equal to y = 3, one equal to y = 0 and one equal to y =—1. The step function
oe 2 <0
iS OBk=— 0" KOR eo
—l1 2<sx<3

1
, ~ —9, -3
2. Evaluate the function f(x) = 4 2 Ces) for each of the given values of x.
a f(-6) -7.45 [-3,7)
b f(-3)
ce f(8)

SOLUTION
1
a f(-6)= 5 The value x = —6 falls in the domain off(x) = ;:

b f(-3) =-745 The value x = —3 falls in the domain of f(x) = -7.45.

c f(8) is undefined. The value x = 8 is not in any part of the domain of

this step function.

MH Greatest Integer Function

There are many special step functions and real-world
applications. One significant application comes from the
greatest integer function. Symbolically, we show the
function as f (x) =| x|, This function finds, for any given
value of x, the greatest integer that is less than or equal
to x. For example, let x = 2.87 There are many integers
less. than 2.87, such as 2, 1,0, —-1, -2, and so on. But the
greatest of these integers is 2. So, when x = 2.87, the value
of the greatest integer function is 2. Now, let x = —2.87.
Again, there are many integers less than —2.87, such as
—3, —4, and so on. The greatest of these integers is —3.
When x = —2.87, the value of the greatest integer function
is —3. The greatest integer functions graphs as a step
function, shown at right. Examining the graph confirms
the values of the function for x = 2.87 and x = —2.87

Lesson 2.7 * Step Functions 123

 The brown arrow points to the approximate location of x = 2.87 Notice
that the “step” at this point has a constant value of 2. Similarly, the
black arrow points to the approximate location of x= —2.87. The step
here has a constant value of —3.

We can use our graphing calculators to plot the greatest integer

function. First change the calculator [MODE] to dot. This will ensure the
function steps are accurately represented.

PAR POL SEQ

CONMMECTED [dey
SIMUL
a¢be re*et
HORIZ G-T
4nExT se

Next, go into and then press the [MATH] button. Select NUM and then
5: int(. This will insert the greater integer function syntax into Y1.

Ploti Plotz Plot3

Wa Bint¢x)
“Y2=8
3S
Yy=
Ys=
Wes
bt de

Pressing [GRAPH] shows the steps of the greatest integer function. Note
that the endpoints of the individual steps do not show an open or closed
circle, however the function will find the greatest integer less than or
equal to any given value of x. If we use [2nd] [CALC], we can find the value
of the greatest integer function for any value of x.

124 Radical and Rational Expressions

 MODEL PROBLEM

A CTI An overnight shipping company calculates its customers’ shipping charges

based on package weight, up to 20 kilograms, according to the graph below.

Shipping Charges

a What is the greatest price charged to a customer for a package weighing less than
10 kilograms?
b Accustomer receives a bill for $300 for the overnight shipping of one package.
Give the possible weights of the package.

SOLUTION
a __— For packages weighing less than 10 kg, the company charges their customers a
maximum of $600 as shown by the horizontal line segment from 6 kg to 10 kg.
b ‘The line segment from x = 2 to x = 6 has a y-value of $300. The package could
have weighed anywhere from 2 kg up to, but not including, 6 kg.

When a piecewise-defined function is also a step function, each individual

piece of the function has a unique, constant value. Step functions are
useful for describing real world scenarios that involve price jumps such as
shipping weights, parking meter times, or tolls for highways.

BE BeACtIC Camm fee ei orghss ee

I. Describe the characteristics that make 2. Graph f(x).
a piecewise-defined function a step
function. 3. Evaluate f(-S).

Exercises 2=5: Use the function 4. Evaluate f(0).

ee coi |)
f=] 2. O0<x<x0
5. Evaluate f(2).
#2)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 2.7 * Step Functions 125

 Exercises 6-9: Use the function 10. Write the step function used to generate
the graph. Use interval notation to show
Fea one. the appropriate domains.
f(x)=13 [2, 4) .
2 ae) 11. Evaluate f(0).
ec UEIED 12. Evaluate f(3).

7. Evaluate f(2). 13. A student suggests this graph is not

representative of a function because there
8. Evaluate f(6).
are two values for each of x = 0 and x =2.
9. Evaluate f(-7). Is the student correct? Explain.
p

Exercises 10-13: Use the graph below. 14. Describe how to evaluate the greatest
integer function, f(x) =| x | , for any
: given value of x.
i

— 15. You go with a large group of people to a nearby theater to watch a movie. The ticket prices
are as follows.

Age Group Single Ticket Price

Children (ages 2 — 12) |$10.99
Adults (ages 13-64) | $13.99
Seniors (ages 65+) $12.49

a Write a piecewise-defined function that describes the single ticket prices

for a movie.
b Graph your function, appropriately labeling and scaling the axes.
¢ Suppose that your group consists of 11 people. There are 2 people in
their 70s, 2 people
in their SOs, 2 people in their 30s, a 12 year old, a 13 year old, you,
and two small children.
aged 2 years and 8 months. How much will it cost all of you to go?

So PRACTICE PROBLEMS
ee re continue...
126 Radical and Rational Expressions
 a 16. You want to start your own business selling cookies made from your grandmother’s special
recipe. After some thought, you decide on the following pricing scale: if a customer orders
up to 11 cookies, they will cost $1 per cookie, 1 to 2 dozen will cost $.90 per cookie, 2 dozen
to 4 dozen will cost $.80 per cookie, and 4 dozen or more cookies will cost $.75 per cookie.

a Express your pricing scale as a piecewise-defined function (hint: the dependent variable
should be the cost per cookie).

b Create a graph of your function, appropriately labeling and scaling the axes.

c In your first week, you receive 5 orders! Your parents order 10 cookies, your teacher
orders a dozen, your cousin orders 24 cookies, your friend Maria orders 50 for her
birthday party, and your brother orders 40 since he loves that recipe! What is your gross
profit from your first week’s cookie sales?

Exercises 17-19: Use the greatest integer function, f(x) =| al

17. Find f(-1.6).

18. Find f(-0.123).

19. Find f(x)= 2
Exercises 20-22: Use the function f(x)
=| 2x].
20. Graph f(x) using your graphing calculator.

21. Compare the graph of f(x) =| x | to the graph of f(x) =| ea

22. Evaluate f(0.4) and f(-1.2) using f(x) =| 2x |.

WM Chapter 2 Key Ideas

2.1 Parent Functions and Their Graphs
e A relation that has exactly one output for each input is a function. Some examples of
functions include linear, quadratic, cubic, absolute value, polynomial, radical, exponential,
and rational.
e Some functions are 1-to-1, onto, even, odd, or may have more than one or none of these
characteristics. . |
e Identifying the parent function can help to identify and describe properties of a more
complicated function, including the domain and range.

KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter 2 Key Ideas 127

 gl Radical Functions
We solve radical equations using the power principle: if a = b, then a" = b"
Radical functions with even indices have domains and ranges determined by
transformations of the parent radical function.
The domain and the range of a radical function with an odd index is the set of real
numbers, (—~, ).

2.3 Rational Expressions

A rational expression is a fraction with a polynomial in both the numerator and
denominator. An expression where the numerator is a constant but the denominator is a
polynomial is also considered to be a rational expression.
A rational expression can sometimes be stated as the sum or difference of simpler rational
expressions using partial fraction decomposition.

2.4 Rational Functions

Domain and range restrictions are characteristic of the graphs of rational functions. These
restrictions result in horizontal, vertical, and slant asymptotes and holes in the graphs.
Horizontal and slant asymptotes define a rational function’s end behavior.

Transforming Rational Functions

We can graph rational functions using transformations (reflections, stretches, shrinks,
horizontal, and/or vertical translations).
There is often more than one form of a rational expression. To check if two expressions are
equivalent, graph the related functions to see if the graphs coincide.

2.6 Piecewise-Defined Functions

A function that is made up of one or more sub-functions, each with its own domain, is
called a piecewise-defined function. Each part of the function has a specific domain.
The pieces of a piecewise-defined function can be any type of function, including constant,
linear, and quadratic.

2n/, Step Functions

A step function is a piecewise-defined function for which all of the parts
are constant
functions. Each part of the graph is a horizontal line segment.
The greatest integer function is y(x) =| x |,This and other step functions
have many real-
world applications.

128 Radical and Rational Expressions

Chapter 2 Review
1. Which is the equation of the parent 10. Give the equations of the asymptotes,
function in the graph shown?
if any, of y=— 41.

Describe the end behavior of

1
pes) = eee.

What values, if any, are restricted

from the domain of f(x) = =

x" -x-
State the reason the values, if any, are
ARV) =x restricted.
B. y(x) =|]
(ay) = Ww e Describe the transformations that
Day (x2 1 2
takemy(x) =—EAD tosy(x)
ICs = s
2. State,in your own words, the definition of a Be sure to state the order in which the
function. Give an example of an equation transformations should be performed.
that is a function and an example of one
that is not a function. 55 B=
Show that = is equivalent to
— ANG XG —

3. Is the function f(x) = x* even or odd? Justify each step.

Support your answer algebraically.
Exercises 1 5=173: Use the function
- Is the function f(x) = 3* a 1-to-1 function? Mitac (oo |
Is the function onto for R — R? een 6 5
Exercises 5-6: Solve each of the given 15. Evaluate f(4).
equations. Round to the nearest thousandth,
if necessary. 16. Sketch the graph of the function.

5. vx 3 = 2
17. Give the domain and range for the
function, using interval notation.
6. —2Vx+3 =V3x
Exercises 18=198 Use the function
4x-9 a 2
7. Simplify the expression: ea) =| vel
yo6xe Ss x4
8. Find the partial fraction decomposition 18. Evaluate f(1.5).
—x-11
for 19. If f(x) =-3, give three values for which
15)
x could be.
9 State the domain and range of the
—2 20. Use a graphing calculator to graph f(x).
ti y(x) =——
function nae - 9.

Chapter 2 Review 129

 Compositions and Inverse
Functions
Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Graphing the Inverse of a Function

pat ARE, In previous math classes, you learned that inverse
Composition : ; :
operations undo operations. For example, subtraction
3.2 Inverse Functions, is the inverse operation of addition and division is
Hoey multiplication’s inverse operation. Similarly, an inverse
3.3. Inverse Functions, function is one that undoes the effect of a function.
Part Il Say that we use a function to convert a measurement
3.4 Sep es
Logarithmic taken in
: feet into meters: we’d like to have a function
Functions that will convert the measurement from meters back
into feet.
3.5 Exponential
Functions
Inverse procedures are essential to solving equations.
hap iat cey ideas It is in this way that we reverse mathematical :
Chapter 3 Review procedures, such as converting logarithms to 3
exponential functions and back again. In fact,
whenever we introduce a mathematical procedure, one
of the most important questions is how to invert (or if
we can invert) it. In this exploration, we refresh your
knowledge of creating inverse functions.

You were first taught about inverse functions in

Algebra 1. At that time, we stated that to find the al
aaai

inverse of a function, we simply interchange the

function’s x- and f(x)-values. Let’s review. S
Rs

Graph the function f(x) = 4* — 6 and its inverse.

We create a table of values.

a ee
130 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 eta a t
Cott
fy

a : ana ‘
: a eee a\ a
. cant : ): . L Ly ae ‘

Lo ‘ i BE ee

H LC a
A co

anh
 Chapter 3 Vocabulary
common logarithm exponential decay logarithmic functions natural logarithm
composite function exponential growth mutually inverse
é inverse function functions

Lesson 3.1]
Function Composition
Throughout your study of mathematics, you have encountered many
functions and examined their properties and corresponding graphs.
But what happens when two (or more) functions are added, subtracted,
multiplied, or divided? What happens when one function is evaluated
using a second function? New functions are created, with new domains,
ranges, properties, and graphs.

MGW Defining, Writing, and Simplifying Function

Compositions
We can combine functions by adding, subtracting, multiplying, or
dividing. When operating with functions, be sure to follow algebraic
properties such as the distributive property and combining like terms.

Quotient

MODEL PROBLEM

&@ EM If f(x) = 3x? + 9x and g(x) = x + 3, find the following. Completely simplify
your final answers.
a f(x) + g(x)
bfx) ay
C7 fx) glx)
a sf)
g(x)
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
tl mance
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Besenero ase Arr NCC ee

ee
132 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 SOLUTION
a (3x? + 9x) + (x +3) = Sum the functions and combine the like terms.
3x + 10x +3
Sx + 9x - (x +3)= Subtract the two functions in the order requested.
3x7 +9x—-x-3= Use parentheses around the second function and then
3x* + 8x —3 distribute to ensure you have the correct signs.
(3x? + 9x)(x +3) = Multiply the functions, using parentheses around both
3x3 + 9x? + 9x? 4+ 27x = expressions. Use the distributive property to simplify.
Bx + 18x? + 27x

Ox ox |
Divide. Here, the numerator can be factored.
x+3

3x(343) _, x
x48

Sometimes the output of one function becomes the input of another

function. This results in a composite function. Composite functions have
two different common notations as shown below.

Composite Function Notation

f(g(x)) feg(x)

Both notations are equivalent and are read as “f of g of x? The function

fis the outside function and function g is the inside function. To find
the composite function, evaluate the outside function using the inside
function. We review some examples below.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1 If f(x) = 3x? + 9x and g(x) = x + 3, find fo g(x). Completely simplify the result.

SOLUTION
3a? + Of In the notation fo g(x), fis the outside function and g is the
3(x +3)? + 9(x + 3) inside function. To find the composite function, substitute
the expression for g(x) for each x in f(x). Use parentheses
around x + 3 to help avoid errors when simplifying.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

smn eernu ere

Lesson 3.1 * Function Composition 133

 3(x2 + 6x +9) +9(x+3)= Square the binomial x + 3 and use the distributive
3x? + 18x +27 + 9x +27 property to simplify.
3x? + 27x + 54 Combine like terms.

ee
COCO SCO SE SHOSHHEEEHHOHHHOSOHHHHHOHSHHOHHHEHHHEHHHHHHHSHHHESHHHOHHHHEEOES

2. If f(x) = 3x? + 9x and g(x) =x + 3, find go f(x). Simplify the result.

SOLUTION
m+3 In this case, the inside function is f and the outside function
(3x? + 9x) +3 is g. This means you should evaluate the function g using the
expression for f. So, substitute 3x° + 9x for each x that appears in
the function g.
Spe eS nS) None of the terms are like and the expression cannot be
simplified further.

Notice that in these two model problems, the expressions for the
composite functions fog(x) and gof(x) are not the same. While
compositions of this nature can be the same, you should not assume
they are without checking.

We can also evaluate composite functions for specific values of x.

For example, f(g(—1)) means to find the composite function when
x =—1. There are a few ways to accomplish this. We can first find the
composition in terms ofx and then substitute x =—1 into the expression,
or we can evaluate the inside function for —1 and then we can substitute
that value into f(x). We demonstrate both methods using the model
problem below.

MODEL PROBLEM

@ Ci Let A(x) = 7” +3 and k(x) = 5x. Find h(k(4)).

Method 1: Find A(A(x)) and evaluate the resulting composition for x = 4.
1 ; :
NK x)) = a (51) 43 Substitute 5x for x in the A(x) function.

1 5 Lo ee
co )+3= Te +3 Simplify the expression. ThisGa is h(k(x)).

Dae ie ;
a) +3=100+3 = 103 Substitute 4 for x and solve.

MODEL PROBLEMS continues...

seteannesinloneniniiianr sinister teetdtusenedn Yih viebmteleaAasenbcsiniaeear
dicedsaeSerenatalene ehinblzepcicgte leicht heisininie abies

Se
134 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 Method 2: Calculate k(4) and then evaluate h(x) for the value found.
K(x) =Sx Substitute x = 4 into k(x).
k(4) = 5(4) = 20

1
h(20) = 42 +3 Evaluate h(x) for x = 20 and then simplify.

+ 400+3=103

MMH Determining Domain and Range Restrictions

of Compositions
When determining the domain and range of a composite function, it
is necessary to consider the domains of all the functions that make up
the composite. For instance, the domain of one of the functions may
be all real numbers, but it is possible that some of those values would
make the other function or the composite function itself undefined.
Examining the graph of the final composite function may help you to
determine its domain and range.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Find the domain and range of h(g(x)) when A(x) = i ; and g(x) =x + 3.
x=

SOLUTION
Begin by considering the individual domains of g(x) and A(x). For g(x), the domain is
all the real numbers because it is a linear function. The domain of h(x) is the set of real
numbers, excluding x = 1. Now we turn our attention to the domain of the composite
function h(g(x)). One way to find this domain is to determine which values of x would
make g(x) = 1. Quickly solve x + 3 = 1 to find x = —2. This tells us that when x = —2,
h(g(x)) is undefined. Therefore, the domain of h(g(x)) is the set of all real numbers
except for x = —2, which we can express as (—°9, —2) U (—2, 9).
Alternately, we can find the composite function h(g(x)) first. Replacing x in h(x) with
1 ;
x +3 results in the composite function h(g(x)) = ey The value x = —2 results in an
x
undefined expression because that value makes the denominator equal to zero. Again,
this shows that the domain is (—c°, —2) U (—2, »).
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.1 * Function Composition 135

 To find the composite function’s range, consider very large or very small x-values for

the function h(g(x))= =. As x approaches positive infinity, the denominator gets

rec
very large and h(g(x)) approaches zero. Similarly as x approaches negative infinity, the
denominator gets increasingly negative and h(g(x)) also approaches zero. There ts a
horizontal asymptote for h(g(x)) at y = 0, and so y = 0 is excluded from the range. The
range of the function is (—s2, 0) U (0, -).

2. The domain of a composite function m(n(x)) is [1, cc). Which of the following must
be true?
A. The domain of n(x) is [1, -).
B. The value x = 0 is excluded from the domain of m(n(x)).
C. The value x = 0 is excluded from the domain of n(x).
D. The domain of m(x) is [1, °).

SOLUTION
The correct answer is option B. The domain of the composite function is limited to
values of x greater than or equal to 1,so x = 0 must be excluded from the domain of
m(n(x)).

MW Interpreting Function Composition in Context

We use composite functions to model and describe real-world scenarios.
This occurs whenever one function is operated upon by a second
function, and the output of one function becomes the input of a second
function. Suppose that a childcare service charges a fee of $2 per child
for every minute a parent or guardian is late in picking up their
child(ren). The childcare service has noticed that for each child in the
center, the late pick up time is usually about 5 minutes per child. How
much will a parent or guardian who has 3 children in the center likely
be charged for late pick up on a given day? We can model and solve
this scenario using the composition of two functions.

We define this function as the charge for ¢ child minutes. Cee e

Then ¢(x) = 5x is the usual number of child-minutes for x children. (GS yes ans
The composite function f(t(x)) will give the total late fee. TOL) = 2 (5x)
We substitute 5x for t(x). CEO) ee Oe
The family has 3 children being cared for in the center, TC) L0G)
so substitute x = 3 into the composite function. = $30

136 Compositions and Inverse Functions

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. Fora charity event, a restaurant is donating 10% of all its sales tonight. A large
appliance manufacturer has promised to donate twice the restaurant’s donation
and add an additional $1,000. Write and interpret a composite function that gives
the total the appliance manufacturer will donate based on the amount of sales, x,
at the restaurant. How much will the charity receive from the manufacturer if the
restaurant earns $7,500 in sales tonight?

SOLUTION
Ca Oe 9 Since x is the total amount of sales at the
restaurant, let the function R(x) represent the
donation amount from the restaurant.
M(R(x)) = 1000 + 2r Then let M(R(x)) denote the amount the
manufacturer donates to the charity.
M(R(x)) = 1000 + 2(0.1x) The composite function M(R(x)) will give the
= 1000 -0,2x amount the manufacturer will donate based on
the restaurant’s sales. Substitute 0.1x in for rin
1000 + 2r.
M(R(7500)) = 1000 + 0.2(7500) ~— To find how much the manufacturer will donate
= $2,500 to the charity if there are $7,500 in sales, substitute
7,500 for x in the composite function.

WH Practice
I. True or False: The domain and range of a 6. g(f(x))
composite function is always the same as
the domain and range of the functions 7. fofx)
that make up the composition.
8. Ifm(x) =ax +b and n(x) =) —-ax,
Exercises 2=7: Let f(x) =-2x and find mon(x).
g(x) = 4x — 9. Find and simplify each requested
— =x —1,
composition. 9. e If f(x)
(G
=x +1 and g(x)
= Y

find f(g(x)) and g(f(x)).

Be ae 2) 10. Give the domain and range of f(g(x))
3. f(x) —2(x) if f(x) = 4x +3 and g(x) =x’.

11. Give the domain and range of g(f(x))

OIG, if fx) = 4x +3 and g(x) = x2.
5. f(g(x)) PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.1 * Function Composition 137

 Exercises 12-15: Use the functions 17. a Write a function to describe the
h(x)=Vx+1 and k(x) = 4x. number of gallons, G, used for
x dishwasher loads.

Pea eA
oRs IER OIA ESE b Write a function to describe the cost
d forRAG G ae
Mice gallons of
13. Find the domain and range of k(x). SOCEM
water.

ba. Whavis hk)! 18. Write and interpret the composite

function W(G(x)).
15. Find the domain and range of h(k(x)).
8 19. How much, to the nearest cent, would it
KA] 16. Suppose f(x) = ey and cost a homeowner to run 31 dishwasher
o(e = 3x — 2. loads in a month?

a Find fog(x) and go f(x). Exercises 20=21: The radius of an

ee ae . inflating sphere increases at a rate of 2.5 inches
: a ae i OMEMNUC eek {ee} per minute, given by the function r(t) = 2.5t,
Bg Cor where f¢ is the time in minutes. The volume of
c Find both fo f(2) and gog(2). the sphere with radius r is described by the
Ne
‘ i =—f2r.
Exercises | 7=193 A certain model of upehou 3a
dishwasher uses 6.1 gallons of water per load. 20. Find and interpret the composite function
The water company charges a flat fee of $33.75 Vey
for water service plus a fee of $0.0125 per
gallon of water used. 21. Find the domain of the composite
function.

LESSON 3.2
Inverse Functions, Part |

MG Constructing Inverse Functions from Tables

Consider the data presented in the two tables below, each of which
represents a function.

138 Compositions and Inverse Functions

The equations for these functions are f(x) =x +4 and g(x) =x —-4.In
the first function, 4 is added to each x-value. In the second function, this
action is undone as 4 is subtracted from each x-value. Notice that the
input values of the table on the right are the output values of the table
on the left. The data in the two tables above show functions that are
inverses of each other.

When two functions, f(x) and g(x), are inverse functions, f(x) = y,
g(y) =x. For example, if f(1) = 4, then for the inverse function (4) = 1.
So if the plot of y = f(x) includes the point (1, 4), then the plot of the
inverse function y = g(x) includes the point (4, 1). Additionally, for
inverse functions, the domain of one function becomes the range of
the other function, and the range of one function becomes the domain
of the other.

A superscript —1, such as in y or f~'(x), is the notation that indicates an

inverse function. The two functions above could be written as y=x +4
and y! = x — 4 to show that the second function is the inverse of the first
function.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. The table below represents a linear function. Find an equation for its inverse
function.

SOLUTION
For inverse functions, f(x) = y, g(v) =x, So we switch the given x- and y-values.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee
Lesson 3.2 « Inverse Functions, Part | 139
 We are told the original function is linear, so its inverse is also linear. We find the
equation of the inverse using techniques we learned and practiced throughout algebra.

Q0-(-2) 1 ;
m= "ee = 5 Choose any two points and calculate the line’s slope.

il Use point-slope form to determine the equation. We can

yoUs Ae -5) simplify the equation into slope-intercept form if we want,
but it is not necessary.

(L2e3 An inverse function is f~'(x) = 6x + 2. Find the equation of the original

function, using a table of values to help.

SOLUTION
First, create a table of values for the inverse function by choosing values for x and

The domain of the inverse function is the range for the original function. The range
of the inverse function is the domain for the original function. Write a table of values
for the original function by switching the domain and range of the inverse function.

Since the inverse function is linear, the original function will also be linear. We

calculate the slope of the original function as m= - Using slope-intercept form

?

write the equation of the original function, f (x)= = _ A LLL”

Ne ee tt tee

140 Compositions and Inverse Functions

Ml Algebraically Creating a Function’s Inverse
In Model Problem #2, f-'(x) = 2x + 6 and f(x) = at-> are inverse
functions found by manipulating and then analyzing a table of input
and output values. This method works well for simple functions, but
what about functions that are more complicated? In the same way we
interchange the domain and range in the table, to algebraically find an
inverse of a function, switch the x and y variables in the equation.

Consider the function from the model problem f(x) = ax 7

The notation f(x) represents the output values of ike al

the function. Start by replacing f(x) with y. y— pal 73

The x- and y-values are interchanged for the inverse ae |

function, so switch y with x in the equation. ice Ay 2

le ee eet
x+-=—y-—+
te OREO ers

This equation represents the inverse function, x+ 1 = i y

but as it is solved for x rather than y, it is not in a 3.6
useful form. Solve the equation for y. 1 1
6] x= |= 0) y
3 6
6x4+2=y

Since this equation represents the inverse function, |f~'(x) = 6x +2

write y as either y or f~'(x) to indicate that it is
an inverse.
Generally, we follow these steps to find the inverse for a function
algebraically:

1. Replace f(x) with y, if needed.

2. Interchange the x- and y-variables.

3. Solve the resulting equation for y.

4. Use the inverse notation of f!(x) or y™.

i ne LUE EEEEE EEE

Lesson 3.2 « Inverse Functions, Part | 141

 MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Find the inverse of y =

ieee

SOLUTION
3
x =— Interchange the x- and y- variables.
y+4

se
IS Solve the equation for y.
(Ver es

xy + 4x -4x=3
-4x
LOS SAB ae

Baas: Simplify and then isolate y on the left-hand side of the

x equation.

y==-4
x

eet! 4 Because this is the inverse function for the original

: % equation, replace y with y"!.

ea CEJ Find the inverse of f(x) = x? — 4. Is the inverse a function?

SOLUTION
yex 4 Replace f(x) with y.
xay —4 _ Interchange the x and y variables.
yaxt4 Solve the equation for y.

Jy =+ x+4

y=tvxt+4
vy -iGje a Replace y with y* or f(x).

The inverse is not a function. For every input value of x in the domain, there are
two output values. For example, if x = 5, y =3 or y =-3.

a
re
142 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 As seen in Model Problem #2, not all inverses are also functions. In the
next section, we will show how to tell if a function has an inverse
function. Sometimes, we can restrict the domain of the original function
so that the inverse is also a function. For example, for f(x) = x? — 4,
if the domain is restricted to [0, -°), the function f-'(x)=Jx+4 is the
inverse function. But for the domain of (-»e, °°), the resulting equation
f @)=4Vx+4 is not a function.

EH Using Composition to Prove One Function is

the Inverse of Another
We can use function composition to verify that two functions are
inverses of each other.

If two functions are mutual inverses, both fog(x) =x and gof(x) =x.
Both composite functions should be calculated. However, if one of the
composite functions is not equal to x, you do not have to show that the
other composition does not equal x in order to show that the functions
are not mutual inverses.

MODEL PROBLEMS

i. Show that f(x) = 6x +2 and g(x) = ox-+ are mutually inverse functions.

SOLUTION
We must determine the composite functions f(g(x)) and g(f(x)). If both are equal to x,
then the functions are inverses of each other.
reves lan? ob
Eel x)) = |ax |+2 Calculate f(g(x)) by substituting ae z for x in f(x).

HoxX) =X —2a Simplify the expression.

g(f(x))= =(6x+2) -2 Now we calculate ¢(f(x)) by substituting 6x + 2 for x in g(x).

g(f (x) =xF ‘-+H395 Simplify the expression.

Since both composite functions are equal to x, fand g are mutually inverse functions.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.2 * Inverse Functions, Part | 143

 (aI Are the functions y, = 7x - 1 and y, = Aad inverses of each other? Show
your work.

SOLUTION
The composite functions y,(y,(x)) and y,(y,(x)) must both equal x for the functions
to be mutual inverses.
x-7
y,(y,(%)) = (2=7)- 1 Find y,(y,(x)) by substituting for x in y,.

VQ )ax-)- lex 8 Simplify the expression.

This composite function is not equal to x and so the functions are not inverses of
each other.
The other composition does not need to be computed, because both y,(y,(x)) and
y,(y,(x)) need to be equal to x in order for the functions to be inverses of each other.

3. Consider the function y(x) = x + 2.

a What are the domain and range of y = x° + 2?
b Find the inverse function. What are the domain and range of the inverse?
ce Verify algebraically that the function and its inverse are inverses of each other.

SOLUTION
a y=x'+2isacubic function that has been shifted 2 units vertically. The domain
and range of any cubic function is the set of all real numbers, (—s9, ©).
b x=y+2 We interchange the x- and y-variables and then
vey solve the resulting equation for y.
y=Vx-2
ye 3 x- )

This is a cube root function shifted horizontally to the right 2 units. Its domain
and range are both the set of all real numbers, (—-9, -).

c ‘To verify the functions are inverses, we show that y(y1(x)) = y1(y(x)) =x.
3
y(y"(x)) = (vx-2) +2 Find y(y'(x)) by substituting V¥x—2 for x in
eee) y =x? + 2. Simplify the expression.
=x
Ve (W(X) yeni + 2)—2 Find y'(y(x)) by substituting x3 + 2 for x in
ee y!= ¥x-—2 . Simplify the expression.

=
Since both compositions are equal to x, both y and y” are inverses of each other.
ENN oe 6 sensor rename —

144 Compositions and Inverse Functions

 Some key points to remember about functions and their inverses:

e For two functions f and g, when f(x) = y, g(y) =x, the functions are
said to be inverse functions.
e Generally, the domain of a function is the range of its inverse.
The range of a function is the domain of its inverse.
e¢ Not all inverses are functions.
¢ ‘Two functions are mutually inverse functions of each other if and
only if fog(x) = gof(x) =x.

Beebac
es ti
Pecc
peumen
ee en
1. The point (a,b) liesonaacurve described 4. Write a linear function to describe the data
by a function. Which of the following in the table.
points must lie on that function’s inverse?
5. Complete the table of values for the
A. (a,b) C. (b, a) inverse of the function shown in the table.
B. (-a,—-b) D. (-b, -a)

2. The domain of a certain function is

[—2, cc) and its range is [0, cc). Which is the
domain of the inverse?

Aa) (aD
B. [0, -) D. (-, 0] 6. Write a function f(x) to describe the
inverse function.
A) e Consider the function shown in the table.
Complete a table showing the x- and Exercises 7-12: Find the inverse of the
y-values for this function’s inverse. given function.

if Cae =

8, (x)= >t+9

Exercises 4-6: Use the table of values Gey) <4 10

below that represent a function, f(x). 2a)
10. f(x) =(x-5)°
ne
Il. f(x)=
Reed
L2euy (aes (Caral)e

13. Find the inverse of f(x) = 4x’ + 7 Is this

inverse also a function? Why or why not?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.2 « Inverse Functions, Part | 145

 x +2
Exercises 14=17: Verify that each \AA 20. Suppose f(x) = 5 and
of the given function pairs are inverses of Haye 3302.
each other. Show your work.
2 a Prove that these two functions are not
Fede A00)= - inverses of each other using function
; as composition.
15. f(x)
f(x) =-4x°x +5, g(x)
g(x) =3 ah b Calculate f(x) and g(x).
2
16. GS) = ox 7 g(x) = = +=

21. Ekin gives the following argument:

U7. f(x) =x—2, g(x) =2-x To find the inverse of y(x) =3x +5, you
should undo the operations given. Instead
18. The domain of a certain function is of adding 5, the inverse will subtract 5,
[8, 0) and the range is (—ce, 0]. Describe and instead of multiplying by 3, the
the domain and range of this function’s inverse will divide by 3. The inverse
inverse. fe
of y(x) =3x+5is y’ =——5. Is Ekin
23)
19. Show algebraically that the functions correct? Why or why not?
y,=x+1and y,=x—1 are inverses.

Lesson 3.3
Inverse Functions, Part II

ME Graphing Functions and their Inverses

Graphing a function and its inverse on the same xy-plane reveals an
important characteristic of inverse functions. Examine the graphs
showing pairs of mutually inverse functions.

In Lesson 3.2, we reviewed that the coordinates (x, y) on the plot of

a given function become the coordinates (y,x) on the plot of that

146 Compositions and Inverse Functions

function’s inverse. If the point (0,2) is on a function’s graph, (2, 0) is on
the inverse’s graph. Because this is true for every point for a function
and its inverse, the graphs are reflections of each other over the line
y = x. Below we show the functions again, with the reflection line y = x
added.

As you can see, it is easy to graph a function and its inverse ona
graphing calculator. If we know the equation of the function and the
equation of its inverse, we simply enter those into Y, and Y, and press
graph. However, if we know only the function, and not its inverse, the
calculator can create the graph of the function’s inverse. The model
problem below outlines the steps for drawing the graph of the inverse
of a function. This process is useful to compare the graph of a function
and its inverse, and for finding the inverse when it is unknown or when
it is difficult to determine.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Draw the graph of the inverse of y(v) =x° + 41° + 5.

Floti Flot2 Plot?
4 BH*S4K 7345
sY2=
Enter y = x5 + x° + 5 into Y, in [Y3.

Press [GRAPH] to view the function’s graph.

MODEL PROBLEMS continues...

i eS EUEEE EEEEEEE EEE

Lesson 3.3 « Inverse Functions, Part II 147

 3
4: Vertical
2 Tangent ¢
: DrawF
ra 4+Shade¢

Access the DRAW menu by pressing [2ndJPRGM). Under

the DRAW column, scroll down to 8: DrawInv. Press
(ENTER). The command DrawInvy will appear on the
main calculator screen.

DrawIny

Next, press the button and choose Y-VARS.

Choose 1: Function and then choose EAS

The main calculator screen will show DrawInv ec

oa
Press [ENTER] to draw the graph of the inverse.

The graph screen now shows the original graph and

that of the inverse.

148 Compositions and Inverse Functions

 If you check the for the graph, only values from the function
y(x) =x° +x° + 5 appear in the table. The calculator has only drawn
the inverse, it has not created a table of values or found the equation
of the inverse function. However, from the graph you can see that the
function and its inverse are reflections of each other over the line y = x.
In Y, enter in x to draw the line of reflection. ;

Floti Plot2 Plot?

SY 1 BRAS4+K*345
Vek
Ys
SYy=
.Ye=
sYag=
Ye=

The graph and its inverse may appear to not be exact reflections over
the line y = x. The window on most graphing calculators is a rectangle,
and that can cause some distortion. Pressing and selecting
5: ZSQUARE corrects this issue. Note that you might have to redraw
the graph of the inverse after using the zoom function.

MM Producing a Function’s Inverse by Restricting

the Domain
Not all functions have an inverse that is also a function. Consider
finding the inverse of the function y(x) = x’. Interchanging x and
y and solving for y results in y = +/x. For almost all the inputs of x,
there are two output values for y. The graphs of y = x? and y= tNx
are shown in the graph to the right. We can see that they are
reflections of each other over the line y = x. The function y = x?
with the domain (—»», -¢) does not have an inverse that is also a
function. We can use the horizontal line test to determine if a
function has an inverse that is also a function.

|
Horizontal Line Test
If a horizontal line passes through a function at more than one point on
the graph, the function does not have an inverse that is also a function.

Recall from Lesson 2.1 that we used the horizontal line test to
determine if given functions were 1-to-1. If the horizontal line touched
the graph of the line or curve at only one point, then the function was
1-to-1. We are now able to state that all 1-to-1 functions have inverses
that are also functions.

Lesson 3.3 ¢ Inverse Functions, Part Il 149

 Consider the graph of y = x?. Drawing a horizontal line through
the graph shows that the line intersects the graph at more than one
point. This means that the inverse of y = x’ is not a function, as we
showed above. But consider that we can restrict the domain of this
function so that the inverse is a function.

Let the domain of y = x? be restricted to [0, e). Now the graph is

half of a parabola and it passes the horizontal line test. So the i
inverse ofy= x* for the domain [0, ce) does have an inverse that
is a function. Note that the range of this function is also [0, ¢).

For the inverse function, the domain will be [0, -), as that is the
restricted range of y = x”. Over the domain [0, --), the function
y | =x is the inverse of y = x°. Graphing both y = x* with the
restricted domain of [0,<¢) and y' = Vx shows that the graphs
are reflections of each other over the line y = x.

Similarly, if the domain of y = x’ is restricted to (—ce, 0], the

graph passes the horizontal line test and the inverse is a function. \
The restricted range for this function is [0, °°). So, for the inverse,
the domain will be [0, -°) and the range (—»», 0].

The function y ' =— x satisfies these requirements. The graphs

of y=x° with a restricted domain of (—, 0] and y' =—x are
reflections of each other over the line y = x.

ar eee a ee
150 Compositions and Inverse Functions
MODEL PROBLEM

CLAP) Restrict the domain of f(x) =|x-3] so that f(x) has an inverse that is
a function. Write the equation of the inverse function, restricting the domain if
necessary.

SOLUTION
Consider the graph of f(x). It does not
pass the horizontal line test for a domain
of (—se, 0°).

Restrict the domain to the right of x =3,

ES
fs [3, cc). The range for this part of the
function is [0, cc). The graph of the
restricted function passes the horizontal
line test and will have an inverse that is a
function.

The equation of the function with

restricted domain is f(x) = x — 3. Replacing
f(x) with y, interchanging x and y, and
solving for y gives the inverse function
f(y) ex 73
i
The inverse f~!(x) =x +3 has a domain of
ay
[0, cc) and a range of [3, ).

etreir
E Ue

An alternative solution is to restrict the

domain of f(x) to (—:9, 3], which gives an
inverse function of f ‘(x) =—x + 3. Uhis
inverse has a domain of [0, cc) and a range
of (—9, 3].

ie Se a aD Se ee ae
Lesson 3.3 * Inverse Functions, Part Il 151
MMMM PracticeEE
O
1. A function f(x) and its inverse f(x) are B.
graphed on the coordinate plane. What is
the equation of the line over which f(x)
and f(x) are reflections?

Ae Vi] (X)
ley Sees
CE, Stl
DY Syrea28

2. The graph of a function is shown.

Ss

Which best describes the inverse of the

function?

A. The inverse is not a function.

B. The inverse is a function.
C. The inverse is a cubic function.
D. The inverse is a linear function. Exercises 4=8: Use a graphing calculator
to graph the function and the inverse of the
3. Which of the functions has an inverse function. Is the inverse also a function? Sketch
that is also a function? the graph of the function and its inverse.

i 4. f(x) =9x+7

5. g(x) =4x? 4+ 3x

6. h(x) =x

7. j(x)=4x—-|x|

8. k(x) =x — 2x? — 3x

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

152 Compositions and Inverse Functions

Exercises 9-11: Determine if each ofthe 16. Tax =2
described functions has an inverse that is also a
function. Explain your answer. NTne) Olas ae
9. 18. f(x) =-2x - 10
19. f(x) =|x-1]+3
10. f(x) = (x - 3)? +9 20. Fie) = 2a

If. A linear function with a positive slope 21. What is the inverse of y = 6? Is the
inverse a function? Why or why not?
Exercises 12-15: Restrict the domain
of each of the given functions so the inverse \“\/22- Suppose you graph the capital letter M on
is also a function. the coordinate plane and are then asked
to draw the inverse.
2. y(x) =(« + 4)?
a_ If the range of the original is [—2, 2]
13. y(x) =-|32|+3 and the domain is [-1, 1], sketch the

1 (a 3) inverse on an xy-plane.
PAG =r
b Is the inverse a function?
DS.y(x)= x74 2x
c State the domain and the range of the
Exercises 16-20: If needed, restrict the inverse.
domain of the function f(x) so that the inverse
is also a function. Then write the equation of
the inverse, stating the domain of the inverse.

Lesson 3.4
Logarithmic Functions
The process of finding the inverse of a given function involves
interchanging the x and y variables and then re-solving the resulting
equation for y. Consider an exponential function, y(x) = a*. To find
this inverse, we interchange the x- and y-variables to find x = a’. The
equations x = a’ and y = a‘ are inverses of each other. The function
y = f(x) defined by the equation x = a’ is called the logarithmic
function and is denoted y = logx.The expression log_x is read as “the
logarithm of base a of x.” For both these functions, the a-value must be
greater than 0 but not equal to 1, and this value is the base in both the
exponential function and the logarithmic function.

a : Logarithmic Function
= logx if and only if a’= x where a > Oanda #1.

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 153

SEG Common Logarithms and Their Graphs
A logarithm can have a base a that is any number greater than 0 but
not equal to 1. When a = 10, the logarithm is referred to as a common
logarithm. Generally, when a = 10, we express the logarithm as y = log x,
which implies y = log,,x. The equation y = log x has an exponential form
of 10 =x.
Another base used with logarithms is the number e, which is an
irrational number approximately equal to 2.7182. If x = e’, then the
logarithm with base e is y = log,x. This is called the natural logarithm
and its notation is y = In x. Like the common logarithm where the base
of 10 is implied, the base e is implied for y = In x.

Asn — , the expression [1+] approaches

The Number e P ‘
the number e, which is approximately 2.7182.

Recall from previous math classes that we can write logarithmic

equations in exponential form. The ability to switch between these two
forms is useful for solving both exponential and logarithmic equations.
First, we identify the base of the exponent or logarithm, and then we
use the definition of a logarithmic function to write the function in its
other form.

MODEL PROBLEM

(T2EY For each function, tell if it is in its exponential or logarithmic form.

Then identify the base and write the function in its other form.
a y=log.x
b @=x
ec iVey

SOLUTION
a This equation is in logarithmic form with base 2. Its exponential form is 2” = x.

b This equation is in exponential form with base e. For base e, use the natural
logarithm (In). The logarithmic form is y = In x.
¢ This equation is in exponential form with base 10. For base 10, use the common
logarithm x = log y.

154 Compositions and Inverse Functions

MH The Graphs of Logarithmic and Exponential
Functions
Since a logarithm is the inverse of an exponential function, switching
the x- and y- values in the table for an exponential function creates a
table of values for the logarithmic function. Consider the exponential
function y = 10°. We show the graph below.

Floti Plote Pilots

The inverse function of y = 10* is y = log x, which is the common

logarithm function to base 10. We show this graph below.

Ploti Plote Pilots

These functions are mutal inverses, and their graphs are

reflections of each other over the line y = x, as discussed
in Lesson 3.3 and shown at the right.

The functions y = e* and y = In(x) are also inverse functions =

of each other and have graphs that are mirror images over
the line y =x.

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 155

 Notice for the exponential functions, y(x) = 10° and y(x) =e", the
graphs have a horizontal asymptote of y = 0. The function’s output
values cannot be negative because the exponential function applies an
exponent to a positive base, which will always yield a positive value.
For the logarithmic functions, the graphs have a vertical asymptote of
x = 0. Logarithmic functions cannot be evaluated for a negative input
because of their inverse relationship with exponential functions. When
y = log(x), 10” = x, so, the value of x will always be a positive number
because the base 10 is being raised to an exponent y.

We summarize the domain and range information for the parent

functions y = log(x) and y = In(x) and their inverse exponential
functions in the table.

reel)

Domain: (0,°°) | Range: (—s2,°2) | Domain: (—-7,c¢) —Range: (0,-)

v(x)
=In(x).

Domain:
(0,°c) | Range: (-s2,e°) | Domain: (-s,6¢) Range:
(0, )

We can transform logarithmic graphs using stretches, translations, and

reflections. These changes affect the domain and range of the function,
as well as the location of the vertical asymptote. The parent function
y = log(x) is transformed to y =a log(x —h) + k, where a performs a
vertical stretch or reflection, h indicates a horizontal translation, and k
translates the function vertically.

ee es Se
156 Compositions and Inverse Functions
MODEL PROBLEMS

@ Cowes a Sketch the erapn ot (x)= 2%,

b Write the equation of f-'(x) and sketch the graph.

SOLUTION
a Make a table of values for f(x) by substituting different values of x into 2”, Plot the
points (x, f(x)) on a coordinate plane.

b Because f(x) and f (x) are inverses of each other, we can interchange the x and
f(x) values to generate a table for f~'(x). Plot the these points on a coordinate
plane to see the graph of f~'(x).

To find the equation for the inverse of f(x) = 2", write y = 2" and then interchange the
x and y. Now express x = 2” as y = log,(x). So, the inverse of an exponential function
f(x) = 2’ is the logarithmic function of base 2, f!(x) = log,(x). _

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 157

 2s (XL2EF For the function y(x) = log(x + 2) — 5,
a __Use your calculator to create the graph of this function’s parent function.
Sketch what you see.
Use your calculator to create a graph of y(x). Sketch what you see.
c Describe the transformations that take the parent function to y(x).
d =~What is the domain and range of y(x)?

SOLUTION
a

The base of the function is the common

logarithm, base 10. The parent function is
y(x) = log(x).

>

We graph y(x) = log(x +2) —S.

c The function y(x) is the parent function shifted 2 units left and 5 units down.
The vertical asymptote of the new function is x = —2.

d= For y(x), the domain is (—2, ) and the range is (—c, «),

CSSHHHHHHHHHHESHHHHSHHHEHSEHHHHEESECEEHHSHHHOHE HEHEHE OCOC OHO OHO OOOO ELEC EEE OOO LOOSE

3. Draw the graph of y = -2 In(x). Compare the graph to that of y = In(x).

SOLUTION

ae ee

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee
158 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 The graph of y = In(x).

Compared to the graph of y = In(x), the graph ofy = —2 In(x) is reflected over the
X-axis and is vertically stretched by a factor of 2.

Your graphing calculator can graph base 10 and base e functions by

using the and [LN] keys, respectively. To graph a logarithmic function
that is not base 10 or e, we can make a table of values for the inverse
exponential function and then interchange the x- and y-values, as shown
in Model Problem #1 on page 157 Another way to graph a logarithmic
function that doesn’t have a base of 10 or e is to use the change of base
formula. The change of base formula converts base a functions into the
ratio of two common logarithms of base 10 or natural logarithms of
base e.

loga Ina
Change of Base Formula > lo g, 4 = logb rey
Inb

Consider the logarithmic expression with base 4, log,(5). The change of

base formula converts the expression to Wee or po The numerator

log4 In4
and denominator are both logarithms of base 10 or base e. Both
expressions return the same approximate decimal. The change of
base formula is helpful for both graphing and finding the value of a
logarithm.

109¢5)7109¢4)
1. 166964047
In¢So71n¢4)
1. 160964647

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 159

 MODEL PROBLEM

I. Use a graphing calculator to graph y = log,(x).

SOLUTION

Ploti Plot2 Plot? i

Graphing t
calculators ly grap
only g
graph logarithms of
Yi Blog¢(Xo7logt base 10 or natural logarithms of base e. Using

Both of these logarithms are now base 10.

logx .
In the calculator, we enter =. ria yfIl
og

Press to see the graph ofy = log, (x).

Note that we changed the graphing calculator’s
window settings to —2 < y <2 to give a better
picture of the function.

ee Technology
Activity I

In Algebra 2 and in Precalculus, we work with the logarithmic

functions, the graphs of which can be difficult to visualize
when the base is something other than 10 or e. What exactly
is happening with these logarithms? Let’s explore this idea.

Suppose f(x) = log,x.Use your graphing calculator’s

function to determine the values f(0), f(1), S(2), f(4), and f(8).

Step I: Access [Y=] and press [MATH)[4][4][ENTER).

This allows Plot Plote Plot3
you to \¥181093¢%)

enter a log of any base into Y.,.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

orl
eT eR el
strcoe rie ecare NS 3SR
160 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 Step 2: Since we are looking for the output values that occur
ABLE SETUP
when x = 0, 1,2, 4, and 8 we use the [TABLE], setting Tb1Start=6@
it so that TblStart = 0 and ATbl = 1. oTbl=1

Step 3: Examine the [TABLE]. We see that the (x, f(x)) coordinates for this function are
(0, undefined), (1, 0), (2, 1), (4, 2), and (8, 3), and that the x-values between x = 1, 2, 4,
and 8 are decimal numbers. Interesting.

Exercises 1-3: Find the values for the given functions using your calculator’s
function when g(x) = log, x, h(x) = log, x, and k(x) = log, x.

I. (0), (1), g(3), g(9), and g(27)

2. (0), A(1), h(4), h(16), and n =|

3. K(0),k(1),K(5). K{=J-andk{==
4. Is there a relationship between the function’s base, the value of the x-coordinate, and the
value of the y-coordinate? If so, describe the relationship and express it using an equation.
If not, explain why.

MM Properties and Laws of Logarithms

Logarithms have several properties and laws that allow us to simplify
and evaluate various expressions. For a base, b, that is positive and not
equal to 1, the following are true. These hold for natural logarithms (In)
as well.

SEEEEEEE EEE

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 161

 log,1=0 log,1 = 0 because 3° = 1.

Product and Quotient Laws

log, cd = log, c+ log, d log(Gx)—loa3= logy

n> line anne)

rine)
6
log, = log, c—log, d log, = = log, 6— log, 7

40
log
40 —log8 = eo =log5

log, c*=a log, c log,(x)" =—1 - log.(x)

In(x + 3)? = 2In(x + 3)

One-to-One Properties
log,x=log,y if and only if x= y log,(4x) = log,(12)

SOu4a =a ana oe
Equivalently, 28 = 22x

b* = bY if and only
if x = y ea Becvivel sa ak

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Suppose that b* = c and bY = d, where b is positive and not equal to 1. Use this
information to prove the product law for logarithms.

SOLUTION
Dee | log.(c)=x Rewrite b‘=c and b’ = d in their respective logarithmic
by=d_ log. (d)=y forms.

DE bie= pay Using the properties of exponents, when b* and b” are

multiplied, we sum their exponents.
Deere The product of c and d is equal to b**+»

log, cd = (x + y) Write this expression in its logarithmic form, using b as

the base.
log, cd = log, c+ log, d Substitute log,(c) for x and log,(d) for y. This is the
product law for logarithms.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

i LR i pas
162 Compositions and Inverse Functions
25 KGAEY If log.125 = 3 and log.25 = 2, find log, ae
25
SOLUTION

i
Was
log. (2) = Use the logarithm quotient law to express log, @ as
the difference of logarithms. »
log.125- log.25

log.125 —log.25=3-—2=1 Since log.125 = 3 and log.25 = 2, substitute 3 and 2 into

the expression. The difference is 1.

3. Iflog,,3 =x and log,,5 = y, express log,, v3

5?
in terms of x and y.

SOLUTION
1

V3 3 v
log, a 10 1 BP Start by writing the radical as an exponent. Taking
uk 1
a square root is the same as raising a base to the z
power.
1
3? = 7

log, aD = logo a= logo = Use the logarithm quotient law to express the
quotient as a difference.
1
2
log i 2 log, 5 Use the power law to express each term as the
1 product of the exponent multiplied by the logarithm.
5 B10 3— 210g) 5

:aay Substitute x for log,,3 and y for log,,5.

f
—x-2
5 y

4. Without using a calculator, simplify the following logarithms.

a log,8
b log,7

c (3
10
d_log,.1
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 163

 SOLUTION
a log,8=x The base of the logarithm is 2.

Dip es, Express the logarithm in its exponential form.

= 23 Rewrite 8 as 2*so we can use the one-to-one property.
teas
log,8 = 3

b log 7=x In this question, the base is 7.

Sy Rewrite the logarithm in exponential form.

Sl Any number raised to the power of | yields the original

log.7 =1 base.

7 lo S10 10 We recognize that this a common logarithm (of base 10).

0 fe Writing in exponential form.

10

Raising 10 to the —1 power is the same as =.

d log,.l =x The base of this logarithm is 15.

ils =I Exponential form.

log,,1 =0 The value of x must equal 0 for this expression to be true.

This table summarizes the properties and laws of logarithms discussed

so far.

Product Law

Compositions and Inverse Functions

BME Solving Logarithmic Equations
When solving equations involving logarithms, we rely on the properties
and laws of logarithms as well as the inverse relationship between
exponential and logarithmic functions. Recall that all logarithmic and
exponential functions are one-to-one and that the inverse relationship
between exponential and logarithmic functions makes it possible to
write a logarithm as an exponential function and vice versa.

Often a combination of tools and strategies are necessary to solve these

equations. Many times there is more than one way to solve an equation.
It is very important to check solutions to logarithm equations, as
sometimes apparent solutions do not satisfy the original equation and
are extraneous.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Use the properties of logarithms to solve the equation log,2° + log,2? = log,(x) in two
different ways.

SOLUTION

Method 1
log,2? + log,2? = log, (x) Using the power law of logarithms, bring the
3log,2 + 2log.2 1007 (t) exponents in front of the logarithmic expressions.

3(1) + 2(1) = log, (x) Substitute 1 in for log,2 as log,b = 1.

3+ 2=log,(x) Simplify and add the terms on the left side of the
5 = log,(x) equation.

ps Write the logarithmic expression in its equivalent

xe '82 exponential form, using 2 as the base and 5 as the
exponent. Simplify.
Method 2
log,(2° - 2°) = log,(x) Use the product property for logarithms to combine
j the arguments.

log,(32) = log,(x) Simplify 2? - 27.

x =32 Use the one-to-one property.

In each case, the value x = 32 satisfies the original equation and does not return any
undefined logarithm expressions.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 165

 2. Solve logx = 2.87534. Round to the nearest thousandth.

SOLUTION
Ce Write the common logarithm of base 10 in
exponential form.

2.87534
798. 4815156
Use a calculator to find the approximate value.

3. IMP 8| SolveIn 15 —-Inx=In 5.

SOLUTION
1G Use the quotient law of logarithms to simplify the left-hand side
nl
=|=In5 of the equation.

1S a One-to-one property.
x
x=3

4. Solve log x + log (v + 5) = log 6.

SOLUTION
log x + log (x + 5) = log 6 Use the product law of logarithms to simplify the
left-hand side of the equation.
log [x(x + 5)] = log 6
x(x +5)=6 The one-to-one property says that x(x +5) must be
equal to 6, since both logarithms are to the same base.
5x = 6 Distribute, simplify, and set the equation equal to 0.
x? +5x-6=0

(x + 6)(x-1)=0 Factor and use the zero product property to solve.

x+6=Oorx-1=0
x=-6 or x=1

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ees
166 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 x=-6
log(—6) + log(—6 + 5) = log (6)
log(—6) + log(-1) = log(6)
This solution is extraneous as
log(—6) and log(—1) are both
undefined. Check both solutions in the original equation.

x= Il
log (1) + log (1 + 5) = log(6)
log(1) is equal to 0 as 10° = 1.
This leaves log(6) = log(6),
showing that x = 1 satisfies the
equation.

5. Solve log, 8 = log, 64.

SOLUTION
log ,64= x Start by evaluating log,64 on the right-hand side of the equation.
4* = 64 Let log,64 = x, write the logarithm in its exponential form, and
45 = 64 solve.
x=3
log,8
=3 Substitute 3 for log,64 in the original equation.

are Write the logarithm on the left-hand side in its exponential form.

aes Since 2) =6.) =2.

b=2J

6. Solve In (x + 2) =5.

SOLUTION
e=a=x+2 Write the equation in its exponential form with e
as the base.
Subtract 2 from both sides.

146.4131591 Use a calculator to approximate the solution

OLLIE LEE LEO LEAL NN SEE

Lesson 3.4 * Logarithmic Functions 167

 Practice
1. Which is the equation of the vertical 12. log 1000
mptoteof y = log,(x + 4)?
Bo ams fale 13. 4 log36
A.x=-4 CSS
B. x=4 D. x =—2 14. In1l

Exercises 15-163 Expand each given

2. What it the domain and range of logarithm using properties and laws of
y=In@—1)+8? logarithms.
3. The table of values belowshowthedatafor yg, log, 10
an exponential function. Create a table of 8s
values for the inverse function. 16. log(x + 1)(x +3)

Exercises 16-17: Write the given

expression as a single logarithm.

17. Inx+2In y—2In z

1 ue. 3
18. —log,
x’ -=log,x
4. Describe the transformations for Dee 5 ;
f(x) = log x to carry to g(x) =—log(x +2). Exercises 19=22: Solve the equation.

cd Consider the parent function log,(x). State

‘ :
the transformations, in order, that carry
Remember to check for extraneous solutions.
Round to the nearest thousandth, if necessary.
i
the parent function to =|Og3 (42) ain 19. log 64-log 16= log, 16
and then graph the transformed function. . ,
5) 20. Inx=-2
6. What is the inverse of f(x) = |
;]? Sketch
2 21. log 8-log
x=log 2
both f(x) and the inverse function on the
same xy-plane. 22. log 25 ae log (x —] ) = log 12

7. Write 4*= 0.0625 as a logarithmic relation. 23. 2 logy =log(x +3) + log 2
3
8. Write log,, 343 = - as an exponential 24. Evaluate log 9 + log 3 to the nearest
equation. hundredth.

Exercises 9=14: Evaluate the given AA 25. If log,3 = 0.8 and log,5 = 1.2, find the
logarithms without a calculator. value of the following:

9. 5log,8 a log,6
l 20
10. ° log, —ie b log,8&4 —9

Hi. log.81 4
¢ los,£4 4——
5

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

168 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 Lesson 3.5

Exponential Functions
An exponential function has the form y(x) = b*, where b is the base
and is a positive number not equal to 1. If b is greater than 1, the
function represents exponential growth, which means the function is
increasing as x increases. If b is between 0 and 1, the function represents
exponential decay, which means the function is decreasing for an
increasing x.

MH Exponential Functions and Their Graphs

“Consider the graphs of y = 3" and y= |
| , Shown below.

Exponential Growth Exponential Decay

yr ey
ele

his case, the base is 3, so the function is al ae

as Here the base is 3° so the function is decreasing.
increasing.
Domain: (—<9, ©) Domain: (—»9, ©°)
Range: (0, <) Range: (0, -)

Both graphs approach a horizontal asymptote y = 0. Below we show the

1 x

table for »-(5)

a
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 169
 We can see that as x becomes increasingly large, the values of ybecome
smaller and smaller, approaching zero but never becoming negative.
The values of the function approach the horizontal asymptote y = 0.

How does the horizontal asymptote change if we perform

transformations on the exponential function? Look at the graph of
y = 3* after it undergoes different transformations.

Parent Function
y(x) = 3*

horizontal asymptote: y = 0
y-intercept (0, 1)
increasing

Vertical Stretch
y(x) = 2» 3*
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
y-intercept (0, 2)
increasing

Horizontal Translation
MED
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
y-intercept (0, 9)
increasing

Vertical Translation
V(t) = 3" 2

oon
horizontal asymptote: y = 2
y-intercept (0, 3)
increasing

Reflection Over the x-axis

VO)!
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
y-intercept (0, -1)
decreasing

ae
170 Compositions and Inverse Functions
All the transformations shown affect the location of the y-intercept,
but only the vertical translation affects the horizontal asymptote. The
reflection and the vertical translation affect the range of the function,
but the function’s domain remains the set of all real numbers.

Generally y(x) =a- b“~" + k describes transformations of y(x) = b*

where changes in a perform a reflection or a stretch, changes in h
translate the function horizontally, and changes in k translate the function
vertically. Notice also that when the function is reflected over the x-axis,
the function changes from increasing to decreasing, or vice versa.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1 x+1

@ KLAERPA Consider the function poy =2[5-3

a___~ What is the parent function of f(x)?

Describe the transformations that take the parent function to f(x).
c What is the equation of the horizontal asymptote of f(x)? Give the function’s
domain and range and state whether the function is increasing or decreasing.
d Sketch the graph of f(x).

SOLUTION

bt) De (5) The parent function is always the most basic function contained
within the larger function.
b To transform p(x) into f(x), vertically stretch f(x) by a factor of 2, perform a
horizontal translation 1 unit to the left, and then a vertical translation 3 units down.

¢ The horizontal asymptote is y = —3, as indicated by the vertical translation. The

domain is the set of all real numbers, (—°, 07), but the range is (—3, ). The base is
between 0 and 1, so the function is exponential decay and decreasing.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Sicilia HSE MDL

ai ia a AE
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmi c and Exponentia l Functions in Context 171
 2. Use the properties of exponents to show that y(x) = 3**? is a vertical stretch of factor
9 compared to y(x) = 3*.

SOLUTION
Vass: The product property for exponents says that when like bases
are multiplied, we can add their exponents. We rewrite the
right-hand side of y(x) =3**?.
Veg =o The commutative property of multiplication allows us to
write factors in any order.
WES oo Se Simplify. We can clearly see that all the values in the function
are multiplied by a factor of 9.

CLARY In 1986, a reactor exploded at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant

located in Pripyat, Ukraine, releasing large amounts of radioactive plutonium
isotopes into the atmosphere. The man-made plutonium-239 isotope has a half-life
of 24,100 years. This means that it takes that many years for half of an amount of the
isotope to decay. The amount of plutonium present in the atmosphere after ¢ years
can be modeled using the function y(t) = Pe °°", where P represents the initial
amount of plutonium released.

a___ Show that this is an exponential decay function by expressing the function so
that the base is a number between 0 and 1.
b Sketch a graph of the function y(t) = Pe °-°°"S* over the interval 0 < r< 100,000
when P = 10 grams.
c If 10 grams of the radioactive isotope plutonium-239 are released into the air,
how many grams will be left after 10 years? After 100 years? Round to the
nearest thousandth.
d___Use the graph to approximate how long it will take for 10 grams to decay to
1 gram.

SOLUTION
Evaluate the power e900 using a
calculator. This makes the function
y = P(0.9999712)' and it shows that the base
of the exponential function is between 0
and 1, so it is exponential decay.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee
172 Compositions and Inverse Functions
b y(t) = 10e 90000288: Substitute 10 in for P in the function.

sv V4
4 alaceeC eae
-, 60
288%) Enter the function in the graphing
wVYe= calculator.
sYs=
sYus
Yo=
sYa=

WINDOW
min=6
AMax=1 66088 Set the window so that the values of the
poate A function are shown for ¢ values between
Vmax=12 0 and 100,000. Use x as the variable to
Vomit represent f.
ares=1

Graph. Sketch what you see on your

calculator screen.

To find the amount of the isotope left after

“ 10 years, use the calculate menu accessed
.Peron by (2nd) and [TRACE]. Choose 1: value, type in
32min iMur the number 10, and then press [ENTER]. The
ai Max imum calculator returns the value of the function
J: intersect for x = 10 as y = 9.997 After 10 years there
6: dy“dx are about 9.997 grams of the isotope
rest Cxidx remaining.

V¥1=10Ce*C ~. CO00ZBER)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 173
 ¥1=10Ce*C * O000ZBRR)
Follow the same procedure to find the value
of the function for 100 years, or any other
number of years. After 100 years, there are
about 9.971 grams remaining.

H=100 eee
f= 9.5971 2414 &

To find how long it would take for the

V1=L0Ce*C -.0000ZHEH)
amount of plutonium-239 to decay to
1 gram, use the button. Move along
the curve to approximate when the value
of the function is about 1. After about
79,787 years, the amount of isotope
remaining is about | gram (1.0047).
BaP OPA? SEH a PHL.004r 239 &

ME Solving Exponential Equations

There are many types of exponential equations, and our solution
strategy depends on the structure of the equation. For example, both
the equations 2* = 8 and 5*~!=0.04 contain a power with a variable.
Because exponential functions are always increasing (for a base greater
than 1) or always decreasing (for a base between 0 and 1), exponential
functions are one-to-one. So, when the bases are the same, the following
property is true.

One-to-One Property for >

Exponential Functions b* = b’ if and only if x = y

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Solve the equation 16*-3 = 2",

SOLUTION
160-222" As written, the bases of the powers are not the same. However,
CAS Pee. we can express the number 16 as 2%.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

el nl
174 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 DP Tee D* When raising a power to a power, we multiply the exponents.

A(x -3)=x Because the bases are the same, use the one-to-one property and
set the exponents equal to each other.
AX Solve the equation for x.
—12 =-3x
x=4

What if, in an exponential equation, the bases are not the same or
cannot be expressed with the same base? One approach is to take the
logarithm or natural logarithm of each side of the equation and then
apply some basic properties of logarithms. Recall that the logarithm,
base b, of b is equal to 1. Recall in particular that when we apply the
natural logarithm to the number e, the result is 1, and that when the
common logarithm (base 10) is applied to 10, the result is 1.

For an exponential equation in which the bases are not alike, take the
logarithm of both sides of the equation. Then use the power property
for logarithms and the change of base formula to solve for the variable.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Solve 5*=12 for the variable. Give an exact and an approximate solution, rounding
the latter to the nearest thousandth.

SOLUTION
log. 5* = log, 12 Since the bases are not the same, and we cannot
cleverly express them as the same base, we apply
the logarithm of base 5 to both sides of the
equation. We choose this logarithm because the
base of the power 5* is 5.
PaO cmt Or ale Use the power property for logarithms to bring
. the x from the exponent to the front of the
expression.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

E
LL —————— E
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 175
 x =log. 12 ee leaves
The expression log. 5 is equal to é 1, which
the x isolated on the left-hand side. This is the
exact value of x.
log 12 To find an approximate solution, use the change
v= log; 12 = log 5 of base formula.

On acalculator, find the approximate value of

x = 1.544.

@ (I Solve 12 - e* = -120 for the variable. Round to the nearest thousandth.

SOLUTION
12 e120 : Isolate the term with the variable power.
—e'=-132
e@ = 132
Ing -In 132 Since the base of the power is e, apply the
natural logarithm to both sides of the equation.
xIne=In 132 / : Apply the power property for logarithms to
bring the x from the exponent to front of the
natural logarithm.
x=In 132 L The base of the natural logarithm is e, so In e is
equal to 1. Use a calculator to approximate the
Intiz solution of x = 4.883.
2?
4.382861923

MEE Solving Logarithmic and Exponential

Problems in Context
Logarithms and exponents occur in the context of many real life
scenarios. Earlier, we worked with the equation y = 10.08%" to
describe the exponential decay of a radioactive isotope. The tables
below show a further sampling of exponential and logarithmic functions
useful for solving real-world problems.

es
176 Compositions and Inverse Functions
Exponential

Continuous Continuous Compounding Continuously

Exponential Growth | Exponential Decay Interest Compounding Interest

A=o(1+5| Weare
nN

Logarithmic
Richter Scale for Earthquake
Magnitude pH of a Solution

ij
R=log| —
{1 |

Consider A = P(1 +r)'. This formula finds the amount, A, in an

account when a principal amount, P, accrues interest annually and is
compounded over a period of time, f, usually measured in years. This
r nt

formula is the same as A= |2) , where n = 1 for calculating

interest one time per year, and we can apply it to any increase that
takes place at a fixed rate for any specified period of time. In the
formula, the value of n changes based on how many times the interest
is compounded during the time period. So, if interest is calculated
quarterly, n = 4. If interest is calculated daily, n = 365. As the value of
n increases, so does the value of the investment. What happens when
interest is calculated continuously? The proof below shows that when
e i oe
nt

interest is compounded continuously, the formula A= P} 1 4] is

equivalent to A = Pe”.

Show that A= |i!4) is equivalent to A = Pe".

Ai

nt rkt

et ae 7 where n, k #0. This means that n = rk, A= Pf

i+2] becomes A= rfid]
n n
1 }
so we substitute a k and n= rk into the formula.
n

Use the properties of exponents to rewrite the

exponents.

Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 177

 As the value of n increases, the value of k also
increases, and as we see from the chart at the right,
k

the expression [a3 approaches the value of e.

es k

1
10
1,000
100,000
1,000,000
The formula for interest compounded continuously is A = Pe”.

Like A= ree] , we can apply A = Pe” to any change that takes

n
place continuously at-a fixed rate. Large populations of people, bacteria,
or animal species can be said to increase continuously. Radioactive
decay decreases continuously. As long as the growth or decay occurs at
a fixed rate, we can use the formulas below to solve problems and make
predictions about the future.

y = ae”

Continuous Exponential > where a is the initial amount or population,

Growth ris the growth constant and r> 0, tf is the
time, and y is the final amount or population.

y=ae"
Continuous Exponential > where a is the initial amount or population,
Decay ris the decay constant and r > 0, tis the time,
and y is the final amount or population.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. If a solution has a pH of less

than 7, the solution is an acid. If the pH is greater than 7, the solution is a base. Pure
water is neither an acid nor a base and has a pH of 7. The relationship between the
pH of a solution and the concentration of hydronium ions is given by the equation
pH= -log[H'].
a__ A vinegar solution has a H* concentration equal to 3.98 x 10°. What is its
pH?
Is the vinegar solution an acid or a base?

b A solution has a pH of 9.7. What is the concentration of hydronium

ions?
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a a a a
178 Compositions and Inverse Functions
 SOLUTION
a pH = —log[3.98 x 10°] Evaluate the formula pH = —log[H*] by substituting
pH =2.4 3.98 x 10° in for H*. The pH is less than 7, so this is
an acid.

Do? ——loe|H*| Let the pH = 9.7

—9'7 =log/H"] Divide both sides of the equation by -1.
10°7= Ht
Write the logarithm equation in its exponential form.
The base of the common logarithm is 10.
Evaluate 10” to find that the concentration of hydronium ions is 1.995 x 107°,

2. The radioactive isotope Fermium-257 has a half-life of 100.5 days. How long will it
take a sample of 5 grams of this isotope to decay to 1 gram?

SOLUTION
Generally, isotopes decay continuously, so we’ll use the equation y = ae", where a
is the initial amount of the substance,y is the amount that remains, r is the decay
constant, and fis the time in days.
0.5a = ae(1005) Start by solving for the decay constant r, using a half-life
of 100.5 days. Since a is the initial amount, the amount
after 1 half-life passes is 0.5a.
0.5 = e7(100.5) Divide both sides of the equation by a.

fn. —ine te) Take the natural logarithm on each side of the equation.

In 0.5 = -100.5r(1n e) Simplify the right-hand side.

In 0.5 = —-100.5r

r = 0.00689698 Divide both sides of the equation by —100.5.

It is important to carry out the decimal when calculating
growth or decay constants. The final answer will be more
accurate than if you round the constant too early.

V=ae —0.00689698r Now we can write the exponential decay equation using
the r-value we just calculated.
{| = 5 e-0.00689698: To find the time it takes for a 5 gram sample to decay to
1 gram, substitute 5 for a and 1 for y. We will solve for t.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

~oppenepme aptnarreeneerr en ereeemneere rns neta

i i a
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 179
 1 -0.00689698" Divide through by 5 and then take the natural logarithm
5 : of both sides.

In a =In 07 0:006896981
5

eoae: of the equation and divide

il A hand
SimplifyGEEtheaahright-
aay
side
af|= —0,00689698r

of :|
5
a
—().00689698
2 ee o8)
It will take about 233 days for the isotope to decay from 5 grams to 1 gram.

3 CLZ9 A bank offers 2% interest compounded quarterly or 1.5% interest

compounded continuously. You have $1,000 you'd like to invest for the next 10 years.
Which option is the better investment if you neither withdraw nor deposit money
after the initial amount?

SOLUTION
In investments, the best option is the one that provides you with more money at the
end of the term.
0.02 4(10) For the 2% interest compounded quarterly,
a 1000(1+ 9) = $1,220.79
use the formula A= P(t+") where P is
n
the principal amount, r is the rate as a decimal,
nis the number of times per year the bank
compounds interest, and ¢ is the time in years.
A= 10002 — $1 161.83 For the continuously compounded interest
option, use the formula A = Pe”, where P is the
principal, r is the rate as a decimal, and ris the
time in years.
The investment at 2% interest offers a better return for the original principal
amount bs
even though it is compounded only 4 times per year.

eee

iso Compositions and Inverse Functions

i Technology
Activity 2

We can use our graphing calculators to help check our work on many
Ploti Filotz Plot
problems, including very involved compound interest problems.
SY 181606#¢14+¢.
66
Y282566
Suppose you invest $1,000 in a good certificate of deposit (CD) at a rate
of 4.2%, which is compounded monthly. How long will it take the CD’s
worth to grow to $2,500?
12¢
Step I: Input the exponential function, 1000(12 | Ect Ge

Step 2: Since we’d like to know when the investment will be worth
$2,500, input 2500 into Y,,.
Step 3: Press [GRAPH]. Adjust the window so you can see where the two
functions intersect.
Step 4: Access the Calculate menu by pressing TRACE] and then
select 5: intersect.
ees
Step 5: Follow the on-screen prompts and select the first function, > Value
the second function, and a point close to the intersection. NO >zero
The calculator returns values of x = 21.56 and y = 2500, which S =Minimum
42 maximum
means it will take 21.56 years for the investment to be worth intersect
$2,500. = dy/dx
eeSf¢xIdx
Exercises 1-3: Answer the given questions. Round to the
nearest hundredth, if necessary.

I. You make a one-time deposit with $500 in a bank account with

an interest rate of 0.2%. If you do not withdraw money from the
account and interest compounds daily, how long will it take to
double your initial investment? Intersection
8=21.854603 =2S
2. Your parents deposit $5,000 into a high-yield savings account with
an interest rate of 10.3% compounded quarterly. If no further
money is deposited or withdrawn, how long will it take for the
account balance to grow to $25,000?

3. You take out a loan for $10,000 to pay for college. The loan’s
interest rate is 4.66%, which compounds continuously. If you make
no payments, how long will it take for you to owe $70,000?

a ie a nc el em
Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context ISl
MME Practice,
Which of the functions has a different 14. 27-7 =0
Fang tialtyy (ov ial?
15. = Be = —Q*

Aye Zar
B.ovG) Sie 16. Use the function y(x) = 10e0.00008*
CH aa from the model problem on page xxx.
DAy(x) 2" Algebraically solve the equation to
find when there are 2 grams of isotope
2. Which of the following is the y-intercept remaining. Round to the nearest year.
x-2
i]
of the function y(x)= (5) +59 wi 17. A bank offers two investment tiers:
2.99% compounded annually or 2.75%
A.(80,0) C. (0,5) compounded continuously. A client wants
B. (0,80) _-Dx(0,3) to invest the money for up to 30 years.
Using a graph, determine which option
Exercises 3-53 Give the domain and gives a better return on a $500 principal
range of each exponential function, and tell if
amount for 30 years if the client neither
the function is increasing or decreasing.
withdraws nor deposits money after the
initial amount.
3. fa) =—57- 4
4.

5.
vo-(
h(x) =10-0.5"
The tormula t=
logK
0.045 loge
gives the time,

in years, that it will take an investment, P,

that is compounded continuously at a rate
of 4.5% to increase to an amount K times
Exercises 6-15: Solve the equation
the original principal.
for the given variable. Round to the nearest
thousandth, if necessary. a Use the formula to complete the table
to three decimal places.
6.71 = 100

Tol 2 5 = 625" |3 [4 |5 [10] 20] 30]

a ae a
8. 5°+6=127
b Use your completed table to sketch a
Pe Sei il graph of the function.
¢ If Partha invests $1,000 in a savings
10. el =o?
account where the interest is
compounded continuously at a rate
ties= 3
of 4.5%, when will the investment
H2. 5*-'= (0.04) double? Triple? Assume that no
money is deposited or withdrawn after
13. e+? =e"! the initial amount.

eee PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Compositions and Inverse Functions
 19. A $100 investment earns 5% interest eal 22. Suppose you want to save some money
compounded annually. After how many to buy a car. Even though you were
years will the investment have doubled planning on saving a little each month,
in value? Show your work. Round to you realize that you cannot. In fact, the
the nearest tenth of a year. Assume original amount you put into your savings
that the investor neither withdraws nor account is half of what you needed to
deposits money after the initial amount. deposit. Luckily, you put your money into
an account that earns 3% compounded
20. The half-life of the element Einsteinium daily. If you put the money in the account
is 276 days. 3 years ago, how much longer will it be
a_ Use the formula y = ae“ to solve for until you can afford a new car? Round to
the decay constant r. Round to five the nearest year and month.
decimal places. We are assuming
23 Suppose that a population of unicorns
the exponential decay occurs
doubles in size every 5 years.
continuously.
a What is the rate at which the
b After how many days will a sample
population is increasing? Round to the
of 20 grams decay to 2.5 grams?
nearest hundredth of a percent.
Round to the nearest day.
b_ If there were initially 40 unicorns in
,AA 20. Your parents start a college fund for you the population, how many unicorns
precisely 18 years before you need to pay will there be in 29 years? Assume no
for your first year of tuition. The account unicorns die.
they find has a good rate: 11.2%, which
c If no unicorns die, in how many years
is compounded monthly. They deposit
will there be a million unicorns?
an initial amount of $5,000, and then
Round your answer to the nearest year
neither deposit or withdraw money
and month.
from the account for the next 18 years.
You decide to attend a local university, 44
24. The isotope radium-226 has a half-life of
which costs $10,000 per year. Will the
1,600 years.
account your parents opened 18 years ago
have enough money for you to attend this a_ Find the rate of decay. Round to the
university for four years? If so, how much nearest ten-thousandth of a percent.
will be left over in the account? If not, b If you had 50 grams of the isotope to
how much more do you need? start, how many grams would be left
in 90 years? Round to the nearest
hundredth of a gram.

¢ In how many years will there be

only 1 gram of the original amount
remaining? Round to the nearest year
and month.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 183

 \AA 25. Suppose that you are baking brownies. Delicious! The problem is that you forgot to look at
the baking time before you threw the box away. Luckily, you know that the batter was room
temperature when you put it in the oven (70°F) and after 5 minutes of it being in the BOUT
oven, you notice that it’s 92°F. You know that for the egg to fully bake inside the brownies,
they need to reach 160°F.

a Make two exponential equations to solve this problem. They should be in the form
y =am* + k, where y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable, and k is
the ambient temperature. Then, do some substitution to find one exponential equation
we can use for this problem. Round m to the nearest ten thousandth.

b If you put the brownies in the oven at 4:00 pm, how hot will they be at 4:20 pm? Round to
the nearest degree.

c At what time will the brownies be done? Round to the nearest second.

d= At what time can you actually eat the brownies without burning your tongue, assuming
that 130°F isa relatively safe temperature?

MN Chapter 3 Key Ideas

3.| Function Composition
We can combine functions using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division and by
evaluating one function using another, which is called composition.
Two functions are inverses if the composition f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) =x.

3.2 Inverse Functions, Part |

In general, the domain of a function is the range of its inverse, and the range of a function
is the domain of its inverse.
To solve for the inverse of a function, interchange the x and y variables and solve the new
equation for y.

3.3 Inverse Functions, Part ||

Not all functions have inverses that are also functions. By restricti
ng the domain of a
function, we can sometimes create an inverse that is also function.
The graph of a function and its inverse are reflections of each other
over theline y Sn,
A function has an inverse if and only if the¢
graph of the function passes the horizontal
line test.

KEY IDEAS continue...

eS

184 Compositions and Inverse Functions

3.4 Logarithmic Functions
A logarithm is defined as log, x = y if and only if b” = x. Logarithmic and exponential
functions have an inverse relationship. Switching between the exponential and logarithmic
forms is helpful when solving logarithmic and exponential equations.
The common logarithm has a base 10 and is written as y = log x.
The natural logarithm has a base e and is written as y = In x.
Logarithms have many useful laws and properties.

3.5 Exponential Functions

We can transform the graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions. Transformations
can affect the domain, range, asymptotes, and whether the function is increasing or
decreasing.
For real-world phenomena that are continually increasing or decreasing, the functions
y(x) = ae" and y(x) = ae" can model exponential growth and decay for r > 0.

Lesson 3.5 * Logarithmic and Exponential Functions in Context 185

 Chapter 3 Review
I. Describe how to find a composite AA 10. Graph the inverse of f(x) = x(x + 2)
function m(p(x)) for m(x) and p(x). (x — 4) using a calculator. Sketch what
you see on your screen. Is the inverse
Exercises 2-4: Let m(x) =5-—x and also a function? Explain.
p(x) = 3x’. Find and simplify each of the
requested expressions. 11. Does the graph of the function shown
below have an inverse that is a function?
2. m(x) + p(x) Explain.

3. m(p(x))

4. p(m(x))

5. m(m(-2))

6. Explain how the domain and range of

a function and its inverse are related.

: 1 2 12. Restrict the domain of y= (x-3)-1

7. Find the inverse of y= ae Me so that the inverse is a function.

+e LAAN3. Graph y=~/x and its inverse using a

8. Are f(x) =9x +10 and g(x)= zt == calculator. Sketch what you see on your
")
screen. Over what line does the graph
inverses of each other? Verify your
of the function reflect to produce the
answer using algebraic methods.
inverse?

9. The coordinate points in the table below

represent a function.

State the domain and range of this

function’s inverse based on the table
values.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

fart m gd Tn
186 Compositions and Inverse Functions
Exercises 14=15: Evaluate the UA Exercises 20-21: Graph each of the
expressions. Consider using the inverse given functions using your calculator. Sketch
relationship between exponential and what you see on your screen and describe the
logarithmic functions. asymptotes for each graph.

14. log,9 20. y = De

Inl* 21. y=log,x

Describe the power law for logarithms, 22. The number of wolves in a wildlife
log, c’ = a log, c, using words. preserve is thought to have increased
continually by 2.5% per year. If
population now is estimated at
17. Expand nf14°. = into the sum and/or
6,100 wolves, how many were present
difference of natural logarithms. 15 years ago? Round your answer to
the nearest whole number.
Solve log, x = —2 for x.
23. Solve 6(3*) = 532. Show your work and
Solve log x+Jog(x + 2) = log 3 for x. round to the nearest thousandth.

Remember to check for extraneous

solutions.

Chapter 3 Review 187

 Chapter 4 Trigonometric Functions
and their Graphs
Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Radian Measure

4.| Basic Trigonometry You know from your previous math classes that all the
4.2 The Unit Circle points on a circle are a fixed distance from the circle's
center. This distance is called the circle’s radius. In
4.3 Reciprocal Functions
geometry, we learned that we can use a circle’s radius
and Their Graphs
as a unit of measurement, called a radian. Recall that a
4.4 Periodicity and radian is a unit of measure that is the ratio of the length
Symmetry
of the intercepted arc to the length
4.5 Transformations —-~ of the circle's radius, as shown in C lcm
of Trigonometric the illustration to the right. But %
Functions
what does that definition really
4.6 Inverse mean? What, exactly, is a radian?
Trigonometric
Functions Essentially, radian measure 1 Radian
expresses the measure of an angle
Chapter 4 Key Ideas
in relation to a circle’s arc. A radian is an angle whose arc
Chapter 4 Review is equal in length to the circle’s radius. Its discovery is most
often credited to Roger Cotes (1682-1716) but the idea
of measuring angles using the length of the intercepted
arc was already in use by other mathematicians as early
as 1400 A.D. The actual term “radian” did not appear in
mathematical texts until 1873, and it is thought to be a
word that is an abbreviation of RADIus ANgle. Since
angles can be measured using degrees or radians, there is
obviously a connection between the two measures. Explore
this connection, and others, using the series of questions in
the practice below.
eeoeeeeeeeeereeeceoeroecececesceoeeneeneeeeee
eneeceoee

In questions 1 — 10, explore the concept of

radian measure using your prior knowledge of circles.
I. Consider the circle of radius, r.

a What is the name for the

distance around the perimeter
of the circle?
b There are two formulas for the
distance around the perimeter
of a circle. What are they?
SS

Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 What is the term that we associate with circles that is similar to the
term radian?

Consider the perimeter of the circle. How many radians can fit around it?
How do you know?
Using your answer to question #3, how many radians are in a circle's perimeter?
Justify your answer.

S- Recall that there are 360° in a full circle. Suppose that we have a semi-circle.

a How many degrees are in a semi-circle?

b How many radians are in a semi-circle?

6. Consider two circles of identical radius.

a How many degrees are in these two circles?

b How many radians are in these two circles?

7. Suppose that we have Z of a circle.

a How many degrees are in 3 of a circle?

2
b How many radians are in 3 of a circle?

Revisit your answers to questions #5, #6, and #7.

a Create a linear equation, where degrees (d) are the independent variable and
radians (r) are the dependent variable.
b Create a second linear equation, where the degrees (d) are the dependent
variable and the radians (r) are the independent variable.

Use the equation you created in question #8a to convert radians to degrees.
UAE » 182 eee a 2
5 5 3 6

Now use the equation you created in question #8b to convert degrees to radians.
Give exact answers.

a 120° b 90° ¢ 450° d —/>”

Exploratory Activity 189

 Chapter 4 Vocabulary
amplitude included angle quadrantal angle sine
arccosine initial side radian standard position
arcsine inverse trigonometric reference angle symmetry

arctangent function reciprocal tangent

Cosecant period trigonometric function tangent line
anys periodic function relative maximum Permminalieide
cotangent periodicity relative minimum unit circle
coterminal angle phase shift right triangle
degree Pythagorean theorem secant

Lesson 4.1
Basic Trigonometry

Trigonometry of the Right Triangle

A right triangle is one that contains a 90° angle. We indicate a right A
angle by drawing a small square where the right angle resides in the
figure, as shown to the right. The two sides of the triangle adjacent a
to the right angle are /egs, and they form the sides of the right angle.
The side of the triangle that is opposite the right angle is called the
hypotenuse. Often, we label the sides of a right triangle asa,b,andc © a B
and the angles opposite these sides as ZA, ZB, and ZC. We name
the side lengths using the endpoints of the sides, in this case AB, AC,
and BC.

There are many formulas and relationships related to right triangles

that you have learned throughout your study of mathematics. Recall
that the Pythagorean Theorem relates the lengths of the legs of a right
triangle to the length of the hypotenuse.

Gi | Da ee
Pythagorean where a and b are the lengths of a right
Theorem triangle’s legs and c is the length of the
hypotenuse.

This theorem helps us determine if three sides form a right triangle and
also aids in solving for a missing side length.

You also learned several triangle similarity postulates in geometry,

including the Angle-Angle (AA) postulate, which says that when
two angles of one triangle are congruent to two angles of another

ee
190 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
triangle, then those triangles are similar. This means that the
corresponding side lengths of the two triangles are proportional.
Consider the two triangles AABC and ADEF, shown below.

A € D Ip

Since ZA = ZD and ZB = ZE, by the AA similarity postulate, these two

triangles are similar. It can also be said that ZC = ZF because they are both
right angles. So, if the triangles are similar, the lengths of the corresponding
sides are proportional. For these similar triangles, we know that

BC _AC_AB
pa)
Tee DE

Consider the proportion = : in which the ratios . and “ are equal

to each other because they both are equal to : What happens if we

interchange the position of the 4 and 3 in the original proportion? Is the

proportion still true? Well, that gives us the proportion := “which

is true because a and “ are both equal to = The numbers 4 and

3 represent the means of the proportion. The 2 and 6 represent the

extremes. For any proportion, we can interchange the position of the
means and the result is still a true proportion. What does this have to
BCA G AB
do with the side lengths of similar triangles? Since
EF DF DE’
many different, true proportions can be written by interchanging the
means of any given proportion comparing the lengths of two pairs of
corresponding sides.

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 191

 For any triangle, the ratio of any two sides will be equal to the ratio of
the corresponding sides of a similar triangle. Keeping the AA postulate
in mind, consider the right triangle shown below, with right angle C and
acute angle A. Triangle ABC will be similar to any other right triangle
that has an acute angle congruent to ZA.

A @

Similarity among triangles is the basis for trigonometry. The three basic
trigonometric functions, sine, cosine, and tangent, are the ratios of the
side lengths in a right triangle. Using the triangle above,

The values of the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios are functions of the
measure of ZA. The inputs are the set of values for the angle measure
and the outputs are the values of the ratios. There is one output for
each input. For any acute angle @ in a right triangle, the following
trigonometric ratios apply:

: General Trigonometric Ratios for a Right Triangle

opposite leg adjacent leg opposite leg
Ssin(22 = GOS 40) tan 220) —
hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent leg

MODEL PROBLEM

[GM Triangle RST is a right triangle with right angle R. The hypotenuse has length
_ 8 units and side RT = 2 units. Find the exact value of
a sin(7) aq) cin(s)
b cos(]) ©) cos(S)
LOUIE
© tant] { tan(S)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

OO oe

ee
192 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 SOLUTION
is

8 Begin this problem by drawing ARST

and labeling the known information.

Ro? T

RS?
4 2 = 8?
RS?
= 60 Use the Pythagorean Theorem to find
length RS.
RS = J60 =2V15
S

Put the length of RS on ARST. Now

2V15 8 we have all the information we need
to calculate the requested ratios.
Kor

fg ee For 27, the length of the adjacent side

hyp 8 4
is 2, the opposite leg has length 2V15,
b = and the length of the hypotenuse is 8.
hyp 8 4 We substitute those values where
appropriate in the sine, cosine, and
tangent ratios.

To find the ratios for 27S, the adjacent

leg has length 2/15, the opposite leg
is 2, and the hypotenuse is 8.

It is important to distinguish between the words “exact” and

“approximate” The word exact implies that the result should be in
a simplified form, whether that be a fraction or a radical. The word
approximate indicates to find a rounded decimal. If you are ever unsure,
find the most simplified form of a solution and do not use a calculator
to round unless instructed to.

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 193

WM Deriving the Trigonometric Area of a Triangle
One of the first geometric formulas learned in mathematics is the
formula for the area of a triangle.

Area of a 1 :
A= = (beMe ronan)
Triangle

For a right triangle, the base and the height are the legs of the triangle.
For an obtuse or acute triangle, the height is a perpendicular segment
from one side of the triangle to the opposite vertex (this is true for the
right triangle as well, where the leg is that perpendicular segment). We
usually show a triangle’s height with a dashed line that can be inside or
outside the triangle.

If a right triangle’s height is not known, we can calculate the triangle’s

area using a trigonometric ratio. We derive these formulas.

Draw AABC as shown.

Construct an altitude from vertex A to side

BC. Label this as h.

Find the sine ratio for 7B using h and c and /l

solve this equation for h. sin(B)= —Cc
h=csin(B)
The height of this triangle is h and the 1 Q
base is a. Use the formula for the area ofa__ |'¢4 = (base)(height),
i 1
triangle: Area = 3 (base)(height), substituting PNIK SEE ate sin(B)
a for the base and c sin(B) for the height.
Notice that the angle B is located in between
sides a and c. Angle B is called the included
angle.

194 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 eh ale
Since the labels on the triangle are Area = met sin(B)
arbitrarily chosen, this triangle area formula
can be written in three ways, depending on Area = ean sin(C)
which side is labeled as the base. 2
Area= *besin( A)

More generally, the area of a triangle is one-half of the product of two

sides and the sine of the included angle.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. Find the approximate area of the given triangle.

Round the area to the nearest hundredth.
8in

SOLUTION 12in.
1 :
A=—absinC 1
2 We use the formula A = mo sinC, where ZC

A= $(8)(12)sin(60”) is the included angle between sides a and b.

LorrieLe
[eq ernhiS
cy
Teel ;
Horiz G-T Use a GMOs to find fin the approximate
pp
area. Since the measurement of the angle
is expressed in degrees, make sure your
€1/2)9+8412sin¢66 calculator is in degree mode.
41.569219385

The area of the triangle is approximately 41.57 square inches.

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 195

MME Angles and Radian Measure
Angles

In geometry, you learned that an angle is made up of two rays that have
a common endpoint. Consider the angles shown below. Angle ABC has
a measure of 35°, angle DEF has a measure of 120°, and angle GH/J has
a measure of 247°.

: ¢
C H

oe
as 7 120° ;
B A “i J
E
If we measure an angle in a counterclockwise direction, the result is a
positive angle of rotation. Conversely, if we measure an angle in the
clockwise direction, the result is a negative angle of rotation. The ray at
which the angle of rotation begins is called the angle’s initial side. The
ray at which the angle of rotation ends is called the terminal side of
the angle. Consider 7KLM and ZABC, shown below. For 7KLM, the
initial side is LK and the terminal side is LM. We see that ZKLM has a
measure of —35°. Notice the change in direction of the angle rotation by
comparing this to ZABC with a measure of 35°.

ae
We often place angles on the xy-coordinate plane in standard position
SO We may more easily see and study relationships between angles,
arcs, rotations, and associated triangles and line segments. An angle is
in standard position when the vertex of the angle is on the origin and terminal
the initial side of the angle is on the positive x-axis. If the initial¥ side of side

an angle in standard position is on the positive x-axis, then the terminal

side is in one of the four quadrants, or it lies somewhere on the x- or
y-axis. The Greek letter theta, @, is often used as the variable to
represent an angle.

a ee ees
196 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
When two angles share the same initial and terminal side, we call them
coterminal angles. We can calculate the coterminal angle for any given
angle by adding or subtracting the known angle from one or more
whole rotations of a circle, which is 360n°.

ZA and ZB are coterminal

Coterminal >
if mZA =mZB + 360°n
Angles
where v is an integer.

The angles 30°, 390°, and 750°, shown below, are all coterminal angles.

y
a
y
A
y
A

Se 530° ' ae oq
x x X

|
The angles 30° and 390° both have an initial side on the positive x-axis
and a terminal side in the first quadrant. The 750° angle rotation is also
coterminal with 30° and 390°. All three angles are coterminal because they
share both the initial and terminal sides. Each pair of angles satisfies the
definition of coterminal angles, where ZA = ZB + 360°n for an integer, n.

390°=30° + 360(1)°
390° = 750° + 360(-1)°
750° = 30° + 360(2)°

In addition to being coterminal, these angles also have the same

reference angle. A reference angle is the acute angle that is formed
by the x-axis and the terminal side of the angle. For all three of the
angles below, the acute angle between the terminal side and the x-axis
measures 30°, shown in tan color below.

30° B90" . 750°

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 197

 Note that the angle —330° is also coterminal with the angles above
because it shares both the initial and terminal sides and has a reference
angle of 30°.

30° reference angle

— ee
= e160"

To find the reference angle for an obtuse angle, it can be helpful to A

draw the angle. For example, consider an angle of 230°. This angle
measure is between 180° and 270° and so its terminal side lies in the
third quadrant. Subtracting 180° from 230° equals 50°, which is the
measure of the acute angle between the terminal side of the angle
and the x-axis. The reference angle here is 50°.

The table below shows the different possibilities for the value of 8,
based on the location of the terminal side of the angle in standard
position. The value of 1 is an integer and shows the number of rotations
beyond the value of @. For example if n = 2, then + 360°(2) means the
value of the angle is 6 plus 720°, or two full rotations around the circle
beyond the value of @.

0° < 0< 90° 90° < 0< 180°

The terminal side is in the first The terminal side is in the second
quadrant. This is called a first quadrant. This is called a second
quadrant angle. quadrant angle.

aee ee
198 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 180° < 0< 270° 270° < 60< 360°
The terminal side is in the third | The terminal side is in the fourth
quadrant. This is called a third quadrant. This is called a fourth
quadrant angle. quadrant angle.

If the terminal side of the angle lies on the x- or y-axis, the angle is
called a quadrantal angle. Any quadrantal angle measure will be a
multiple of 90°. The angle measures 90°, 180°, 270°, and —90° are all
examples of quadrantal angles.

MODEL PROBLEMS

(T2E} For each of the given angles, determine which quadrant the terminal side of
the angle lies in and find the value of the reference angle.
a, AUD” c. A495:
be 13>) d —45°

SOLUTION
a

We calculate the value of the reference angle

as 405° — 360° = 45°, which means that the
terminal side is in the 1* quadrant.

b The terminal side of 135° is located in the 2™4

quadrant because the angle is between 90° and
180°. The reference angle is the angle between
the terminal side and the x-axis. If the terminal
side were all the way to the negative x-axis, the
measure would be 180°, so 180° — 135° yields a
reference angle of 45°.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

aaee ahoeaneenp tenia
eased ele uerdeiceemeaminii eal i elidel

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 199

 495° is more than one 360° rotation.
Subtracting 495° — 360° gives 135°, indicating
that the terminal side of the angle is in the 2"
quadrant. The reference angle is 45° like the
135° angle in part b. Note that this means this
495° angle is coterminal with the 135° angle.

The direction of rotation for —45° is clockwise.

The terminal side of the angle is 45° from the
x-axis, so this is the value of the reference
angle. The angle’ws terminal side is in the
fourth quadrant.

Ds Draw the quadrantal angles 90°, 180°, 270°, and —90°. Are any of these angles
coterminal?

SOLUTION.
y Y

180°

O i

, We draw each of the

y requested angles.

PAO?

O =
—90°

The angles 270° and —90° are coterminal because 270° + 360(—1)° = —90°.
Additionally
the angles share the same initial and terminal sides.

BOE NG AINE ENN <r

2 ee ee ee
200 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
Radian Measure
Besides using degrees, another way to measure an angle is by using ae
radians. We explored this idea in the chapter opening. A radian is a unit ~ a
of measure of a central angle of a circle that intercepts an are equal in ys.
length to the radius of the circle. The angle shown in the picture has a
measure of | radian because the angle intercepts an arc that is equal in
length to the length of the radius.

In general, the radian measure of an angle @ is equal to the

Abdinni Madeline > length of the intercepted arc divided by the radius of the circle.
for an Angle a=_ length of intercepted arc
length of radius

Suppose that a circle has a radius of 4 inches. Then an angle measure ar

equal to | radian would be equivalent to the angle that intercepts an
arc length of 4 inches. In the same circle an angle measure of 2 radians
would be equal to the angle that intercepts an arc length of 8 inches, and
so on. Applying this idea more generally, we know the circumference
of a circle is equal to 2zr, so the arc length of a semi-circle is mr. Since
radian measure is equal to the length of the arc divided by the length of
raat ="
the radius, the radian measure for a straight angle is — = z. Thus, 180
r
is equivalent to z radians. This relationship helps us convert between
degree and radian measure for angles.

Converting between Radian 180 _ measure in degrees

and Degree Measure a measure in radians

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. What is the radian measure for a 45° angle?

SOLUTION
180 _ measure in degrees

“% — measure in radians Use the proportion, substituting 45 for the degree

180 45 measure. Use @ as the variable for radian measure.
m0
180(0) = 452
_ 450 Cross-multiply and solve for @.
~ 180.
panel4 al4 Simplify, |
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

UUEEE EEE

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 201

 2. The angle shown at the right has a measure of 2.5 radians.
a __ The radius of the circle is 8 inches. What is the length
of the arc intercepted by the angle? a
b Convert the angle measure to degrees. Round to the
nearest degree.
SOLUTION
' _ length of intercepted arc
length of radius The radian measure of an angle is equal
75-5 to the ratio of the arc length to the radius.
aa Let s denote the length of the arc.
i= 20nimehtes

bape Bes
f 2.0 180 measure in degrees
ie Use the proportion - = ;
0=25 180 m= measure in radians
Aes Fs” substituting 2.5 for the radian measure. Solve.
0 = 143°

a [aed What is the radian measure of the reference angle for Bt which
quadrant is the terminal side of that angle? :

SOLUTION
180 _ measure in degrees One way we can start is problem is to convert the
7 measure in radians radian measure to degrees.

180 _
A
3
180 8 Simplify the fraction on the right-hand side of the
- 4n equation.
4
180x _ 394n
180(47) = 370 Cross-multiply and simplify. Remember that you are
180(4.7) solving for @. Pi cancels out, leaving an angle measure
O= ree of 240°.
0 =240°

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ene aS ee are ke
202 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 oS This angle is between 180° and 270° and is a third
240 — 180 = 60° quadrant angle. Subtracting 180° from 240° yields a
| reference angle of 60°.

8 Convert 60° back to radian measure. The reference

Ee angle for a
180 3 se

As you become more familiar with radian measure, the conversions

between degrees and radians for some basic angles will become easier
to recognize and compute. It is vital to the study of trigonometry to
be able to use both radian and degree measures interchangeably and
fluently. Your calculator has a mode for each measure, but calculating
with radians on a calculator generally gives an approximate answer.
Whenever possible, try to complete exact calculations by hand, checking
your solutions with a calculator when needed.

Practice
I. Ina right triangle, sin(A) = 0.6. Which of the following is most likely true?

A. The leg opposite ZA has length 3 units and the hypotenuse has length 4 units.

B. The leg opposite 7A has length 3 units and the leg adjacent to ZA has length 5 units.

C. The leg adjacent to ZA has length 4 units and the hypotenuse has length 5 units.

D. The leg adjacent to 7A has length 3 units and the hypotenuse has length 5 units.

rs Using the triangle below,

find the length of LM.

what is the exact value of sin(L)?
what is the exact value of cos(M)?
&
a0what is the exact value of tan(M)?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 203

 3. A 15-foot tall flagpole castsa shadow {A¥ 8. A farmer is using 50 feet of fencing to
that is 20 feet long. What is the distance enclose a triangular field, where one side
from the top of the flagpole to the end of a barn will serve as one side of the
of its shadow? triangle. The angle between the pair of
sides of the triangle that are composed
of fencing measures 115°, and an angle
that is composed of fencing and the barn
wall measures 32.5°. Find the area of
the farmer’s enclosure if she uses all the
fencing available. Round to the nearest
20
square foot.

4. Use the right triangle below to find the 9. Give the radian measure for each of the
exact values of each trigonometric ratio. angles. Write your answer in terms of z.

R a y

é F 90°
14 O X

a sin(P)
bacos(2)
c sin(S) b y
d_ cos(S) t

5. Consider your results from question #4 180°

above. What conjecture can you aa ae
- , O
make about the sine and cosine of
complementary angles?
Y
° A triangle has side lengths 6 cm and 19 cm
y
with an included angle measure of 57°.
What is the area of the triangle? Round
to the nearest hundredth. 270°

7. An equilateral triangle has a side length @

of 10 m. What is the area of the triangle?

Write your answer both in terms of sine
and as a decimal rounded to the nearest d y
hundredth.

xX

A ee ee ee eS
204 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
PRACTICE PROBLEMS commas
10. Describe the location of the terminal side 21. Convert 4.5 radians into degrees.
of each of the angles 75° and —-105°.
22. Convert 0.11 radians into degrees.
If. Are the angles 315° and 45° coterminal?
Why or why not? 23. A Ferris wheel takes 2 minutes to
complete one full rotation.
12. In which quadrant is the terminal side of
an angle in standard form with measure of a_ ‘To the nearest second, how long does
600°? Give the reference angle for 600°. it take the Ferris wheel to rotate
through an angle of 260°?
13. Name three angles that are coterminal b How long will it take for the wheel
with 30°. to rotate through an angle of 1,125°?
Write your answer as minutes and
What is a quadrantal angle? seconds.
24. The pendulum of a large clock makes
Find the reference angle for 285°.
an angle of 1.17 radians as its tip travels
8 inches. To the nearest hundredth, what
Find the reference angle for 167°.
is the length of the pendulum? What is
State one angle in each quadrant the angle that the pendulum makes, to
whose reference angle is 71°. Do not the nearest degree?
use the angle measuring 71° as the
angle in the first quadrant.
425. You and your friend are standing on the
ground, some distance apart. An airplane
State one angle in each quadrant whose flies into the sky between the two of you.
Using inclinometers, you both figure out
4 Le
reference angle is TA radians. Do not your angles of elevation to the airplane:
Teer yours is 41.6° and your friend’s is 36.5°.
use the angle measuring ae radians as the The airplane is 2 miles off the ground.
Solve the following, rounding to the
angle in the first quadrant.
nearest hundredth of a mile.
Exercises 19=22: Convert each of the a How far are you from the airplane?
given angle measures. When converting to
b How far is your friend from the
degrees, round to the nearest hundredth, if
airplane?
needed. When converting to radians, write the
answer as both a simplified expression and as a c How far apart are you and your
decimal rounded to the nearest hundredth. friend?

19. Convert 45° into radian measure.

20. Convert 130° into radian measure.

Lesson 4.1 * Basic Trigonometry 205

 Lesson 4.2
The Unit Circle

MMMM The Unit Circle: Sine, Cosine, and Tangent

Wheels, machinery, and other items that rotate suggest that
trigonometry must apply to angles that have measures greater than a
right angle and that have negative and well as positive measures. We'd
like to write the definitions of sine, cosine, and tangent that include
what we already know about these ratios from previous math classes,
but that also go beyond those basic ideas. We will use a circle graphed in
the xy-plane to do this.

A circle with its center at the origin and radius equal to 1 is yf

called the unit circle and has the equation x* + y? = 1. Let @
be the measure of the central angle AOB, shown at the right,
in standard position. Let P(p, q) be the point at which the
terminal side intersects the unit circle and point Q be the
point at which the vertical line through point P intersects
the x-axis. Now we have right APOQ where mZQOP = ag
mAaAOB = oG,-andrO=G,OO= 7p jand OP =

From Lesson 4.1,

adjacent OOP. |
cos 0 = ——__—__ =~ =-=p
hypotenuse OP 1

opposite PQ q
sin = = =
=a
hypotenuse’ OP 1

Therefore, the coordinates of P are (cos 6, sin @). We have shown that
for a first-quadrant angle in standard position, the cosine of the angle
measure is the x-coordinate of the point at which the terminal side of
the angle intersects the unit circle and the sine of the angle measure
is the y-coordinate of the same point. Since P is in the first quadrant,
p and q are positive numbers and cos @and sin @ are positive numbers.

We can use the relationship between the point P on the unit circle
and
angle POR in standard position to define the sine and cosine function
s for
any angle, not just first-quadrant angles. In particular, notice that
ZPOR
with measure 6 determines the y-coordinate of P for any value
of @. This
y-value is defined to be sin @. Similarly, ZPOR with measure
@ determines
the x-coordinate of P for any value of @. This x-value is defined
to be cos 8.
eee
206 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
Let us consider angle ZPOR in each quadrant.

First-Quadrant Angles
ZPOR's a first-quadrant angle.
The coordinates of P are (p,q).
cos 0=p:p is positive.
sin 0= q is positive.

ZPOR is a second-quadrant angle.

The coordinates of P are (-p, q).
cos 0=p is negative.
sin 0=q is positive.

ZPOR is a third-quadrant angle.

The coordinates of P are (—p,-q).
cos 0=p is negative.
sin 0=q is negative.

ZPOR is a fourth-quadrant angle.

The coordinates of P are (p,- q).
cos 0= p is positive.
sin 0= q is negative.

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 207

 Quadrantal Angles

For the angles whose terminal side lands on an axis, the sine and the
cosine measures are equal to the values of the coordinates at these
points. For example, a 90° angle has a terminal side with a coordinate
(0, 1) on the unit circle. This means the cosine of 90° is 0 and the sine
Of 907 1st

U]
a

IP
G
R

() = (Oe 6 = 90° = 180°

cosé=1 cos 6 = 0 cos0 = —1
sin? =0 sin 9 = 1 sii
() = (0)

We can now formally define the sine function as the set of ordered pairs
(0, sin @) such that sin @is the y-coordinate of P and the cosine function is
the set of ordered pairs (6, cos @) such that cos @is the x-coordinate of P.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. The point P is on the unit circle and on the terminal side of an angle 6 in standard
1 V3
position. The coordinates of point P are |——, — |. Find the values of sin @ and cos 6,
and state the quadrant P is located in. ‘

SOLUTION
When the point P is on the terminal side of an angle in standard position on the
unit circle, the x-coordinate corresponds to the cosine value of the angle and the

y-coordinate corresponds to the sine value of the angle. So, sin @ = v3 and cos 0 = nis
This angle has its terminal side in quadrant II. 2 2

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee
208 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
COEF An angle in standard position on the unit circle has a measure of 190°.
Sketch a picture of the angle. What are the coordinates of the intersection point
between the terminal side of the angle and the unit circle? Round to the nearest
hundredth.

SOLUTION

This angle is located in the third quadrant.

We sketch the angle.

We are told the angle has measure 190°.

seid fe G-T We need to determine (cos190°, sin190°).
Using a calculator in degree mode,
determine these values as (—0.98, —0.17).
cos¢1965
-, 984867753 Note that because the angle has its terminal
sin¢196> side in the third quadrant, both sine and
-,17°3564381
777 cosine are negative.

Alternately, to solve this problem, we could

find the reference angle, which is 190° —
cost1lh>
. 984867753 180° = 10°. The calculations for the sine and
sinc1i@> cosine of 10° result in the same numerical
1736481777 values, but with different signs. We simply
apply the correct signs for sine and cosine in
the third quadrant.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 209

 3. Find the sine and cosine of -1,080°.

SOLUTION
The angle —1,080° is coterminal with —360°
(cos 6, sin 6) or 0°. This angle has a terminal side that
(1, 0) intersects the unit circle at the point (1, 0).
B
; The sine of —1,080° is the y-coordinate 0 and
the cosine of —1,080° is the x-coordinate 1.
So, sin (—1,080°) = 0 and cos (—1,080°) = 1.

ME Constructing a Line Tangent to a Circle

A tangent line to a circle is a line that is perpendicular to the radius at
a point on the circle. In geometry, this line can be constructed using a
compass and straightedge.

Step 1: Draw a circle and its radius.

Label the point where the radius
intersects the circle as point B.

Step 2: Extend the radius past

point B.

Step 3: Open the compass width

smaller than the radius and make
two arcs from point B on the line.
The intersection points of these
arcs and the extended radius make
a segment. Label the endpoints of
this segment D and E.

a
210 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
Step 4: Bisect DE by opening the
compass wider than segment DB.
Draw two arcs using this compass
width from each of point D and
point E.

Step 5: Connect the intersection

point of the two arcs and point B,
drawing the tangent line.

On the unit circle pictured below, the sine of the angle is the length
BC and the cosine of the angle is the length AC. How can we represent
the value of the tangent of the angle using the unit circle? We see
that the tangent line to the unit circle at the point (1,0) creates a line
parallel to the triangle leg opposite angle @.

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 211

 Suppose that we extend radius AB to intersect with the line that is
tangent to the circle.

Now the tangent line and the extended radius create two similar
triangles, AACB and AADE. The triangles are similar because of
Angle-Angle similarity; they share the angle 6, and we know that
ZBCA = ZEDA because they are both right angles.

Now, for AACB,

BC ACG BE
in@
sin@ =—i = BC cos@ ———
i AC tan @ = ——
AC

; : sin@
and since sin @= BC and cos @= AC, then tan@ = aii
cos

For AADE, tan@ = a and since segment AD is a radius and has

DE
lenethel tan6 = ee DE:

To state this another way, the tangent of a first quadrant angle, @, in

standard form, is equal to the length of the segment from the point
(1,0) to the point where the terminal side of the angle intersects the
tangent line. In the diagram to the right, point T has coordinates
(1, tan 6). For a first-quadrant angle, the tangent is a positive number.

Formally, the tangent function is a set of ordered pairs (6, tan 6)

such that tan @is the y-coordinate of point 7. Its ratio is tan@ = sind ;
cos@
What about the value of tan 6 for angles in other quadrants? Since tan @
is the y-coordinate of the intersection point of the tangent line through
(1,0) and the terminal side of the angle @, consider a second-quadrant
angle.

a
212 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
The terminal side of the angle is in
the second quadrant, but it does not
intersect the tangent line through
(1, 0). However, extending the
terminal side of the angle into
the fourth quadrant shows that the
y-coordinate of the intersection
point is negative.

In the third quadrant, extending the terminal side of the angle puts the T}
intersection point in the first quadrant. This makes the tangent of a third i
quadrant angle a positive number.

Finally, in the fourth quadrant, the terminal side of the angle intersects y
with the tangent line where the y-coordinate is negative. For fourth
quadrant angles, the tangent is negative.

If you are ever unclear what sign tangent @should take on, remember
; : sin ae ; He
the relationship tan@ = a7 will reveal whether the tangent is positive
COS
or negative for each quadrant. If the sine and cosine of an angle are
either both positive or both negative, the tangent will be positive. If the
sine is positive and the cosine is negative or vice versa, then the value of
the tangent will be negative.

To determine the tangent of quadrantal angles, again look for where

the terminal side of the angle intersects the tangent line through
(1, 0). When @is equal to 0°, the terminal side of the angle intersects
the tangent line at (1,0). When @is equal to 180°, the terminal side of
the angle does not intersect the tangent line, but the terminal side can
be extended to intersect with the tangent line at (1, 0). The y-coordinate
is 0, so tan (0°) = tan (180°) = 0. When @ is equal to 90° or 270°, the
terminal side of the angle is parallel to the tangent line and never
intersects it. So, tan (90°) and tan (270°) are both undefined because
there is no intersection point. We picture these relationships at the top
of the next page.

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 213

 6=0° 6 = 90° 6 = 180° 6 = 270°
tan 0° = 0 no intersection tan 180° = 0 no intersection
tan 90° is tan 270° is
undefined undefined

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Anangle @ = 275° is in standard position. A point, 7, lies at the intersection of

the terminal side of 0 and the line tangent to the unit circle at (1, 0). Find the
coordinates of T to the nearest hundredth.

SOLUTION

We graph the unit circle, the angle @, and the

tangent line.

The x-coordinate of Tis 1 and the

y-coordinate of Tis the value of the tangent
of 275°. Looking at the graph, we see that the
Lames 4300523 angle’s terminal side ee the tangent
a line between y =—10 and y =-12. We use
our graphing calculator to confirm that tan
(275°) =-11.43. The coordinates of T, to the
nearest hundredth, are (1, -11.43).

2. Anangle, 6, is in standard position.

a If sin @< 0 and tan @< 0, in which quadrant is 6?
b If cos @< 0 and tan @> 0, in which quadrant is @?
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a a ee Se
214 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 SOLUTION
a y The sine of an angle in standard position is negative
when the terminal side lies in quadrant HI or quadrant IV.
The tangent of an angle in standard position is negative
when the terminal side lies in in quadrant II or
quadrant IV. For both sin @< 0 and tan 6< 0, the angle
must have its terminal side in quadrant IV.

b y The cosine of an angle in standard position is negative

when its terminal side lies in either quadrant II or
quadrant III. The tangent of an angle is positive when its
terminal side lies in quadrant I or quadrant III. For both
cos 8< 0 and tan @>0, the angle must be in quadrant III.

& ({iL24 A point on the terminal side of an angle @ in standard position has
212
coordinates ag,= +}
1
Find the values of sin 0, cos @ and tan 0.

SOLUTION
Begin by noting that the terminal side of the angle has a positive x-coordinate and
a negative y-coordinate, placing the angle in the fourth quadrant. The cosine of the

angle is equal to the x-coordinate, so cos @ = 202 thesine of the angle is equal to

the y-coordinate, so 0 = -=.The terminal side of the angle in the fourth quadrant will
intersect the tangent line to the circle at (1,0) at a negative y-value, indicating that the
tangent of the angle will be negative.

1
“3 To find the value of tangent, use the relationship
1a = a sin
2V2 tan@ = ee substituting the values of sin @ and cos @.
3

1 22
3 Division of fractions is the same as multiplying by the
B reciprocal of the second fraction.

ae Rationalize the denominator to simplify the expression.

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 215

 Before moving forward with the exploration of trigonometry and the
unit circle, it is important to recognize common angle measures in both
degrees and radians.

One full revolution is 360° or 27 radians. Half of the circle is equal to 180° or 7 radians.

Recall from geometry that a circle can be divided into 30° and 60°
increments. The left diagram below shows the unit circle divided into
1 ee ;
BO 20% 6 radian increments. The right diagram below shows the unit
circle divided into 60° or a radian increments. Note that we did not
label the 90°, 180°, or 270° increments as those measurements were
stated above.

216 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 Recognize that there are coterminal angles for each of the divisions
of the unit circle. For example, 30° and 390° are coterminal angle
1 132% : Tee:
measures as are Sjand en radians. When working in degrees, we locate

coterminal angles by adding or subtracting 360°. In radians, we add or

subtract 27 to find coterminal angle measures.

MM Sine, Cosine, and Tangent for Special Right

Triangles
In geometry, we introduced you to two special right triangles; the
isosceles triangle with two 45° angles, and a second triangle with
acute angles of 30° and 60°. We call these 45°-45°-90° and 30°-60°-90°
triangles. We review the ratios of the side lengths in the diagrams below.

Recall that for each of these triangles, we calculate the sine, cosine, and
tangent ratios by comparing the lengths of the opposite leg, the adjacent
leg, and the hypotenuse for each angle. As always, we should write these
ratios in simplest radical form.

sin(30°) = i
ys
1 a
opposite leg ———
2
hypotenuse J2 sin(60°) = 8

adjacent leg
Bip teva
heat 2) 45°)
1
=—_=
cos hypotenuse aCe V2

tan(30°) =
_ opposite leg
0 tan(45°) = :=1
rhe adjacent leg
tan (60°) =

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 217

 We can convert any of these ratios to radian measure. For example,
2
= sin(45°) = -
since 45° has the same measure as a sof5]

Let’s extend these ratios for the special right triangles to other angles
in the unit circle. The reference angle and the quadrant in which the
terminal side of an angle lies will help us determine the values of the
sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle. We perform some reflections of the
special right triangles drawn in quadrant I to illustrate this.

Consider the 45°-45°-90° isosceles triangle drawn in quadrant I on the

unit circle at the right. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we find that the
ngNe :
length of each leg, x, when the hypotenuse equals 1, is 2 The negative

of this solution also satisfies the equation, but this is a positive length
of a side of a triangle in quadrant I. This means that the point where

the hypotenuse intersects the unit circle has coordinates ee 2 and

2
we can conclude that sin(45°) = oe and cos(45°) = ae
i
The angles in quadrants II, III, and IV with reference y
angles of 45° will have the same (x,y) coordinates as ie XZ) (*gi xz
the 45° angle but with different signs. If we reflect the ee
triangle from the first quadrant to the second quadrant
over the y-axis, the hypotenuse is the terminal side
of an angle in standard position with reference angle 45°,
or an angle of 135°. The coordinates of the point on
the terminal side that intersects with the circle are

2 | Somsim(lijo.s)= 2 and cos(135° ) =— v2 :

Peer I oe

Reflecting the triangle to quadrant III creates an angle

with measure 225°. The x- and y-coordinates are now

both negative. This means that sin(225°) = =

V2 and

COS (2250 = e

218 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Finally, reflecting our triangle to quadrant IV creates i
an angle of 315°. It also gives the coordinates for the
intersection point of the angle’s terminal side with
the unit circle. In this quadrant, the x-coordinate is
positive and the y-coordinate is negative. For 315°,

sin( 315°) 2280 and cos(315°) eo

z ; 2 Ny ( |
The same procedure of reflecting a special right triangle ‘ : % : :
from the first quadrant to the remaining three quadrants
yields values of the coordinates on the unit circle for other angles. Then
we can deduce the values of sine and cosine from the values of the
x- and y-coordinates of the points. The tangent of a given angle can be
sin@
found by dividing the sine value by the cosine value as in tan@ = ay
COs
Let’s consider what happens when we reflect a 30°-60°-90° triangle.

When the measure of an angle in standard position is 30°, the 30°-60°-90°

triangle has a shorter leg of length ;and a longer leg of length a

Thiusscos(302)i= 2 and sin(30°) = :as shown in the diagram on the

left below. The diagram on the right below shows the reflections of the
30° -60° -90° triangle into the other three quadrants. We also show the
coordinate points for the terminal side of the angle for three angles with
a 30° reference angle: 150°, 210°, and 330°.

What if the 30°-60°-90° triangle is oriented so the angle in standard

L v3
position measures 60°? This means that cos(60°) = 5 and sin (60°) = a

as shown in the diagram on the left on the next page. The diagram on the
the next page show the reflections of the 30°-60°-90° triangle into the
other three quadrants and the coordinate points for the terminal side of
the angle for three angles where the reference angle is 60°: 120°, 240°,
and 300°.
Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 219
 MODEL PROBLEMS

(ZL2:} Find the exact value for the angles in standard position on the unit circle.
a sin C40)
Tk
b cscoon
: }

¢ tan(i50°)

SOLUTION
a A 240° angle lies in the third
quadrant, so we subtract 240° — 180°
and find a 60° reference angle.
Sketching the 30°-60°-90° triangle in
the third quadrant shows that the side

opposite the 60° angle has length ie

V3

and the hypotenuse has length 1. All

sine values in the third quadrant are
Wa
negative, so sin(240°) = ee

Co ae ,
The angle measuring Te radians

is a fourth quadrant angle with a

ae ae
reference angle of 7 The angle a is

equivalent to 45°. Drawing a 45°-45°

-90° triangle in the fourth quadrant
shows that the sine is negative but the
& | V2
cosine is positive. So, cson is —.
5

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

—e—-_—_—_—————

220 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 The angle measuring 150° has its
terminal side in the second quadrant
with a reference angle of 30°. We draw
the 30°-60°-90° and see that the cosine
is negative and the sine is positive.
This means that the tangent of 150°
will be negative.

tan(150°)=ah
To find tan (150°), divide sin (150°),
1 which is the value of the y-coordinate,
tan(150°)=5 by cos(150°), which is the value of the
x-coordinate.
oe
tanti 507 y= —

tan(150° )= is
Simplify by dividing and then
tan(150° ) = = rationalizing the denominator.

at
tan(150° )= oa B

2. Find the exact values of sine, cosine, and tangent for an angle, 0, in standard position

where @ = =".

SOLUTION
The angle 6 = oo is coterminal with 7 Dividing

157 by 4 gives 3a, so we rotate the angle clockwise

from standard position 3 half circles (equal to z

radians) plus on. This lands the terminal side of the

1
angle in the first quadrant at e For an angle of a

v2 V2
the coordinate point on the unit circle is (2|

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

SSL CNT

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 221

 ay
sin eee v2 The sine value is the y-coordinate, the cosine value
‘ 2 is the x-coordinate, and the tangent value is the
V2 ratio of sine to cosine.
ve le oe
tan} -—— |=—==1
| 4 | v2
Z

We've presented a lot of important information in this lesson. To summarize,

the unit circle defines the values of sine, cosine, and tangent for any angle.
The points on the unit circle that intersect with the terminal side of an angle,
6, give an (x, y) coordinate pair that corresponds to the values (cos 6, sin 8).
The coordinates of these points will be the function values for y = cos(@)
and y =sin(6) for inputs of @. The 30°-60°-90° and 45°-45°-90° special right
triangles provide a set of points on the unit circle that give the sine and
cosine values for angles that are multiples of 30°, 45°, and 60°. The points at
which the unit circle crosses the x- and y-axes provide sine and cosine values
for angles that are multiples of 90°, 180°, and 360°. We derived some of these
values individually. We present the full unit circle below.

Yy

222 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Se Clic: clic C ema eee NN OGTIEfr een cater paiqulie nswisi Ot
An angle in standard position has a 6. The sine of an angle is e and the cosine
measure of 185°. Which best describes the cee
is a
What
;
is the tangent of the angle?
sign of tan(185°)?

A. The tangent value is positive because In which quadrant is the terminal side of
the sine and cosine values are both the angle?
negative.
The tangent of an angle is equal to —-1 and
B. The tangent value is negative because
the sine and cosine values are both the sine of the angle is equal to eo
negative. What is the value of the cosine of the
C. The tangent value is positive because angle?
the sine and cosine values are both
In the diagram below, 7ROP 1s an angle in
positive.
standard position with a measure of @ and
D. The tangent value is positive because point P(—p, q) is the point at which the
the sine value is positive and the terminal side of the angle intersects the
cosine value is negative. unit circle.

2 An equilateral triangle has side length 2.

Draw an altitude from one vertex to the
opposite base. How does this drawing
confirm the side lengths of a 30°-60°-90°
triangle? Support your answer
mathematically.

An angle in standard position has

a measure of 128°. What are the
coordinates of intersection of the a What is the domain of cos @ and sin 0?
terminal side of the angle and the unit (Hint: What values can we use for 6?)
circle? Round to the nearest hundredth. b What is the range of cos @and sin 0?

4 Describe the value of the tangent of an c Is tan @defined for all angle measures?
angle in standard position with respect d= What is the domain of tan 0?
to the tangent line intersecting the unit
circle at the point (1, 0). e What is the range of tan @?

Given an angle, 6, in standard position,

s Are the values sin (90°) and sin ie)
if sin @> 0 and tan 6< 0, in which equivalent? Why or why not?
quadrant does the terminal side of the
angle lie?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.2 * The Unit Circle 223

 10. Complete the following table.
20.

Een er 21 cos(225°)

[0(2) a |e beets)
tan(6) eames |eeetonn| eee par
22 sin(330°)

11. Find the exact values of sin(30°), cos(30°), 23 tan(120°)

and tan(30°).
24 sin(1,800°)
12. Find the exact values of sin(60°), cos(60°),
25 tan(630°)
and tan(60°).
147
26. cos} ——
13. Find the exact values of sin(45°), cos(45°),
and tan(45°).
; 21
27. sin} -——
Exercises 14=273 Find the exact value
of each expression. Write any radicals in
simplified radical form. hA 28. Consider the unit circle at the angle
measuring 240°. Calculate the following,
14. sol5) giving exact answers and rationalizing
4
denominators where needed.

a What is the sine, cosine, and tangent

of that angle?

b What is the slope of the line going

through the origin and the given
point?

c¢ What is the slope of the line tangent

to the circle at the given point?
d= What relationship does the slope of
the line have with the tangent of the
given angle?
19. tan

Lesson 4.3
Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs
So far in Chapter 4, we have discussed the three basic trigonometric
functions, sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan). Each of these is
a ratio of two sides in a right triangle having a specific relationship on

ee ee
224 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 the unit circle. There are three more trigonometric functions, called
reciprocal functions, which are also the ratios of two sides in a right
triangle and can be represented using the unit circle. Recall from
previous math classes that the reciprocal of a number is a number
where the numerator and denominator are reversed. For example, the
tise
reciprocal of 3 is : and the reciprocal of —4 is -2.Recall also that

the product of a number and its reciprocal is 1. Similarly, we define the

three reciprocal trigonometric functions using the reciprocal of the sine,
cosine, and tangent functions.

MME Cosecant, Secant, and Cotangent Functions

The three reciprocal trigonometric functions are cosecant (csc),
secant (sec), and cotangent (cot). The cosecant function values are the
reciprocals of the sine function values, the secant function values are
the reciprocals of the cosine function values, and the cotangent function
values are the reciprocals of the tangent function values.

ee ee Cotangent (cot)
Relationship to sine, i 1
cosine, and tangent

Relationship to sides hypotenuse hypotenuse adjacent side

in a right triangle cst O= opposite side secs adjacent side us opposite side

Like other functions, each reciprocal function will be undefined when the
denominator is equal to zero. So the cosecant function will be undefined
when sin(6) = 0. The secant function will be undefined when cos(6) = 0,
and the cotangent function will be undefined when tan(@) = 0.

As we learned in Lesson 4.2, we can represent the sine, cosine, and tangent
functions with the length of a segment with respect to the acute angle 6.

ee
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 225
 We can draw lengths on the unit circle to show cosecant, secant, and
cotangent as well.

We represent the cosecant function

using the length of the segment that lies
along the terminal side of the angle that
intersects with the line tangent to the
circle through (0, 1).

An angle’s secant is represented by the

length of the segment along the terminal
side of the angle to where it intersects the
tangent line though (1, 0).

The cotangent is the length of the tangent

line from the point of tangency at (0, 1)
to the intersection of the terminal side of
the angle.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ (KGAA The terminal side of an angle in standard position intersects the unit
“oS
circle at the point (2. ee If the measure of the angle is 6, find the value of

the six trigonometric functions.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

226 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 SOLUTION

The point ol 5? | on the unit circle represents the values of (cos 6, sin 0). So

we immediately know that sin 0= o and cos 0= = We can also easily calculate

ind
fan0 = Hen as tan@d = a We rationalize the denominator to find tan@ = —.
B
cos@ Niel 3
The other three functions are reciprocals of sine, cosine, and tangent.

Soe eo 2 Sine and cosecant are reciprocal functions; the value of

| csc @is the reciprocal of sin @.

ne 2.) 2/3 Cosine and secant are reciprocal functions; the value of
3 2 sec @is the reciprocal of cos 6.

cole a = Tangent and cotangent are reciprocal functions; the value

V3 of cot @is the reciprocal of tan 0.

2. What is the exact value of sec(30°)?

SOLUTION
1 We know that secant is the reciprocal function of cosine.
fore (610) cos(30°)

Using the 30°-60°-90° right triangle, we find the exact

value of cos(30°).
30°
2 1/3, We could also use the unit circle from Lesson 4.2.

60° o
1
2
cos(30°)i= #

sec(30°) = eae 2v3 From this point, we could write the reciprocal of v3 and
ALE] 2) : : b)
simplify.

(30°) = hypotenuse Alternatively, oe eau write elie ratio aie

<< ~ adjacent side from the 30°-60°-90° triangle, since the secant is the
ratio of hypotenuse to the adjacent side.
Qe
sec(30°) = Pars
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee ee

OO
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 227
 3. What is the value of cot(15°)? Round to the nearest hundredth.

SOLUTION
The cotangent is the reciprocal of tangent, so
tancls> ; 1 oy
. 26°94919274 cotl1s?)= CEO Use a calculator to find th

value of tan(15°). Be sure you are in degree mode.

tanc1s)
iS 2679491924 Find the reciprocal of tan(15).
Ans
3. ro2656868
The value of cot(15°) ~ 3.73. Alternately, you can
1“tan¢1s) find this value directly by entering the reciprocal.
3. 792058588

ME Graphs of the Six Trigonometric Functions

This section discusses the pertinent features of the graphs of the six
trigonometric functions and how some these graphs relate to the unit
circle. These six graphs have many similarities and differences, which
are important not only to the remainder of your precalculus studies,
but also your upcoming calculus studies. We begin with the sine
function.

Sine: y(0)=sin 0

Consider a table of values for given values of 0, expressed in both radian

and degree measure for one complete revolution around the unit circle.
We can find all these values using the unit circle and the 30°-60°-90°
special right triangle.

228 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

The graph below shows the sine function for one period or one cycle.
The period is the interval on which the function repeats itself.

y(0) = sin @

If we extend the graph beyond one period, we find that the function
values are the same for coterminal angles in both the positive and
negative direction every 27 radians or 360°. As we can see below, the
graph of y(@) = sin @is continuous and has a domain of all real numbers.
The maximum value of the sine function is 1 and the minimum value is
—l, giving it a range of [-1, 1].

The unit circle is directly related to the sine function. For any angle, @, in
standard position, the angle’s terminal side intersects the unit circle at
a point where P(x,y) corresponds to (cos 6, sin 9). The y-coordinate is
the value of the function on the sine curve as shown below. The vertical
distance from the x-axis to a point on the unit circle is the same as the
vertical distance from the x-axis to a point on the sine curve for the
corresponding angle, 6.

We extend this idea to any point on the unit circle and any related point
on the sine curve. For example, in the picture on the next page, the
1
vertical distance representing the value of sine for the angle 0= 2 (on

the unit circle, lined in gray) is the same as the vertical distance on the
graph of the sine curve (on the right graph, lined in gray). A negative

Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 229

 value on the unit circle for sine, like for = “Z,corresponds to a point
on the sine curve below the x-axis (lined in tan).

Cosine: y(@)=cos 0
The graph of the cosine function is similar to the graph of the sine
function. The function’s maximum value is | and the minimum value is
—1. Its domain, or values of the angle, 9, is all real numbers. Also, like
the sine function, the period for the cosine function is 27. This means
that the values for the cosine function repeat themselves for every
2a or 360°. The first graph shows the cosine function for one period.
The second graph shows multiple periods of the function.

When we graph both y(@) = sin @ and y(@) = cos @on the same axis,
we see that the graphs have the same shape but are translations of each

other. The sine curve is the cosine curve shifted to the right 7 units.

y(0) = cos @

230 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

The unit circle and the cosine function graph are related in a similar
manner as the sine function and the unit circle. The value of cos(@) for
any value of @is equal to the x-coordinate of the intersection point
of the terminal side of @in standard position. The horizontal distance
from the y-axis to the unit circle for a given angle corresponds to the

function value on the cosine curve. For example, see the horizontal
; 7 Say
gray line showing the value of cosine for 6 on the unit circle and the

corresponding vertical line on the cosine curve.

Tangent: y(@)=tan 0
Recall that we find the value of tangent when we divide the sine by the

cosine, tan @ = aHLY . Obviously this expression is undefined when cos(6) = 0,

cosé
which happens when @= S and @= = as well as when the value of @ is any
3 ;
angle that is coterminal to F or a So, the function y(@) = tan() will be

undefined any time @= 5+ nm, where n is an integer. We show the graph

of y(@) = tan(6) below. Notice that one cycle of the graph occurs from

~= to = This means that the function repeats with a period of z.

2

y(0) = tan 6

1
The domain of this function is all real numbers except 0= 9 “+ TUTE.
At these points, the graph of the tangent function approaches
asymptotes, so its range is all real numbers.
manne
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 231
 Cosecant: +y( 0) —cse ¢

The graph of the cosecant function has y-values that are the reciprocals
of the sine function’s y-values. Note that the cosecant function will be
undefined for any angle that has a sine value equal to 0. This occurs at @= 0,
z, and 22. The cosecant graph has asymptotes that occur at multiples of z.

Tw
6

i
2

For this function, there are pieces of the graph that open up and other
pieces that open down. We describe the end behavior of the pieces of the
graph that open up as moving toward positive infinity. These pieces have
a relative minimum value of y = 1. A relative minimum (or maximum) is
a value that is a minimum (or maximum) for a part of a function, not the
function as a whole. For the cosecant function, there is no overall maximum
or minimum because the ends point to positive or negative infinity. You
might say that the maximum is positive infinity and the minimum is negative
infinity. However, a relative minimum of y = 1 describes the minimum value
of the function for the pieces of the graph that open up. The branches of the
graph that open downward have a relative maximum of y = —1.
y
|
|
|
|
|
| y(0) = csc 0
|
|
|
|
|
|
ah > 6
7 dar

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

232 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Imposing the graph of y(6) = sin 6 onto the cosecant function graph
highlights the reciprocal relationship between sine and cosecant. Notice
that where the sine function is equal to zero (where the graph crosses
the x-axis), the cosecant function is undefined and has an asymptote. As
stated, the domain for the cosecant function is all real numbers except
for multiples of z. The range of the cosecant function is all numbers
greater than or equal to 1 or less than or equal to —1, (—~, -1] U [1, ~).

|
|
|
|
|
y(@) = csc 0

|
|
iy (6) = sin 8
—>0)

Secant: y(@) =sec 0

The y-values of the secant function are the reciprocals of the y-values
1 ; :
for the cosine function since sec 0= ay Wherever the cosine function
co
is equal to zero, the secant function will be undefined. Reexamining the
cosine graph, we see the values of the function are equal to zero when

0= Lae nz, where n is an integer. We have circled these values on the

2
graph below.

ee ee
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 233
 At these values of @, the secant function has an asymptote. The domain
of the secant function is all real numbers except for the locations of
1
the asymptotes, 0= oe nm. The range is all real numbers greater than

or equal to 1 and less than or equal to 1, (—~, —1] U [1, ~). The relative
minimum for the curves that open up is y = 1. The relative maximum for
the curves opening down is y = —1.

y(@) = sec 0

We graph the cosine function on the same set of axes so we can plainly
see the reciprocal relationship between the two functions.

y(@) = sec 0

234 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Cotangent: y(@)=cot 6

The cotangent function is the reciprocal

function of the tangent function and

since tan 0= oe: Col weer

cos@” sind
cosé
Multiplying by the reciprocal of the
. cos@
denominator reveals that cot@ =
sin@
The cotangent function is thus
undefined wherever the sine function
is equal to 0. As we know, the sine
function is equal to zero at n multiples
of z. At these points, there is an
asymptote for the cotangent function.
The domain of the cotangent function
is all real numbers, except for multiples
of z, and its range 1s all real numbers.

The graph below shows both the tangent and cotangent functions
graphed on the same set of axes. Note that when one function is
approaching an asymptote, the other function approaches a value of
zero, and vice versa.

y() = cot é

a 5a Nan Ag _207 \o 3
|
| | wa olf D>“— "bs
—pe)= D>
|
ea

tel
Spies

Deen
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 235
 We summarize the domain and range information for each of the six
trigonometric functions below.

Domain (n is an integer)
[Sine
| Al real numbers i-

[Cosine
|Ailreal numbers IE

1
All real numbers except Be nt All real numbers

All real numbers except nz All real numbers

1
Secant All real numbers except ade -1] U [1,i!&)
(—«, ee

All real numbers except nz (—o0, -1] U [1[1, )

MODEL PROBLEMS

CFI Use your graphing calculator help you sketch the graphs of y(x) = sin x and
y(x) = ese x for x-values on the interval [—27, 27].

SOLUTION

Floti Flot2 Plots

.Yi8sin ¢“2 Enter the two functions. For y = csc x, use the
SYzHl-sintad reciprocal of sine function.

Next, set the x-values in the window to have

a minimum value of —27 and a maximum
value of 27. You can also change the x-scale
TT Cae
to 3° For the y-values, set a minimum of —3

and a maximum of 3. The sine function has a

maximum of | and a minimum of —1, which
are the relative minimum and maximums of
the cosecant function. This will give us a good
picture of what these functions are doing.

Aioneecsad Make sure your calculator is in radian mode

Degree and graph the functions.
o- Mol (ree

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

—_—aSan

236 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 Sketch what you see on the screen.

Note that some calculators will show the

vertical asymptotes as solid lines. Changing the
x-res to | will eliminate these asymptotes.

2. Consider the function y(@) = cos 6 over the interval [0, z]. Does the function
increase or decrease over the given interval? Compare these values to the values
of y(0) = sec 0 in the same interval.

SOLUTION
as
Start by making a table of values using intervals of 30° or LOT y(6) = cos-2:
6

From the table, we see that as the values of @ increase from 0 to z, the values of
the cosine function decrease from +1 to —1. Thus, on the interval [0, z], y(@) = cos 6
decreases.

The values of the secant function are the reciprocals of the values for y(@) = cos @ for
like values of 6.

ci TT
Looking at the table, the values of y(@) = sec @ increase on the interval from 0 to 3 as
7 : 7
the function approaches the asymptote at 0= 5: Then, on the interval from * to 7, the
values continue to increase.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
arma NN NI TL Uhipauees eens

Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 237

 The decreasing behavior of the function values for cosine and the increasing behavior
of the function values for the secant function can be confirmed by looking at the
graphs on the interval [0, z].

3 yiOji— sec 0

Practice
1. Which of the following trigonometric functions have graphs with asymptotes?

A. Sine, cosine, tangent only

B. Tangent and cotangent only
C. Secant, cosecant, tangent, and cotangent only

mi
D. All six trigonometric functions

2. The terminal side of an angle, 6, intersects the unitaecircle at the point [8-1
ee
What is the
value of @in radians?

3. Which trigonometric function is shown on the graph below?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

ee
238 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
ae Which trigonometric function is shown on Jt. Find the exact values of cot(45°) and
the graph below? cot(120°).
y
Find the exact values of sec >| and

SEC}
S)
=—
2
|

~(-3)
Find the exact values of csc (=) and

Suppose the point (1, 4) is on the terminal

w
side of an angle in standard position with
measure 9, on a circle with center at the
5. Sketch the graphs of y = sin @and y= csc @ origin and with a radius r.
using the interval [—27, 27]. Name four
Find the value of r.
values of @ for which sin 6= csc @.
Find csc 0
Find sec @
6. Sketch the graphs of y=tan @and y=cot 6
&
a°o Find cot @
using the interval [—z, z]. Give four values
of @for which tan @= cot @. hd 15
Find the values of the six trigonometric
functions for an angle @in standard
7. As the values of @ increase, the values of
position whose terminal side intersects
y = tan @increase (for the values of @ for
the unit circle at the point (0.96, —0.28).
which the function is defined). Why do the
Round to the nearest hundredth, if
values of y = cot @ decrease (for the values
necessary.
of @for which the function is defined)?
16 Find the values of the six trigonometric
Give the domain and range of the function
functions for an angle @in standard
y =sin @. Which other trigonometric
position whose terminal side intersects
functions have the same domain and
Dxaek
range? the unit circle at ES }Give the
exact values.
9. What are the maximum and minimum
values of y=cos &? 17. Find the six trigonometric function values
for 0= 300°. Give the exact values.
10. Identify the trigonometric function shown
in the graph. Describe its domain and range. 4g, Find the six trigonometric function
values for @= 200°. Round to the nearest
hundredth, if necessary.

19. If the terminal side of an angle in

standard position is in the second
quadrant, what must be true of the signs
for the six trigonometric functions?

a a re Se ee eS
Lesson 4.3 * Reciprocal Functions and their Graphs 239
 Lesson 4.4
Periodicity and Symmetry
In Lesson 4.3 we described the basic features of the graphs of the six
trigonometric functions. In this lesson we delve more deeply into the
graphs of sine, cosine, and tangent allowing x to be equal to @

Me Periodicity
The graphs of y = sin x, y= cos x, and y = tan x and the graphs of their
reciprocal functions all exhibit patterns of periodicity. A horizontal
translation of one section of each of the graphs creates the remaining
parts of the function’s graph. For example, consider the sine function
from x = 0 to x = 2z, which is highlighted in tan color below. This
interval represents one cycle (one period) of the graph. Translating this
section of the graph to the right 27 units draws the section in black.
Translating the tan section 27 units to the left creates the section of
the graph in gray. Stated more mathematically, the values of the sine
function repeat themselves for each 27interval, so for every x in the
domain, sin x = sin(x + 27).

The same is true for the cosine function. The values of this function also
repeat themselves on each 27interval.

Similarly, for y = tan x, the values of this function repeat themselves

every units. Notice that the section of the graph in tan has asymptotes
1
atx= a ang = = Subtracting ¥-(-| = shows that there is

240 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

one cycle of the graph for each z
interval. The tangent function values
repeat themselves so that for each x in the domain of the function,
tan x = tan(x + 2).

1
1
Y/ = Walia\ ge
sue
Gees
2S !
1
a
1 —— Pao
| ( | >)T

ng nao 120

iliac
eee
Soa

The interval on which a graph completes one cycle is called the period.
For the sine and cosine functions, the period is 27. For the tangent function,
the period is z. Because these functions are cyclical, they are often called
periodic functions. The reciprocal functions also show periodic behavior.

MODEL PROBLEM

[T28) Consider the graph of the cosecant function shown below. Describe the
function’s periodicity.

Hi i
st
Ue

fH:ztHi
:iji

Seectetah,
Siiernies
|
Ueemls
‘Geserecess
etlshy
Son
Gases
deme

SOLUTION
Looking at the graph, we see the function repeats itself every 27 units, so its period
is 27. We could also determine the period of this function by knowing that cosecant
is the inverse function of sine, and since sine has a period of 27, cosecant also has a
period of 27.

Lesson 4.4 * Periodicity and Symmetry 241

Programming a graphing calculator using parametric equations can
show us the periodicity of the sine function with respect to the unit
circle. In the activity below, the graphs of the unit circle and the sine
function are drawn at the same time, using a new parameter called 7.
Parametric equations introduce additional variables, or parameters,
that help to describe a relationship. We will explore parametric
equations in more detail in Chapter 7.

Step I: Press [MODE] and set the angle measure to radians, the function
type to Par (parameter), and choose to run two programs
simultaneously. Also, use the set of complex numbers, a + bi.

Step 2: Enter the equations needed to draw the unit circle and to
draw the graph of the sine function. As explained in
Lesson 4.2, the points on the unit circle are defined as
(cos 6, sin @), at the point where the terminal side of the
angle @ (in standard position) intersects the unit circle.
Using the variable T in place of 6, enter cos(T) as X,,,and
sin(T) as Y,,. These equations will draw the graph of the
unit circle, for any angle T. Ploti Flote Flots
. . sRirdcos¢T2
Step 3: To draw the graph of the sine function, let X,,.be the input Vi7rBsintT?
values of the angle T and let Y,,. be the output values for 27 BT
the sine function. Note that parametric equations allow YzerGsintT oi
both the unit circle and the sine curve to be drawn at the \A3T=
same time for the same set of inputs, 7. wat =
SA4T=
Step 4: We need to adjust the [WINDOW] to show two full periods
of the sine function. Since one period is equal to 27, set
the maximum values for T and Xmax to 4zand the other
window options as shown. Note that if you want to see
WINDOW
Tmin=6
only one cycle of the function, use a Tmax and Xmax of Tmax=12,.566378...
2a. Or, if you want to see more than 2 cycles, set the Tmax Ister=. 1
and Ymax for a larger multiple of 27. The arrow at the aMiN=71
bottom of this screen indicates that we can use
AMax=12. 566376...
ascl=.52359877...
the arrow key to scroll down and see more options, which L¥min=-2.5
we set as follows:

Tmin = 0 Xmin = —-1 Ymin = —2.5

‘Wane = alge Xmax = 47 Y max 65

Tstep = 0.1 Xscl= - Yscl=1

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

242 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

 Step 5: Press (GRAPH). The calculator draws the points on the unit
circle at the same time it graphs the sine curve. Note that for
each full rotation of the unit circle, one full period of the sine
function is drawn.
One rotation of the unit circle = one period of the sine
function

Exercises 1 — 3: Use your graphing calculator to help you

answer the following questions.

I. Ifthe calculator graphed 4 full rotations of the unit circle, how

many period(s) of the sine function would be graphed?
2. Consider an angle that is 30° and another angle that is -30° when
in standard position on the unit circle. Find the values of sine and
cosine for both angles. What do you notice about these values?

3. Based on your answers to #2, what do you think might be generally

true about the values of cos(—@) and sin(—@) for an angle @in
standard position?

MG Symmetry
Recall the definitions for even and odd functions.

Odd Function

fl-*) =f) fl-x) = fx)

The function evaluated for —x is The function evaluated for —x

the same as the original function. | is the opposite of the original
function.
Even functions are symmetric Odd functions have rotational
about the y-axis. If we reflect the | symmetry about the origin. If
graph over the y-axis,it remains _| we rotate the graph 180° about
the same. the origin, the graph remains the
same.
—

Are the trigonometric functions sine, cosine, and tangent even, odd,
or neither?

Lesson 4.4 * Periodicity and Symmetry 243

 The sine function is odd because if we rotate the function 180° on the
interval from 0 to 2 about the origin, it maps back onto the original
function.

Next, looking at the graph of the cosine function, we see that reflecting
the graph on the interval from 0 to 27 over the y-axis maps onto the
cosine graph from —27 to 0. The cosine function is an even function and
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

Finally, the graph of the tangent function is an odd function because it

has rotational symmetry about the origin.

>“rk

SS
sa
a

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. The point (0.5, 0.878) lies on the graph of y = cos x, where x is an angle in radians.
Using symmetry and periodicity, find the three angles in the interval [-27, 27] that
also have a cosine value of 0.878. Round to the nearest thousandth where needed.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

244 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

SOLUTION
The cosine function is
symmetric with respect
to the y-axis. Reflecting
the point (0.5,0.878) over
the y-axis gives the point
(=05:0'878):

The cosine function has

+247 a period of 27. The angle
Ke
x = 0.5 will have the
same cosine value as
x= 0.5 227700 x = 6,783
and x ~ —5.783. This gives
the points (6.783, 0.878)
and (—5.783, 0.878). Note
that only the second
point is within the
interval of interest.
To find the another
+27 point within the interval
[—27, 27], we can use
periodicity of the
cosine function with
the point found earlier,
(—0.5,0.878), because the
angle —0.5 + 27 will have
the same cosine value.
The third point in the
interval is (5.783, 0.878).

(iL The values in the table below are for the tangent function y = tan x, where
x is an angle measured in radians. Sketch the tangent function on the interval
-3n2 312 }Justify your steps.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.4 * Periodicity and Symmetry 245

 SOLUTION

We can use the ideas of

symmetry and periodicity to
draw the graphs of trigonometric
functions. Start by plotting the
points given in the table.

The tangent function is an odd

function with 180° rotational
symmetry about the origin.
Rotating each point 180°
changes the sign of both the
x- and y-coordinates. The point
(0, 0) is the center of rotation
and so it does not change. The
other points become negative.

Plot these points on the graph

and connect to draw the curve.

As the angles approach = from

the left and ae from the right,

the values of the tangent curve
approach an asymptote.

Ms
|
i
The tangent function has a
i

period of z, meaning that the

}

values of the function repeat

themselves every z units.
Ke Translating the graph to the
se} right and to the left creates the
graph of the tangent function
jH
See
ees
iS
|
on the interval (=.=).
22
ee
3 5ae
en
ea
i Za

——

246 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Sn ECC COMME REND MANNA RN) HG yee iaitaioiiis) oT pom ee
I. A point (a, b) lies on the graph of the sine 9. Compare the graphs of y = sin x and
function in the interval [0, 27]. The point y =cos x in terms of their symmetry
is rotated 180° counterclockwise about and periodicity.
the origin. What are its new coordinates?
10. Sketch the graph of y = cos x on the
A. (a, b) C. (a,—b)
interval [—4z, 42]. How many periods of
Bs [SVigley D. (—a, —b)
the function are within this interval?

a Describe each of the functions as even, a Sketch the graphs of both y = sin x and
odd, or neither. y =cos x on the same set of axes.

a y(x)=sin x b Find a value of a that will map

beyix)= cos * y =sin(x + a) onto y=cos x.
Cory (a) tan x c Sketch the graph ofy = sin(x + a)
using your value of a from part b and
What type of symmetry does the graph of y =cos x on the same set of axes to
y =sin x have? confirm that a maps the functions
onto each other.
What is the period of y =sin x?
The point (a, b) is on the graph of
How many periods of the graph of y =sin x y =cos x in the interval [0, 27]. If the
are in the interval [0, 67]? point is reflected over the y-axis, what are
the coordinates of the reflected point?
Name an interval in which there are
> cycles oLy = sin x. What is the period of y = cos x?

7. Sketch the graph of y=sin x on the interval Is the graph of y = cos x its own image
[—4z, 42]. How many periods of the sine under a reflection in the x-axis? Explain
function are in this interval? your answer.

8. Complete the table of values below for the Is the graph ofy = cos x its own image
function y(@) = sin @. under a reflection in the y-axis? Explain
your answer.

16. Find the cosine for each of the pairs of

angles shown.

45°, —45°
DOF al 208
OUR O0E
210 e210;
& 300°, —300°
ono

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.4 * Periodicity and Symmetry 247

 17. Describe the relationship between cos(@) 19. Sketch the graph of y = tan x on the
and cos(—8). interval [- | How many periods of

18. What is the period of the tangent the function are within this interval?
function?
20. Describe the symmetry and periodicity of
the tangent function.

Lesson 4.5
Transformations of Trigonometric
Functions
Like other functions we have studied, we can perform transformations
on trigonometric functions using translations, reflections, stretches, and
shrinks. A few important aspects of the sine and cosine functions must
be defined before exploring these transformations.

ME Amplitude
Consider the graph of the sine function shown to the right. y
One part of the curve is above the x-axis and the other
y = sin x
part of the curve is below the x-axis.

The distance from the horizontal midline of the graph to

the maximum point is called the amplitude. Sometimes this
is called the height, or magnitude, of the sine (or cosine)
function. The amplitude is equal to half the distance from
the maximum point to the minimum point on the function, and is
1 ‘
given by the formula a= 5 imax— min|. For the graph of the parent sine
function, the maximum value is | and the minimum value is —1. Notice
that the distance from the x-axis to the minimum point of the graph is
also 1.

When describing the amplitude of a sine or cosine function, we always

use a positive number because distance is positive. In a sine or cosine
equation, the function’s amplitude is given by the coefficient in front
of the sine or cosine function, y = a sin x or y =a cos x, where the
amplitude is equal to |a|. When |a| is greater than 1, the graph of the
function is stretched vertically from the parent function with amplitude
equal to 1. When |a| is between 0 and 1, the function is compressed

248 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

or shrunk vertically from the parent function. When a is negative, the
graph of the function is reflected over the x-axis.

For the tangent function, there is no amplitude because there are no

maximum or minimum values for the function. A change in the value
of a for the tangent function represents a vertical stretch or shrink.
Consider the graphs of y = tan x below, left, and y = 3 tan x, below, right.

The y-values of the function y = 3 tan x are three times larger (or smaller
for negative values) than the y-values for the function y = tan x for the
same values of x. In the table below, y, = tan x and y, = 3 tan x.

MODEL PROBLEMS

ie :
I. Graph the functions y = sin x, y = 2 sin vx and y = Ae on the interval [0, 27].
Compare the amplitudes of the functions.

SOLUTION
Vie Siey

We graph each of the given functions over the

interval.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Fr
Lesson 4.5 * Transformations of Trigonometric Functions 249
 ra Sie

=—sinx
3

From the graphs we see that the distance from the x-axis to the top of the wave
increases as the value of a in y =a sin x increases. For values of a that are between 0
and 1, the amplitude decreases. The value of the amplitude is also the maximum value
of the function. Note that a change in amplitude does not change the period of the
function. It also does not change the fact that the x-axis is the midline of the graph.

[GME Describe the relationship between the graph of y = —4 sin x and the graph of
y =sin x. Then sketch the graphs on the same axes.

SOLUTION
Starting with the graph of y = sin x (solid
black line), reflect the graph over the
x-axis and then apply a vertical stretch
using a factor of 4 (tan line). The graph
of y =—4 sin x has an amplitude of 4,
compared to an amplitude of 1 for the
graph of y = sin x. Graphing the two
functions together on the same axis shows
the different amplitudes and the reflection
over the x-axis.
pLLLLEUEE
eON
t5ra

opeapioniineesnen eee nsenecicrroraenons

250 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

M88 Horizontal Stretches, Vertical Translations, and
Phase Shifts
Horizontal Stretches

Recall that the period of a trigonometric function is the interval in

which one cycle of the function is completed. For the sine and cosine
graphs, the period is 27. For the tangent function, the period is 7. A
function’s period can be changed by changing the value of b in the
equations y = sin(bx), y = cos(bx), or y = tan(bx). When the period is
altered, a horizontal stretch or compression occurs.

Consider the graphs of y = cos x, y = cos(2x), and y= cos{

4] from left
to right, all on the interval of [0, 27]. Qs

y= cOS + i= COS(2X) y= cos 4“

In the graph on the left, we see one period of the cosine function and
b = 1. For the graph in the middle, b = 2 and there are two full periods of
the cosine function. The graph on the right, with b= >shows only half
of a period for the cosine function.

We know that y = cos x has period of 27. For the function y = cos(2x),
two full cycles fit in the interval from 0 to 27, which means the period

of y= cos(2x) is is =. In the interval from 0 to 2z7, there is only half

Zz
of one period for the function y= con) . This means the period of

y= cos] is a = 47. Generally, we find the period of a given function

1
2
by dividing the value of |b| into 27.

|
Lesson 4.5 * Transformations of Trigonometric Functions 251
 To find the period of a trigonometric function:
2
Period for Sine or Cosine = eas
[2
Period for Tangent = 7

Vertical Translations

We vertically shift trigonometric functions up or down by adding or

subtracting a constant to the function itself. In the equations y = sin x + d,
y=cos x + d,and y = tan x + d, the value of d indicates a vertical shift of
the function. The graphs ofy = tan x, y= tan x +3, and y = tan x —3 are
shown below. Notice the vertical shift of the graph up or down 3 units
for the functions y = tan x + 3 and y = tan x — 3 compared to the parent
function y = tan x.

Vie vann Vy = tater 3 y=tanx-3

Phase Shifts

A trigonometric function can also shift horizontally, either to the right

or to the left. This is called a phase shift and is indicated with the value
of c in y = sin(b(x —c)) or in y = cos(b(x —c)). Letting b = 1, consider the

graphs of y =sin x and y=sin [-£)

veasitey y= sin
[»-2

ee ee
252 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
Both these graphs have equal amplitude and period. The graph of
ts |e
y= sin(x2) is the graph of y = sin x, shifted = units to the right.

Graphing both functions on the same coordinate plane help us see this.

i) = Sia %

Technology
Activity 2

In this technology activity, we use our graphing calculators to help us

perform and understand transformations on trigonometric functions.
This activity focuses on the sine function, but we can apply the
techniques defined here to any trigonometric function. The general
form of the function that we’ll be looking at is f(x) =a sin(b(x — c)) + d.

Step I: Graph the function f(x) =sin(x) in YL. This is the parent
function.

Step 2: We apply a vertical stretch to the parent function by changing

the a-value to be greater than 1. We enter f(x) = 2sin(x) in Y2.
The transformed function appears as a dotted curve in the
screenshot to the right.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

oe ee ee ee ee
Lesson 4.5 * Transformatio ns of Trigonometric Functions 253
Step 3: We'd like to stretch the graph horizontally by a factor of
2 as well; this will change the b-value from 1 to 2. The new
function becomes f(x) = 2sin(2x), which we graph in Y2.

Step 4: Suppose that we’d like to move our curve up by 1 unit. This
means that the function in Y2 becomes f(x) = 2sin(2x) + 1
because we need to change the d-value from 0 to 1.

Step 5: Finally, let’s apply a phase shift of 5units to the right, which

makes our Y2 equation f(x) = os 2f

al +i) Phase

shifts affect the value of c. We have shown how each of the

changes to the parent function affects the function’s graph.

Exercises 1 — 4: Use your graphing calculator to help you

answer these questions.

I. Graph the function f(x) = sin (x) in Y1.

a Write a function and graph it in Y2 that vertically stretches the
function in Y1. Sketch the graphs you created.
b Write a function and graph it in Y2 that vertically compresses
the function in Y1. Sketch the graphs you created.

¢ Suppose that the function graphed in Y2 was f(x) =—3 sin (te
What happens to the graph of the function in Y2 compared to
the function in Y1?
d Make a general statement about how changes in the a-value
affect these graphs.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

ee Se A eer ne ae ee
254 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
2. Graph the function f(x) = sin(x) in Y1.
a Write a function and graph it in Y2 that horizontally stretches the function in Y1. Sketch
the graphs you created.
b Write a function and graph it in Y2 that horizontally compresses the function in Y1.
Sketch the graphs you created.
¢ Make a general statement about how changes in the b-value affect these graphs.

3. Graph the function f(x) = sin(x) in Y1.

a Write a function and graph it in Y2 that shifts the graph in Y1 to the right. Sketch the
graphs you created.

b Write a function and graph it in Y2 that shifts the graph in Y1 to the left. Sketch the
graphs you created.

c Make a general statement about how changes in the c-value affect these graphs.
4. Graph the function f(x) = sin(x) in Y1.
a Write a function and graph it in Y2 that shifts the graph in Y1 up. Sketch the graphs you
created.

b Writeafunction and graph it in Y2 that shifts the graph in Y1 down. Sketch the graphs
you created.

c Make a general statement about how changes in the d-value affect these graphs.
; ; Bae,
5. Describe the transformation that takes f(x) = sin(x) to f(x) = a sin(2(x + 3)) + 4.

MODEL PROBLEMS

a (LEA Describe the phase shift and the period for each of the given functions.
a. y=sin(v + 2)
b. y=cos(4x— 7)
€ y=tan2x—-7)

SOLUTION
a
Comparing this function to y = sin(b(x — c)),
we know the value of b is 1 and the value
of c is —z. Thus, the period is 27 and the
phase shift is z units to the left. This is
confirmed by looking at the graph, where
the tan-colored z shows the horizontal shift.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ne el i
Lesson 4.5 * Transformations of Trigonometric Functions 255
 b Factoring out a 4 from the argument 4x — 7
gives s(x-2] We can now express the

TT
function as y = cos a(x-2] and we clearly
2
—
see thatb=4 andc= = The period of this

function is Cs =the phase shift is

A 2
1 : ee
C= ve which moves the function a units to

the right. The graph reveals the horizontal

shift to the right and the smaller period,
which is indicated in on the graph.
c ~- yYqlanx
We again factor and rewrite the function

as y=tan o(x-2 thusb=Zandc= =

The period of this function is 4 and

the phase shift is . units to the right.

The first graph shown for this model

aut problem is y = tan x and the second
graph is y = tan(2x — z). The graph of
y = tan(2x
— z) the transformed function has a smaller

period of awe can see the phase shift

by comparing the x-intercept of y = tan x
to the x-intercept of the first period of
the function y = tan(2x — 7) to the right.
The x-intercept starts with 0 and then goes
1
10-7,
2

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

256 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Sketch the graph of y =3 sin af»+2

SOLUTION
The transformations for trigonometric functions can all be applied to one function. When
graphing, start with the phase shift, then apply any changes in period. Next change the
amplitude as needed, and finally apply any vertical translations.

Start by considering the phase shift of Z units to

the left. For the graph of y = sin x, one period of the

function starts at (0, 0). For a phase shift moving

left — units, the starting point of one period of the

function is [-#0 |

The value of b is 2 so the period is z. Since one

cycle of the function starts at [-2.0} a period

of z means the cycle will end at ee = “=

The y-values of the sine function increase for the

first quarter of one period and then decrease until
the last quarter. For the last quarter of one period,
ue 1
the values increase. Divide the period from ae to
are
ee into four equal parts.

The amplitude of the function is 3, which means

that from the x-axis, the maximum point will be
y =3 and the minimum value will be y = —3. Draw
the curve of the sine function.

a
Lesson 4.5 * Transformations of Trigonometric Functions 257
WE Reciprocal Function Transformations
Recall that the reciprocal functions are related to sine, cosine, and
tangent in the following ways:

The graphs below show sine and cosecant, cosine and secant, and
tangent and cotangent graphed together. Notice that for sine and cosine,
there are asymptotes for the reciprocal functions wherever the graphs
of sine and cosine cross the x-axis.

See %

i = CS ae = CSE Ys SCeX US BSE vi

i

y = tan x
1
!
|
!
|
I
I
I
|
AS12
!
I
|
I
I
!
!

We can transform the reciprocal trigonometric functions using

horizontal and vertical stretches, translations and reflections. To graph
a cosecant, secant, or cotangent function by hand, start by sketching
a graph of its reciprocal function: sine, cosine, or tangent. Perform all
of the transformations on the sine, cosine, or tangent graph and then
use the relationship between the reciprocal graphs to graph cosecant 5
secant, or tangent. We demonstrate in the first model problem below.
Re ee eS
258 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
MODEL PROBLEMS

Gs IMP 7| Sketch the graph of y = 3 sec(2x) on the interval [-22, 27].

SOLUTION
Start by sketching a graph of secant’s
reciprocal function, cosine. We graph
y =3 cos (2x). We know 3 is the
value of the amplitude. The 2 in the
argument represents a horizontal
compression, which changes the value

of the period to Tn
IZ =T7.

On the interval [—27, 27], there will

be 4 cycles of the cosine function.
One cycle of the function will start at
x =0 and end at x = 2. The maximum
value will be y =3 and the minimum
value y = —3. Draw a cycle of the
cosine function for every z units in
the interval.
For this function the midline is
the x-axis as there is no vertical
translation. Each place the cosine
function crosses the midline creates
an asymptote for the secant function.
In this case, there will be asymptotes
oC
al = +r.
AD

y The cosine and secant functions are

Rt Ro reciprocals, so the altitude change
stretching out the cosine function will
| stretch out the secant function as well.
f Draw the pieces of the secant graph,
using the asymptotes as guides.
toed
——

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

e
_ > 2 in
e e
Lesson 4.5 * Transformati ons of Trigonometri c Functions 259
 1 ;
2. Use a graphing calculator to draw the graph of y = ca x+2)on the interval
[-22, 27]. State the function’s domain and range.

SOLUTION

Floti Flot? Flot3

sYil-tan tx?
Y2=
Yes
sue
STES Most graphing calculators do not have
Ve a cotangent function. Instead, use the
reciprocal relationship between tangent
and cotangent to graph y = cot x. Be sure
to adjust the window settings as needed.
Notice the asymptotes at 7 multiples of z.

Ploti Flot2 Flot3 To graph the phase shift left = units, use
Wil “tants+n/2) a

the reciprocal of the tangent function

S25 again, including the phase shift. Input
Y= '
sYu= ——
Sia
into the calculator.
tan(x4
spt RC :
The graph has shifted 5 units to the left as

shown by the new asymptotes.

The asymptotes for the cotangent function are at the x-values of ao nz. This
means
that the domain of the function is all real numbers except for values of
x = 7 nn.
The range is all real numbers.
:

MODEL PROBLEMS continue..

re ee
260 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
3. Compare the graphs ofy = ese x and y= sel -£|

SOLUTION
Start by graphing y = sin x and y= cos{x2} The cosine function has a phase shift
lat: :
of A units to the right compared to the graph of y = cos x.

V=sinx 1
y= cos{x2]

The phase shift of z units to the right maps the function y= cox{x4) onto

the function y = sin x. This means the graphs of the reciprocal functions
will be the same. They will have asymptotes wherever y = sin x and
1 : ; :
y= cox(x—4) cross the x-axis, which occurs at n multiples of z. Graphing

1 1 : ;
i) = for y=cscx and y= —_———-. for y= see»= ")using a graphing calculator,
sin x )
cos| x —-—

shows that the two functions have the same graph.

Floti Flot2 Flot?

sYiBl-sinta? ie J
—YeBl-“costx-1/2)

WE ALIN
sYs=
Yas
VY a=

LL

Lesson 4.5 * Transformations of Trigonometric Functions 261

MMMM Practice EE
S
I. Is the graph of y=sin a[x+2 the same as 15. Consider the function y = sin(bx), where
the value of b changes the period. Find
the graph of y= sina(x- Justify your the period for each value of b given
answer. below. Then, for an interval of [0, 27],
state how many cycles of the function will
Exercises 2-4: Find the amplitude of each occur for the each value of b.
function.
5
i) 1
Be y(x) =i5 OS
0.5
3. y(x) =—4sin(2x)
Exercises 16-203 Describe the
4. y(x) =cos(3x- 2) +4 transformation(s) that takes the parent
function to the given function. Then sketch the
Exercises 5=8:3 Find the period of each graph on the interval [—27, 27] and give the
function. domain and range.

5. y(x) =sin(2x) y(x) =-sec x

6. y(x) =tan(m) +4 y(x) = 4sin(3x)

Dex i= 3009{x-4 (ee cos2(x-2) +1

8. y(x) =sec 4(x + )

19 Pie ese (=|
Exercises 9=1 2: Describe the phase shift.
Use the words “right” or “left” to describe
which way the shift occurs. 20 jC) he -tan + z)
“a

3 a
v= es + )
21 Graph the following functions over
y(x) = sin2(x + z) 1 period and describe the transformations
that take the parent function to the given
VES coss(x—4] +1 function.

a y=-3sin(2(x+z))-4
v(x) zs
= see ee5
2x
bye osee = »-24) 1
Describe how the graphs of y = csc x and 5 4
y =-csc x are related. 1
Cc y=—= tan (7 (-52))3
Consider the function y = tan(x). What
happens to the equation if the graph is
translated vertically up 5 units?
ee eee eee
262 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
LEsson 4.6
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
As we learned in Lesson 3.2, a function, f(x), and its inverse function,
f'(x), have the relationship that for every f(x) = y, f-'(y) =x. Thus, the
domain and the range are interchanged for a function and its inverse.
Recall also that not all functions have inverses that are also functions.
This is true when the graph of the original function does not pass the
horizontal line test. We also learned that in some cases we can restrict
the domain of the function so that its inverse is a function. This is the
case with inverse trigonometric functions.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The Inverse Sine Function: y = sin'!x

Consider the graph of the sine function. In its entirety,

it does not pass thehorizontal line test. This indicates
that there is not an
inverse function across the entire
domain of the sine function. What if we restricted the
: x 1 :
domain of the function to oo ? This portion of

the graph includes all values of the sine function from

its minimum value of y= —1 to its maximum value of
y =1.This restricted part of the graph does pass the
horizontal line test. Notice that this piece of the graph is =)

increasing. Then, the restricted domain of the sine function is ee

IRD
and the range is [—1, 1]. For the inverse sine function,y = sin''y, the

domain is [—1, 1], and the range is ey . The graph of the inverse

sine function is shown below, with some points labeled.

ye either

eo ll EE ———————
Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometri c Functions 263
 For the inverse sine function the x-coordinates are ratios of the side
lengths in a triangle and the y-coordinates are the angle measures. This
shows an important relationship between y = sin x and y = sin''x.

x represents an angle x represents the sine ratio

measure for a given angle, x
y represents the sine ratio y represents an angle
for a given angle, x measure

The inverse sine function is sometimes called the aresine. The notation
y =sin-'x and y = arcsin x have the same meaning and either can be
used to represent the inverse sine function.

The Inverse Cosine Function: y = cos'x

We must also restrict the domain of the cosine function in
order to produce an inverse that is a function. Restricting
the domain to [0, z] gives a piece of the graph that includes
all of the values of the cosine function from its minimum of
y =-—1 to its maximum of y = 1. This restricted part of the
graph is always decreasing. This means the domain of the
inverse cosine function is [—1, 1] and the range is [0, z].
The graph is shown below.

Again, from the points on the graph, see that the x-values are cosine
ratios and the y-values are angle measures. Like the sine inverse, the
cosine inverse is sometimes called the arccosine. The notation y = cosx
and y = arccos x have the same meaning and either can be used to
represent the inverse cosine function.

ce ee ee
264 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
The Inverse Tangent Function: y = tan-'x
Obviously, the graph of the tangent function also does not

pass the horizontal line test. A restricted domain of 5 >|

2
gives a portion of the graph that contains all of the values of

the tangent function from (—#, ). The restricted part of the

graph is always increasing. Interchanging the domain and

range of the tangent function gives a domain of (—», ) and

a 1 : ;
a range of |
es for the inverse tangent function, y = tan"'y or

y = arctan x. The graph of the inverse tangent function approaches two

horizontal asymptotes of y= os evael =

tan

Again, the x-values for the inverse tangent function represent tangent
ratios and the y-values represent angle measures.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ CGE Find all values of 0 that satisfy the equation sin 0 = 5

a without the use of a calculator, giving exact solutions, and
b with the use of a calculator, giving approximate solutions.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Nee
Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometric Functions 265
 SOLUTION
a We need to find the angle measure that
1
has a sine ratio of 5 . What angle gives a
triangle with an opposite side of 1 unit and
a hypotenuse of 2 units? In quadrant I, this
is a 30° angle, or a radian.

What about in quadrant II? The sine

function is positive in here as well. Using a
reference angle of 30° (or ieradian), the
angle we’re looking for in quadrant II is
150° or 2 radian.

Now we find the values of @ for which sin 0= >We are looking for the angle

measures that are coterminal angles 30° and 150°. Adding 360° to each of 30°
and 150° gives more values of @ that satisfy the equation. The solutions to the
equation must be written in a way that represent all coterminal angles of 30°
and 150°. In degrees, we say x = 30° + 360°n and x = 150° + 360°n, where n is
an integer. In radian measure, we find coterminal angles by adding 27 to each

angle measure. The solutions, in radians, are x = os 20n and x= “e+2707n.

[ : Seer
bh snd= 5 To find the decimal approximations, we use
the inverse sine function.

Use the calculator to solve for the values

of @. Set the mode on the calculator to
degree and, using the key, access the

inverse sine function. Input sin’ |

Sindis2)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
e eee
266 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 The calculator will return the value of the sine inverse within the restricted
domain of —90° to 90°. Using the reference angle of 30°, the other angle within
the domain is 180° — 30° = 150°. Adding 360° gives other values of @ that satisfy
the equation. Again we express these angle measures as x = 30° + 360°n and
Xx = 150° + 360°n, where n is an integer.
We can also use the calculator to find
LE) ae | Sci Eng
loat aT Shae e259 the solutions in radians. Set the mode to
radian. Again, use the key to access the
inverse sine function. The calculator finds
the radian measure to be approximately
0.5236, which is about ; radian. The
Real Horiz G-T
second quadrant angle in radians is found
by subtracting z— 0.5236 ~ 2.6180. Adding
sint¢c172) 2m gives the other coterminal angles that
eJ25I99
7 rTo6 satisfy the equation and can be written as
m6 x = 0.5236 + 27n and x ~ 2.6180 + 27n.
e207
987 76

2. Find the value of cos"! (-2]on the interval [0, z], using a calculator when

necessary. Explain the meaning of the results.

SOLUTION

Sci Eng We are looking for the angle measure that returns

lostae
Om
ad | : Z
a cosine ratio of ae We know that the cosine
function is negative in quadrants I and II. From
the unit circle, the angle that gives a cosine ratio

of v2 is a Using this as a reference angle for

1] There G-T
eee II and III returns angle measures of
SHE
aw ade.
—7 However, the angle measure iia is
1¢ “C2929 outside of the [0, z] interval of the inverse cosine
ae 2.309619449
3nu/4 Z 31
2.350619449 function. So, cos” |
oatap We check our

work on the graphing calculator.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometric Functions 267

 3. Find all values of 0 in the range [0, 360°] that satisfy tan 6 = 1.653. What does the
answer represent?

SOLUTION
Using a calculator, find the inverse tangent of
1.653 to isolate the angle. Since the interval
given is in degrees, set the mode to degree. The
inverse tangent of 1.653 gives an angle measure
of 58.828°. The tangent function is also positive
in quadrant III. Using 58.828° as a reference
‘ul 1 Horiied [Ef angle, the third quadrant angle with a tangent
ratio of 1.653 is 180° + 58.828° = 238.828".

tan ¢1.653)
Je.ce2rrl.1lis

To check the answers, the tangent of both

tants. 828) 58.828° and 238.828° should return a value of
»633818817
tant238.823) approximately 1.653.
1.653618817

As you finish out this chapter and begin work in Chapter5,keep in mind
that the inverse trigonometric functions are possible only under restricted
domains of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions. When the domain is
restricted to a part of the graph that is only increasing (as in sine or tangent)
or only decreasing (as in the cosine function), the inverse is also a function.
The input values for an inverse function represent trigonometric ratios,
while the outputs are a set of angle measures.

SE Modeling with Inverse Trigonometric

Functions
The inverse trigonometric functions are useful for solving problems to
find angle measures when ratios of side lengths are known. They can
also help to solve problems involving periodic phenomena in the
real-world.
re
268 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
MODEL PROBLEMS

1. The function p(t) = 85 + 25sin(271) approximates a resting patient’s blood pressure,

where p(t) is measured in milligrams of mercury (mmHg) and £ is the time in seconds.

a Graph p(t) on your graphing calculator. Adjust the window settings so you can
see the graph from 0 to 3 seconds and sketch what you see.
b Over this interval, what is the highest value of the patient’s blood pressure?
This is called the systolic pressure.
c¢ Over this interval, what is the lowest value of the patient’s blood pressure?
This is called the diastolic pressure.
d_ Solve the equation to determine the times, within the first 3 seconds, when the
patient’s blood pressure is 110 mmHg. Round to the nearest hundredth of a second.

SOLUTION
a In radian mode, graph the function using x
Ploti Flote FiotS
nw 4 B854+25sin¢t2nk as the variable for f.
)
wY2=
sYs=
sYu=
sYs=
sYa=

WIHDOW
aMin=8

Yrin=58
Vmnax=1260
Yscol=1
Ares=H

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

i ae spe

nnnEEE EEE

Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometric Functions 269

 b Press to calculate the maximum
gee als value, which occurs at x = 1.25 and y = 110.
aeee Lue The highest blood pressure is the maximum,

= als
MiniMur 110 mmHg.
Max 1 Mun
Pintersect
6: dd
ve PF exe)che

Veale
1

\ |
|
i F

Np
Maximum
4=Le500006 Y=110
Ny ,

c Repeat the steps from part b, above, to find

‘value a the minimum value. We see that the lowest
2s zero blood pressure is 60 mmHg.
min iMuM
=MaxlMum
J: intersect
65 dy“dx
re ShCxodx

d= 110 =85 + 25sin(2z1) We need to find the times when the

patient’s blood pressure is 110 mmHg,
within the given interval.
110 — 85 = 85 — 85 + 25sin(2z1t) Isolate the sine function.
29 = 25sin(277%)
1 =sin(2z1t)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
l i a
e Ht
270 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
 Site (i= 271 Use the definition of the inverse sine
function.

LOTUS =o 751 Solve for t.

1.5708 *
Tes
L205
p(t) = 85 + 25sin(2z1) The function is periodic and the maximum
blood pressure occurs once per cycle. Find
2m
2 _|
pe the period of the function using a where

b is equal to 27in this sine function.

The pressure will be 110 mmHg A period of 1 second means that the
at 0.25, 1.25, and 2.25 seconds. We desired pressure occurs in 1-second
confirm these answers by adding the intervals starting at 0.25 seconds.
line y = 110 to the graph and noting
the three intersection points.

@ (27 Ata pier along the shore of Lake Michigan, the tide reaches a height,
in meters, over a time, in hours, that we can model using the equation
h(t) = 0.50 sin(1.587 + 0.05) + 3.97. A maintenance crew needs to clean the
supports of the pier and they need to know approximately when the tide will be
at its lowest. The crew’s normal work hours are from 4:00 a.m. until 10:00 a.m.
If t= 0 corresponds to 4:00 a.m., describe the earliest time the tide will be at its
lowest height of 3.47 meters.

SOLUTION
3.47 = 0.50sin(1.581 + 0.05) + 3.97 Substitute 3.47 for h(t).

3.47 = 0.50sin(1.581 + 0.05) + 3.97 Isolate the sine function.

0.5 = 0.50sin(1.58¢ + 0.05)
—{ = sin(1.58r + 0.05)
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometric Functions 271

 Sin) (1) Lost + 0.03 Use the definition of the inverse sine function.

sin (-1) = 1.58 + 0.05 Solve for f.

— 1:62 = 1.588
Os =e
Pls
The result is a negative time, meaning the
—1.03 + —- = 2.95 first low tide occurs before 4:00 am. The
1.58
period of this sine function is ae ~ 3.98.

This means that the height of 3.47 meters

will repeat every 3.98 hours. Add —1.03 + 3.98
to find the next time when the tide height
will be 3.47 meters.

The crew should plan to clean the Since t = 0 represents 4:00 am, 2.95 hours
pier supports right before 7:00am. later is about 6:57 am.
=

We confirm this solution by looking at the

Ploti Flot2 Plot3 graphs of y = 0.50sin(1.58x + 0.05) + 3.97 and
.V186.56sin¢61.58 y = 3.47. The graph of y = 3.47 intersects sine
4+.60594+3.97
sY283.4°7 graph of x = 0 at x = 2.95. This corresponds to
about 3 hours past 4:00am.

WINDOW

a CE a ce eee eeNE
272 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
We summarize the pertinent information about inverse trigono
metric
functions below.

Restricted Domain Inverse Function Graph of Inverse

Practice
I. Why does the domain need to be restricted 2. What are the domain and range of
on the sine function in order for the PSs ver
inverse to be a function?
A. Domain [-1,1]
A. The sine function needs to have a
RE He
restricted domain so that the inverse Range
| —-—, —
function will pass the oblique line test. ee| 2 2 |
B. The graph of the sine function does B. Domain[-0, z]
not pass the horizontal line test. If we Range [-1, 1]
did not restrict the domain of sine, its
G Domain] ~%,%)
inverse would not be a function.
C. The sine function needs a restricted Range [-1,1]
domain because its inverse is linear. D. Domain [-1, 1]
D. The graph of the sine function does not Range [0, z]
pass the vertical line test, and thus its
inverse will not pass the vertical line test.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 4.6 * Inverse Trigonometric Functions 273

 State the restricted domain for the sine The function f(t) = 71.3 + 12.1sin(0.5¢— 1.4)
function so that it has an inverse function. models the average temperature of a
city, where ¢ is the number of months
- What are the domain and range of past the first of the year. Thus, ¢= 1 is the
Ve COSE temperature on February 1”.

= What is the restricted domain for y = tan x a What is the average temperature
so that its inverse is a function? when t = 6?
In the first 12 months, when is the
What are the domain and range of average temperature about 78°? Round
Ve tan your answer for ¢ to the nearest integer.
19. A ladder is leaning against a building. The
a |5
Find the exact value of wn" _N3 top of the ladder reaches the building at
14 feet. The ladder is 18 feet long. What
Find the exact value of tan !(0). is the angle the ladder makes with the
ground? Round to the nearest degree.
Find the exact solution(s) to tan @= (V3)
from [0, 27]. vw 20 The electromagnetic radiation of a
radio signal is described by the formula
Find the exact solution(s) to cos @= (-1)
E =0.14cos(2zft), where E is the electric
from [0, 360°].
field strength measured in volts per
Find the exact solution(s) of cos @= : meter (V/m), fis the frequency in kilohertz
from [0, 360°]. (kHz), and ris the time in seconds.

a Use a calculator to graph the function

12. Find the exact value of sin"!(1).
when the frequency is 5 kHz. Adjust
the window to see the field strength
Find all exact values of 6 that satisfy
over | second.
the equation cos 0= v2 . Use degree If the frequency is 5 kHz, what is the
2 first time after t= 0 at which the field
measure.
strength equals 0.01 V/m? Round to
Find all exact values that satisfy the the nearest thousandth.
equation tan 0= 1. Use radian
measure. KA 2. The safety administration OSHA states
that to be safe while on a ladder, the
Find the exact value of tan(tan“'(1)). horizontal distance to the base of the

ladder must be : that of the height.

Find the exact value of wfcos | |
Find the acute angle (in degrees) that the
ladder makes with the ground when in
Determine the value of sin“'(2) using
this recommended position. Round to the
your calculator. Interpret your answer.
nearest hundredth of a degree.

—————_

274 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Chapter 4 Key Ideas
4.1 Basic Trigonometry
e Sine, cosine, and tangent are ratios that relate the side lengths and the angle measures for
similar right triangles.
e We can calculate the area of a triangle by using trigonometric ratios.
e A positive angle rotates in the counterclockwise direction. A negative angle rotates in the
clockwise direction.
e An angle in standard position has its initial side on the positive x-axis. The angle’s terminal
side can be on another axis or in any of four quadrants.
e We can convert between radian and degree measure of angles.
e A radian is the ratio of the length of the arc that is intercepted by the rays of the angle to
the length of the radius.

4.2 The Unit Circle

e The unit circle has its center at the origin and a radius of 1. It is used to define the values of
sine, cosine, and tangent for a given angle, 0, in standard position. Any point on the circle
has coordinate values of (cos 9, sin @).
e The value of the tangent of an angle @is the length of the segment on the line tangent to
the unit circle at (1,0) from the point of tangency to where the tangent line intersects the
terminal side of the angle.
e We use the ratios of side lengths for 45°-45°-90° and 30°-60°-90° triangles to find the exact
values of sine, cosine, and tangent on the unit circle for those angle measures.

4.3 Reciprocal Functions and Their Graphs

e The three trigonometric functions, cosecant, secant, and cotangent, are called reciprocal
functions because of their relationships to sine, cosine, and tangent, respectively.
e The graphs of the trigonometric functions, and their reciprocal functions, have certain
properties, domains, and ranges.

4.4 Periodicity and Symmetry

e All the trigonometric functions are periodic; one cycle of the graph repeats itself
throughout the domain.
e The sine and tangent functions are odd functions because the graphs exhibit rotational
symmetry of 180° about the origin.
e Thecosine function is an even function because its graph is a reflection of the function
over the y-axis.

KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter 4 Key Ideas 275

 4.5 Transformations of Trigonometric Functions
¢ Wecan transform the graphs of trigonometric functions using vertical stretches or shrinks,
horizontal stretches or shrinks, phase shifts, reflections, and vertical translations.

4.6 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

e We must restrict the domain of the trigonometric functions in order to produce the inverse
trigonometric functions.
e The inverse trigonometric functions are useful for solving applied problems.

eee
276 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
Chapter 4 Review
1. Which of the graphs shows the function
y=csc x?

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter 4 Review 277

 2. For the triangle shown below, find the exact 4. In which quadrant does the angle
values of sin(A), cos(A), and tan(A). measuring 165° have its terminal side?
What is its reference angle?
A 16 B
Wie
5. Convert — to the nearest tenth of a
degree.

22 6. Convert 240° to radians. Leave the radian

measure in terms of Z.

(Cc
Exercises 7=10: Find the exact values
of each.
A. sin(A) = = cos(A) = =.
Ze Sin(135")
tan(A) = N57
i eae
S 29)|

9. tan(—90°)
B. sin(A) = = cos(A) = —
10. | =)
tan(A) = v57 3
il
11. Fora given angle in standard position,
in which quadrants is the tangent of that
C. sin(A) = 57 cos(A) = etl
i 8 angle positive? Negative?
8
tan(A) = i 12. Explain why the cosecant, secant, and
cotangent are called reciprocal functions.

D. sin(A) = VST cos(A) = a 13. State the exact value of:

ila 11
a sec(45°)
tan(A) = a
b cot(300°)

3. Find the area of a triangle with side lengths © csc| 2%

6
7 cm and 9 cm and an included angle of
42°. Round to the nearest hundredth.
14. Give the domain, range, maximum value,
A. 21.08 cm? and minimum value of the graph of
ale Orem y =COS x.
CyA2n6 em?
D. 28.10 cm? State which of y = sin x, y = cos x, and
y = tan x are even or odd. Explain your
answers.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

ee ae Sa ee Re ee
278 Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs
16. Consider the function y =a cos (x) + d. 20. Find the exact value of each expression.
Explain how the values of a and d affect a sin“'(-1)
the graph of the parent function. 1
b cos! 5
17. Find the phase shift and period of the
function y = sin(3x + 7). 21. The equation y = 15 sin 0 gives the height
where the top of a ladder meets a wall for
18. What is the period of the function the angle, 0, that the ladder makes with
y =cot(x)? Sketch the graph of the the ground. The safe angle for the ladder
is between 73° and 78°. A construction
function on the interval [-%,Z|
worker sets up the ladder so that it
reaches 12 feet up the wall. Is the angle
19 Restrict the domain of y = tan x so that
the ladder makes with the floor within
the inverse y = tan''!x is a function. Sketch
the safe range? Justify your answer.
the inverse function and give its domain
and range.

Chapter 4 Review 279

 Trigonometric Identities,
Proofs, and Equations
ne Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Double Angle Identities

BP erate In this chapter, we will learn about trigonometric
5.2 Special Trigonometric identities, which are equalities that involve
Identities trigonometric functions. An identity is true for every
53 ecoWvina value where each function is defined. Trigonometric
Trigonometric identities are quite useful to us in the real world,
Equations especially in architecture, music theory, and
Bae ener Cocnccand engineering. Below we explore an application of
Law of Sines trigonometric identities that will help us to understand
Lesson 5.2.
Chapter 5 Key Ideas

Chapter 5 Review Dmitry is riding on a carousel, which has a sidewalk

running along one side of the ride. The distance from
the ride’s center pole to the sidewalk is 36 feet and
the distance from the center pole to the edge of the
ride platform is 24 feet. The carousel moves in a
counterclockwise direction and Dmitry has chosen
to ride on the lead horse that is currently a quarter-
rotation from the sidewalk in front of the ride. An
illustration is shown below.

Dmitry

Note: Figure is not drawn to scale.

OO
280 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 Use your prior knowledge to answer the following questions.

I. Suppose that it takes the carousel 45 seconds to complete one full rotation. Through
what angle does the carousel move each second? Express your answer in degrees.

2. How far away from the sidewalk is Dmitry five seconds after he passes his position as
described in the introductory paragraph? Round to the nearest tenth of a foot.
3. How far away from the sidewalk is Dmitry 10 seconds after he passes his position as
described in the introductory paragraph? Round to the nearest tenth of a foot.
4. How far away from the sidewalk is Dmitry 20 seconds after he passes his position as
described in the introductory paragraph? Round to the nearest tenth of a foot.
5. Write an expression that gives Dmitry’s distance, t seconds after passing his position
as described in the introductory paragraph. Describe the process you used to develop
your expression.
6. In questions 2-3 and questions 3-4, the time interval doubled. How does the angle
through which Dmitry passed relate to the time interval?
7. How does the angle through which Dmitry passed relate to the sine of each angle as
the carousel turned? Is this what you expected would happen? Explain your thinking.

Exploratory Activity 281

 Chapter 5 Vocabulary
cofunction identity Law of Sines Pythagorean identity
conditional equation Law of Cosines proper subset trigonometric equation

Lesson 5.1
Basic Identities
Throughout our study of high school mathematics, we have solved
equations such as x” + 3x — 10 = 0. We have also determined the domain
of given equations. Recall that the domain of an equation is the set of
numbers for which the equation is true. When the solution set of an
equation is a proper subset of the equation’s domain, the equation is
referred to as a conditional equation. The solutions to the equation
x? + 3x —10=0 are x =-—5, and x = 2. This set, {—5, 2}, is a subset of the
equation’s domain, so this is a conditional equation. When the solution
set encompasses the entire domain of the equation, that equation is
referred to as an identity.

Generally, a mathematical identity is a relation that states two

expressions are equal for all values in the expressions’ domain. Consider
the algebraic identity 3x + 12 = 3(x + 4), which has all real numbers as
its domain. No matter what value we choose for x, the equation will
always be true. Thus, it is an identity.

You have learned many algebraic identities. In this chapter we focus

on trigonometric identities, which are divided into three categories:
reciprocal identities, quotient identities, and Pythagorean identities.

MM Reciprocal and Quotient Identities

We have already encountered reciprocal identities in Lesson 4.3.
Remember that reciprocal identities are trigonometric identities that
define cosecant, secant, and cotangent in terms of sine, cosine, and tangent.

Reciprocal Identities
1 1

282 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

Like reciprocal identities, we have already encountered the quotient
identities in Lessons 4.2 and 4.3.

Quotient Identities

We can use these identities to prove statements are true or to simplify

more complex equations.

MODEL PROBLEMS

CLA Use reciprocal and quotient identities to show that tan 6 csc @ = sec @ for
all values of 6 for which both sides of the equation are defined.

SOLUTION
Each of the functions in the given equation can be written in terms of sin @, cos @, or both.
tan @ csc 8 = sec 0 Use reciprocal and quotient identities to rewrite each
: side of the equation in terms of sin @ and cos 80.
sin 8 1 jt
cos@ }\ sin@ cos@

sind ti ce
cos@ }| six | cosé
We have shown that the left-hand side of the equation is
equal to the right-hand side of the equation for all values
cos@ cos@
of 6 for which both sides of the equation are defined.

2. Prove that sec 6 sin 0 = tan 0 is an identity.

SOLUTION
Write the left-hand side of the equation in terms of sin @ and cos 0.
sec @ sin @= tan 6 A proof always begins with what is known or given.

sin @ = tan@
vk Use reciprocal and quotient identities to substitute.
sind ,
25 (iehety)
cos 8
tan @ =tan@ This statement is true, so we have proved that sec 6 sin 6 =
tan @ is an identity.

Lesson 5.1 ° Basic Identities 2383

MG Pythagorean Identities
When we introduced the unit circle, we stated that any point, P, '
that lies on the unit circle is represented by the coordinates
(cos 6, sin 9). If we draw a ray from the origin to point P,
it will have length 1 unit. Using the horizontal axis as the
base, we can draw a line connecting P to the axis and create
a right triangle, as shown in the illustration to the right.
Since the length ofx is cos 9 and the height of y is 6, we can
use the Pythagorean theorem to state that cos’ 6 + sin’ 0 = 1.
This equation is one of the Pythagorean identities. A brief
proof is shown below.

We start with the known, previously

proven relationship of the lengths of the
sides of a right triangle.
The relationship we are trying to prove is
equal to 1, so we divide through by 7°”.

Examine the relationships in the triangle.

es
2) 2)

The ratio —-=cos’

2 9 and 2
= sin’ 6,
cos* 6 + sin? @ =1
so substitute those expressions into the
equation.
Recall that addition is commutative, so
we can rearrange the left-hand side of sin? @+ cos? = 1
the equation without changing its value.

Thus we have proven the first Pythagorean identity. Like the other
identities, we can use the Pythagorean identity to prove trigonometric
relationships are true and to solve for missing trigonometric values.
We can also use it to derive two other identities.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Dia] Use cos? 6 + sin? 6 = 1 to show that 1 + tan? 6 = sec? 0. This is the second
Pythagorean identity.
SOLUTION ae
For this problem, we recall that = = tan’ @ and that = Sec:
2
6.
COs cos’ @

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

SE ee ee ee eee
284 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 cos’ @ + sin? @ = 1 We start with the given equation.
cos?@ sin’? @ 4 We need the first term of the equation to be 1.
cor 8 sb cob 7 Thus we must divide through by cos? @.

14510s8 é L |
cos’@ cos’ @

1 ee
1+tan’ @ = 2 We can substitute sin’ 0 =tan 2 60,
COS 0 cos” @

17 tan’ @ sec’ 0 We can also substitute Eae sec’ @.

cos
We have shown that | + tan? @ = sec? @.

2. Use cos? 6 + sin? 6 = 1 to show that cot? 6 + 1 = csc? 0.

SOLUTION
We will use a similar technique to derive this identity.
cos? 6+ sin? @=1 We start with the given equation.

cos’ @ sin’ @ 1 In this case, the second term needs to be 1, so we

sin?@ sin’@ = sin’ @ divide through by sin’ 6.

COs 0 en) ol
sin’ @ sin’ 6

cos’ 6 p 3
cot.0 2 l= 3. — zp We know that ———
sin2 = cot’ 0, so we substitute
sin
this expression into the equation.
1 5
= CSC csc’ @. We subst i itute and have
subst
Final
Nally . ———
ly, te)
cot? 6+ 1=csc?@
derived the identity as required.

3. Prove that sin @ (csc 0 — sin 8) = cos? 0.

SOLUTION
We use reciprocal and Pythagorean identities to prove this relationship 1s true.

sin @ (csc @ — sin@) = cos20 As we always do with proofs, we start with

our given.

sin 6 csc @ — sin? 6 = cos2@ Distribute on the left-hand side.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee ce

Lesson 5.1 ¢ Basic Identities 285

 sira|za —sin’ @ = cos*@ > Use a reciprocal identity to simplify.

1 — sin? 9 = cos? 0
(sin? 6 + cos? 9) — sin? 6 = cos? 0 Substitute a Pythagorean identity for the
value 1.
2 2 2 Simplify. The resulting identity proves what
: a0) 25, 07 COs 0.
ce oe 0 year? * we started with.
cos’ @ = cos”

SCCHOSHSHSHSHSHSHOSHSHHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSSHSHSHSSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSSHSHSSHSSSSEHSHSHSSSHEHSSSSSSSSSeeeeeeeeeeeed

cos?@
4. Prove the identity 1—sin@ =
1+sin0-

SOLUTION _
For this problem, we will use our knowledge of identities and some algebra to show
the left-hand side is equal to the right-hand side.

1—sin@ = 28) gZ Given.

1+sin@

1-sing 2 oes ea ee sm g Multiply the right-hand side by the fraction

i+sin6 1—-sin@ shown, whose value equals
q 1. As a result the
case (1-sin@) denominator changes from 1 + sin @ into
1—sin@ = —
{sin @
1 —sin6.
_ > so0s*6 (1-sin@) We know that cos’ 6 + sin? @ = 1. Using a bit of
DSL ies mee) algebra, cos* @ = 1 — sin’ @. Replace 1 — sin? @
with cos* @ in the denominator and simplify. The
1—sin@ = 1-sin@ resulting identity proves what we started with.

5.
1 went
If cos@ = A and @ is in the fourth quadrant, use the unit circle and identities to find

the value of:

a sin @
b tang
c sec 8
d csc 0
e cot @

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

A
286 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
SOLUTION
Since @ is in the fourth quadrant, only cosine and secant are positive; the other
trigonometric functions are negative. Once we determine the value of sin 6, we can
easily calculate the other values.
a cos? 6+ sin? @=1 Begin with an identity that relates cos’ 9 with sin’ 0.

A ie as
s) +sin“ @ =1 Substitute the given value.

ae et:
9 +sin° 0 =1 Simplify.

sin’
pa?
0 = 5
8 es)
Isolate sin’ 0.

Vsin* @ = -2 Solve.
9
:
sin@ =— ae
2/2

Now that we know the value of cos @ and sin @, we will use known relationships to
determine the other trigonometric ratios.
Oe)
tan0 = Sues 3 =-2,/2
cos@ 1
3
iP) Sal
eco = =7=
; cos@ 1
3
i ee re 32
~~ yan S2N2 22
3
1 eee
COLD=
tan 0 P95) 4

neEEEEEEE EEE

Lesson 5.1 © Basic Identities 287

 Below we list the reciprocal, quotient, and Pythagorean identities.
Reciprocal Identities Quotient Identities Pythagorean Identities

esc 8 = — l ibe Toe cos’ @ +sin* @ =1

~ esc 0 cos0

ae _ OS 0
1+tan’? @ =sec’ @
oo eda ~ secO sin 8

=
:
As stated previously, we can use these identities to prove statements
are true, to simplify more complex equations, or to solve for unknown
trigonometric ratios. These identities are also important for the rest of
your study of trigonometry, and later, for your study of calculus.

Technology
Activity I

We can use our graphing calculator to provide support that a

trigonometric identity is true. To do so, we treat each side of the identity
as a function in its own right and then we graph the functions on the
same set of axes. If the graphs of the functions coincide, then we have
provided graphical support that the identity is true.

Here we must emphasize that support is not the same as proof. The
information gained from the graphing calculator can only be used to
support the validity of an identity.

Provide graphical support that the identity sin? 6 + cos? = 1 is true.

Step I: Treat each side of the identity as its own function. Enter one
Ploti Plot2 Plot?
function in Y, and the other in Ne
Step 2: We alter the window size as needed. Here we graph in the
interval -27 < 6 < 2z. Note that our calculator is in radian
mode.

Step 3: We press and observe what appears to be a single line

through y = 1.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

=a Senereeeseneee
288 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
Step 4: We use to move between the functions. We can see that the single line through
y = 1 is indeed representative of both andy

&=.33421198 |Y=1

We can also use [TABLE] to see that for each x-value,

the y-values for both functions are equal.

Since a single line represents both functions, the functions coincide and sin? 0 + cos? @ = 1 appears
to be true.

Exercises 1—3: Explore each equation using your graphing calculator. Do these
equations appear to be identities?

I. cot @sin 20=1+

cos 20
3sin 6 —sin3é
2. sin’'@= are ee

3. tan’ @ cos? @=1-cos’ 6

4. Juliana tried to provide graphical support for the identity /~ a4
oh el

cos A om, ae by graphing the functions

xX ategy = [Pes
y,-«os( $ pe (lat 1+ xX

in the interval 0 < X < 27. Her graph is shown on the right.
Describe where the graphs of Y,, Y,, and Y, coincide, ;

if anywhere. What does this mean for providing graphical

support for the identity?

Lesson 5.1 ° Basic Identities 289

MAS Practice
Which of the following is equivalent to 8. aly eee (6)= 1
sin 0
the expression (csc 8)(sin 0)?

il 9. SSI eee
A. 1+cos@
sin8
Bowl 10. sucle —tan’?@ =1
Cal) cos@

Decos'e The identity cos? 6 + sin’ 6 = 1 is true for

all real numbers. Are the identities
if 1 + tan? @ = sec? 6 and cot? 9+ 1=csc’ 0
What is the value of cos 8 when sin@ =—
and @ is in the second quadrant? also true for all real numbers? Justify
your answer.
_ 26
ak c ce26
Questions 12-16: Write each given
p n= 2 a)
x6 expression in terms of sine and cosine and
express the result in simplest form.

3 If cot @=-6 and 6 is in the fourth quadrant, 12. (tan

@ )(cos @)
what is the value of csc 6?
13. sec@ +tan@
A. -/37 5 _ cot 0
14. csc a0
p, 37 tan @

3 sec @ (1+ cot @)—csc 6 (1+tan@)

V37 Explain why or why not

3) sin @= /1—cos* 6 is an identity.

=
D. —
Questions 1 7=20: For each given
bp Feroze said that the equations function value, find the remaining five
cos’ @ =1~—sin’ @ and sin’ @ =1-cos’ @ trigonometric function values.
are identities. Is Feroze correct? Why or 3 ae
why not?
17. COs Ge i when @ is in the first quadrant.

Questions 18. sec @ =—8 when @ is in the second

5=103 Prove each equation is
an identity. quadrant.

5 aL:
5. sin@ csc@ cos@ =cos@ 19. cot@ = 5 when @ is in the third quadrant.

6. cscd (sind +tan@)=1+sec@ 5

20. exe) = 4 when @ is in the second
sec 0
7. = tan 0 quadrant.
csc @

290 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

 Lesson 5.2
Special Trigonometric Identities
In Lesson 5.1, we defined an identity as a relation that states two
expressions are equal for all values in an expression’s domain. In this
lesson, we continue our study of identities with formulas that will help
us find exact values of trigonometric ratios as well as solve applied
problems.

Ml Sum and Difference Formulas

The sum and difference of angles formulas, sometimes referred to as the
sum and difference of angles identities, are as follows:

cos(A+B8)=cosA cosB-sinA sinB cos(A—B)=cosA cosB+sinA sinB

sin(A+B)=sin A cosB+cosA sinB sin(A—B)=sin A cosB—cosA sinB

fan eB )= tan A+tanB PO = tanan A — tan B

1—tanA tanB 1+tanA tanB

These formulas are derived using the unit circle, the cofunction
relationships between sine and cosine, and tangent’s relationship
to sine and cosine through the quotient identities. Let’s show how
cos(A-—B)=cosA cosB+sinA sin B.

; We begin with the left-hand side of the equation, cos(A— B).

We can visualize this relationship using the unit circle,
P(cos A, sin A)
as shown to the right. Angles A and B are in standard
position. The terminal side of angle A intersects the re By ain BY
unit circle at point P(cos A, sin A) and the terminal ae
side of angle B intersects at O(cosB, sinB). What is , \Pi é
the distance PQ in terms of sine and cosine?

———_—_—__——————————————————————
Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 291
 JQ (cos A-cosB) +(sin A—sin BY Using the distance formula.

(PO) =(cosA- cos B) +(sin A—sin B)’ Square both sides to eliminate the root.

(PQ) =(cos* A-2cos Acos B + cos” B) +

Expand the binomials.
(sin? A—2sin Asin
B +sin’ B)

(PQ) =(cos* A+sin* A)+(cos* B +sin’ B)—

Rearrange.
2cosA cosB—-2sinA sinB

(PQ) =2-2cosA cosB-—2sinA sinB Simplify.

Now we need to use a clever bit of reasoning, since our

initial derivation using the distance formula did not result Pi(con (Ae By ein A ey)
in the right-hand side of the identity, cos A cosB+sin A sin B,
which we are trying to prove. Let’s take our original illustration,
shown on page 291, and rotate AOQP through the angle
—B so P becomes P’ and QO becomes Q”. This rotation and QC, 9)
the new coordinates are shown to the right. We will again
apply the distance formula to determine P’Q’.

(P’ Q’ ‘; =(cos(A-B)- 1) +(sin(A- B)-0) Applying the distance formula and

preemptively squaring both sides.
(RZO% Ns = cos’ (A-B)-2cos(A- B)+1+sin? (A-B) Expand the binomials.

(P’ Q' )’ =2-2cos(A-B) Simplify.

Again, we are not quite there in proving the identity. Recall from
geometry that rotation is an isometry, which preserves distance. Thus
we know that (P’ Q’)’ =(PQ) and we can finish out our derivation as
follows:

2
eee
292 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
(ro (roF
=203(A— B)=—2(cosA cosB+-sin A sinB) BE brace 2 from both sides and then factor
the right-hand side.
cos(A—B)=cosA cosB+sin A sin B Divide through by —2.

We have shown cos(A—B)=cosA cosB+sinA sin B.

MODEL PROBLEMS

CLA Using the identity cos(A — B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B, show that
cos(90° — B) = sin B.

SOLUTION
We have been asked to prove an identity that is auxiliary to cos(A — B). We will start
with the given information.

cos(A— B)=cosA cosB+sinA sinB Given.

cos(90° — B) = cos 90° cos B + sin 90° sin B_ Substitute, allowing A = 90°.

cos(90° — B) =O cos B+1 sin B Substitute.

cos(90° — B) =sin B Simplify.

1 2 1
2. Given that A are B are angles in the second quadrant, sin A = 3 and sin B= =
find the exact value of cos(A— B).

SOLUTION
We only know the quadrant location of A and B, and the values for sin A and sin B.
Before we can use the formula for cos (A — B), we must solve for the values of cos A
and cos B.

cos A cos B
; ht; ; ae Use a previously known identity
cos A=1—sin’ A cos B=1—sin’ B that relates sine and cosine.

.
COS A=! -(
|
lag :
cos Bb =1 -|
|
ili .
Substitute.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 293

 il 2
cor 2 A=
i\ = ilpesF cos B=1-—75 Simplify.

[8 [24
COStA = =e fy5 cos B=+,/—75 Solve.

Angles A and B are in the

J 2V6
cos =-=3* cos =-28° second quadrant, where cosine
values are negative.

Now that we know the values of cos A and cos B, we can substitute into the identity
and solve.

nooIoEIE
cos(A-—B)=cosA cosB+sinA sinB The identity.

Substitute.

cos(A-—B) W221 Simplify.

ies ils)

cos(A-—B)= Bol

Prove the identity cos(A + B)=cos A cos B—sin A sin B.

SOLUTION
To begin the proof, we need to re-write the left-hand side of the equation.
Rewrite the left-hand side of the
cos(A +B) =cos(A-(-B)) equation. Now substitute —B for B in
the right-hand side of the identity.
cos(A—(—B))=cosA cos(—B)+sinA sin(—B) Substitute.

cos(A-(—B))=cosA cos(—B)+sin A (sin(—B)) Simplify.

cos(A+B)=cos A cosB-sinA sinB We have proven the identity.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

294 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

@ (EJ Use sin(45° — 30°) to find the exact value of sin 15°.

SOLUTION
We use the identity sin(A- B)=sin A cosB-—cosA sinB to solve this problem.
Uere 4 45 and B= 30°.
sin(A—B)=sin A cosB-—cosA sinB Given.

sin(45° — 30°) = sin 45° cos 30° — cos 45° sin 30° Substitution.

wont Ta) F) Simplify.

sin( 15”) = v6 _ v2
4 4

sin (15°) = v2

5. Show that sin (7+ 0) =-sin @.

SOLUTION
Note that for this problem we are working in radians, but we will still use the same
solution strategies. This is a sum, so we will use the sine sum identity.
sin(A+B)=sinA cosB+cosA sinB Given. In this problem A=z and B=8@.

sin(z7+0@)=sinz cos@+cosz sin@ Substitution.

sin(z
+ @)=(0)cos@ +(—1)sin@

sin(z + @) =(—1)sin@
Simplify.
sin(7 +0) =-—sin@ som

7,
6. Use tan2z =0 and tan = 1 to show that tan =—],

SOLUTION
It is not immediately clear if we should use the tangent sum formula or the tangent
difference formula. A bit of reasoning using the given information, though, can help
1
us to see that we will need tangent difference formula because 27 — ar Thus,
HG
A=2n.and B=—.
4 MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 295

 tan A—tan B :
A=.) == Given.
fu ) l+tanA tanB

tan 27 — tan—
9 pie £ |
= = Substitute for A and B.
1+tan2az tan a

tan de = Un Substitute known values.

4 1+(0)(1)

ao2)=-1 Simplify.

MM Double-Angle Formulas
In the previous section, we discussed the sum formulas for sine, cosine,
and tangent. In those formulas, if we allow the measure of angle A to
be equal to the measure of angle B, we transform the sum formulas into
the double-angle formulas.

Double-Angle Formulas
: f 3 oe 2tanA
sin(2A)=2sinA cosA cos(2A)=cos° A—sin* A eA ree ory
—tan*

As in the last section, these formulas are useful for determining the
exact value of angle measures and for solving applied problems.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. If tano = = and 6 is an angle in the second quadrant, find:

a seco e cos 20
b cos@ f tan 20
c sin@ g In what quadrant does the angle 26 lie?
ds sin 20

SOLUTION
a We learned in Lesson 5.1 that 1+tan? 6 = sec? @. Using this
information,

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

—eeeeeeSSSSSSeeeeSsSsS
296 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 1+tan’ @ =sec’ @ The identity.

(2
Ji = ao (6) Substitute in the values.

i 2
bing =sec"@ > This is value of sec @. Note that since we are
16 A in the second quadrant, we know secant will
eta sec’ 9 > Pies a) have a negative value.

We also know from Lesson 5.1 that sec@ = , SO cos@ epee

cos @ 4

Again from Lesson 5.1, use the Pythagorean identity cos’ @ +sin* @ =1 to
determine the value of sin @. In the second quadrant sine values are positive.

cos’ @ +sin’ @ =1 The identity.

a
33) +sm
saree 0 =1
seat
Substitution.

sin? @ =1- o sig = _ Simplifying.

Now that we have calculated the values for sine, cosine, and secant, we simply use the
double angle formulas to determine answers to the rest of the questions.

= sin(2@)=2sin A cosA > 24 which simplifies to A.

4 ee 3\
cos(20 )= =cos Sf sin & fl Ss |
=A =| |A |=—.3
——

Since the values of sin 26 and tan 20 are negative and the value of cos 26 is
positive, 20 must be a fourth-quadrant angle.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

en nt
Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 297
 2. Prove the identity cos 26 =2cos’6 -1

SOLUTION .
In this problem, we are proving an alternative to the double angle formula for cosine.
We will start with a known relationship and work from there.
cos(26) = cos’ @ —sin’ @ Use a known relationship.

cos(26) = cos’ @ —(1-cos” 0) Recall that sin? @ =1-—cos’ 6 and substitute.

cos(2@) =cos’ @ -1+cos’ @ Distribute.

cos20 =2cos’ 6-1 Collect the like terms. We have proven the identity.

IMP 4,7) A rectangular park is shown to the right. A D

The park is crossed by two paths, AC, which is a
diagonal, and AE, which intersects BC at point E.
10 mi
The measure of 2 BAC is twice the measure of 7 BAE,
AB is 10 miles long and AE is 12 miles in length.
a Let mZBAE = 9. Find the exact value of cos 0. B E C
b Express mZ BAC in terms of @ and find the exact value of the cosine of ZBAC.

SOLUTION 10 5
a __ From the drawing, we can quickly determine that cos@ = eae

b_ The problem text states that the measure of Z BAC is twice the measure of
ZBAE, which we can translate to mZBAC =2mZBAE and in terms of 0,
mZBAC =26. Thus we should use the double angle formula for cosine to
determine the measure of ZBAC.

cos(2@) = cos’ @ — sin? @ Formula for double angle measure for cosine.

cos’ 6 +sin? @ =1
2
a 4+sin? @ =1 We know the value of cos 6 from part a, but
6 we need to know the value of sin 6. We use the
es AL Pythagorean identity from Lesson 5.1.
36 36
2

cos(26) -(2) oe
6 36 Now that we know the value of sin @ we can
20828) 2 Z Ui use the e doubl
double angle formula.
60) 30, 18
sreonewsrssae
EEN
ZANTE

Se
ae
298 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
MM Half-Angle Formulas
Unsurprisingly, there are also formulas for determining the values of
eal ik 1 “rit
SE (one and ieee These identities, which are used to find

the function values of half an angle, are called the half-angle formulas.

Half-Angle Formulas
= =
el jeniesya! nestor gui jl+cos A etd bypall cosA
sin—A=+
: “ 2 2 2 Vvl+cosA

When we use formulas to determine the function values for (A + B),

(A — B), and 2A, the sign of the function value is a result of the
computation. When we use the formulas to calculate the function values
1
for Roe the sign of the function value must be chosen according to the

quadrant in which >A lies.

For example, if angle A is in the third quadrant, such as 180°< A < 270°,

then 902 =< sA <3) ahenetore, sA is in the second quadrant where

the sine value of =A is positive and the cosine and tangent values

of >A are negative. Similarly, ifA is a third-quadrant angle and

540° < A < 630°, then 270° < xA eo. In aisicase xA is a fourth-

quadrant angle. The cosine value for x4 is positive and the sine and

tangent values for 5A are negative. Be sure to pay close attention to

the quadrant you are working in when solving half-angle problems.

MODEL PROBLEMS

=)
I. If 180°
< A <270° and sin A =—*5,, find

a es
p)
uf
b os—A
ne
i
tan —A
: 2 MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

UIEISd EES SEESEEEESEEESSSEES EEE

EEUU

Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 299

 SOLUTION \
Notice that the identity for Shi is given in terms of cos A. We know from Lesson 5.1

that cos A =+V1-sin? A; we will use this to determine cos A. In the third quadrant,
cos A will have a negative value.

The value of cos A =—,/1— v5 --fe=-2.

3 9 3

Becausens02< A= 2/077 90 = 5A < 135°. This means that 5A is asecond quadrant

angle and fied will be positive while cos Ee and tan ae will have negative
2 2 2,
values. We are now ready to solve this problem.

a Sle Sar dea Use the appropriate formula.

Substitute.
2

il 5 30
ww “67 a Simplify.

i [l+cos A
b os 20 = Use the correct half-angle formula.

Bx see Substitute.
2

1
COS 5 A=
if Pa
F =— P if
Simplify.

c tan CN5 A Aen ne

as
ma Use the half-angle formula for tangent.

—— Substitute.
1+] -—
5

=-/5 Simplify.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Se IIA, Si LIN at EE ATCT: A Bate

300 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
Qeeesnarthatetin 4
2 1l+cosA

SOLUTION
We must show that the left-hand side of the identity is equal to the right-hand side of
the identity. We begin with what we know.

iven.
Sgr vi-cos A Gi

~~ Ji+cosA
eye
2“
aay id’ (= comAaye (ie com) pa ve bs a gdand the denominator
aA Beene iercbsA) yous term in the denominator within the
root sign.

1—cos’ A ; : :
iA Simplify under the root sign.
®) (1+cos A)’

eat =+ _ sin’ A Siben

2 = (1 +cos A)’ ubstitute.

Aner ae ra hie Weil i Penne

2 COS A implify. We have shownthe identity is true.

3. The top ofa billboard is mounted on a base is 65 feet

above the ground. At a point 25 feet from the foot of the
base, the measure of the angle of elevation to the top of
the base is one-half the measure of the angle of elevation
to the top of the billboard. These relationships are shown
in the illustration to the right. +25 ft
a __ Let @ be the measure of the angle of elevation to the
1
top of the billboard. Find cos @ and tan me

b Find the height of the base and the height of the billboard.

SOLUTION 05 5
a We can see from the illustration that cos @ = 65 = ast We use this value to
; il
determine tan 4 0.

il V1—cos@
tan—@=+ Use the half-angle formula for tangent.
2 V1+cos@

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 301

 5
.

Substitute the value for cos @. The solution to

12

a
f
I=

5 this problem will be positive.

tan = 0 = . . Opi

ep)

(BN)
1, v4 2 ata,
y) = on
ae 3 Simplify.
Ppily

1
b To determine the height of the base, we will use the known value of Le and
the information in the illustration.

1 opposite
tan—@ =—
2 adjacent

US SS
= == Substitute known for values
Ps
SU) = Sue
ae 50 Solve for the unknown
3
9) Convert to a real world measurement. This is the
x=16— feet heich
8 eight of the base.

The height of the sign itself is 65— 16== 482 feet tall.

We present the formulas discussed in this lesson below.

Sum and Difference Formulas Double Angle Formulas Half-Angle Formulas

cos(A+B)=cosA cosB-sinA sinB sin(2A)=2sin A cosA

sin(A+B)=sinA cosB+cosA sinB cos(2A)=cos*? A-sin? A Beta temas jl+cosA

Z
a 2
tan A+tanB S il
tan(A+B)=
1-—tanA tanB an? 2 ~ J1+4c0s A
cos(A—B)=cosA cosB+sinA sinB

sin(A—B)=sin A cosB-—cosA sinB

tan A—tan B
(erm (A=8) =
( ) 1+tanA tanB

ee
302 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
UB ACES
le ae
I. What is the exact value of cos (A — B) for 7. For each value of cos A, find sin A,
A=) OrandiB=30°?
: cos A,tan A,
it
A. -= (On il a
2 a CcOsSA=—.
0° < A= 90°
1 4
Be D. = i
2 b cosA=-—-—,
180° <A < 270°
sin20 x
2. Does tan26 =——? Why or why not? 5
cos20 c al a
A. Yes. Since sin 26 exists everywhere,
this identity is correct. d cosA= Ly 300° <A < 360°
B. No. This identity does not exist for 8
values where sin26 =0.
8. For each of the following, find the exact
C. No. You can never change the
value of cos (A + B) for the given pair of
argument of an identity.
: values.
D. Yes. If we let A = 26, we can substitute
this value into the quotient identity ao A= Tw Be 20
to derive the identity listed in this 2 3
question. bea 0 a 00.
A= Oe, =A oe
Questions 3=4: For each value of 6, use : :
double angle formulas to find sin 20, cos 28, FL ey cen = peng
and tan 26. 3 3
Oo litan A= 3 and 130" <A" 270 |find:
cy) ha ale 1
Sr a aa eh
4. 0 = ——

3 bcos=A:
1
5. Find the exact value of cos (A — B) for D
1 Ar
Lo and are o laeedh
2
2 Find the exact value of sin (A + B) and sin
(A — B) for the given pair of values. 10. Makrim said that cos (A + B) +
cos (A — B) =cos 2A. Do you agree
a A=180°,B=45° with Makrim? Justify your answer.

b A= ua ee 200
Oo
Crd =360° 8B = 60"
BDU ATT aera) 20
3 4

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.2 * Special Trigonometric Identities 303

 11. For each given function value, find the d_ Use the value of cos 75° found in ¢ to
exact values of sin 26, cos 20, and tan 20, find cos 105° by using cos (180° — 75°).
and state the quadrant in which 26 lies. e Use the value of cos 75° found in ¢ to
find cos 285° by using cos (360° — 75°).
a tan@= :,@ in the first quadrant.
f Find the exact value of sin 15°.

b sin@= e, 6 in the third quadrant. LAAN. Find the values of sin(161°), cos(161°),
and tan(161°) given that sin(140°) = 0.64,
c cos@ =
2/5
eRe 8 in the second quadrant. sin(21°) ~ 0.36, cos(140) = —0.77, and
cos(21°) = 0.93. Round your answers to
the nearest hundredth.
d sec@ = _ 6 in the fourth quadrant.

RAY 18. Find the values of sin(38°), cos(38°),

12. Find the exact value of tan (A + B) and and tan(38°) given that sin(80°) = 0.98,
tan (A — B) for the given pair of values. sin(42°) = 0.67, cos(80) = 0.17, and
cos(42°) = 0.74. Round your answers
A Als WOON,
ta Shy" to the nearest hundredth.
b A=180°, B=45°
LAA 19. Find the values of sin(292°), cos(292°),
and tan(292°) given that sin(146°) =
0.56 and cos(146°) = —0.83. Round your
answers to the nearest hundredth.

hh] 20 Find the values of sin(27°), cos(27°), and

Use cosA= cos = weto show that tan(27°) given that sin(54°) = 0.81 and
cos(54°) = 0.59. Round your answers to
the exact value of tans = tanZ Sage the nearest hundredth.

Explain why tan (A + B) is undefined 21 In the diagram, ABCD, BEFC, and

when A=~ and Bes EGHF are congruent squares with
6 ) AD =1. Let mZ4GAH =x, m4GBH = y,
sin2@
15. Prove the identity cot@ = and mZGEH =z.
1—cos2@.
16. a Find the exact value of 120° by using
cos (180° — 60°).
b Find the exact value of sin 120° by
using cos’ 6 +sin’ @ = 1 and the value
of cos 120° found in a.
¢ Find the exact value of cos 75° by using
a Find tan (x+y).
cos (120° — 45°).
b Does x + y =z? Justify your answer.
22. Prove that tan (180° + 6) = tan 0.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

ge eee
304 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
23. Two wires brace a telephone pole. Both 24. An engineer wants to determine CD,
wires are fastened to the ground at the the exact height of the building shown
same point as shown in the diagram below. To do this, he first locates B on CD,
below. The shorter wire is 30 feet long a point 30 feet above C at the foot of
and is fastened to the pole 10 feet above the building. Then he locates A, a point
the foot of the pole. The longer wire is on the ground 40 feet from C. From A,
33 feet long and is fastened to the pole the engineer then finds that the angle of
17 feet above the foot of the pole. elevation of D is 45° larger than @, the
elevation of B.

17 feet

10 feet

a Ifthe measure of the angle that the

longer wire makes with the ground
is x, and the measure of the angle
that the shorter wire makes with the a Find AB, sin 0, and cos 8.
ground is y, find the exact values of b Use sin 6 and cos @ found in a to find
sin x, COS x, Sin y, and cos y. the exact value of cos (@ + 45°).
b Find the exact value of sin (x — y) and c Use the value of cos (8 + 45°) found
interpret the answer. in b to determine the exact value
c Find, to the nearest degree, the of AD.
measure of the angle between the d What is the exact height of the
two wires. building?

Lesson 5.3
Solving Trigonometric Equations
A trigonometric equation is an equation whose variable is expressed in
terms of a trigonometric function. Solving trigonometric equations is,
for the most part, not much different from solving a typical algebraic
equation. In this lesson we discuss different procedures for solving
trigonometric equations.

eeeEEE EEE EEE

Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 305

MW First Degree Trigonometric Equations
A first-degree trigonometric equation is similar to an algebraic linear
equation. In both cases, the variable is raised to the first degree, but in
the case of a trigonometric equation, we need to remember that there
can be multiple solutions depending on the question’s domain. For
example, we'll solve 4 sin@ +5=7 for sin @.

4sin@+5=7

A sino = 2 Subtract 5 from each side

i = : 1 —
wanes > sind = 5 Divide through by 4.

We know from the unit circle that sin 30° = * so one value of @ is 30°.

We will call this value 0,. We also know that values of sine are positive
in both the first and second quadrants, so there is another angle, in the

second quadrant, whose sine value is > We will call this angle 6,. Recall

from Lesson 4.1 that the relationship between an angle formed by the
x-axis and the terminal side of the angle is the reference angle. The
following table summarizes the reference angles for each quadrant.

Quadrant IT | Quadrant IT | Quadrant Ll

Degrees 6 180° -@ 7 — 1 ot)a 360° — 6
Radians a-0O Cir 2nx-0

Using the reference angle for quadrant I, @, = 180°— 30°= 150°.

Thus, in degree measure, the solution set for 4 sin@ +5 =7 is {30°, 150°}.

We can also ; ee aes

express this solution set in radian measure: {= za

In the previous example, it was possible to determine the exact values

of 6 that made the equation true. This is not always possible. Often it is
necessary to use a calculator to find an approximate value. Consider the
equation 5 cos @ +7=3. When we solve for the trigonometric function,
4
we find that cos@ = ae We know from Lesson 4.6 that @ = cos”! (2)

This is not a value we can find using the unit circle, but we do know that
cosine values are negative in the second and third quadrants. We turn to
our calculator to determine the second quadrant value.

a ig a ee
306 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
To the nearest degree, one value of @ is 143°. We use the
reference angle to determine the third quadrant value. cos'¢ -4/5)
Let R be the measure of the reference angle of the second
143. 13601024
quadrant angle. That is, R is the acute angle such that
cos 6 =-—cos R. Then, R = 180°- @ + 180°- 143° = 37°.
Now, the measure of the angle in the third quadrant is R + 180°:

06=R+180°
6 = 37° + 180°
C=217-

If the value of @ is restricted to 0° < @ < 360° the solution set of

5 cos@ +7 =3 is {143°, 217°}. If the value of 5cos9+7=3 is
allowed to be any angle measure, then for all the integer values of n,
6 =(143°+360°n) or @ =(217°+360° n).

| To Solve A Linear Trigonometric Equation:

. Solve the equation for the function value of the variable.
2. Use a calculator or your knowledge of the exact function values to
write one value of the variable to an acceptable degree of accuracy.
3. If the measure of the angle found in step 2 is not that ofa
quadrantal angle, find the measure of the angle’s reference angle.
4. Use the measure of the reference angle to find the degree
measures of each solution in the interval 0° < @ < 360° or the
radian measure of each solution in the interval 0< 0 < 27.
5. Add 360°n (where n is an integer value) to the solution in degrees
found in steps 2 and 4 to express all the possible solutions in
degrees. Add 27m (again, where n is an integer value) to the
solutions in radians found in steps 2 and 4 to express all the
possible solutions in radians.

The following table will help you determine the location of angles
that satisfy trigonometric equations. The values in the table follow
from the definitions of the trigonometric functions on the unit circle
(see Lesson 4.2).

i EEE

Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 307

 MODEL PROBLEMS

IMP 5, 8| Find the solution set of the equation 7 tan 0 = 2/3 + tan @ in the interval
0°< 0 < 360°.

SOLUTION
We follow the steps outlined in the box on page 307 starting with solving the equation
for the function value of the variable.

7 tan@ —2/3 +tané@

ae 6 —tan@ =2V3+tand@—tan@ — Collect tan @ on the left-hand side of

the equation.
6tan@ =2V3

6tan@ =23 12 Divide through by 6.

oe > tand ==

g@, =30°
: We know that tan @ = se occurs when

@ = 30°. This value will be 0,.

Since @, is a first quadrant angle, we use our reference angle chart, page 307, and
R = @ = 30°. Now referring to the chart on page 307, tangent is positive in the first and
third quadrants, so @, is in the third quadrant and 6, = 180°+ R > 180°+30° = 210°.
The solution set is {30°, 210°}.

2. To the nearest hundredth, find all the possible solutions of 3(sin A + 2) = 3 -sin A in
radians.

SOLUTION
We first solve the equation for sin A.
3(sinA+2)=3—sin A > Multiply through by 3 on the left-hand side.
3sinA+6=3-sin A
4sin A+6=3 Collect sin @ on the left-hand-side.

4sin A =-3 Subtract 6.

Divide by 4.
sin A = 2 y

We use our calculator to find the value of A in

sin le -374)
radians. Be sure your calculator is in radian mode.
~. 848862079
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a a
308 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 One value of A is —0.848.
R=—A - —(-0.848) = 0.848 Determine the reference angle.
In quadrant III: A = z +0.848 = 3.99 The sine function is negative in quadrants III
In quadrant IV: A =27 — 0.848 = 5.44 and IV. Use the reference angles.

The solution set is {3.99+27n, 5.44+2nn}.

3. Find all possible solutions to the equation 5(sec 6 +3)=sec 0 +3 in degrees.

SOLUTION
We solve the given equation to find that
cos"
'¢€ -172)
—2 = sec 6. We must put our solution in
terms of sine, cosine, or tangent. Recall

from previous lessons that sec 6 = SO

; cos @”
COS'O = Ay We use a calculator to find

the value of 8, =120°.

Using the reference angle, R = 180°— 120° = 60°, and in quadrant III,
6, =180°+ 60° = 240°. The solution set is {120°+360°n, 240°+360°n}.

MM Solving by Factoring
From Lesson 1.2, we know we can solve the equation 3x? — 5x —2 =0 by
factoring the equation’s left-hand side and setting each factor equal to 0.
Consider the equation 3 tan? @— 5 tan 6 — 2 = 0, which we can solve in a
similar fashion:

8x? — 5 — 2=0 3tan?@—5tand-—2=0

(Gy) (2) (3 tan 6+ 1)(tan @-2)=0
3x+1=0 w= De 0 3'tan 9+ 1=0 tan@-2=0
oy = —| FH? 3 tan @=-1 tan G'= "2
il |
=—— tan@ =-—
PAO 3

The solution to the algebraic equation is complete. In the solution of the

trigonometric equation, we now must find the values of 6 using the calculator.
a

Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 309

 The tangent function is positive in quadrants I and III tan-12>
and negative in quadrants II and IV. The angle 63.4° 63. 43494882
is the measure of @ in the first quadrant and it is also tani 7-173)
the measure of the reference angle for the third -13. 43494882
quadrant angle. Then, in quadrant III, the angle
is 180° + 63.4° = 243.4°.
ie)
The number displayed on the calculator for tan’ = 3] isadale:

negative measure of the fourth quadrant angle. Its opposite is the

reference angle, so in the second quadrant 6 = 180° — 18.4° = 161.6° and
in quadrant IV, 6 = 360° — 18.4° = 341.6°.

The solution set of 3 tan’ 6 —5 tan@ —2=0 is {63.4°, 161.6°, 243.4°,

341.6°} when 0° < 6 < 360°.

MODEL PROBLEMS

3
1. Find all values of @ in the interval 0 < @ < 2 for which 2 sin 0 —1 =
sin 0-
SOLUTION
Sometimes it is easier to substitute a single variable for the trigonometric function
while factoring and solving. Let u=siné@.

ia i ee ore
sin u
2 Multiply through by w.
2u?—-u-—3=0 Set the equation equal to 0.
(2) at) 0) Factor.
2h = =) Ue) Solve.
3
t= id |
2

; 3 ;
sin@ = 7 sin @ =—1 Replace u with sin @.

There is no value of @ such that sin @ > 1: for sin@ = -1,0= oy

2
The solution set is =|
ais

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ee ee ee ee
310 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
és (C225) Determine the solution set of 4 sin?6 — 1 = 0 for the interval 0° < 0 < 360°.

SOLUTION
We can factor the given trigonometric equation as is or we can note that both 4 and 1
are perfect squares and use the square root property:
Asin @-1=2=0-54 sin’ 6 =1 Add 1 to both sides.

au08=i
ae — sin @ = yr
.
Divide through by 4.

|: 1 :
sin’ @ = 7 sind = + Take the square root of both sides.

If sing = > 6@=— 30 or0= 150° If sin@ = ->,62210 ord= 330°.

The solution set is {30°, 150°, 210°, 330°.

@eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeneoeoee

3. What are the values in the interval 0 < 6 < 27 for which the equation sec 6 csc 0 +
J/2 ese @ = 0 is true?

SOLUTION

sec@ csc@ +2 csc@ =0 > csc(sec 0 + 2) = Factor out csc @.

= Solve
esc 0 =0 sec@ +V2 =0
sec
9 =—J/2

Bef yells ei
a
Z
6 = 0), but cost =? Ne) R=7. In quadrant II,
There is no value of 8 where csc

3S ; He PLS
O=7 rimaar
= 7 —-— =— and and in quadran
drant III, nan
6 =z +—=—.

(rr
Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 311
WM Using the Quadratic Formula
Just as some quadratic equations require the use of the quadratic
formula to determine their solution(s), some trigonometric equations
also need the quadratic formula.

MODEL PROBLEM

1. In the interval 0° < 6 < 360°, what are the values of 6 that make 2 cos’ @ —4 cos 8 +
1 = 0 true?

SOLUTION
Mae OL eee We will use the quadratic formula for this problem.
For this equation, a=2,b =—4, and c=1.

= D

cos@ = see AC, Substitute.

2(2)

44+J/8 24/2
cos6 = —
Simplify and solve.
4 D

a8 goEe 1.207
Find the decimal approximations.
SOME)
2-2
SIS
2
There is no value of 8 such that cos 6 > 1, but cosine
is positive in the first and fourth quadrants. In the cos 1( (2-J2)72)
first quadrant, the value of @ is about 73°. We use - f2. 96875154
this value as the reference angle and find that the
value of @ in the fourth quadrant is about 287°.

The solution set is {73°, 287°}.

ME Solving by Substitution
When an equation contains two different trigonometric functions, such
as 2 sin 6 = 3 cot 6, it is sometimes possible to factor in order to write two
equations, each with a different function, in order to solve the equation.
We can also use the identities, learned in Lesson 5.1, to write equivalent
equations in one function. Note that any of the eight basic identities or
their related identities can be substituted into a given equation to aid in
the solving process (see page 288 for a list of the identities).

eeee eee
312 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 MODEL PROBLEM

I. If0< 0 <2z, find the solution set of the equation 2 sin 0 = 3 cot 0.

SOLUTION

a) ey yes ne |COS. : ; ;
sin cot@ > 2 sin@=3|— : Rewrite cot 6 using a reciprocal identity.
sin
2sin’ 8 =3cos@ Multiply through by sin 6.

2(1 — cos’ 6) =3cos6 Use the Pythagorean identity to substitute

for sin? 0.
2 Cos 8 =3c0s0 3S Distribute through the parentheses and
2cos? 6 +3cos@ —-2=0 collect all the terms on the left-hand side
of the equation.
(2cos@ —1)(cos@ +2)=0
2cos@ -1=0 cos@ Oop +2=
a=0 Factor and solve.

ya cos 0 = —2
2

There is no value of 8 such that cos@ <—1, but cos@ => means 0 =2 Or @) = oe
3}
The solution set is (5. as

Technology
Activity 2

We can use GeoGebra (https://www.geogebra.org) to help us identify

angles that have the same reference angle.

Use GeoGebra’s graphing capabilities to determine the angles

between 0° and 360° whose reference angle is the same reference
angle as 20°. input : “a &, Angle

Step I: Graph a 20° angle by clicking the angle tool and ——- withGiven Size
223, Angle
i’ Distance or Length
selecting “Angle with Given Size”
“oA Area

A Slope

{1,2} List

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 313

Step 2: The tool prompts you to select a point
on the leg and the vertex. Select the
leg point as (1, 0) and the vertex as
(0,0). Then enter the angle measure
as 20°. Note that radio button marked
as “counter clockwise” is pre-selected.

Step 3: We repeat the process, again selecting

the leg point as (1, 0) and the vertex as
(0, 0). We again enter the angle measure
as 20°, but this time we select the radio
button marked “clockwise.”

Step 4: We need to create two more angles. For these, we select the point
(—1, 0) as the leg, and the vertex remains (0, 0). The angle measure is
still 20°. Do this for both the “clockwise” and the “counter clockwise”
options. You should now have 4 different angles.
Step 5: Now we find all of the angles related to leg point A. Use
the line segment to create lines from the vertex to each
leg point. Starting with the first point created in Step
2, and moving counterclockwise around the graph, the
segments are a, c,d, and b. Moving counterclockwise
around the graph, the angle from the x-axis to segment
a was given as 20°. What is the angle measure from the
X-axis to segment c? We subtract 20° from 180° to get
160°. Next, we see the angle measure from the x-axis to
segment d is 20° more than 180°, so the measure is 200°.
Lastly, the degree measure from the x-axis to segment b
is 20° short of 360°, so its measure is 340°.
The reference angles for 20° are 160°, 200°, and 340°.

You Try Exercises 1-4: Use GeoGebra to find all the angles between 0° and
360° whose reference angle is the same as for the given angle.
ee
2. 154
3. 215°
4. 312°
5» Suppose we'd like to find the reference angles for the angle measuring 125°.
Describe how we could use GeoGebra to do this. Sketch a picture of your
screen,
6. Why are reference angles important when solving trigonometric equations?

——
eeeeeeeeeSSSSSSSSSeeSFSFSFSSSFSsSsSsSseFs
314 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
| _LARe ile: ee ene ee eee
Exercises 1=7: Find the exact solution set Exercises 15-165 Find, to the nearest
of each equation for 0° < @ < 360° degree, the measure of the acute angle for
which the given equation is true.
I. 2 cosd-1=0
15. 5 cos8+1=8 cos@
2. 6 cos'0+5 cosd-4=0
16. 4(sin@ +1)=6-sin@
3. csc’ @-—cotd@-1=0
Exercises | 7=203 Find, to the nearest
4cos’ 6 +4sin@ —5=0 tenth, the degree measures of all @ in the
interval 0° < 6 < 360° that satisfy each
cot’ 6 =cscO+1 equation.

20S
0 = Seco 17. tan@d —4=3 tan@d +4

2cos* @ =sin@ +2 18. sec’ @-—7 sec@ +12=0

Exercises 8=103 Find the exact values 19. 9 sin?’ @-—9 sing +2=0
for 0 in the interval 0 < 6 < 27.
20. 2-—sec@ =5+secO
8. 3 sind
—/3 =sin@
Exercises 2 1=243 Find, to the nearest
9. 4(cot@ +1)=2(coté +2) hundredth, the radian measures of all 6 in the
interval 0 < @ < 27 that make the equation true.
10. 5 cos@+3=3 cos@+5
21. 3sin?@+7 sin@d+2=0
Exercises | l=143 Use the quadratic
formula to find, to the nearest degree, all the 22. 9-2 cos@ =8-4 cos@
values of @ in the interval 0° < 6 < 360° that
satisfy each equation. 23. csc’ @-—6cscO+8=0

fi. tan’ @—2 tan@ —5=0 24. tan’ @-—5 tan@+6=0

12. 3 sin? @-7 sing —3=0 25 Solve for x in the equation 5 tan(3x) =
—10.3. Give your answers in the interval
13. 7-cos’ @-1=5 cosé (0, 360°), and round to the nearest
hundredth.
14. 3 csc*6—2 cscO =2
Solve for x in the equation 3 sin*(x) +
2 sin(x) = 6. Give answers in the interval
(0,2), and round to the nearest
hundredth.

Lesson 5.3 * Solving Trigonometric Equations 315

 Lesson 5.4
Law of Cosines and Law of Sines
In Chapter 4, we reviewed the basic ratios that define the sine, cosine,
and tangent functions. We learned that we could use these ratios to
solve a variety of problems where we have a right-angled triangle and
at least one known side measure. But what if we needed to determine
missing measurement in a triangle that is not a right triangle? This is
where the Law of Cosines and the Law of Sines come into play.

ME The Law of Cosines and Applications

Suppose that we have a triangle where we know the measures of two
sides and the measure of the included angle. From this information,
we can determine thé size and shape of the triangle, and we should
be able to find the measure of the triangle’s third side. To derive the
formula we need to find this length, we position the triangle in the
coordinate plane with one endpoint at the origin and one angle in
standard position. As you can see, the formula we will derive will
work when the angle in standard position is acute, obtuse, or right.

y y y ;
* ; C(b cos A, b sin A) C(b cos A, b'sin A)
C(bicos.A, b sin A) = (0,b sin A)

> —= = ~~ w —e =>= A(0,0) B(c, 0) A(0,0) Bic, 0).

Let AABC be a triangle with length AB = c, length BC =a, and length

CA = b. The coordinates of the vertices are A (0,0), B (c, 0), and
C (b cos A, b sin A). We can then calculate a = BC, the length of
the triangle’s third side using the distance formula.

Let (x,,y,)=(c, 0) and let (x,,y,)=(bcos A, bsin A). Then,

d° = (x, —x,) +(y, —y,) =?

- : ‘ Substitute.
(BC) =(bcos A—c) +(bsin A-0)°

a
316 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 (BG pcos Arrh sina Alec? = 2hecos A

(BC) = b’(cos’ A+sin® A) +c? —2becos A

)
2
——
ao BO eA Substitute a for BC. Simplify. This is the Law
of Cosines.

We can write the Law of Cosines for AABC in terms of the measures of
any two sides and the included angle:

a’ 2 =b’ +c? —2bccosA

Law of Cosines > b? =a* +c’ —2accosB

Cc =a’ +b’ —2abcosC

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. In AABC, shown at the right, the length of AB = 8, AC = 10, A

and cos A = . Find the length of BC.

10 3
SOLUTION
= be — 2bccosA We will use the Law of Cosines
to find the measure of side a. :
a

2 |
a’ =(10) +(8) - 2110) :] Substitute.

a’ =100+64-—20=144 Simplify.
WeatA?. soa = 12 Since a represents the length of a line
segment, a is a positive number.

You may have noticed that the triangle in this model is a right triangle with
measurements corresponding to the Pythagorean triple 8-10-12. Generally, when
solving right triangles, you should look for these types of shortcuts to simplify your
calculations. In this model, however, we wanted to show the workings of the Law of
Cosines on a familiar problem.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

SHEN HRENE

Lesson 5.4 ° Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 317

 [ae] In ADEF, the length d = /3, e=5, and m4 = = Find the exact value of
length of side f.

SOLUTION
We begin by rewriting the Law of Cosines in terms of the letters that represent the
vertices the given triangle.

In this model, we are looking for the value of side f, which will be opposite 2F. Based
on their named angles, the other two sides are d and e. We examine the structure
of the original Law of Cosines: a’ = b’ +c* —2bccos A. Notice that the letter on the
equation’s left-hand side matches the letter of cosine’s argument; they are both a. The
other pieces of the equation, b’ +c’ —2bc, simply represent the lengths of the known
sides, and as they are squared, summed, and then their product is multiplied by two, it
does not matter the order they are presented. Thus, for this problem, we can express
the Law of Cosines as f° =d° +e’ —2decos F. We could also use f* =e +d° —2ed cos F.
Using our rewritten equation, we find the value of f.

T (V3) ye 2(V/3)(5) co{2] Substitute the given values.

* =3+25-10(V3 23
: (V3) 2 Simplify. Recall cos = se

f? =3+25-15=13
Solve.
f=V13
CSHSHHHEHSHSHHHHOSHHHHOHHHHHOSOHEHSHHHTHHHOCHOHSCOCHEH OOOOH OSELEOCESELEEEEOEOEEECLE

[2] Find, to the nearest degree, the measure of D

the largest angle of ADEF if DE = 75 units,
EF = 9.6 units, and DF = 13.5 units.
135
RS
SOLUTION
Recall from geometry that the largest angle is
always opposite the longest side. In this case, E 9.6 F
the largest angle is E.
ad’ +f 2df cosh Restate the Law of Cosines to reflect
the given variables.
(135) (96) £5) 200 OT See 7 Subsite.
182.25 = 92.16 +56.25—144cosE
=1AR Al. 1ddcos SEDO
MODEL PROBLEMS continue..:

a
i aS le
318 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 _ 182.25- 148.41 _—
cos £ =——_—____ _(), 35
avy Solve for cos E.

E= cos (0.235) Use the cos! function to find the

E~104° angle measure to the nearest degree.

Note that we can derive a general formula for determining the measure of an angle
using the Law of Cosines. Rather than provide another formula for memorization,
it is much simpler to algebraically solve for angle measures.

4. Pax and Benito follow a triangular path on their evening walk. They leave their
home and follow the sidewalk 0.52 mile along a straight road, then turn to the right
at a 95° angle, walk in a straight line for another 0.46 mile, and then they return
home along a straight path.
a __- Find, to the nearest hundredth of a mile, the length of the last portion of Pax and
Benito’s walk.
b Find, to the nearest hundredth of a mile, the total distance they walk each
evening.

SOLUTION
For simplicity, we will name the given angle measure as ZA, and then move clockwise
around the triangle. That makes the known length 0.52 = b and the other known length
0.46 =c.
a a =b’+c’—2bccosA Use the Law of Cosines.

a’ =(0.52)° + (0.46) —2(0.52)

(0.46) cos(95°) Substitute.
a’ = 0.2704
+ 0.2116 + 0.417 Simplify.
Solve. The length of the last
Fe portion of Pax and Benito’s walk
Deal mes is 0.72 mile.
For this part of the question, we
b P=0.52 + 0.46 + 0.72 = 1.70 miles find the perimeter of the triangle
they walk.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

to ee
Lesson 5.4 * Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 319
 2 Bf) ;
5. Use cosC= one to show that the measure of each angle of an equilateral
a
triangle is 60°.

SOLUTION
ee a’+b’-c’ In this problem we must show that something is true. We start
te 2ab with the given.
Ae egg age Recall that an equilateral triangle has sides that are all the
cos C= a same length. In equilateral triangle ABC, a= b =c. We can
restate the given formula using this fact.
2
1 weer
GSC = ee aa Simplify.

1
Cos= 602 We know from the unit circle that the cos 5 = 60°. We have
shown what we were asked.

ME The Law of Sines and Applications

To use the Law of Cosines, we need to know the lengths of two sides
of a triangle and the measure of the included angle (SAS). For the Law
of Sines, if we know the measures of two angles and the length of their
included side (ASA), or if we know the measures of two angles and the
length of the side opposite one of the known angles (AAS), then we
know the size and shape of the triangle. When we know the size and
shape of the triangle through ASA or AAS, we can use the Law of Sines
to determine the lengths of the remaining triangle sides.
Cc

In AABC, shown at right, suppose we know mZA,mZB, and AC = b is

the known length of an opposite side. How will we find the length of ; A
BC =a? We draw in the auxiliary line h, which is the altitude of AABC.
Doing this creates right triangle ACD and right triangle BCD.
A B
In right AACD, In right ABCD,
Ga opposite cape opposite
hypotenuse hypotenuse

sin A = i SHS b
b a
h=bsin A h=asinB

a
320 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
Now we have a system of equations that that relates the angles and
sides of the triangles. We substitute and solve for a:

asin B=bsin A Substitute.

asin B mvsinA
Divide by sin B.
sin B sinB

bsinA
a=— Simplify.
sinB

More generally, we can establish a proportional relationship between

two angles and the sides opposite these angles in a triangle. Divide both
sides of the equation a sin B= b sin A by sin A sin B:

asinB=bsinA

asmB _— bsinA
sinA sixnB sinA sinB

a b
snA sinB

rs! » & a C
We can use a similar derivation to show that — =— and
snA sinC
a b c ae ;
e so that . This is the Law of Sines.
Slit Das Sy Sine? SiMe

Law of Sines > ie 2

snA sinB sinC

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. IMmAABC, c= 12 units, mZB = 120° and mZC = 45°. B

Find the exact measure of side b.

SOLUTION
Side b is the side that is opposite angle B.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.4 * Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 321

 We need to determine the length of side b, so we use
ee Nee
ratios from the Law of Sines that relate the unknown
snB sinc
side to the known information given in the problem.
b eee
Substitute.
Sia 120° sin) 45"

i Wes 202
Solve for b.
sin 45°

pp
b=—=—
v2
2
Substitute sine values and simplify.
SS
Wis ee
72
ee ies

p= PM 66 units

CLM Using the triangle shown at the right, E :

find the measure of side d to the nearest tenth. ee

SOLUTION

Restate the Law of Sines using the variables in the

ad.
model problem. The side of known measure is f,
sinD sinff
and we are trying to determine d.
180° — (50° +957) = 35° We must calculate the measure of “F.

a 126
Substitute.
si 00) sin 357

Solve for d and use a calculator to simplify the ratio

gee es ae
sil 35° to the nearest tenth.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

322 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

 3 IMP 1, 3, 4 Two coast guard stations located 3.8 miles apart
along a fairly straight coastline receive a distress signal from
a ship, S. From station A, the signal makes an angle of 48°
with the coastline and from station B the signal makes an
angle of 67° with the coastline. Find, to the nearest tenth <p
of a mile, the distance from S to the nearer station.

SOLUTION
The distance to the nearer station is represented by the length SB, which is opposite
angle A, so we will use the variable a to represent this distance. We begin by
calculating the measure of ZS.

180° — (48° + 67°) = 65° Calculate mZS.

a Ss Restate the Law of Sines in terms of the variables in
sinA_ sin the problem.

oe = Substitute.
sin 48° sin 65°
_ 3.8 sin 48°
_ sin 65° Solve and simplify.
a = 3.1 miles

WH Practice
1. In AMAR, which expresses m’ in terms of
a, r,and cos M?

_m =a’ +r’ —2arcosM

m =a’ —r’ —2arcosM
m =a’ +r’ +2arcosM
>GAP
m =a’ —r’ +2arcosM

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

eee
bo
Lesson 5.4 * Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 323
 2. Which of the following explains when to 3. Ifthe sine of an angle of a triangle is
use the Law of Cosines and when to use known, is it possible to determine the
the Law of Sines? measure of the angle? Explain why or
why not.
A. We use the Law of Cosines if we know
the lengths of two sides of a triangle A. Yes. If sine is positive, the angle can
and the measure of their included only be in quadrant I, so the triangle
angle. We use the Law of Sines when is acute.
we know the measure of two angles
B. No. If sine is positive, the angle is
and the measure of their included side
in quadrant I or quadrant II, which
or when we know the measure of two
means the angle is either acute or
angles and the measure of the side
obtuse. More information is needed.
opposite one of the known angles.
C. No. If sine is positive, the angle is
B. We use the Law of Cosines when we
in quadrant I or quadrant II, which
know the measure of two angles and
means the angle is either acute or
the measure of their included side or
right. More information is needed.
when we know the measure of two
angles and the measure of the side D. Yes, if sine is positive, the angle can
opposite one of the known angles. We only be in quadrant III, so the triangle
use the Law of Sines if we know the is obtuse.
lengths of two sides of a triangle and
the measure of their included angle. 4. In AHJ/K,h = 10 units, k =7 units, and
C. We use the Law of Cosines when we cos J = 0.6. The exact value of j is
know the measure of two angles and
7%. he C. 9.811
the measure of their included side. We
use the Law of Sines when we know B. 42 D. J65
the measure of two angles and the
measure of the side opposite one of Exercises 5=—13: Use either the Law of
the known angles. Cosines or the Law of Sines as appropriate
D. We use the Law of Cosines when to solve for the variable.

we know the lengths of two sides of

5. In APOR, p =6 units, g = V2 units, and
a triangle and the measure of their
included angle or when we know mZR =7 radians. What is the exact
the measure of two angles and the
value of r?
measure of their included side or when
we know the measure of two angles
6. In AABC,a=4 units, b = 6 units, and
and the measure of the side opposite
c=8 units. Find the cosine of each angle
one of the known angles.
in the triangle.

7. In APOR, sin P== sin R==, and

p = 40 units. Find the exact value of r.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

324 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

 In ARST, RS = 0.375 units, ST = 1.29 units, 16. On a playground, the 10-foot ladder to
and mZS = 167°. What is the value of the top of the slide makes a 48° angle
RT to the nearest tenth? with the ground. The slide makes and
angle of 32° with the ground.
nA C S oe and
a How long is the slide, to the nearest
ave
WWwAc = ree find the exact value tenth of a foot?
b What is the distance from the foot
of a in simplest form. of the ladder to the foot of the slide,
to the nearest tenth of a foot?
10. In AROK 2h Ne) mnZO— 14-sand
p = 122 units. Find the measure of r to the
17. Two points A and B are on the shoreline
nearest tenth.
of Lake George. A surveyor is located
In APQR, p = 2 units, g = 4 units, and at a third point, C, some distance from
r=5 units. Find the cosine of each angle both points. The distance from point A to
in the triangle. point C is 180.0 meters, and the distance
from point B to point C is 120.0 meters.
12. In AABC, AB =2V2 units, BC = 4 units, The surveyor determines the measure of
ZACB = 56.3°. To the nearest tenth of a
aimel waaes = “* radians. What is the exact
meter, what is the distance from A to B?
value of side AC?
A quadrilateral kite has two pairs of
13. The measures of the sides of a triangle congruent, adjacent sides. The lengths of
are 9,10, and 15 units, respectively. To the the shorter two sides are 20.0 inches and
nearest degree, what is the measure of the lengths of the longer two sides are
each angle in this triangle? 35.0 inches. The two shorter sides meet at
an angle of 115°.
14. A field is shaped like a parallelogram.
a Find the length of the diagonal
The lengths of two adjacent sides are
between the points at which the
48 meters and 65 meters. The measure of
unequal sides meet. Round to the
one angle of the parallelogram is 100°.
nearest tenth of an inch.
a_ Find, to the nearest meter, the length b Using your answer to part a, find, to the
of the longer diagonal. nearest degree, the measure of the angle
b Find, to the nearest meter, the length at which the two longer sides meet.
of the shorter diagonal.
19. Use the Law of Sines to show that if ZC

Two sides of a triangular lot form angles of AABC is aright angle, sinA =".
C
that measure 29.1° and 33.7° with the third
20. Use the Law of Cosines to prove that if
side, which is 487 feet in length. To the
nearest dollar, how much will it cost to
the angle between two congruent sides
of a triangle measures 60°, the triangle is
fence the lot if fencing costs $5.59 per foot?
equilateral.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 5.4 * Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 325

RAY 20. Your house is a mile south of your by 23. Suppose that you are on a boat that
friend’s house. A helicopter is flying traveled 12 miles straight out from the
north of both your locations. Using an shore, then turned right, at a 134° angle,
inclinometer, you determine your angle and then went another 15.3 miles. Now
of elevation to the helicopter is 20.2° and you need to get back to the shore.
your friend’s angle of elevation to the
helicopters 26.7: a Currently, how far are you from the
point on the shore where the boat was
a How far are you from the helicopter? launched? Round your answer to the
Round your answer to the nearest nearest hundredth.
hundredth. b At what angle does the boat need to
b How far is your friend from the turn in order to return to the point on
helicopter? Round your answer to the shore where its journey began?
the nearest hundredth. Round your answer to the nearest
c How high off the groundis the hundredth.
helicopter? Round your answer to
the nearest hundredth.
RA 24. Your precalculus teacher asks you to
walk the path of a specific triangle.
An airplane that is 2 miles off the ground You will start at one of the vertices and
is flying west of you and your sister. Your earn a prize if you can correctly locate
sister is 4.3 miles away from the airplane’s each of the two remaining vertices.
current location and you are 3.1 miles
There is an additional prize if you can
from the plane.
return to exactly the spot you started.
a What is your angle of elevation to The instructions state to walk 31 paces
the plane? Round your answer to the forward, turn left, walk 56 paces, turn left,
nearest hundredth. and then walk 49 paces. At what angles
b What is your sister’s angle of elevation do you need to turn to get the prizes?
to the plane? Round your answer to Round your answers to the nearest
the nearest hundredth. hundredth.
c How far are you from your sister?
Round your answer to the nearest
hundredth.

Chapter 5 Key Ideas

5. Basic Identities
An identity is an equation that is true for all values of the variable for which the
terms
containing the variable are defined.
In trigonometry we have reciprocal identities, quotient identities, and
Pythagorean
identities.
We use trigonometric identities to prove statements are true, to
simplify more complex
equations, and to solve for unknown trigonometric ratios.

re eee KEY IDEAS continue...

326 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
9.2 Special Trigonometric Identities
Sum and difference formulas as well as double and half-angle formulas are used to
determine the exact values of angle measures.
These formulas are also useful in solving real-world applied problems involving
trigonometry.

5.3 Solving Trigonometric Equations

A trigonometric equation is an equation whose variable is expressed in terms of a
trigonometric function.
We utilize various algebraic techniques to solve trigonometric equations.
Depending on a trigonometric function’s domain, there may be more than one solution
to a trigonometric equation.

5.4 Law of Cosines and Law of Sines

We use the Law of Cosines to determine the length of the third side of a triangle when
we know the lengths of two sides and the measure of included angle.
The Law of Cosines can also be used to find the measure of any angle of a triangle when
the lengths of all three sides are known.
When the length of any side of a triangle and two angle measures are known, use the
Law of Sines to solve for the lengths of the remaining sides and the measure of the
remaining angle.

Lesson 5.4 * Law of Cosines and Law of Sines 327

 Chapter 5 Review

1. For what values of @ is the identity 4. Which of the following gives the exact
cos@ sin@ values for sin (A — B) and sin (A + B) for
ep eee the values A = 30° and B = 270°?
A. For the values = where n is an A. sin (A -B)= v3 sin (A + B) = <i
integer. y)

B. For the values 277n where n is an B. sin(A—B)= x3 sin (A+B) = v3

integer. 2 2
2 ;
CG Hohe the values — where n is an COI) = x3 RIES v3
integer. 2 2

D. “teite “ue ne values for which the Des cias v3

oC anAe een v3
S
identity is undefined. 2 2

2. What is the exact value of cos (A + B)

1 1 5. Iscos (A +8)+cos (A-—B)=2
cos A
for is ae ae cos B? Why or why not?

5 Goes?
Al Exercises 6=7: Write each of the given
expressions as a single term using sin 0, cos 0,
" VO 4A or both.
4
6. tan @sec @ cot 0

e.
v2 - v6
6
4
7. sec +
csc @

S DAG
7s Ae Exercises 8=103 Find the exact value of
cos (A — B) for each given pair of values.
3. Find the value of tan (A + B) if A is in the
second quadrant, sin A = 0.6 and tan B = 4. Be As I80" Ba Ao
20
A. -0.8521 De eee
B, -0.8125 10. A =30°, B=270°
C. 0.8215
D. 0.8125

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

ea a i Ee
328 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations
 1
Foricot: = Bey with @ in the second 17. a Find the exact value of sin 15°.
quadrant, find
b Use the value of sin 15° found in a to
find sin 165°.
sin 20
cos 20 c Use the value of the sin 15° found in a
to find sin 345°.
tan 20
d_ Use the value of sin 15° found in a to
oO
&a
& the quadrant in which 26 lies.
find sin 195°.

12. a Find the exact value of cos 315°. a Find the exact value of cos 210°.

b_ Find the exact value of sin 210° by

b Find the exact value of sin 315° by
using cos? 6 + sin? @ = 1 and the value
using cos* @ + sin? 6 = 1 and the value
of cos 210° found in a.
of cos 315° found in a.
c Find the exact value of cos 165°.
c Find the exact value of cos 345°.
d_ Use the value of cos 165° found in ¢ to
find cos (—15°).
d Show why cos 405° = cos 45°.
e Use the value of cos (—15°) found in d
to find cos 195°.
13. For the value cos A = ed AD) se Ae
> f Use the value of cos (-15°) found in d
find
to find the exact value of sin 105°.
a ee
2.
Two boats leave the same dock to cross a
river that is 500 feet wide. The first boat
b Seen leaves the dock at an angle of 8 with the
2
shore and travels 1,300 feet to reach a
point downstream on the opposite shore of
c ney
2 the river. The second boat leaves the dock
at an angle of (6 + 30°) with the shore.
14. Find the exact solution of 4 sin @-1=2
sin @+ 1 if 0° < @ < 360°.

Find, to the nearest degree, the measure

of an acute angle for which the given
equation cot 0+ 8 =3 cot @ + 2 is true.

Find the exact values of sin @ and cos @.

Find, to the nearest hundredth of a
radian, the values of @ in the interval Find the exact value of sin (0 + 30°).
0 <6 <2z that satisfy the equation c Find the distance that the second boat
2 cot? @-—13 cotd@+6=0. travels to reach the opposite shore.
Round to the nearest hundredth foot,
if necessary.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter 5 Review 329

 Exercises 20=25: Prove that each Exercises 30=3 1: Find the length of the
equation is an identity. third side of each triangle.

20. tan @sin 6 cos 0=sin? 6 30. In ARST, RS = 9 units, ST =9V3 units,

and mis = “ Find the exact value.

21. sin @ (csc @—sin @) = cos’ 6
2 31. In AABC.b= 12 Anise nits,
Fy yn aay: and mZA = 23°. Round to the nearest
1+sin 0
hundredth unit.

23 ie ee cos’ @
ese @) 32. Find the exact value of the cosine of each
angle in ADEF if d= 15 units, e = 12 units,
2
and f=8 units.
24. ae = gee @
sec 6-1
33 Find, to the nearest degree, the measure
25. tan@+cot@ =sec@csc@ of each angle in a triangle with sides
of measure 11 inches, 11 inches, and
26. Derive an expression for sin 4A in terms 15 inches.
of the trigonometric functions of 2A.
34. In AC DE, mZC=125" mZ EF = 7oeend
Exercises 27-28: Use the quadratic the length of d = 12.5 units. What is the
formula to find, to the nearest degree, all the length of side c, to the nearest hundredth
unit?
values of @ in the interval 0° < 6 < 360° that
satisfy each equation.
35. The base of an isosceles triangle measures
27. 2 tan (tand+1)=3 14.5 centimeters and the vertex angle
measure is 110°.
sin 0 _ 3
28. =— a Find the measure of one of the
2 sin 6 +2
congruent sides of the triangle. Round
29.
to the nearest hundredth centimeter, if
Find the exact values of @ in the interval
necessary.
0° < @ < 360° that satisfy the equation
b Find the perimeter of the triangle to
tan 0 =cot 6.
the nearest tenth.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

330 Trigonometric Identities, Proofs, and Equations

36. The voltage, V, in an electrical circuit
is given by the function V = 20 cos(z?r),
where t is the time in seconds.

a Graph V in the interval0O <t<2s.

b What is the voltage of the electrical

circuit when f= 1s?

c How many times does V = 12 volts

during the first two seconds?

d Suppose 6 = zt. Solve the equation

20icos 0. = 12 imi the interval 0's
6 < 27. Round to the nearest hundredth
radian.

e Use the formula 6 = a and your

answers to part d to find the value
of t when 0 < 6 < 2zand V = 12 volts.
Round to the nearest hundredth
second.

Chapter 5 Review 331

 Chapter 6 The Complex Plane

Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Multiplying a Complex Number

6.1 Complex Numbers and its Conjugate
and their Conjugates
In this chapter, we begin an in-depth
FEN ese
Quotients ea examination of complex numbers
z=a+ bi, where a and D are real
6.3 Distances in the numbers and i = V—1. While complex
Sek ane numbers play an important role in
6.4 Transformations with modern-day mathematics, including
Complex Naber applications in electric circuitry,
Chapter 6 Key Ideas transmission of radio waves, and
more, mathematicians initially did
Sek eVey not accept complex numbers as Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia
part of the number system. Their
usefulness, though, became apparent as mathematicians
attempted to find a general solution to the cubic
equation ax* + bx? + cx + d=0.The first to do so was
Italian mathematician Scipione del Ferro, who chose
not publish his proof. Instead, while on his deathbed in
1526, he confided it to his student, Antonio Maria Fiore.
Fiore, armed with his teacher’s solution, then challenged
a well-known mathematician named Niccolo Fontana,
called Tartaglia, to a sort of mathematical duel in order
to advance his career. Tartaglia had heard rumors of
del Ferro’s solution and he knew the subject of the
challenge was cubics. In the time before the challenge
began, Tartaglia developed his own proof and discovered
a much wider set of solutions to cubics than those
del Ferro had found and confided to Fiore. Of course,
Tartaglia won the challenge.

After his victory, a doctor and mathematician named

Gerolamo Cardano contacted Tartaglia, desperate to
know his solution. After much back and forth, Cardano
used his superior social status to coerce Tartaglia into
revealing his secret in exchange for introductions to
several important figures. Tartaglia made Cardano
promise not to publish the solution until after he did, -
—— Cardano made and kept that promise. Years passed.
332 The Complex Plane
(eee anne in tn ce eA a a

In that time, Cardano and his student, Ludovico Ferrari, made several important mathematical
discoveries, all of which hinged on Tartaglia’s unpublished proof. Finally, after discovering
that Tartaglia may not have been the first to solve a cubic using his particular method,
Cardano published Ars Magna, sive de regulis algebraicis (Of the Great Art, or The Rules of
Algebra). This 1545 work included, among many other proofs, Tartaglia’s proof, Cardano’s
own generalization of del Ferro’s solution, as well as a solution to the biquadratic equation,
written by Ludovico. In his book, Cardano clearly credits Tartaglia, as well as del Ferro, for
their contributions, but Tartaglia was incensed and accused Cardano of intellectual theft. He
finally published his own proof, but after a failed mathematical duel with Ludovico, Tartaglia’s
reputation was ruined. Cardano’s Ars Magna is the work we remember.

In the Ars Magna, Cardano approaches complex numbers with much trepidation. We
plainly see his angst in the solution to the problem, “To divide 10 in two parts, the product
of which is 40.” As you read his solution, note that the notation with which we are familiar
was not introduced until the 17th century, long after Cardano’s death.

“Tt is clear that this case impossible. Nevertheless, we shall work thus: We divide 10 into
two equal parts, making 5 each. These we square, making 25. Subtract 40, if you will, from
the 25 thus produced ...leaving a remainder of —15, the square root of which added to or
subtracted from 5 gives parts of the product of which is 40. These will be 5+V/-15 and
| 5-is. Putting aside the mental tortures involved, multiply 5+ 15 and 5 15
_ making 25 — (—15) which is +15. Hence this product is 40.”

_ Like students today, brilliant mathematicians struggled with the reality of mathematics.
How can the product of two imaginary numbers result in a real number? The lessons in
this chapter will help us answer this question. To begin, we review the process used to
multiply two complex numbers.
eaeeeeeeeeeseseeeeeosesneseeseeseeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeseeseseeoseeseoeeeeeseeeoeeee

I. Use the pattern for the difference of squares (p. 15) to multiply (x + 2)(x — 2),

2. Apply the difference of squares pattern to (4 — 37)(4 + 31).

: 3. Simplify (a + bi)(a — bi) using the technique from questions #1 and #2.
: 4. : Looking at the general form you developed in question #3, simplify each of the
___ following products:
a O-30 +50) b Gd o6nG = 60) © 6B Ven3+ Je
A :Taine the solutions to questions #3 and #4. Use your solutions to explain why the
_ product of two complex numbers becomes a real number.
Exploratory Activity 333
 Chapter 6 Vocabulary
absolute value midpoint reflection scalar multiplication
complex plane modulus of acomplex __ rotation translation
mber vector
dilation tie scalar
5 multiplicative inverse
isometry

Lesson 6.1
Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates

ME Complex Conjugates
Recall from Lesson 1.3 that not all quadratic equations have real-number
solutions. In fact, the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra guarantees that
every quadratic equation has at least one zero in the set of complex
numbers. To determine complex solutions, we introduced the imaginary
number i= J—1 as well as the set of complex numbers, which are written
z=a+ bi, where a is the real number component and Di is the imaginary
component. The real numbers are actually a subset of complex numbers
with b = 0. For example, the real number 6 can be written as 6 + Oi.

Complex roots of quadratic equations with real coefficients do not appear

singly. A complex root will always be paired with its complex conjugate.
We defined this term in Lesson 1.4. Recall that a complex conjugate of a
complex number has the same real component as the original complex
number but has the opposite of the original complex number’s imaginary
part. If we have a complex root z = a + bi, that root’s complex conjugate
is Z =a—biandis also a root. The converse is true: if a complex root is
z =a— bi, then its complex conjugate Z =a+bi is also a root.A complex
number multiplied by its conjugate always yields a real number. This
is due to the special product pattern (a + b)(a — b) = a? — b?, which you
worked with in this chaper's exploration. In the case of complex numbers,
(a + bi)(a — bi) becomes a? — (bi)?. Expanding this out, a? — b?i is then
Gi A SINGS 1 i

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find the complex conjugate of z = 6 — 37, and show that the product
of these two
numbers is a real number.

SOLUTION
The complex conjugate of z=6 — 3iis Z =6+3i. We simply change the sign of the
imaginary term.To find their product:
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

334 The Complex Plane

 (6 = 31)(6 +31)
36 + 187 — 187 — 9/7? Expand.
36+9=45 Simplify, recalling that i? =-1.

ey [TE] Solve x? - 4y + 13 = 0. Give the exact solution(s).

SOLUTION
This quadratic equation is not factorable, so we must use the quadratic formula.

—(-4)+,/(-4)’ -4(1)(13
re Ey) 103) In this caa
se=1, b
, =—4, and
c = 13.
2(1)
Simplify.

4+6i Recall that we can express a complex number and

its conjugate using the + symbol.

MH Graphing Complex Numbers

Complex numbers can be graphed using the complex plane, which is
an infinite 2-dimensional space, similar to the xy-plane. On the complex
plane the real component is graphed using the horizontal axis and the
imaginary part is graphed using the vertical axis. The complex number
z=5+3i would be plotted on the complex plane in the same way that
(5,3) would be plotted on the xy-plane. Several points are graphed
below as examples.

Every complex number is represented by one point, (—4+4i) 5

and only one point, on the complex plane, so there is a ° 4 (5+3i)
one-to-one correspondence between complex numbers : °
and points on the complex plane. Note that the graph Ht
of a complex number and its conjugate are reflections a oes 7
across the real axis, and that both points are the same gs eee ves thee ie et IE) Seca
distance from the origin, as shown to the right. (aa:
3+ e
(S=.3))

Lesson 6.1 * Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates 335

 MODEL PROBLEM

Plot the following numbers and their complex conjugates on the complex plane.
a G27
b -—3+41
Cg or
64--(1+5i)
(—3+4i) 5+ @
SOLUTION ° oe
3+ (6+21)
We quickly determine each of the complex
conjugates: Coen
! 1 U 1

A = 2 Bese eS pees sae:

pees Mae 2 a Nv Ae a ie ea
Do =o = 4 2+ é
Cielo ' 3+! (6—2i)
Now we plot each complex number and its é ees
(—3—41)- 51-6
conjugate, with the horizontal axis as the real
64 (1=5))
axis and the vertical axis as the imaginary axis.

WE Powers of i as Geometric Rotations

Earlier in this lesson, we reviewed that multiplying a complex number
by its conjugate yields a real number because i =—1. This follows
from the definition i =/—1. Similarly, we can use the definition of i to
determine the values of /°, /4, 7°,
5
and so on. A pattern is revealed:

i=l ffi =(i)E1)=i

ean esi ee@nyesh\ a
? =?i=(-1)(@)=-i pt = (ene
i =?? =(-1)(-1)=1 Pate Syed
We see the pattern that comes about when multiplying i by various
powers of i, but what happens if we multiply a complex number by i?
Suppose we multiply (a + bi) by i. Then,
(a + bi)i

ai + bi? |Distribute
ai + b(-1) | Substitute for 7?
ai — b 4 -—b + ai} Simplify and rewrite

336 The Complex Plane

 If we were to graph the original complex number, a + bi, on the complex
plane, we would graph (a, b). If we were to graph the complex number
we derived on the previous page, it would be (—b, a). Thus, we see
that multiplication of a complex number by i rotates the point in the
complex plane 90° degrees counterclockwise. This is an extension of the
rotations we learned in geometry, where a 90° rotation of a point in the
xy-plane changed the point’s coordinates from (x, y) to (—y, x).

MODEL PROBLEM

1. Show that multiplication of a complex number by 7” generates a 180° rotation of that

point on the complex plane.

SOLUTION
We recall that =-1 and i° =-i. Then i*(a+bi)= ai’ +bi’ and a(—1)+b(-i) becomes
—a — bi. The original point is graphed in the complex plane as (a, b) while the new
point is represented by (—a, —b). By definition, these two points are 180° rotations of
each other.

Hi Complex Numbers and Scalar Multiplication

As we have shown in this lesson, a vector (v), can represent a complex
number plotted on the complex plane with its tail at the origin and
its head at the point (a, bi). While we will discuss vectors at length
in Chapter 8, here we address them in terms of scalar multiplication.
In the complex plane, the length of a vector is equal to Va’ +b° and
multiplying the complex number by a scalar, or positive real number,
extends the vector’s length by that scalar factor. We will show this is true.

Suppose that c is a real number scalar factor and a + bi is a complex

number. Then,

c(a + bi) |Multiply a complex number by a positive real number scalar.

ca + cbi | Distribute.

(ca) +(cb)’ |Determine the length of the new vector.

c’(a’ +b’) |Factor.

cva’ +b | Simplify.

SS
Lesson 6.1 * Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates 337
 MODEL PROBLEM

cS IMP 2, 5) a Graph the vector representation, v, of 3 + Ar.

b What is the length of v?
c Multiply 3 + 47 by the scalar 2.
d_— Graph the results of ¢ on the same graph as a. What do you notice?
e Find the length of the new vector.

SOLUTION
a

34 5 6 7 8 8 4

b The length of vis Va’ +b’. In this case, a = 3 and b = 4, so we need to simplify
(3) +(4)’, which is /25 =5.
c Multiplying the vector by 2, we find that 2(3 + 47) = 6 + 87.

Examining the graph of the two vectors, we can see the length of the new vector
is twice as long as the original. This makes sense since we multiplied the original
by a factor of 2.

e The length of this new vector is calculated with a = 6 and b = 8. Thus (6) 2
(8):
which is 4100 = 10.

338 The Complex Plane

se Technology
Activity |

We can use GeoGebra to help us visualize the points that

represent numbers in the complex plane and to calculate
their magnitude. Note that the technology-based technique | etme ia
described here will only provide decimal approximations. Aae
For exact answers, it is best to find these values using the
©. . show /Hide Object
algebraic techniques taught in this chapter. AA Show/Hide Label
& Copy Visual Style

State the magnitude of 5 — 2i by graphing the point that Jie

represents this complex number in GeoGebra.
N A AGS ifs het
Step I: Graph the point that represents this number
by typing 5 — 2/ into the [Input...] field. Once Compie we Line

oO Z=5-
the point is graphed, you may need use the «” Segment

4-direction arrow button to view it. You may also ¢” Segment with Given Length

have to zoom in or out for a better picture using .

o » Polyline
the appropriate magnifying glasses. «7 Vector

Step 2: Use the line tool and select segment. ae Vector from Point

Step 3: Draw a segment from 5 — 27 to 0 + 07. When

GeoGebra
drawing the segment, it is easiest to start by
clicking on the point z, and then the point (0, 0).
Step 4: Once the segment is drawn, its length will be
shown the left of the screen. For this problem, the
length of the vector is 5.39 units. Segment

© a=5a39

(limita Exercises 1-4: Find the magnitudes of the

following complex numbers by graphing them in GeoGebra.

I. -2+i
De aietiol
3. -6-8i
4. 8-Si
§. Ensuring all your previous inputs are cleared out, (select each
input and then click “x”) graph the numbers z, = 2 + 31 and
z,=—3 + 2i in the same complex plane. Then draw vectors from
each point to the origin. What do you notice about these vectors?

Lesson 6.1 * Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates 339

MMR Practice. nn EE eee
Exercises 1=—4: For each complex number, Exercises 6-10: Graph the following
state the complex conjugate and find the numbers on the complex plane.
product of the number and its conjugate.
6. 2-21
1. 6+2i
7. 4+3i1
2. 4-31
8. = 8)" (yi

3. —2+5i
9. -1
4. 8-1
10. 61
5. Solve x? + 10x + 29 = 0. Give exact
answer(s).

11. Show that multiplication of a complex number, a + bi, by ? generates a 270-degree

counterclockwise rotation of a + bi on the complex plane.

se What happens to a point on the complex plane when the number it represents is multiplied
by i*? Explain.

13. Evaluate 7”.

14. Graph the vector representation, v, of 6 — 6i.

15. Find the exact length of the vector graphed in problem #14.

16. Multiply 6 — 6: by :;

17. Graph the vector representation of your answer to problem #16.

18. Find the exact length of the vector graphed in problem #17

19. Compare the lengths of the vectors in problems #14 and #17 Is this what you expected?
Explain.

bok 20. Consider the point that represents the complex number z = 2 — 3/ in the complex
plane.
a Graph this point in the complex plane.
b Write a linear equation for this complex number so we can graph its vector
representation in the xy-plane. Over what interval is the equation valid?
Why?
¢ Verify your linear equation and interval using your calculator’s {TABLE]
function. Which
two entries in your table allowed you to verify that your equation was
correct?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
340 The Complex Plane
 td 21. Consider the point that represents the complex number z = 2 +i in the complex plane.

a Graph this point in the complex plane.

b What complex number results if we multiply z = 2 + i by i? By 72? BYE?

¢ Write a linear equation for each of the four resulting complex numbers from part b so
that their vector representations can be graphed in the xy-plane. Include the interval
over which each of these equations are valid.
d What do you notice about slopes of the equations in part ¢?

e Graph the equations from part ¢ in your graphing calculator and sketch what you see on
the screen. At what angles do the vector representations meet?

LESSON 6.2
Complex Moduli and Quotients

MMM Multiplicative Inverses of Complex Numbers

Complex numbers have many of the same properties as real numbers.
For example, the multiplicative inverse or reciprocal of a complex
number, z, is z', and, as with real numbers, z - z"' = 1. We can write the
multiplicative inverse of a + bi as ~ . The reciprocal
a+bi
has a radical, 7, in the denominator, which we must rationalize:

= it (a-—bi) _ a-bi a b
>

Gehe aa=bie “ath a eb ya

Note that we multiplied the numerator and denominator of z' by the

conjugate of the denominator. We now have a general expression for
the multiplicative inverse of a complex number, written with a rational
denominator.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. For z=6 — 2i, find its multiplicative inverse and show that the product of the number
and its inverse is equal to one.

SOLUTION
The complex conjugate, Z , of 6 — 2i is 6 + 2i. Applying the general expression
derived above,
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 6.2 * Complex Moduli and Quotients 341

 6 Dp) Use the general expression. In this case,
ee: 2 x! gq=6and b=-2.

46 ee
seis) el
Sea apHre
40 40°» 20 20. ena!
Now we need to show that z- z!=1:

4 Rincon et ot =
ee -(6-m{ 245i] Substitute the terms for zand Zz.

le
TN ee E xpand d and
and simplif
simplify.

L Saye ere) =i We have shown that the product of the complex

20 20 AO number and its multiplicative inverse is 1.

Technology
Activity 2

In this Technology Activity, we use GeoGebra to help us confirm

that two complex numbers are inverses of each other. Complex Number 9
.

2+3i
Use the GeoGebra to determine if the number is the inverse
of 4-6i. 3

Step I: Graph the two numbers by typing them into the

[Input...] field. Put parentheses around the numerator
of the fractional complex number. Once the points are
Compile
Pie a” a Line

graphed, you may need use the 4-direction arrow button

to view them. You may also have to zoom in or out for a
<~ Ray
better picture using the appropriate magnifying glasses.
at Polyline

Step 2: Click the line tool button and select segment. ® Vector

Draw line segments from the origin to both ao Vector from Point

2+3i
and 4 — 6i. Note that GeoGebra will simplify the

fraction to 0.15 + 0.233.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 1! continues...

342 The Complex Plane

 Step 3: Now that we know the length of each line segment (shown on the
left of the screen), we multiply the lengths together. If the two
numbers are inverses, the product will be 1. Keep in mind that
we may need to round to the nearest tenth. In this case, the
lengths are 721 and 0.28, which have a product of 2.0 and not 1.
These two numbers are not inverses.
Note that in this activity, we are multiplying magnitudes, not the actual numbers.

(ie Exercises 1-3: Use GeoGebra to determine if the given pairs of complex numbers
are inverses of each other. If the numbers are not inverses, use the procedure
described on page 341 to determine the correct inverse of the first listed number.

Ghee
eed Ge
0

2. 945 2H!
5)

3. g 493 4-1

4. Consider the complex numbers presented in practice problem #2 above.

a Multiplication by what real number scalar takes 2 + i to nes ?

b By what number would you multiply to take oe to2.+1?

c When you graphed 2 + i and a using GeoGebra, how could you tell one of the

given numbers was simply the original number multiplied by a real number scalar?

WH Dividing Complex Numbers

Suppose that we have some number, x, that we need to divide by a
complex number, a + bi. We can use multiplication by the inverse of
the complex number, as described in the previous section, to solve
such a problem. Generally:

x x (a-bi) _x(a-bi)
foun abi (abi) a eh?

eeee ee ee
Lesson 6.2 * Complex Moduli and Quotients 343
 MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Divide and simplify = :

+ 2i
SOLUTION
5 (6—2i) We use the process pee on the previous plane.
6+2i (6—2i) Here x =5,a=6,and b=2.

a eer Simplify.
36+4 4 4

2. Divide and simplify ahs3

SOLUTION
In this problem, x 1s a complex number. This does not
Jaa (ee —— change how we carry out the problem steps. We begin by
On (9=7) multiplying and dividing by the conjugate of the complex
number in the denominator.

(3—4i)(9-i) _
9° +1?
Simplify. The solution to this problem is a bit messy.
23391 23 39, :
82 82 82

MG Modulus of a Complex Number

In Lesson 6.1, we learned how to graph complex numbers and find the
length of the vector associated with a number on the complex plane.
The length of the vector associated with z =a + bi on the complex plane
is known as the absolute value or modulus of the complex number. Its
value is found using the distance formula:

Modulus of a
Complex Number 4 |z| = Va" +b°

344 The Complex Plane

At this point, we will use the modulus to simplify division by a complex
number. Recall our derivation from the last section:

5c eee = DL) x(a—bi) |

a+bi a+bi (a-bi) a+b
. : = 9 >

If we continue, we find that:

x(a—bi) ae a-—bi a
a+> 5 A*
a+b
5 7, =X

To state it another way, when dividing by a complex number, we

multiply by the complex conjugate and then divide by the square of the
modulus. Because the modulus is a real number, our quotient will be in
simplified form.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Find the modulus of 9 — 12i.

SOLUTION
ears We use the formula for the modulus of a complex
z=va +b
number. For this problem, a = 9 and b =-12.

OMA(-12)" = 225 =15 Substitute and simplify.

@D CARE Use the modulus to divide 3 ~ 27 by 1 + 5i.

SOLUTION
The formula for using the modulus to divide
Z by a complex number was derived previously.
y iz In this case, x = 3 — 2i, z =1—Si, and we need
to calculate |z|?.
|? =12 +5? = 26 We calculate |z|’.
1-31. -/ lh
Cig Substitute and simplify.
7126
26

Lesson 6.2 * Complex Moduli and Quotients 345

 8
Practi LL
ce
1. If <=-7+4i, what is z ? 9. Rewrite the multiplicative inverse of
z=a+ bi, using the modulus.
A eae
on 10. Explain how to use the complex
B Ha conjugate of a complex number to divide
65 65. by that complex number.

Gh Adi Exercises I 1=13:% Divide and simplify.

1 e | 3
Des == ° ;
65 65 2-65
34+4i
2. Which of the following is the correct 12. ALi
setup to divide —2+3i by 4—6i using
the modulus of a complex number? 13. 1-4;
2 Ob
PE (=2
1 3) = 14. Prove that the modulus of a complex
number is equal to the length of the
Bea) pa) vector associated with that number.

A beta Exercises 15-18: Determine the

C. (-2+3i) modulus of each number. Give the exact
Theye, answer in simplified radical form.
D. (-2-3i)
re 15. 5412
Exercises 3=6: Write the multiplicative valae
inverse of the number in simplified form. ee

cy Dba ee ay
Pt Bike 18. -14+7i

cee: Exercises 19=203 Use the modulus

to perform the indicated operation. Show
6.8 232: your work.

7. Find the multiplicative inverse of

. . . .

19. Tee
8

z=-6+8i and show that the product of

the two numbers is 1. 20. (3+ 9i)+(6—27)

8. Show that the product of any complex

number and its multiplicative inverse
equals 1.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

346 The Complex Plane

h#4 21. A cannon is fired. The equation of the height of the cannonball at any time f,
in seconds, is f(t) = 37? + 208 + 4.

a Suppose there are birds flying 40 feet in the air above the cannon when it is fired. Are
they in danger of being hit? Explain.
b What are the solutions to 40 = -3f + 20t + 4? Round to the nearest thousandth.
¢ Find the inverse of one your solutions from part b. Round to the nearest thousandth.
d_ Use your calculator to verify that your answer to part ¢ is an inverse. If you multiply a
complex number by its inverse, what is the result?

Lesson 6.3
Distances in the Complex Plane
In Lesson 6.1, we discussed how to graph complex numbers on the
complex plane, where the horizontal axis represented the real number
component of a complex number and the vertical axis represented
the imaginary component of a complex number. In Lesson 6.2, we
showed how complex numbers share many of the properties of the real
numbers. This similarity between the complex and the real numbers
extends to calculating in the complex plane. Recall from previous math
courses that we can determine the midpoint and distance between two
points on the xy-plane; we can do the same on the complex plane.

HM Midpoints in the Complex Plane

Consider two points on the complex plane representing the numbers
z, =4,+b, and z, =a, +b,i. Similar to real numbers, the midpoint of
z, and z,, which represents the complex number that is the average
of z, and z,, is found by taking the average of the horizontal
coordinates and the average of the vertical coordinates using the
Wag, DiD,
formata =| ae 5 }

Lesson 6.3 * Distances in the Complex Plane 347

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. Calculate the midpoint for each of the following

pairs of complex numbers. Then graph the endpoints eal
and the midpoint on the complex plane. 7
3

a Zz =24ol, Z = 4-31 zal eae

DY A341,
= 9FAI 4p
if ++ R
Tie el D298 Niet

SOLUTION 3+
: : , a4 2S= 5
a __ First, we calculate the midpoint for ml
A SOO, ea oi sak

(phe Bes Be) We use the

(7 midpoint formula.

ZA S+(=9
Me | a Beale) Substitution.
2 2

6 2
M=
|
5 4 (ohBI
=e 5| =
1h)
il
Simplify
j j ;

The point (3, 1) represents the complex number 3 + i, which is the average of the
two given complex numbers.

b Calculate the midpoint of z, =-3+i, z, =9+4i: I

Ma| “te +5) We use the

na?) midpoint formula.
ae) ew
M= bes oe Substitution.
2 2

M =
(oy 3)
—, ra
5 = 3). et, . .

|
5 | | 5| Simplify.

The point [s;]corresponds to the complex

Si svar
number ote! , which is the average of the two given numbers.

aeee S|
348 The Complex Plane
MH The Distance Formula and Modulus
You have previously learned the distance formula, which
is what we use to determine how far apart two points are
in the xy-plane. We can use the same formula to calculate
the distance between two points in the complex plane.

Geometrically, suppose that we have two points that

represent complex numbers, z, =a, + b,i and z,=a,+ b,i,
on the complex plane. If we draw a line to connect those
points and construct some auxiliary lines, we can form a
right triangle, as shown in the illustration to the right.
Applying the Pythagorean theorem, we get

(a,—4,) +(b-by) = (4.7 if A ie l(a : a,) +(b, =)

MODEL PROBLEM

1. What is the distance between the points representing z,=7+ 3iand z,=2+ 67?
Use the distance formula and express your answer as a simplified root.

SOLUTION

Use the distance formula.

Substitute.

Simplify.

Although we can use the formula to determine the distance between

two points on the complex plane, there is another method we can
utilize. We know from Lesson 6.2 that a complex number’s modulus is
|z|=~a* +b’. So the distance between two points on the complex plane
equals the modulus of the difference of the numbers represented by the
points: d,_. =|z, —z,|. To find the distance between the two points, we
first find the difference z, — Z,,and then we can calculate the modulus of
this difference.

Lesson 6.3 * Distances in the Complex Plane 349

 MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Use the modulus to find the distance between the points representing z, = —2 + 47
and z, =3 - 81.

SOLUTION

(G24
45) —(3—81)i=—) +12) First determine z, —z,.

(-5)° +12? = J169 = 13 Calculate |z, —z, and simplify.

The distance between the points representing zZ,; =—2+4i and z, =3—8: is 13 units.

> IMP 3, 5) Find the midpoint of and distance between the points representing
Z,=-2 + 4i and z, =5 - 81.

SOLUTION
Midpoint:

M= |
— | Use the midpoint formula.

M= |
2 = Substitute.
2 2

m-(3. -4)-(3 -2) Simplify.

The midpoint is (2.a

Distance:
(22441) (5-8) 74197 We find the difference z, ~ z,.

Wied +12? 197 18 39 Calculate |z, —z, and simplify.

Note: When calculating midpoint and distance on the complex plane,

keep in
mind that because the midpoint is a point representing a complex
number, it has
coordinates, while the distance between two points is a single
real number with no
complex piece.

—————

350 The Complex Plane

__ Urtnaee os
Suppose that the midpoint of a line 8. z,=14+4i and z, =6+4i
segment in the complex plane is 2 — i.
In which quadrant is this point located? 9. Using your own example, demonstrate
that the distance between two complex
A. Quadrant I C. Ouadrant III
points, z, and z,, has the same value as the
B. Quadrant II D. Quadrant IV
modulus of z, — z,.

a? Which of the following represents the Exercises 10-14: Find the distance
distance between two points in the between z, and z,. Give your answers in
complex plane? simplified radical form.

1aXe Slee Cals HO. z,=5+2i and z, =6+3i

BSeo13i D: -3
Mi = Standen = Tt
3 Lani calculates the midpoint of z, =3+6i
fp a tr Pande = Sa OF
and z, =5—6i, and writes her answer
as 4. Is Lani correct? Why or why not?
13. z, =—4+4i and z, =—9-6i
A. Yes. This answer is correct because she
14. z,=14+4i and z, =6+4i
is calculating a distance.
B. No. Since this is a midpoint, Lani Show that the value of the midpoint of
should express her answer as a complex ono — (oi, and Z— lo lon 1s thesame
number. In this case, it is 0 + 41. as the average of z, and z,. How can you
C. No. Lani is calculating a midpoint, use this information to shorten your
not a distance, so her answer should complex number midpoint calculations?
be a point in the complex plane.
D. Yes. The average of the real AAI6 Suppose we have 2 complex numbers:
coordinates is 4, and the complex Z,= 9-20 and 70131.
coordinate zeroes out, so there is no
need to express it. a_ Find the distance between the points
that represent these numbers in the
complex plane. Round your answer to
Exercises 4-8: Determine the midpoint
the nearest hundredth.
of z, and z,. Express your answer as a complex
b What is the midpoint, M, of z, and z,?
number.
Express your answer as a complex
4. z=5+2i and z, =6+3! number.
c Determine the distance between M
5.7, =-/—3r and: z, =-7
+ 3i and z,. Is this the same distance as
between M and Zan Round to the
6. z,=11+i and z, =-3+9i nearest hundredth.

7. z,=-44+4i and z, =-9-6i

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 6.3 * Distances in the Complex Plane 351

 wir, 17. Consider 3 complex numbers, z, = 1.45 + 201 0.0Der 6.12i, and z, = —0.15 — i. Does
one of those complex numbers represent the midpoint of the other two complex numbers?
Explain how you determined your answer.

Lesson 6.4
Transformations with Complex Numbers

WH Geometric Transformations
In geometry, we learned that a transformation is a change in
the location or size of a figure. Points, segments, lines, and more
can be transformed in various ways on the xy-plane. Consider
AABC with vertices A = (3, -1), B = (9, -1), and C = (6,7), as
shown at the right. By adding 2 to each x-coordinate, we
translate the triangle horizontally to the right by 2 units. Adding
3 units to each y-coordinate translates the triangle 3 units
vertically up. The coordinates of each vertex of the new triangle
+
AA’B’C’ can be found from the translation (x + 2, y + 3).

Notice that the translation produces a new figure that is

SEE
ee
congruent to the original. This type of transformation is an
isometry. Translations are isometries because the transformed triangle
AA’B’C’ is congruent to the original AABC.

Let’s compare translations in the real plane with translations in the

complex plane by considering various addition problems involving
complex numbers. Let point p represent 3 + 5i and let point q represent
—2 — i. What happens to the points p and g when we add a real number.
say 5, to them? What happens to the points when we add an imaginary
number, say 3i, to them? What happens when we sum p and q?

Graphing these points, we can see that adding a real number

to a complex number results in a horizontal translation, This is
because the horizontal axis is the real axis. Correspondingly,
adding an imaginary number translates the points vertically,
the same direction the imaginary axis runs. Summing two
Sm Opogie te eae, ‘
complex numbers translates one point both horizontally and
/ 3 ay
vertically. The distance the point is translated corresponds to
iy
distance of the real and imaginary components of the other
e
number, respectively.
10

352 The Complex Plane

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Translate AABC on page 352 by (x + 3, y - 4).

SOLUTION
A = (3,-1), B=(9,-1),and C=(6,7), Use the original coordinates on page 352.
A’ = (3 + 3, -1 - 4) = (6, -5) Calculate the new coordinates.
B= (073-1 4) 2(12, 35)
C-= (6+3,7-4) =(9,3)

2. Show that the translation in Model Problem #1 is an isometry.

SOLUTION
Recall from geometry that to show a transformation is an isometry, we must show that
the transformed figure is congruent to the original figure. In this case, we can show the
isometry by showing that the length of each leg of AABC is the same as the length of
each corresponding leg in AA’B’C’.
Use the distance formula to calculate the
AB ieee (i) 6
length of AB.
Ai Bical (1m) ial5 as), a Calculate the length of A’B’. It is the
same as AB.

AC = (6-3) A iaGDae= V73 We repeat the process for AC and A’C’.

V feces 9 ray Les = JB We find that the lengths are equal.

He SIO Oa ieee V73 Finally, we calculate the lengths of BC

B’C’= (12 ay (5), _- (73 and B’C’ and we see they are the same.

We have shown that the transformation in Model Problem #1 is an isometry.

Additionally, we have shown that both AABC and AA’B’C’ are isosceles triangles.

CHOOSSSOHSHSSHSSHSHSSSSSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSSHSSSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSSSESESHHTHSHSHSSEHHEHEHSEHHEE8eO

3. For each of the following, p= —2 + 2i and q = 3 — 4i.

a __Determine the sum p + q, then plot p,q and p + q in the complex plane.
Determine the difference p — g and plot this point in the complex plane.
c State the complex conjugate, p, then plot the point that represents p+p in the
complex plane. i
d _ Using the results of part ¢, hypothesize where the point ¢+q would lie in the
complex plane.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
J aS
Lesson 6.4 * Transformations with Complex Numbers 353
 SOLUTION
a pt+q=1-2i The sum of p and q.
Dp Gono! The difference of p and q.
Cpa 22 A complex number’s
p+p=(-2+(-2))+ conjugate will have the
= SSS 8
same real number term
(2+(-2))i=-4 but the opposite imaginary eptq

term. We calculate the sum e Rca]

of p and p.
d_ Based on the results for part ¢, we can hypothesize
HH
4+
+++++-+4+4-+44+
HH
=
that the point that represents g+q _will lie along
the x-axis, as its imaginary term will also be equal to Oi.

MW Complex Number Rotations

Now let’s look at rotation in the xy-plane. Remember that
rotation is a transformation that moves a figure in the
plane along a circular path about a fixed point called a
center of rotation. To rotate a figure about the origin in
a counterclockwise direction by multiples of 90°, transform
the point from (x,y) to (x’, y’) as follows:

Counterclockwise Rotation | (x’, y’) Coordinates

90°
180°
270° (or 90° clockwise)
360°

In the figure to the right, we rotate the point (5, 2)

counterclockwise by each of the angles listed in the table
above. As we move through the angles, rotating an
additional 90° each time, the point is transformed from
(0,2) to (<2, 5);thento 5,--2) sand finally to (2, -5).

We now move from rotation in the xy-plane to rotation

in the complex plane. In Lesson 6.1,we showed that
multiplying a complex number by i rotates the point
representing that complex number by 90° counterclockwise.
Suppose that we have a real number point, 1, plotted on

——

354 The Complex Plane

the real number axis of the complex plane. If we multiply n by i, the
result is n-i = ni, which is a purely imaginary number. As such, we plot
ni on the vertical axis. The distance from the origin to n is equal to the
distance from the origin to ni. Since the real and imaginary axes are
perpendicular, the transformation from n to ni represents a 90° rotation.
This rotation, and rotations by subsequent powers of i, is represented in
the table and figure below.

Rotated
Coordinates (a’, b’)

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Multiply 3 + 2i by i and show that it generates a 90° counterclockwise rotation from

the origin.

SOLUTION
(34 2i)i=-2+3i Carry out the requested multiplication.

til Determine the slope of the line that could be drawn from
Agia ar) ~ the origin to the point (3, 2), which represents the complex
number 3 21.
a=) a Now calculate the slope of the line that could be drawn from
ea Eo ao the origin to the point (2,3), which represents the complex
number 2 31.

Since yi, => these lines are perpendicular by definition. The rotation is 90°.
5

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 6.4 * Transformations with Complex Numbers 355

 2. Multiply -1 + 47 by 7? and show that the multiplication generates a 270°
counterclockwise rotation.

SOLUTION
Multiply and simplify. Recall that 7° =—i
Cin 4a: and j* =1.
Calculate the slope of the line that we could
draw from the origin to the original point
(—1, 4). This point represents the complex
number —1+47 in the complex plane.
Complete the same calculation for the
rotated point (4, 1).

[eases
Because 7) ===” itis tempting 10
mM,
conclude that the rotation was only 90°.
We graph the points to get a clearer picture.

Recall that rotation moves counterclockwise.

After graphing, we can see that the rotation
is 360° — 90° = 270°.

M9 Complex Number Reflections

In geometry we discussed a third type of isometry called
reflection. Recall that reflection is a transformation where
a figure is “flipped” over a line, called the line of reflection,
such that the new image is a mirror image of the original
image.

Suppose we reflect AABC across the y-axis. The +

coordinates of the original vertices are A(3, -1), by me
B(9, -1), and C(6, 7). In this type of reflection, called
a horizontal reflection, the y-coordinates remain the same,
but each x-coordinate is transformed into its opposite.
Mathematically, the reflection is accomplished by ‘=
+
HHH
HH
HH
transforming each (x, y) to (—x,y).Then AABC becomes

356 The Complex Plane

AA‘B’C’ with A’ = (-3,-1), B’ (-9,-1), and C’ (-6,7). I
Conversely, performing a vertical reflection across the
x-axis transforms each point from (x, y) to (x, =).

What transformation reflects the point that represents vial palis ectialie°
a bi across the real axis? What transformation reflects
; ; ; — +—t—+—+k
the point across the imaginary axis? It turns out that the
principle for reflection is the same on the complex plane é
as it is on the xy-plane. (a, —b)

In the graph to the right, the complex number z = a + bi

is represented by the point (a, b). Its horizontal reflection
across the imaginary axis is (—a, b). Since
Z=a+bi—>z=-a + bi,a horizontal reflection changes z > Z.
A vertical reflection across the real axis transforms (a, b)
into (a, —b). In this case z = a + bi > z =a — bi, so a vertical reflection
transforms z > Z.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find and plot the horizontal reflection of the point corresponding to p = 2 — 3i.

SOLUTION
p’ =(2,-3) > p’ = (-2, -3) A horizontal reflection takes (a, b) to (a, b).

5+

4+

1+-

+++ py} }
),x Wegraph
p and p’.
5 4 3 2 -1l ee Go wy tO
si

@ ay e
p =(=2,—3)4! p=, —3)

all

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

iS
Lesson 6.4 * Transformations with Complex Numbers 357
 2. Find and plot the vertical reflection of the point corresponding to p =5 + 21.

SOLUTION
p = (5,2) > (5, -2) A vertical reflection takes (a, b) to (a, —b).

ar p=(5, 2)
a e
1 7

ee
ae) oe
I pate on Wegraph
p and p’.
ah owe eas

aD) e

“+
3 p'=(5, =2)

=a

MM Complex Number Dilations

Previously, we learned that multiplying complex numbers by powers of
i generates counterclockwise rotations of their corresponding points by
multiples of 90 degrees. What happens to points in the complex plane
when we multiply their associated complex numbers by real numbers?
For example, multiplying 1 + 3i by a scale factor of 2 results in 2 + 67. We
examine both points on the complex plane.

From the graph, we see that multiplying a complex number

by a real number generates a dilation that moves its
representative point closer to or farther from the origin
: alee : 6
along the same line as the original point. :
@ (2, 6)
'
4+—-Lt
In Lesson 6.1, we introduced the idea of complex numbers 3+—-¢-(1, 3)
represented as vectors, with their tail at the origin and their 2p.
head at the point representing the complex number. We showed 1

that for any complex number a + bi the length of the associated “2.4 | 12 4 4 36
vector is d= Va* +b’ .In the subsequent lesson, we defined
Va’ +b’ as the modulus of the complex number. We also
showed that multiplying a complex number by a real number constant
, c,
increases or decreases the length of the vector by the scale factor
of c. For
this reason, we call this process scalar multiplication and the
real number
—eeee——

358 The Complex Plane

factor a scalar. Because we are multiplying a vector by a real number
constant, we are changing the length of that vector. This means dilations
are not isometric.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Dilate the point corresponding to p = 2 + 3i by a scale factor of 2 and then plot p and
2p on the complex plane.

SOLUTION
2(2 + 31) =4+ 63 Multiply p by the scalar 2.

We plot p and 2p.

idee ti 5 Ah ie 4. = Ne bet wl en ead

2. Dilate the point corresponding to g = 6 + 97 by a scale factor of qo plot q

and +4 on the complex plane.

SOLUTION
1
+(6+ 9i)=2+3i Multiply g by the scalar A

1
We plot g and a

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

eee ee _eeeeeee

Lesson 6.4 * Transformations with Complex Numbers 359

 3. IMP 2, 5| Suppose the point that represents the number s = 4 + 7 is dilated by a
scale factor of 3 and then rotated 90° counterclockwise. Find the complex number, s’,
that represents the result of these transformations and then plot both s and s’ on the
complex plane.

SOLUTION
Recall from geometry that a combination of two or more transformations is called a
composition of transformations.
3(441)=12+3) Dilation.

i(12+
31) =12i-3 > -3+12i=s’ Rotation.
I

We graph s and s’.

4. 1
Ifthe point that represents the number z = 4 — 6/ is dilated by ry and then reflected
across the imaginary axis, find the composite transformation of z and plot both z and
its transformation image z’ on the complex plane.

SOLUTION
1 : ; Pe
Ae, =2—31 Dilation.

2-313 -2-3i Reflection.

vl
+++ t+—+—} |} | 4/R
a Sy fee Par W' lee yey!

24
Zl Qe Bt
Sh We now graph z and z’.

al
a Ae
i
et

360 The Complex Plane

eee a
Which of the following sets of 7. Show that rotations in the complex plane
transformations discussed in this lesson are isometries.
forms the largest set of isometric
transformations? Describe the transformation that maps the
point representing a complex number to
A. translations, rotations, and reflections
the point corresponding to its complex
B. dilations and reflections
conjugate.
C. translations and rotations
D. translations, rotations, and dilations 9. Rotate the point corresponding to p by 90°
counterclockwise. Give the coordinates of
Where on the complex plane would the new point and the complex number,
the point that represents the sum of in a + bi form, that it represents.
a complex number and its complex
conjugate lie? 10. Rotate the point corresponding to q by
180°. Give the coordinates of the new
. on the imaginary axis point and the complex number, in a + bi
in quadrant III form, that it represents.
in quadrant II
>
GOW
. on the real axis Perform a horizontal reflection of
the point representing p. Give the
Exercises 3=22: For these exercises, coordinates of the new point and the
D—4721 and g=3—31: complex number, in a + bi form, that it
represents.
3. Determine p + 3 and g + 21.
12. What composition of reflections yields
4. Calculate both p + q and p — q. the same result as a 180° rotation? Give
an example.
5. Plot the points that represent p + 3, q + 21,
p+q;and p — q. 13. Reflect g across the real axis. Give the
coordinates of the new point and the
6. Find p and q. complex number, in a + bi form, that it
represents.
a Whatis p+p? q+q?
1
14. Determine 2g and pee
b Plot p+pand q+q on the complex
plane. 15. What transformation maps p onto
c What generalization can you 12627
make about the location of a point
representing the sum of a complex 16. What transformation maps q onto 4 — 27?
number and its complex conjugate on
the complex plane?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 6.4 * Transformations with Complex Numbers 361

 17 Find the result of the composite aed 23. Given z = 8.75 + 4.911, write the complex
transformation of dilatingp by a scale number, z’, that results when z is
factor of 5 and then performing a horizontally reflected and then translated
horizontal reflection. Express your 3.22 units right and 7.09 units down.
answer as a complex number ina + bi
form. 24. Given z = —0.63 + 5i, write the complex
number, z’, that results when z is rotated
18 Find the length of the vector created by 180° counterclockwise about the origin
the transformation in exercise #17 1
and then dilated by a scale factor of ae
19 Find the result of the composite
Transform z = 5.2 — 0.74/7 using each of the
transformation of dilating g by a factor
following steps. What complex number
1 See:
of 3 and rotating it 90° counterclockwise. results?
Express your answer as a complex
a ‘Translate z up by 3.17 units, dilate
number in a + bi form.
by a scale factor of 5, rotate 90°
20 Find the length of the vector created by counterclockwise about the origin,
the transformation in exercise #19. perform a vertical reflection, and then
translate 4.76 right.
Awan 21. Given z = 9.34 — 2.14i, write the complex
number, z’, that results when z is Translate z right 4.76 units, then
translated left 3.21 units and up 2.67 units vertically reflect the point, rotate it
and then vertically reflected. 90° counterclockwise about the origin,
dilate it by a scale factor of 5, and
RA 22. Given z = —-0.41 — 7.2i, write the complex
translate it up by 3.17 units.
number, z’, that results when z is dilated
by a scale factor of 2 and then rotated
270° counterclockwise about the origin.

Chapter 6 Key Ideas

6.1 Complex Numbers and Their Conjugates
The complex conjugate of a + bi is a — bi.
We graph complex numbers on the complex plane. The horizon
tal axis is the real axis
and the vertical axis is the imaginary axis. The axes’ scales
are real numbers.
Multiplying a complex number by i rotates the point that
represents the complex
number by 90° counterclockwise about the origin.
We can represent a complex number as a vector on the
complex plane.
Multiplying a complex number by a real-number scalar
extends or shrinks the
corresponding vector by that scale factor.

KEY IDEAS continue...

ee es ee,
362 The Complex Plane
6.2 Complex Moduli and Quotients
The symbol for the complex conjugate of a number z =a + biis Z
The modulus of a complex number z is given by |z| = Va? +b° .
The multiplicative inverse of z =a + bi is its complex conjugate divided by its modulus
(adON ar
squared: z =
fetal (2?
To divide by a complex number, multiply by the number’s complex conjugate, and then

divide by its modulus squared: seer Fu

z

6.3 Distances in the Complex Plane

We can use the midpoint formula to calculate the average of two points in the complex
plane, which represent complex numbers.
To determine the distance between two complex numbers represented in the complex
plane, we can use the distance formula or the modulus of the difference between the
two complex number points.

6.4 Transformations with Complex Numbers

Adding or subtracting a real number to a complex number translates its corresponding
point horizontally, while adding or subtracting an imaginary term to a complex number
moves the corresponding point vertically.
Multiplying a complex number by a power of i rotates its representative point by a
multiple of 90°.
To reflect a point horizontally, find the complex number’s complex conjugate, and to
reflect a point vertically, find the negative of the complex number’s complex conjugate.
Dilate a point in the complex plane through multiplication of its corresponding complex
number by a real scalar.
Translation, rotation, and reflection are isometric. Dilation is not an isometry.

Chapter 6 Key Ideas 363

 Chapter 6 Review

I. Solve x? - 4x +5 =0. Give exact answer(s). Exercises 12-15: Divide and simplify.

8
12.
Exercises 2=4: Find the complex conjugate =O!
of the given number and then calculate the
product of the number and its conjugate. Give 13 1+47
your answers in simplified radical form. AS 3i

14. aa
3. 2=-44i —3+81

4. z=2-6i 15. Find the midpoint between the points

that represent 6 — 7i and 10 + 47 on the
complex plane and show the number it
Exercises 5=73 State the multiplicative represents.
inverse of each number in simplified form.
16. Find the distance between the points
S$. z=742i that represent 6 — 77 and 10 + 4 on the
complex plane.

ee a Exercises | 7=20: Perform the indicated

composite transformations on the given
Exercises number z and state the final complex number
8=10: Calculate the modulus
of each number. Give the exact answer in z’ after all the transformations are complete.
simplified radical form. Then plot the points represented by original
number z and the final transformed number 2’.
8. il 2: : ;
17. Rotate the point representing z =5 + 2/
9. -7-9; by 90° counterclockwise about the origin
and then dilate it by a factor of 3.

18. Reflect the point representing z = —3 —i

11. Given the complex number a + bi and its vertically and then translate it by
multiplicative inverse c + di, show that (a+2,b +3).
the multiplicative inverse of a complex
number is equal to its complex conjugate
divided by its modulus squared.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

a a ee
364 The Complex Plane
19. Rotate the point representing z = 2 — 7i
by 180° counterclockwise about the origin
and then reflect it horizontally.

20. Reflect the point representing

z =2-7i horizontally and then rotate
it by 180° counterclockwise about the
origin.

Chapter 6 Review 365

 The Complex Plane & Conics

Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Graphing the Roots of a Complex

7.1 Rectangular and Number
Polar Form of
Complex Numbers In this chapter, we will examine,
7.2 Raising Complex among other concepts, raising complex
Numbers to Powers numbers to powers and taking roots
of complex numbers. Our task in
7.33 Comple
Complx ex ElliEllipses
this regard will be made easiei r by
7.4 Complex using de Moivre’s Formula (also
po cupols known as de Moivre’s Theorem or de
7.5 Parametric Moivre’s Identity). This formula is very s s
Equations important in mathematics because it Abraham de Moire
Chapter 7 Key Ideas links the complex numbers to trigonometry.

Chapter 7 Review Abraham de Moivre was a French mathematician and

friend of Isaac Newton and Edmond Halley. One of his
works, published in 1730, was Miscellanea Analytica,
which focused on factoring the polynomial x*”" + px” +1
into quadratics. At the time, this was a popular topic in
mathematical circles and de Moivre was continuing the
work Roger Cotes, an English mathematician and fellow
friend of Newton, had begun. A cornerstone of this
work was what we know as de Moivre’s Theorem, which
was originally published in a small paper in 1722. While
this theorem is named for de Moivre, it was Leonard
Euler who expressed it in its current form. Later, when
you take calculus, you will prove de Moivre’s Theorem
through the use of infinite series, but in this exploration, ;
we will take the roots of a complex number and graph i
them in the complex plane to help us see a pattern.

We start by using GeoGebra to graph Z=wi and

2 = Ly, Note that GeoGebra will convert these
inputs to their decimal equivalents.

@ z=o71+071
@ 2=-071-0711

pe er ae
366 The Complex Plane & Conics
 Now we need to insert a third point
on the graph. We select the point
tool and click on the origin.

We must find the angle between

the points z, and z,. We click
on the angle tool, choose angle,
and then select z,, the vertex
(the origin), and z,. GeoGebra
returns the value of the angle as 180°.

We see that the angle between the

points that represent Z, = Vi and
Z =—vI1 is 180°. What is the angle
between the points that represent
i? Explore and find out!

Continue exploring this phenomenon in questions 1-6.

I. Repeat the GeoGebra process shown in this exploration and find the points that
represent i, finding the angles between one root and the next. How many roots
does Vi have?
2. Dothesame for Vi and Yi. Use the appropriate trigonometric identities to write
exact answers. How many roots does each of these complex numbers have? What is
the measure of the angle between one root and the next?

3. What do you notice about the relationship between the number of roots and the
index of the root?

4. What do you notice about the relationship between the angle measurements between
each root and the index of the root?

5. Consider %/i, where nis a natural number.

a How many roots will this number have?

b What will the angle measurements between each root be?

6. Taking this one step further, what can you say about Va+bi, where a and 6 are real
numbers and n is a natural number?
Exploratory Activity 367
 Chapter 7 Vocabulary
argument eccentricity minor axis polar form
center (of a circle) ellipse parameter radius
circle foci parametric curve rigid transformation
conic sections hyperbola parametric equations transverse axis
conjugate axis magnitude polar coordinates vertices (of an ellipse)
de Moivre’s formula major axis

Lesson 7.1

Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex

Numbers

MM Derivation of the Polar Form of a Complex

Number
In Chapter 6, we learned how to plot complex numbers in
rectangular coordinate form. We also noted that there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the set of complex numbers and the points
that represent them in the complex plane. Recall also from Chapter 6
that we can represent complex numbers using vectors that start at the
origin and end at the point representing the complex number.

Consider the vector representation of a complex number z = a + bi as

shown on the complex plane below, left. We denote the angle formed by
the vector and the real axis, moving in the counterclockwise direction,
6 and the length of the vector r, as shown in the complex plane on
the below, right. In addition to identifying the complex number bya
point with horizontal and vertical coordinates, we can identify it with a
vector length r and angle measure @. The angle, @, is called the vector’s
argument, and the pair (r, @) are the polar coordinates of the complex
number.

368 The Complex Plane & Conics

The value of the vector’s magnitude, r, is r = Va’ +b’. Does this look
familiar? We introduced this formula in Lesson 6.2 as the modulus of
Ge Dl. SO, 7 =|2).

Let’s combine the two graphs above, so that we can use trigonometry
to determine the value of the angle @. Using basic trigonometric ratios
(refer to page 192 if needed), and r =|z|, we find that:

Note that for the set of points in polar form to have a one-to-one
correspondence with the set of complex numbers, we must restrict the
value of @ to the interval 0° < @ < 360° or 0°<@<2z. Every multiple
of 360° or 2m radians (see page 201 in Chapter 4 for information about
converting between degrees and radians) generates a complete rotation
of a point back to its original position.

We express complex numbers as z = a + bi, and we can represent

complex numbers in the complex plane as the point (a, b). Since (a, b)
maps to the point (r, @), we can also express complex numbers in polar
form, which is similar in structure to z = a + bi. We derive this below:

: : : , b a
We start with the sine and cosine | sin@ = — cos 6 = —
functions from above and solve them Z| Iz |
for b and a, respectively. |z|sin@ =b |z|cos6 =a

A complex number in rectangular form. | z=a+bi

Substitution. | z=|z|cos6+(|z|sin@)i

Factor out the GCE. | z=|z|(cos@+isin@)

Substitution. |z=r(cos@+isin@)

The polar form of a complex number is r(cos@ +isin @ i

Lesson 7.1 * Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex Numbers 369

 MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Express the number 5 in polar form.

SOLUTION .
To plot the number 5 on the complex plane, we remember that we can express it
as 5 + Oi, which is represented by the point (5, 0). Since this point is plotted on the
real axis, the measure of 0 = 0° and the value of r= 5? = 5. Now we substitute into
r(cos@ +isin@) and find that the polar form the number 5 is z = 5(cos 0 +7 sin 0)

2. Express the number 4/ in polar form.

SOLUTION
When plotting the number 4/ on the complex plane, we represent this number by the
point (0, 4). Since this point is on the vertical axis, the measure of @ = 90°. The value of
r= 4 =4. So the polar form of 47 is z = 4(cos 90° + sin 90°).

Converting Between Polar and

Rectangular Forms
We have shown that there is a relationship between polar and
rectangular coordinates, and that we can convert between polar and
rectangular forms of complex numbers. In this section we move off
the coordinate axes to practice conversions.

We will need to be able to determine the value of @ at any point in

the complex plane. For this, we need to express the trigonometric
ratios given in the previous section in terms of @.

b 1
tan@——- @=tan™ a
a a

a a i re ew ee
370 The Complex Plane & Conics
MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find the polar form of z= 3+ 4i.

SOLUTION
Tans en OM 605-5 We calculate the value oF r=\z).

Did you recognize that the 3 and 4 represent the legs

of a 3-4-5 triangle? If you did, you knew immediately
that r=5. Keep a watch for Pythagorean triples as
you complete problems of this nature.

Now we must determine the value of @. We can use

GO =sin” —= 53° any of the 3 trigonometric functions on page 370.
We'll use the inverse sine function.

z= 5(cos 53° +isin 532) Substitute the calculated values into the polar form.

Rae) (GA Find the polar form of z = — 2+ 7i.

SOLUTION
r= VJ4+49 =J/53 Find the value of r.
Since the value of ris a little messy, we will use the
@=tan Z ~= 74° tangent function to calculate @, although we could
2
still use sine or cosine.

6 = 180-74 = 106° The reference angle is 74°, and our point is in the
second quadrant.

z= J53 (cos 106° + isin 106°) The polar form of z.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

EE EE —————— E —————————
Lesson 7.1 * Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex Numbers 371
 3. Convert z= 8(cos 80° + isin 80°) to rectangular form.

SOLUTION
Here we are asked to go from polar to rectangular form. We know that the modulus
is 8 and the argument is 80° degrees. We also know from our derivation on page 369
that b=|z|sin@ and a=|z|cos@.
b =8 sin 80° = 788 Substitution.
G=— Sic0s co) = 39
A= lye) sis Utorey) The rectangular form of z.

4. CREME Convert z = 15(cos 145 + i sin 145) to rectangular form.

SOLUTION.
We follow the same process as in model problem #3.
b= 15 sin 145° = 8.60 Substitution.
a= 15 cos 145° = -12.29
£12.29 + 8.607 The rectangular form of z.
You can check your solution by finding the modulus from your values of a and b.
Remember the values of trigonometric functions are most often irrational numbers,
so you will not always get an exact answer.

|z| = J(-12.285)° + 8.604? = 150.92 + 74.02 = /224.94 = 14.998 ~15

When converting from polar to rectangular coordinates, we don’t need to WOITy
about adjusting from reference angles. The positive or negative values.of sine and
cosine will position the representative points in the correct quadrants.

ME Connecting Polar Complex Numbers to

Geometry
Consider the real number 1 plotted on the complex number plane.
We know from Lesson 6.4 that a 90° counterclockwise rotation carries
that point to the imaginary axis at 7. We also know that subsequent
90°
counterclockwise rotations move that point alternately to the
real and
imaginary axes. But how does the point move when we change
the angle
of rotation to arguments other than multiples of 90°? Using
a calculator,
we can find the approximate values of a and b to which the
number It

a
372 The Complex Plane & Conics
would be mapped at various arguments. But we recall from our study of
special triangles that there are several rotations for which we can find
exact values of a and b when r = 1. The table below gives values these
values, which are complex numbers that lie on the unit circle.

Polar Coordinates r=1

ae =a 1(cos 0°+isin 0°)

1(cos 30°+isin 30°)

1(cos 45°+isin 45°)

1(cos 60° +isin 60°) 143, 1

Dig

Conversely, if we are presented with a complex number such that a and

b have special triangle ratios, we can calculate the exact value of the
argument. Note that the modulus remains unchanged in the table above.
This is because rotations preserve the size and shape of the rotated
figure, and thus rotations are rigid transformations.

MODEL PROBLEMS

|e For Z= AR} + i,

a___ find the modulus and argument.

b _-write the polar form of the complex number.

SOLUTION
a zl (3) 41° = V4 =2 Calculate the modulus.

@=sin™ "= sip :302 Determine the argument.

Z

b z=2(cos 30° + isin 30°) Use the chart above to determine the polar form
of the complex number.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

eee"
Lesson 7.1 * Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex Numbers 373
 2. Forz=-5-5i,
a __ find the modulus and argument.
b ~~ _-write the polar form of the complex number.

SOLUTION
a (z7l/=4i(-9) 5) Sone Find the modulus.
Argument calculation. An angle of 45 degrees
=) would put the point in the first quadrant, but we
can see from the question that the point lies in
the third quadrant, so our argument must equal
1S0% 45 = 275
b z=5V2(cos 225°+isin 225°) Use the formula to determine the polar form of
the complex number.

3. For z=2 -2,3i

a find the modulus and argument.
b write the polar form of the complex number using radians for angle measure.

SOLUTION

ae Zing +(-2V3) =J/16=4 Modulus calculation.

1
@=cos!—= a ;
radians Determine the argument.

We recognize that the point lies in quadrant IV,

where cosine is positive. So our argument is
mn St
0=27 --—=—.
Shia i!
5 Pe) 7 .
b Gea ‘cos isin This is the final answer.

4. IMP I, 5 Fo
z=r-3 + iV3,

a find the modulus and argument.

b _write the polar coordinates of the complex number using radians
for
angle measure.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

ea
374 The Complex Plane & Conics
 SOLUTION

AL Zi 3) +(J/3) =J12=2/3 Modulus.

ovo 1
9 = sin : & = 5 = E radians Argument calculation.

The point is located is quadrant IT, so we

subtract our reference angle from 1:

G=n == a
6 26
of Or cc
b 7-23 oe oe This is the final answer.

When converting complex numbers from rectangular to polar form:

1. Note which quadrant the point lies in and check to see that your
argument calculation rotates to the correct quadrant. If it does
not, you will need to add to, or subtract from, 7 or 277 (or 180 or
360 degrees).
2. You may have noticed that different trigonometric functions
were used throughout the model problems. Most of the time any
of sine, cosine, or tangent will work for these calculations. The
author chose the ratios that she found easiest to work with for
each problem. You should do the same.

MH Practice
I. In 6(cos60°+ésin 60°) ,which numberis the 2. Which of the following is the best
modulus? definition for a vector’s magnitude?

A. cos 60° A. Magnitude is another name for the

B. 6 vector’s angle.

S na ay B. Magnitude is represented by the

Dei coordinates (7, @).
C. Magnitude is the length of the vector.

D. Magnitude is the same as the vector’s

argument.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

eee
Lesson 7.1 * Rectangular and Polar Form of Complex Numbers 375
 3. The angle measurement 45° is equivalent to 10. How is the polar form of a complex
number related to its modulus?
VN eli radians
AA 1. Convert —5.2 + 4.17 to polar form. Round
to the nearest hundredth, if needed.
B. a radians
4
AAI2. Convert 6.3(cos(122°) +i sin(122°)) to
& radians standard form. Round to the nearest
4
hundredth, if needed.
D. 7 radians
Exercises 13-17: Convert the given
complex number to polar form expressed
4 In what quadrant would you plot a
in degrees. Leave the modulus in simplified
complex number point with an argument
radical form. Round angle measures to the
On213"?
nearest hundredth of a degree, unless they can
A. Quadrant I~ ~ be stated exactly.
B. Quadrant II
C. Quadrant III
13. 2=442i
D. Quadrant IV
14. z=-6-61

What is the reference angle for an angle 15. z=-1+35i

measuring 163°?
16. 2=5-12i
e ie
= A ea Eas:
We
be. 144°
ge)
(@)
S) Exercises 18-22: Find the rectangular
form of the given complex number. Round
47 answers to the nearest hundredth, unless they
Convert = radians to degree measure.
can be stated exactly.
7. In what quadrant would you plot a
complex number point with an argument 18. <=9(cos 38°+isin 38°)

of we radians? 19. z=7(cos 135°+isin 135°)

16
‘ 3 Re
1 fe 20. 2 6{ cos tisin$ |
Convert Fe to a positive angle between

0 and 2n radians.
21 er :=2cos 3 a +isin= 7 |
ae
When converting a complex number from
rectangular to polar form, explain how
1 ae
you know when to adjust the argument 2hyi <= 9{
conn tint
you calculate.

eee

376 The Complex Plane & Conics

 Lesson 7.2
Raising Complex Numbers to Powers

MMH Raising Complex Numbers to Powers in

Rectangular Form
In Chapter 1, we multiplied complex numbers together by treating them
as binomials and using FOIL:

(2 + 31)(4 + Si)
8 + 102 + 123 +157? |FOIL
8 + 221 + 15(-1) | Simplify, recalling that 7 =—1.
—7 + 221 |Express the final answer in a + bi form.

We also learned that squaring a binomial yields a special pattern, which

we can apply to complex numbers:

(a + bi)?= a’+ 2abi + (bi)?= a?— b*+ 2abi

We can use this special pattern to derive the pattern for (a + bi)*:

(a+ bi)
(a + bi) (a+ bi)’ |Factor out one of the (a + bi)
terms.
(a + bi)(a? — b* + 2abi) |Rewrite using the special pattern
for squaring a binomial.
(a + bi)((a? — b*) + 2abi) |Regroup.
a(a? — b?) + bi(a? — b*) + 2a*bi — 2ab? |Expand.
a? — 3ab + 3a*bi — bi |Simplify.

Raising (a + bi) to the fourth power looks like this:

(a + bi)*= a'+ b*— 6a°b* — 4a*bi — 4ab’i

While there does appear to be a pattern to the product, as the power

increases, it is fairly complicated.

Lesson 7.2 * Raising Complex Numbers to Powers 377

 MODEL PROBLEMS

i. Expand and simplify (4 + 3/)°.

SOLUTION
We use the pattern derived above with a = 4 and b =3.

(4)? — 3(4)(3)? + 3(4)*(3)i - 3) Substitute into the pattern.

64 — 108 + 144i —- 271 = -44+ 1171 Simplify, combining the like terms.

25 (EME, Expand and simplify (6 - i)‘.

SOLUTION _
We use the same strategy as in Model Problem #1, with a = 6 and b =—1.
(6)* + (-1)* - 6(6)*(-1)° — 4(6)°(-1)i— Substitute into the pattern for raising a
4(6)(-1)7i complex number to the 4th power.
1296 + 1 — 216 + 864i + 24: Carefully simplify, paying close attention
to signs.

1,081 + 8887 Combine the like terms.

As you can see, the higher the power, the larger the coefficients, and the easier it is
to make a mistake in your calculations.

ME Raising Complex Numbers to Powers in

Polar Form (de Moivre’s Formula)
We saw how to raise complex numbers to powers when the numbers are
written in rectangular form. Even though the product can be “reduced”
to a real term and an imaginary term, the intermediary steps require us
to work with an increasing number of terms as the power to which the
number is raised increases. Does the same phenomenon happen when
we raise a complex number written in polar form to increasing powers?
We begin by squaring a complex number expressed in polar form.

a
378 The Complex Plane & Conics
 (r(cos 6 +i sin @))* =| Squaring a complex number in polar form.
r’(cos*@ + 2i cos@ sin@ — sin?@) =
r’((cos*@ — sin’@) + i(2cos@ sin@))

cos*@ — sin’= cos 26 | Using double-angle trigonometric identities (see page 296),
i(2cos@ sin@) =i sin 20 |we can further simplify the real component of the number
and the imaginary component.
r(cos26 +i sin2@) |Substitute and simplify. This is the final product.

The trigonometric identities simplify the process of squaring a number

expressed in polar form. Will raising the number in polar form to the
third power yield an equally simplified result?

(r(cos 6 +i sin @))* |Cubing a complex number expressed in polar

form.
r(cos 6 +isin @)(r(cos 6 +i sin @))* |Simplify by factoring out one of the
r(cos 8 +i sin @).

r(cos @ +i sin @)(7°(cos2@ +i sin2@)) |Substitute the product derived for squaring a
complex number in polar form.
(cos 20 cos@ +i cos2@ sin 0 +i cos@ sin2@ + |Expand.
i sin26 sin@)

r((cos 20 cos@ — sin2@ sin@) + i (cos26 sin + |Regroup and factor.

cos@ sin2@)

r(cos3@ +i sin3@) | Use the trigonometric sum and difference

formulas (see page 291) to arrive at the final
product.

Squaring a number in polar form yielded r*(cos20 + i sin2@). Raising

a number to the third power in polar form gave us 7°(cos36 +7 sin3@).
We see the beginnings of a pattern here, which leads us to de Moivre’s
formula for powers of complex numbers.

Let z=r(cos@ +i sin@) and let n be a positive integer. Then,

de Moivre’s Formula P z" =(r(cos@ +isin@))" =r" (cos(n@ )+isin(né ))

We now have an equation for raising a complex number to any integral

power, once our number is in polar form. In rectangular form, we have
equations for raising a complex number to the 24, 3" and 4" powers.
Let’s compare the two equations we have for raising a complex number
to the 3"? power.

a ee ee
Lesson 7.2 * Raising Complex Numbers to Powers 379
 Rectangular form: z?= (a + bi)?= a°— 3ab*+ 3ab*+ 3a*bi — b°i

Polar form: z? = (r(cos@ + isin@))? = 7(cos3@ + isin 30)

We will leave it for the student to decide which form is simplest and
explain why.

MODEL PROBLEM

1.IMP
3,7 Ree een
a Convert z fo polar form.
b= Calculate (4 + 3/7)? using polar form.

SOLUTION
ore Calculate the modulus.

QO 2sin := 36.87° Determine the argument.

z=5(cos 36.87°+isin 36.87°) Write the complex number in polar form.

b — [5(cos 36.87°+isin 36.87°)} = Use de Moivre’s formula.

125(cos 110.61°+isin 110.61°)

MG 1" Roots of a Complex Number

While de Moivre’s formula is useful for finding powers of complex
numbers, a greater use for his formula is in finding roots of complex
numbers. Suppose there exists a complex number, @, such that

o=d(cos@ +ising) = 2" =r"(cos(n@) +isin(né@ ))

then
|
a=r" orr=4d =a"

and

@ =nd ovale
n

re
ee ee
380 The Complex Plane & Conics
It follows that the nth root of the complex number @ can be found from
the equation
et x
@”" =d" |
cs| +isin|a)
nh a)

We know from theorems that there are consequences of the

fundamental theorem of algebra that a polynomial equation has a
number of roots, both real and non-real, that is equal to its degree. Then
=z" must have n solutions, or values of z that satisfy the equation.

Consider that the polar form of a complex number, @=d(cos@ +isin@ ),

can also be written w=d(cos(¢ +27k)+isin(@ +27k)) where k is an
integer. Each unit increment to the value of k rotates the point @ ina
full circle, mapping it back onto itself. We have refrained from writing
this form, because it eliminates the one-to-one correspondence of
numbers to points on the plane. However, when we apply de Moivre’s
theorem to this form of the equation, we find the additional solutions
(in radians) we are seeking:
A 1
ot ad [co 22284 |rin( #224)
nN nN

Or, if we are working in degrees:

se =1 {esl +360 A)sin 2+360 ‘))

1 1 ° fo)

n nN

where k =0,1,...,n — 1. Examining a graph of the roots of complex

Pani & Ei
numbers, we see that as k increases, each point is a —— radian
n
O°

[« rotation from the previous solution. We stop atk=n—-1

n
because k =n brings us back to our original point.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Il. Find the cube roots of z= 5+ 5iV3.

SOLUTION 1 1
We are looking for z* = (5+ 5/3i)°. We must first convert z into polar form.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

el aa
Lesson 7.2 * Raising Complex Numbers to Powers 381
 Fas Ny) We determine the modulus. Recognizing that a and
b are the legs of a special right triangle with ratios
1: /3 :2, we can significantly simplify this calculation.

SeHe ae Now we calculate the argument. Since this is a special

yas LOS triangle, we use those relationships.

re | cos—F +isin€ This is the polar form of the given complex number.

Note that while we can always find r using the Pythagorean theorem and find angle
measures with our calculator, recognizing special patterns can often simplify the
process of solving a problem. In addition, when we recognize these patterns, we can
more easily find exact answers, such as an angle measure involving 7, whereas our
calculator would only give us a decimal approximation of irrational numbers.
Continuing with the problem, we substitute the polar coordinates into our cube root
equation, and applying de Moivre’s theorem, we obtain:

i 1 1 : “ = +2ak
z* =| 10] cos—+isin— yt 2mk
=103} cos| 2—— }+isin}| 3-——
3 z 3 3
fOnje= 0.0) and2
Our 3 roots, 1 ee

; Hs
is oa1
“j= 10? |c s| 2 |+isin| SY
2 eno) a)
5 3 9 9

1 1
ih HE + 250
eNO 3 +isin| 2 -215{coo7) isn 72)
3 3 9 9

1 1
i —+47 = 475 3
z, = 10°} cos 3 +isin| 2 = 2.15] cos} — |+isin ae
3 9 9

2. Convert the roots you calculated in Model Problem #1 to from polar

form to
rectangular form.

SOLUTION
We convert the first root as follows:

z= 215|col;5 |
vin .}= 2.02 +0.735i
MODEL PROBLEMS Continieices

sen a i
382 The Complex Plane & Conics
 Our second root is:

z= 245co 7)visio =-1.647 +1.382i

The final root is:
1
Z,= 215fs{ 3)+isn|al =—0.3741
— 2.118:

3. Use the rectangular form of each answer (calculated in Model Problem #2) to check
the veracity of each root.

SOLUTION
Begin by re-expressing the original complex number.
2=54+5V3i ~ 54866. Find the decimal equivalent of the bi term
of the original number to ease comparisons.
a — 3ab*+3a@bi — b*i Use the formula derived for cubing
complex numbers.

(2.02 +-0:735i)3= Substitute the first solution into the derived

8.242 — 3.274 + 8.997: — 0.397i = formula.
4.968 + 8.61
(—1.647 + 1.3827)? = We do the same for the second solution.
—4.4677 + 9.437 + 11.2465 — 2.6395: =
4.969 + 8.6077
(—.3741 — 2.117751)? = The final solution substituted into the
—.05236 + 5.033 — 0.8891 + 9.4978: = derived formula.
4.98 + 8.61i
We compare the solutions highlighted in gray. All three are within 5 one-hundredths of
the value of z. Considering the number of times we took roots and then powers of our
figures, this is very close. All three solutions are reasonable.

I
4. Graph the roots from Model Problem #2. ES

SOLUTION (-1.647, 1.382) +

(2.02, 0.735)

(-0.3741, -2.11775)

Lesson 7.2 * Raising Complex Numbers to Powers 383

 EE
MMM[MBR Practice)
E
Find (2 — 1)’, and leave your answer in 10. Calculate 72, i, and i*. Show that each
rectangular form. successive power of / generates a
90-degree counterclockwise rotation from
= Find (5 — 31)? and leave your answer in the point representing the preceding
rectangular form. power.

3 Derive a formula for (a + bi)* by squaring Consider the complex number z = 3 — 21.
(a + bi)’. Compare your answer with the
a Use de Moivre’s formula to find WZ
formula derived in your textbook on
in polar form in degrees. Round all
page Xxx.
numbers to the nearest hundredth.
be Matilda calculated (6 + 4/)* and got b Convert the roots back into
216 — 641. rectangular coordinate form, rounding
a Explain how Matilda might have to the nearest hundredth.

arrived at this answer. c Check your answers to part a by

b How should Matilda approach solving squaring the results from part b.
this problem?
Find 4/1.
c What is the correct answer, in
rectangular form?
Find Y—16. Show your answer in polar
form, in radians expressed in terms of 7.
5 Convert 15 — 8/ to polar form. Round the
argument to the nearest degree. Convert the answer to #13 to rectangular
form. Find an exact answer.
Convert —7 + 247 to polar form. Round the
argument to the nearest degree. Find the cube roots of (—4 + 4iJ3 ) in
polar form, in radians expressed in terms
= Use de Moivre’s formula to find (—2 + 77) of T.
in polar form. Round the argument to
the nearest degree. AA 16. Simplify (2.5 + 797)°. Round to the nearest
hundredth, if needed.
2 Use de Moivre’s formula to find
(—3 — 3i)* in polar form. Express the \A 17. Simplify Y—9.8—1.67. Round to the
argument in radians in terms of 7. nearest hundredth, if needed.

— Find (4 — 5i)* in polar form. Round the

argument to the nearest degree.

384 The Complex Plane & Conics

 Lesson 7.3
Complex Circles and Ellipses

Mi Circles and Complex Numbers

Recall from Geometry that a circle is a conic section. It is defined as
the set of points in the plane that are a fixed distance away from a given
point. That given point is called the center of the circle, and the fixed
distance from the center is called the radius. Suppose we want to graph
a circle on the coordinate plane that has a radius of r and a center at
(h, k). How can we describe the set of points that describe such a circle?

We know that the distance between any two y

points, (x,, y,) and (x,, y,) on the coordinate plane is
calculated by the distance formula, d= le yea ve, ip+(¥.-Y, i
Since we define a circle by the length of its radius, we can Paxy)
replace d with r in the distance formula. The point (x,, y,) 1s
(h, k), while (x,, y,)represents any of the (x,y) points onthe <— +x
circle. Substituting these values, we get
Zz
r=,|(x—h) +(y—k)
If we square both sides of the equation, we arrive at
the standard form of the circle equation.
Circle Equation Ser aT
(Standard Ne ACE AG 9)

Consider the circle defined by (x — 3)? + (y — 2)? = 25. Using the

equation we just derived, we can easily see that this circle has a radius
of 2 and center at (3, 2).

Equations that define circles are not always presented in standard

form. Sometimes we have to manipulate given equations to reveal the
information we seek. For example, say we are given the equation
x+y+2x-4y=4
Because both squared terms have the same coefficient, in this case 1,
we know this is an equation of a circle. We complete the square for both
variables simultaneously to restate the equation in standard form.

x2+y2+2x-4y=4 Original equation.

x+2xt+1+y?-4y+4=4+1+4 | Complete the square for both x and y.

(x+1)?+(y-2)?=9 Factor. This is the equation of the circle in standard form.

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 385

 Now we can identify the parameters of this circle in the xy-plane. Its
center is at the point (—1, 2), and its radius is 3.

Let’s examine the same circle defined by (x + 1)? + (vy — 2)’ = 9, on the
complex plane. We are looking for the set of points that are 3 units
away from the point (-1, 2) that represents the complex number —1
+ 2i. Recall from Lesson 6.3 that the distance between the points
that represent two complex numbers is the same as the modulus of
the difference between the complex number endpoints. So, we can
express the distance between any point z and the point (—1, 2) as
|z—(-1+2i)]. In the complex plane, the equation for our circle becomes
|z—(-1+2i)]
=3 >|z+1-2i =3.

Generally speaking, the equation for a circle on the complex plane is

Circle Equation
aca!
(Complex Plane) where c is the number represented by the circle’s
center, and r is the circle’s radius.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ CTI) For the equation

x? +y?-2x+10y=1,

a__ rewrite the given equation in standard form.

b identify the center and radius of the circle.

SOLUTION
a x +ty-4x-10ye] Original equation.
x -—4x+y?+10y=1 Collect all the terms with same variable.
x’ —4x+4+y?+10y+25=1+4+25 Complete the square for both variables
simultaneously.
(x— 2) + (v +5)° = 30 Factor the left-hand side and simplify
right-hand side
b With the circle in standard form, we can quickly identify that the center is (2, —5)
and radius is J30.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

386 The Complex Plane & Conics

 CT) Rewrite the circle equation from Model Problem #1 to plot in the complex
plane.

SOLUTION
‘\eocler Use the circle equation for the complex plane.
In this case c = 2 — 5i andr = J30.
|z-(2- Si = /30 Substitute. This is the equation of the circle in the
complex plane.

3. Identify the center and radius of the circle formed by the equation |z- Glia

SOLUTION
The center is at the real number point (6,0) because there is no imaginary component
in the equation. The radius is 7

MH Derivation of the Ellipse Equation

An ellipse, like a circle, is a conic section that is defined as a set of
coplanar points with specific parameters. Instead of one center, an
ellipse has two foci (foci is the plural of focus), so it is wider in one
direction than the other. The sum of the distances from the foci to any
point on the ellipse is a constant.

Consider the ellipse pictured at the right. y

e The focal points, or foci, are at (—c, 0) and (c, 0). 1(0, b)
e The ellipse has two axes, the major (longer) axis,
and the minor (shorter) axis. The major axis 1s (-a, 0) (a, 0)
the greatest distance between any two points
on the ellipse. It passes through the foci and
two vertices.
e The points (—a, 0), (a, 0), (—b, 0), and (b, 0) are the (0, -b)
vertices of the ellipse. They lie at the ends of the two axes.

According to our ellipse definition, the sum of the distances from (—c, 0)
and (c, 0) to every point that lies on the ellipse is the same. Can we find
the value of this sum? To answer this question, we consider the point
(a, 0). We can calculate that the distance from (—c, 0) to (a,0) is c +a.
Similarly, the distance from (c, 0) to (a,0) is a—c.

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 3387

 The sum of these distances is c + a + a — c = 2a. This is the value of the
sum of the distances from the foci to any point on the ellipse.

We now know the sum of the distances from the foci to

any point on the ellipse. What is the relationship between
the foci and vertices? Let’s consider the point (0, b) at the
top of the minor axis. The points (0, b), (c, 0), and the
origin form a right triangle as shown in the illustration
to the right. The lengths of the legs of the triangle are
b and c. The length of the hypotenuse is a, because the
point (0, b) is equidistant from the foci, and we have
established that the sum of the distances from (0, b)
to the two foci is 2a. Using the Pythagorean theorem,
we have a? = b? + c’.

We can now move off the minor axis and use the distance formula to
derive the standard equation for an ellipse centered at the origin, with a
horizontal major axis.

Let (x, y) be any point on the ellipse.

he +2cext+c? +y? oN —2cx+c? + y* =2a

x 4+2exteC +y? =
Square both sides. : 5 ;
4a’ —4a,}x? —2ext+e°+y #x* —2er+c? +?

Isolating the remaining radical term. das|x? -2cx+C’ +y? =

da 2 +x 2 —lerte 5)
Fy" =x
5)
2en cy

I ee
388 The Complex Plane & Conics
 Collect the like terms. da,)x? —2cx+c?+y’ =4a’ —4cx

Divide through by 4. ax? —2ex +c? + y? =a? —cx

ax? + ac? + a’y? = at + c2x?

ax? — 7x? + ay? = at — ac?

Substitute b? = a? — ¢?

Divide by a’b?

This is the equation for an ellipse centered at the origin, where a, b # 0.

In this equation, when a > b, the line segment connecting the horizontal
vertices is the major axis, while the segment connecting the vertical
vertices is the minor axis. When a < b, the situation is reversed, with
the vertical segment from —b to b comprising the major axis, while the
horizontal segment from —a to a is the minor axis.

What happens when a = 5? In this instance, if you multiply both sides

of the equation by a’, the result is x? + y? =a’. Does this equation look
familiar? It’s the equation of a circle centered at the origin. In fact,
all circles are considered to be ellipses. This phenomenon leads to an
interesting property known as eccentricity. Eccentricity (e) is a measure
of a conic section’s roundness and is calculated by
é
e=—
a

Recall, though, from the Pythagorean theorem, that c = Va* — b’, so we

can rewrite eccentricity as

CSS
c Vva-b
oe
Vva-ba
a
F————s
b°
a a a a

This eccentricity equation holds true for an ellipse with a horizontal

major axis. When the major axis is vertical, c= Vb° —a° and

CeoND =a Re aa! = Fi a
2 ~ b?
b b b

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 389

 In either instance, when a = b, you have an eccentricity equal to
0 indicating the ellipse is a circle. As the minor axis decreases with
respect to the major axis, the eccentricity approaches 1. The closer e
gets to 1, the more elongated, and less circular, the ellipse becomes.
Below we see some examples of ellipses with different eccentricity
measurements.

Focus

e= 07 e = 0.96

So far our discussion concentrated on ellipses centered on the origin.

The equation of an ellipse whose center is translated off the origin is
similar the equation of a circle whose center is not at the origin. An
ellipse with center at (h, k) is described by the equation

Ellipse Equation > Gam

a
5
y—k)
b°
=1
(Standard Form)
where (h, k) is the ellipse’s center and a,b + 0

The key features of the ellipse are summarized below, categorized by

the direction of the major axis.

Horizontal Major Axis

Ob
Vertical Major Axis
SS
CSP NCEE a CE NCE
(kD). k+b) | Gu kb). kb)
2 b?

CENCE a CET NCTE

Eccentricity Formula

ae ee oe Poets
390 The Complex Plane & Conics
MODEL PROBLEMS
2 2
I. For the ellipse described by 3a) + OMe) =1,
144 4
a _ identify the center of the ellipse.
b find the coordinate points of the vertices along the major axis.
¢ find the coordinate points of the vertices along the minor axis.
d__ locate the coordinate points where the foci lie.
e calculate the ellipse’s eccentricity.
SOLUTION
a The ellipse equation is presented in standard form, so we can see the coordinates
of the center are (7, -4).
b Because a > 5, this ellipse’s major axis is the horizontal axis. We need to find the
value of a to determine the vertices’ coordinates. From the equation, a’ = 144,
a= 12. The vertices along the major axis are 12 units on either side of the center.
The coordinates are (7 + 12, —4) which are (19, 4), (—5, 4).
¢ We follow a similar process to determine the location of the vertices along the
minor axis. We know that b? = 4,so b = 2. The vertices of the minor axis will lie
2 units above and below the center. The coordinates are (7, -4 + 2) which become
(2) (73-0):
d_ ‘To find the foci, we need to calculate the value of c. Since the major axis is
horizontal, we use the equation c= Va’—b* which results in 2/35. Each focal
point will be +235 units from the center, along the major axis. So the foci are at
GPR EE AVP ON)
: : b
e Wecalculate eccentricity using the equation ,/1——-
my and we find that the answer
is approximately 0.986.

2. Rewrite the equation 16x? + 25y? — 150y = 175 in standard form for an ellipse.
SOLUTION
We see that there is one x term, so we will only need to complete the square for the y
term. We will also need to divide by the coefficients of x? and y’.
16x? + 25y? — 150y = 175 Restate the equation.

16x? + 25(y? — 6y) = 175 Factor out the y’ coefficient.

16x?+ 25(y? — 6y + 9) =175 +9 - 25 Complete the square for the y variable.

16x? + 25(y — 3)? = 400 Simplify both sides by combining like terms.
2

x mys) =| Divide both sides by coefficients of x and y.

25 16

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 391

ME Ellipses and Complex Numbers
As we did with circles earlier in this lesson, let’s examine ellipses in the
complex plane. The equation for ellipses is more complicated than for
circles because the constant distance that we need to express Is a sum
of two distances. We want the set of all points, z, such that the sum of
the distances from z to the foci is a constant. The complex equation for
an ellipse with a horizontal major axis, center at point (/, k), and focal
length c is
z—((h—c) +ki)|+ z—((A+c)+ki)|
=2a
If we move the center of the ellipse to the origin, we have

Z—(=6)+|z—c|=24> |z-5¢|
+z —e|= 20
Note that we are again using the modulus of the difference between
numbers that represent points in the complex plane to find the distance
between the points.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Describe the ellipse represented by |z— i|+|z +i| =6.

SOLUTION
Since the foci in this equation are imaginary numbers (with no real component), we
know the points representing these numbers lie on the imaginary axis, at (0,1) and
(0, —1).We also know that c = 1. This means that the major axis is vertical, so 2b = 6
and b = 3. The vertices of the major axis are at (0,3) and (0,—3). To find the vertices
along the minor axis, we use the equation c? = b? — a and rewrite it as a2 = b?— ¢. Then
a’ =8 and a= 2V2.The coordinates of the vertices along the minor (real) axis are at
the points (-2V2 ,0) and (2V2, 0).

oa [TEI State whether the equation |z— 4i|+|z+4i|=3 represents an ellipse. Justify
your reasoning.

SOLUTION
If this equation represents an ellipse, then a = 1.5 and c = 4. But that would
mean that
the focal length is greater than the length of the major axis, which is
impossible. In
addition, when we solve for b?= a?— c2, we arrive at b2= 1,52— 42=—1.7
5. While we are
dealing with imaginary numbers, we’re not allowing imaginary distance
s! This is not
the equation for an ellipse.

—_—_—

392 The Complex Plane & Conics

 Technology
Activity |

We can use GeoGebra to help us visualize the graphs of complex ellipses.

State if the equation |z — 1 - 5i| + |z — 5 — 5i| = 6 is an ellipse. If so, write it in standard form and
graph it, labeling the center, horizontal vertices, vertical vertices, and foci. If not, state the reason.

Step I: We need to determine the location of the foci. Because we can express the equation
|z -1—Si|+|z- —5i] =65as |z — (1 + 5i)| + |z — (5 + 5i)| = 6, we know the foci are
L432 (1,5) and 5 + 57 (5, 5).

Step 2: To graph this equation in GeoGebra, we need a point on the ellipse. Let’s find the
point between the foci, so the points will have the format (3, y). We substitute this
coordinate into the distance formula, and using real numbers rather than complex,
we find (3-1) +(y—5)° +./(3-5)’ +(y-5)’ =6. From here, we simplify to get
2
4+(y—5) =3,so 4+(y—5) =9, which means that (y — 5)? =5. Finishing out, we
only need the positive value, so y—5 = V5. or y=5 + V5. We now have the point on
the ellipse, (3,5 + V5).

Step 3: Now we plot the foci and the point (3,5 + V5 )

using GeoGebra’s ellipse tool.

Step 4: We see that this does, indeed, result in an

ellipse, so we can now find determine the
answers to the other questions. We start
with the coordinates of the center, which is
the midpoint between the two foci: (3, 5).
Elipse e
‘Select two foci and point on ellipse

Step 5: Now, since we already know the coordinates

of the foci, we need to find the vertical and the horizontal
vertices. The best way to do this is to graph the vertical
and horizontal lines passing through the center (x = 3 and Focus?

y = 5) and then locate the points where these lines

intersect the ellipse. We find the horizontal vertices at
(0,5) and (6,5) and the vertical vertices at (3, 7.24),
which is the point we calculated previously, and (3, 2.76).

TEGHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 393

 Exercises 1 — 5: Use GeoGebra to determine if each given equation represents an
ellipse. If so, write the equation in standard form and graph it, labeling the center,
horizontal vertices, vertical vertices, and foci. If not, state the reason.

P. |z+2-2i|+|z+2+4+5i|=3
2. |2+442i)+|z+5+2i|=11
3. |z-2-2i|+|z-4+6i|=8
4. |z-1-3i/+|z-14+2i/=5
5. |z-1+6i\+|z-1+4i|=4
6. In this activity, we saw several examples of complex equations that represent ellipses and
those that do not. Summarize the characteristics of a complex ellipse and what to look for
in a complex equation to determine if it represents an ellipse.

MMMM
Practice
Eee
1. Which of the following is the equation of a 3. Does the equation |z + 3 — 4i| = 10
circle in standard form? represent a circle?

A. (x — 4)? + (y+ 3)? =12 A. Yes, this is a circle in the complex

plane with center (3, 4) and radius
x pea) =ull of V10.
y 2 B. No, the equation represents an ellipse
© a (y os =1 in the complex plane with a horizontal
major axis.
Deo ee ( Views) 515 C. No, the equation represents an ellipse
in the complex plane with a vertical
2. Eccentricity is best described as major axis.
A. a measure of an ellipse’s lack of Dees, unis is a circle in the complex .
roundness. plane with center at (—3, 4) and radius
of 10.
B. a point along an ellipse’s major axis.
C. a process we use to determine if an
equation is an ellipse or a circle.
D. a measure of a circle’s roundness.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

a ee
394 The Complex Plane & Conics
4. What is the best description of the Exercises 10-14: Identify the center and
equation |z + 5i| + |z —5ij= 16? radius of the circle represented by each of the
A. This is the equation of a circle in the given equations. Express radii exactly.

complex plane with center at (—5, 5)

10. 3x7 + = 9
and r=4.,

B. This is the equation of an ellipse in the Ph. x +y’?+4x+4y=0

complex plane where a = 16, b = 39,
atid @= ">, 12. |c-4|=4
C. This is the equation of an ellipse in the 13. |2+2i)=5
complex plane, where c= 5 and b=8.

D. This is the equation of a circle in the

14. |z+3-i|=9
complex plane with center at the
Exercises 15-20: Rewrite the given
origin andr=S.
equation in standard form for a conic section
and identify whether the equation represents
5. How many vertices are there in an ellipse? a circle or an ellipse. Then identify the shape’s
center. If the shape is a circle, give its radius. If
it is an ellipse, state the length of its major axis.

15. 3x°+4y?=12
>OO W
#&
AN

16. 100x? + 9y’ — 1800x — 18y + 7209 = 0

6. Explain how to derive the equation of a
circle using the Pythagorean theorem. 17. xr =y-y?

_ Identify the center and the radius of the 18. |z-i/+|z+i=3

circle described by (x +3)*+ (y + 1)? =6.
19. |z+3-3i)=4
8. Consider the equation
x? + y?+ 10x — 12y =—50.
20. |z|=16

a Rewrite the equation in standard form 21. For the ellipse equation
for a circle. 9x? + 25y? — 54x — 450y + 1881 = 0,

b Identify the center of the circle. a rewrite in standard form.

c Find the radius of the circle, to the b state the coordinates of its center.

nearest tenth. c¢ give the coordinates of the vertices on

the major axis.

9. Explain the relationship between the d_ give the coordinates of the vertices of
radius of a circle in the complex plane the minor axis.
and a modulus. e give the coordinates of the foci.
f find the eccentricity.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 7.3 * Complex Circles and Ellipses 395

 Exercises 22-24: State whether or Exercises 25-273 For each of the given
not each equation represents an ellipse. If equations, sketch a graph of the conic section
it does, find the center, give the coordinates and convert the equation to standard form.
of the vertices of the major axis, give the Round to the nearest hundredth, where
coordinates of the vertices of the minor axis, needed.
find the coordinates of the foci, and find the
eccentricity. If it does not represent an [AA25. |2+3.7-6.6i| = 13.8
ellipse, explain why.
KAA26. |z—2.1 -9.2i| + |z + 6.2 — 9.2i| = 24.3
22. |2+2i\+|z-2i|/=6
AA27. |r+2.1—-9.2i| + |z + 2.1 - 1.31] = 13.7
23. |7+3/+/z-3|=4

24. |z+5/+|z-5|=12

Lesson 7.4
Complex Hyperbolas

MG Derivation of the Hyperbola Equation

This lesson focuses on another of the conic sections, the
hyperbola. Like the ellipse, the hyperbola has two focal
points. In an ellipse, the sum of the distances from the
foci to any point on the curve is a constant. By contrast,
the constant distance in a hyperbola is the difference of
the distances from the foci to any point on the curve.
This means that instead of generating a closed curve,
a hyperbola is composed of two curves that open away
from each other. The curves can open horizontally or
vertically. Consider the hyperbola, with foci at points
(—c, 0) and (c, 0), and vertices at points (—a, 0) and (a, 0),
as shown to the right. This hyperbola opens horizontally.

We derive the equation for a hyperbola centered at the origin that

opens horizontally. The foci are c units from the center, and the vertices
are a units from the center. The segment connecting the two vertices
is
called the transverse axis.

ee
ee
396 The Complex Plane & Conics
 Calculate the difference of the M(e-Coy +y -y(x-c)’ ry =2a
distances.

Simplify by rearranging the terms. N(etc)

ty =20 nix —c) 4 ye

Square both sides of the equation. (x+c)+y?=4a"+ 4a J(x-c) +y +(x-c)+y’

Expand. x?+ 2cx +c? + y= 4a?+ 4a.f(x—c) +y? +x2-2cx
+ 2+

Isolate the square root. x? + 2cx +c? + y? — 4a? — x? + 2ex — C2 - y?=4a,}(x-c)

+y’

Combine the like terms. 4cx — 4a* = 4a,)(x—c) +y’

Divide through by 4. ex — @ =as\(x—c) +y°

Square both sides of the equation cx? — 2a’cx + at = a(x — cc)’ + ay? = ax? — 2a?cx + ac? + ay”
and expand the resulting binomial
on the right-hand side.

Combine the like terms. COP eta f= OX amt eet ary

Collect x and y terms 2x2 — ax? — ay = VC — at

Factor. (c? — a”)x* — a’y? = (c? — a”)a?

2 2

Divide by (c? — a’) and a’. as es =I

a’ (c’-a’)

We are almost there! We need to consider two more points that are
of significance to the hyperbola, even though they do not lie on the
curve itself. These are the endpoints of the conjugate axis, which runs
perpendicular to the transverse axis, (0, b) and (0, —b). Consistent
with our conic section terminology, these points are b units from the
center, and we can find their location using the equation b? = (c? — a’).
Substituting b? into the last step of our derivation, we arrive at the
2 2

standard equation of a hyperbola centered at the origin: i

na -
9
eu

The equation a a = 1 generates a hyperbola whose curves

a
(sometimes called branches) open horizontally as seen in the figure
on the left on the next page. To generate the hyperbola on the right,
we subtract the x term from the y term. Note that in a hyperbola that
opens vertically, the location of the transverse and conjugate axes are
reversed.

Lesson 7.4 * Complex Hyperbolas 397

 Conjugate axis

(a, 0)

Transverse axis
v

As with the other conic sections, we can translate a hyperbola in

the coordinate plane by adding or subtracting values to one or both
variables. A hyperbola centered at the point (h, k) is described by the
equations:

Horizontal Opening Vertical Opening

Hyperbola Equation >

(Standard Form)
where a, b+ 0.

You may be wondering how we graph the hyperbola when we know

only 2 points that lie on the curve itself. Model Problem #1 walks
through the steps of graphing a hyperbola by hand.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Graph the hyperbola (x-2)'

55am (y-3) Gaal 1 without using technology.
ed

SOLUTION
Opens horizontally. First, we determine which direction the hyperbola
opens. In this case we have a hyperbola that opens
horizontally because the x-term is positive and the
y-term is negative.
The center is: at (2, 3). The center is located at (h, k).
a= 25 =5,b= 4 =2 Calculate the values of a and b.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
ee
398 The Complex Plane & Conics
 2 i i
=~ 5 Calculate jeand -— . These numbers represent the
le a
slopes of the asymptote lines. They run through the
center of the hyperbola.
(2,3 eS and (3.3) Identify the coordinates of the vertices. These points
are a distance of a from either side of the center.
Now graph all the known points and asymptote lines. Then sketch the hyperbola.

2. Find the foci of the hyperbola from Model Problem #1.

SOLUTION
For a hyperbola, we calculate the focal distance by the formula c’ = a’ + b’. Using the

hp. (=2) mlye3) i

|,
2 25 4
=a
= 2) + 4 Substitute.
=)
c= 429 Take the square root of both sides.

The foci are located at (2 + J29, 3), (2 — ¥29, 3).

To summarize hyperbola features:

Lk)

(h=c, k),(h+ 6.4) (hy k= 0),(h, K+)

b b
m aeandie =b axel = b

Lesson 7.4 * Complex Hyperbolas 399

MMM Hyperbolas and Complex Numbers
Just as a hyperbola and an ellipse share properties in the xy-plane,
hyperbolas and ellipses graphed in the complex plane have similarities.
The equation for a hyperbola in the complex plane, with center at the
origin, 1s
|z+c|—|z—c|=2a

with c again representing the focal length, and 2a is the length of

the transverse axis. If c is a real number, then the transverse axis 1s
horizontal, parallel with the real axis. The branches of the hyperbola
open horizontally. Conversely, if c is an imaginary number, the
transverse axis aligns with the imaginary axis, our hyperbola branches
open vertically, and we write 2b on the right side of the equation. In the
horizontal case, we can find the length and endpoints of the conjugate
axis with the equation

Be Se =i

and in the vertical case, we use

a OE

for the conjugate axis.

In both ellipses and hyperbolas, we have three key sets of distances:

transverse (major) axes, conjugate (minor) axes, and focal distances. In
ellipses, the major axis is the longest distance, while in hyperbolas, the
focal distances are the longest. This is key to recognizing whether our
equation actually represents a hyperbola. Just because an equation is
of the form |z+c|—|z—c|=2a does not mean it necessarily represents
a hyperbola. The difference between the foci must be greater than the
length of the transverse axis. Or, for a horizontally opening hyperbola,
e—(-c) > 2a
2c > 2a
c>a

MODEL PROBLEM

IMP 5,7 Tell whether each of the given equations represents a

hyperbola. If it
does, give the length of the major axis, the length of minor axis, and
the location of
the foci. If the equation does not represent a hyperbola, explain
why.
a |z+3|-|z-3|=4

b |z+2i|-|z-2i|=4
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
REET SRTIR penreteerri mr neon tiga RIS Nearer tn
ae cl
400 The Complex Plane & Conics
 SOLUTION
a___In this equation,c =3 anda=2,soc>a Determine if c>a.
and this equation represents a hyperbola.
2a—4 Calculate the length of the
Length of the major axis = 4 transverse axis.

2b =2,/(c? — a?) =2.)9 — 4 =2V5. Calculate

the length of the
Length of the minor axis = 2V5. eels ats

Foci are at (—3, 0), (3, 0), as given in the Find the coordinates that
original equation. represent the foci.

b In this equation,c=2 andb=2s0c—b Determine if c > b.

and this equation does not represent a
hyperbola.

Me Practice
I. Write the standard form of the hyperbola 3. What are the coordinates of the center of
36x2 — 9y? = 324. a,
s the hyperbola ad) 22 AG
ove xy DS As
36 «9 9 36 A. (0,0)
aes pied wi B. (0,-1)
Bae Ta ee Cu(eIn))
9 36 9 36 D. (1,0)

2. What is the standard form of the equation

re Which of the following equations is a
for a hyperbola with foci at (0, 13) and
hyperbola that opens vertically?
(0, -13) and vertices at (0,5) and (0, -5)?
2 2 JN, (y=2)) (+6) _1
Njgoais eans | 100 36
25 144
y’ x? B. (y=2) _ (ero) i |

1s) oe eeeart 100 36

25 144
2 2 (Ge (x+6) _(y~2) =|
Gee Se 236 100
25 144
Some pth) U2) _,
De | 36 100
144. 25
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 7.4 * Complex Hyperbolas 401

 5. Rewrite the equation 25x? 4y?-100x+ Exercises 14-17: State whether the
8y =8 so it is in standard form for a given equation represents a hyperbola in the
hyperbola. complex plane and mathematically justify your
answer.
Exercises 6-1 1: Use the equation
Cie Oe 14, |z+2i|-|z-2i|=3
9 16
15. |z+7|-|z-7|=10
6. For the given hyperbola, what are the
coordinates of the center? 16. |z+5|-|z—-5/=5

7. Find the coordinates of the endpoints of 17. |z+8i|-|z-8i|=20

the transverse axis.
Exercises 18=213 For each of the
8. Find the coordinates of the endpoints of given complex hyperbola equations, find
the conjugate axis. the length of the transverse axis, the length
‘ of the conjugate axis, and the focal points.
2 What are the coordinates of the foci?
Show exact answers.
10 What are the equations for the asymptote ’
Hoes
ines?
4 se 18. |2+3i|-|z-3i|=3
19. |z+7|-|z-7|=9
11. Graph the hyperbola.

12. When a hyperbola exists in the Iz + 64|—| 6i|=8

xy-plane, how do you know which
21. Graph the hyperbola represented by the
way the branches open?
equation in exercise #20.
13 Explain the relationship between the Exercises 22-23: For each of the given
modulus and the equation of a hyperbola equations, sketch a graph of and convert the
in the complex plane. equation to standard form. Round to the
nearest hundredth, if needed.

KAA. |z+1.9+3.2i|-|2+1.3+3.2i|= 0.5

LAA 23. |z+1.9+3.2i|+|z+1.9-4.6i|=2.9

eS a ee
402 The Complex Plane & Conics
 Lesson 7.5
Parametric Equations

MH Parametric Equations Defined

If you throw a rock from the edge of a cliff, both its horizontal and
vertical distances from you describe its position at any point in time.
Physics tells us that the horizontal and vertical positions of the rock
are independent of each other and must be described independently.
Both positions, however, are dependent on time and can be described as
follows, where x is the horizontal distance of the rock after it is thrown
and y is the vertical distance of the rock after it is thrown.

C= Vat
y=-1l6t +y,t+h
In these two equations, V, is the initial constant horizontal velocity,
Vo, is the initial vertical velocity, h is the height from which the rock was
thrown, and fis time in seconds. Both variables, x and y, are dependent
on time.

When you have two variable equations that are dependent on a third
variable, they are called parametric equations and the variable on
which they depend is the parameter. In the example above, time is the
parameter for the parametric equations of the rock’s position. Each
equation is a function of time. Taken together, we can plot the position
of the rock at any time, ¢, after it is thrown. The graph of (x, y) points
plotted together makes up the parametric curve. The parametric curve
shows us the relationship of the x- and y-components of the rock’s
position but does not indicate when the rock is at those positions.

Parametric equations are useful for defining relationships between two

equations based on a third variable. That third variable is most often time.
Because time is generally measured only in positive terms, the domain
of our functions is limited to 2 0.

Here we note that parametric equations can contain more than one
parameter, but in this lesson, we focus on single parameter equations.

Lesson 7.5 * Parametric Equations 403

 MODEL PROBLEM

Ay (24 «An ant is walking in a straight line across your graph paper and you are
timing its progress. When you start timing, the ant is at the point (2, 3). After
6 seconds, it is at the point (5, 0).
a __~Write the parametric equations that describe the ant’s motion.
b If the ant keeps walking at this pace and in the same direction, where will it be
after 20 seconds?

SOLUTION
a_ Because the ant is walking at a constant pace in a straight line, his position at
any time ¢ can be described by the parametric equations

eer as,
Yecadid
We know that at = 0, x = 2 and at t= 6, x = 5. We will use this information to find the
first equation.

X=ait Dd
2=a(0)+b Substitute into the first parametric equation to solve for b.
2=)

x=att+b
>= a(6) +2
3 = 6a Now solve for a.
Lo
2
1
Our first parametric equation is x = ae + 2.
We now see that b and d represent the initial values when r= 0, so in our second
parametric equation, we know that d = 3 just by observation.

y=ct+3
O0=c(6)+3
0-3 6c Solve the second parametric equation for c.
Le
Z

The second parametric equation is y= -stAS,

b +20 +2) 210422 To find the ant’s location after 20 seconds,

2 we substitute 20 for r into our equations.
3
Ue ee

After 20 seconds, the ant will be at the point (12, -7) on

your graph paper.

404 The Complex Plane & Conics

MM Sketching Simple Parametric Equations
What does the graph of a parametric equation look like? And how do
we generate one? As stated previously, a parametric equation plots the
relationship between the x-values and the y-values both as functions
of t. For example, take the parametric equations

KS 2t+3
y=t-2

We can generate a table of values, then plot x and y.

8t
7
6t
5+

4
3
2
1
56
8 9 101112131415

Notice that we started our graph at the point generated by t=0. Ift
represents time, this is a usual assumption. But it’s certainly possible for
the domain of ft to be extended into negative numbers if the parameter
does not represent time or if we are using negative times.

Another way of graphing a parametric curve is by eliminating the

parameter, as follows.

V2 ee)
—3=2t
Solve one of the given parametric a ;
equations for f. = =

y=t-—2
io i=7 * 5

Substitute the expression for ¢ into ie Le ee 5

the other parametric equation. 2
a
a a

Lesson 7.5 * Parametric Equations 405

 This equation will produce the same xy-table as the parametric
equations. Thus it will generate the same graph.

We have discussed domain restrictions on our parameters based on the

physical situation represented. But there can be other restrictions on
the domain of the parameter. Consider the parametric equations

Ae COSTE
y= sits

In those equations the parameter ¢ denotes an angle and the restriction

on the domain is the same as that put on the argument in the polar
form of a complex number. The domain is restricted to the interval
0° <6 < 360° or 0< 8 < 27 .To go beyond this would just trace the graph
back over itself.

While we can graph both x = cos t and y = sin t by making a table

of values, using a graphing calculator is much easier. Set the your
calculator’s mode to PAR as shown below. Notice that this changes
the entry lines in [Y=]. You can set the domain restrictions in the
panel. Be sure to note whether you are in degree or radian mode.

Ploti Flot Flot?

\KirGsintT>
YirBcos¢T>
\M2T=

SHEXTs

We recognize the graph as a circle. We also notice the graph does not
pass the vertical line test, so it is not a function. Interesting! Each of the
parametric equations individually is a function, but the combination of
them together is not, because it is not one-to-one.

MODEL PROBLEM

I. For the parametric equations x = x!+2

1 pie
a acap
an

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

a
406 The Complex Plane & Conics
 a Make a table of xy-values such that 0 <r < 10.
Graph the parametric equations using your graphing calculator. Restrict the
domain to 0 <t< 25.
¢ Recall that these are the parametric equations we developed in the model
problem on page 404. Does the graph you generated agree with the solution
(12, -7)?

SOLUTION

b We plot the equations on our graphing calculator with the stated restrictions.
This line can also be graphed easily by hand.

c Yes. We can use the function of the graphing calculator to see that at time
t = 20, the coordinate is (12, —7). Graphing carefully by hand will give you the same
result.

se no an Site OY I RR YU EC ETE NTE BERR NES ERR INTE

Lesson 7.5 * Parametric Equations 407

ME Conic Sections in Parametric Form
As we saw in the last section, angle measure can be a parameter, which
gives us another way to write equations for conic sections.

Circles

We just observed that the parametric equations x = cos f and

y =sin ¢ give us the equation of a circle with radius equal to 1. We
also saw, in Lesson 5.1, that we can prove the Pythagorean identity,
sin’ @ +cos’ @ =1, using the unit circle. If we substitute x for cos @ and
y for sin 9 in the Pythagorean identity, the result is x7 + y* = 1, which we
immediately recognize as the equation of the unit circle. This means
that the parametric equations for a circle of radius r are (using the
parameter 0 instead of f),
x=rcos@

y=rsn@

Ellipses
It follows that to graph an ellipse with parametric equations, we simply
need to elongate one axis. The parametric equations
x=acos@

y=bsin @
generate an ellipse, with major and minor axes of lengths 2a and 2b,
respectively.

Hyperbolas
To express a hyperbola using parametric equations is a bit more
complicated. Recall that the equation-of a hyperbola that opens
vertically is
2 2
y =x
Ey, 1

ba?
For the parametric equations, we need a trigonometric identity that
relates to this. A bit of thought reveals that sec?@ — tan2@ = 1 will work.
A bit of manipulation gives us
w=
a tang

Vi=2:SeC0
In this case, 2b and 2a are the lengths of the transverse and
conjugate
axes.

2 ES en ee
408 The Complex Plane & Conics
MODEL PROBLEMS

2 ?.

1. For the equation ae 1,

16
a___ restate the given equation in parametric form.
b graph the equation using parametric form.
¢ what are the lengths of the major and minor axes, respectively?

SOLUTION
a In this case, a* = 9 and b? = 16, so a =3 and b = 4. The parametric equations are
x =3cos 0
y=4sin @
b We use our graphing calculator to graph the parametric equations.

Floti Plotz Flotz

\Mi7 BS#cas¢tT)

c For this ellipse, the major axis is vertical and its length is 8 units. The minor axis is
horizontal and has a length of 6 units.

x =sec@
2. Using the parametric equations
y =tandé
a _ graph the parametric equations using your calculator.
b state the standard form of the hyperbola equation that generated these
parametric equations.

SOLUTION
a __-We graph the given parametric equations.

Floti Plotz Flot?

\4171Bi~cos¢T?
YirBtantT>

b This hyperbola is centered at the origin with both a and b equal to 1. The
hyperbola opens horizontally so the standard equation is —y =:
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 7.5 * Parametric Equations 409

 [vrei] All of the conics discussed so far in this section are centered at the origin.
Let’s move off the origin and write the parametric equations for a circle of radius 2,
centered about the point (1, 3).

SOLUTION
We need to translate the center from the origin to the point (1,3). To do so, we need
to add values to the function itself so the circle is translated in a positive direction.
We also need to account for the radius of this circle being equal to 2 rather than 1.
Our equations are

4. Use your graphing calculator to graph the equations developed in Model Problem #3
to verify the translated equations are correct.

SOLUTION

We have added a grid so that we can verify the location of the center.

Caution! When graphing conics on your calculator, be careful with your window
settings for x and y. The screen itself is wider than it is long, so figures may
appear to
be proportioned differently than they actually are. We selected our window
views so
that the spacing was as close as possible to equal for both the x- and y-values.

ee ae ee
410 The Complex Plane & Conics
SPM racciccuna ea IENTIME APA 100 Cerne Oui‘hlsie Rage cers
1. Which of the following sets of equations 3. Tatiana is rewriting the equation
represents a circle in parametric form? Cie) var Wt lid parametric
x = 6(cos @)+1 form so she can graph it in her graphing
e x = 3(sec @)-6
; calculator. Which of the following is the
y= 9(sin 6) —4 = 4(tan 0)+ 6 parametric form of the given equation for
a graphing calculator?
"| x,=6 (cos 6 )+3 | x - 9(cos 6) z 1 ‘ x =(sec 9) +1
y =6
= 6(sin 6)-4
0) y= = 6(sin @)+4 veltan ole?

2. Examine the ellipse in the graph below. I

x= =e)
y B. |
cos 6

y=(tan 6)+1

10-9 -8 -7 -6=5 4-3 -P

x =(tan 6)-2
D.
y= (sec 0)+1

Which of the following sets of parametric

> Rewrite the parametric equations
equations generated this graph?
x= ee ee as a single
x = 10(cos 0)+2 ° 2
equation with no parameter.
TNs
y= 5(sin 6)-3
5. Graph the parametric equations

x =5(cos @)-3 x= 2-3, y=.

y= 10(sin @)+ 2 a Describe the graph.
b Suppose x = ¢* and y = 2t— 3. How
- x =10(sin 6)+2 does this graph compare to the
; PESOS original? Explain the the phphenomenon
iginal? Explain
you observe.

x= 5(cos 0) ane
D. 6. Explain what is meant by the expression
y =10(sin )—3 “one-to-one” as it relates to functions.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 7.5 * Parametric Equations 4il

 Exercises 7-103 Identify the type of 15. The parametric equations for a hyperbola
conic section the given equations represent. involve the trigonometric functions
If the equation is a circle, give the radius. If tangent and secant. Why must we use
it is an ellipse, give the lengths of the major "x, = I/cos T", to represent secant ona
and minor axes. If the equation represents a graphing calculator?
hyperbola, give the lengths of the transverse
and conjugate axes 16. Write the parametric equations for a
hyperbola centered at the origin, opening
7. x=300s
0, y=6sin 0 horizontally, with a transverse axis length
of 6 units and a conjugate axis length of
Som — sani
yy — 01sec 0 2 units.

9. x=30cos 6, y=3sind 17. How does the length of the conjugate axis
affect the shape of a hyperbola?
LO; v— J seco,
y=6 tan ¢
18. Use the parametric trigonometric identity
11. Write parametric equations for a circle of for a hyperbola to explain how you know
radius 5 that is centered at the point (2, 4). which way the hyperbola branches will
open.
12. Suppose you have a semicircle of radius 1
that is centered at the origin. Explain [Aj y9 Without graphing, state which conic
how you could change the parametric
section is represented by each equation
equations for a circle to describe this below. Rewrite the equation in standard
semicircle.
form. Round to the nearest hundredth, if
needed.
13. Write parametric equations for an ellipse
centered at the origin with vertical major a x(t) = 0.4 cos(r) — 9.2,
axis of length 10 units and a minor axis of y(t) = 0.4 sin(f) — 1.1
length 5 units.
b- x(t) =3.4 sec(t) — 5.2,
= (2
14. What are the parametric equations for Ee es eee
a general hyperbola that is centered at ¢ a(E) = 9:3 COs(t)-- 2.
the origin and opens vertically, if the y(t) = 9.4 sin(t) + 1.7
length of the transverse axis is 2a and the
length of the conjugate axis is 2b?

Chapter 7 Key Ideas

7.1 Rectangular and Polar Form of a Complex Number
e We can represent complex numbers as points in the
complex plane in both rectangular
form and polar form.
¢ The polar form of a complex number is z= r(cos @+i
sin 0).

KEY IDEAS continue...

412 The Complex Plane & Conics
 The range of the argument, 6, is limited to 0° < 6 < 360° or 0 < @ <2z in order to preserve
the one-to-one correspondence of the set of complex numbers with points in the
complex plane.
We can generate rotations in the complex plane using different values of 0.

7.2 Raising Complex Numbers to Powers

The process of raising complex numbers to powers is the same as the process of raising
real-number binomials to powers.
When converted to polar coordinates, we raise complex numbers to powers
using de Moivre’s formula: z” =r" (cos(n@)+isin(n@)) for any complex number
z= r(cos 6+i sin 6), and any positive integer n.
We extend de Moivre’s formula to fractional values of n to find roots of complex numbers:
1 1

ONG: |
cos{*)+i | *| for any complex number @= d(cos@+ i sin@).
n n
The linear factorization theorem states that an nth degree polynomial equation must have
1

n roots. When z=@", z” = w, and z can take n values, which are the nth roots of @, we use

a1 41 3}
iO? =a cof S284)+i wn{ 284) k =0.,...,n — 1, or if we are working in degrees,
n n
1 w ° °

wo" =d" coo{ 28%) +i in(22360%)) to find these roots.

n n

7.3 Circles and Complex Numbers

The equation of a circle in the xy-plane is r? = (x —h)? + (y — k)? where (h, k) are the
center’s coordinates and r is the radius.
The equation of a circle in the complex plane is |z — c| = r, where c is the complex number
represented by the center and r is the radius. ,

The equation of an ellipse in the xy-plane is “a.

pt)se) i)
% =1 and has features that

depend upon whether the major axis is horizontal or vertical.

An ellipse in the complex plane that is centered about the origin is described by the
equation |z + c| + |z — c| = 2a, where c is a real number and by the equation |z + c| + |z — c|
= 2b for imaginary c. In either case |c| is the focal distance and 2a or 25 is the length of the
major axis.
The inequality a >c or b > c is true of equations that represent ellipses in the complex
plane.

KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter 7 Key Ideas 413

 7.4 Complex Hyperbolas
(x—hy
The equation of a hyperbola in the xy-plane is ape (y-ky =
=p Iai iLopens

horizontally and a
mal ae ee |
e AayD = 1 if it opens vertically.
2
A horizontal hyperbola in the complex plane that is centered about the origin is described
by the equation |z + c| — |z — c| = 2a where c is the focal distance and 2a is the length of the
transverse axis.
A vertical hyperbola in the complex plane that is centered about the origin is described
by the equation |z + c| — |z — c| = 2a where c is the focal distance and 2b is the length of the
transverse axis.
The inequality a <c or b <c is true of equations that represent hyperbolas in the complex
plane.

7.5 Parametric Equations

When two equations, x = f(t) and y = g(t), represent two variables that are dependent on a
third variable, they are called parametric equations. The variable on which they depend is
the parameter.
A parametric curve is a graph of the ordered pairs generated by the parametric equations.
The domain of the parameter can be restricted by conditions of the problem or conditions
of the variables.
A circle of radius r, centered at the origin, is described by the parametric equations
x=rcos @and y=rsin @.
An ellipse centered at the origin is described by the parametric equations x =a cos @
and y = b sin @ where a and b each represent half the length of the major and minor
axes,
depending on which is larger.
A hyperbola centered at the origin that opens vertically is described by the
parametric
equations x = b tan @and y =a sec @.

414 The Complex Plane & Conics

Chapter 7 Review
Exercises 1-3: Match each of the given equations in rectangular form to their complex
plane representation.

(ee
i eis
=u caer = = il
A. 2 |z-cd=r
7 — =

2. (hh) +(y=k) =r B. |z+c|+|z—c|=2a

x? We

3. pas
elGE ee a i C. 5 |z+c|-|
WK z-cl=2a
—-|Z7-c\=

Exercises 4-6: Convert the given 9. Consider the binomial (2+ 4i)’.
complex number to polar form. Leave the
modulus in simplified radical form. Round a Expand the binomial. Leave your
angle measures to the nearest degree, unless answer in rectangular form.
they can be exactly stated.
b Use de Moivre’s formula to expand
4. z=7-24i the binomial.

ay Ay c pom te the answers you developed

in parts a and b.

10. Use de Moivre’s formula to find (2-2i)’.

Exercises 7=8: Determine the complex Leave the argument in radians in terms
number that corresponds to the given polar of x.
number. Round answers to the nearest
hundredth, unless they can be stated exactly. 11. Use de Moivre’s formula to find (6+ 87)’.
Round the argument to the nearest
Ze cov +isin]
z= 4[ degree.
1

12. Find all roots of (1+iV3)°. Leave your

8. z=3(cos 115°+i sin 115°) answer in polar form with arguments
expressed in radians in terms of 7.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter 7 Review 4is

 17. Does the complex equation
13. Find all roots of 4/25. Express your
|z + 4i| + |z — 4i] = 10 represent an ellipse?
answers in rectangular form.
If not, explain why. If so, state the
coordinates of the center and foci and
Rewrite x? + y? —2x + 6y + 1 =0 into give the value of the eccentricity.
standard form for a circle. State the
circle’s center and radius.
18. Rewrite y? — 4x? — 8y — 32x =52 in
standard form for a hyperbola. Then
15. Identify the center and radius of the circle find the
represented by |z-—4+i|=9.
a coordinates of the center,
16. Rewrite x’ + l6y” + 2x — 64y + 49 = 0 into b coordinates of the transverse axis,
standard form for an ellipse. Then find the
¢ coordinates of the conjugate axis, and
a coordinates of the center, | d coordinates of the foci.
b coordinates of the endpoints of the e Graph the hyperbola.
major axis,

¢ coordinates of the endpoints of the 19. Does the complex equation

minor axis, |z + 4i| + |z — 4i| = 10 represent a
d coordinates of the foci, and hyperbola? If not, explain why. If so,
state the coordinates of the center and
e eccentricity.
give the eccentricity.

Exercises 20-22: Match the given equation on the left to its parametric representation
on the right.

Eey aes a x=rcost

20.
a b y=rsint

Se 2
oa al B. x=acost
21.
a b Vi=
D Sint

Piya p C x=asect
22.
y=btant

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

a

416 The Complex Plane & Conics

23. The path of a ball thrown into the air is
described by the parametric equations
y =-16f + 20t + 5, and x = 4t, where t
is the time in seconds, and x and y are
measured in meters.

a_ Rewrite the equations to eliminate the

parameter.
b What is the ball’s maximum height?

24. Write the parametric equations for an

ellipse centered at the origin with a
horizontal major axis that is 7 units in
length and a minor axis that is 2 units in
length.

25. Write the parametric equations for a

hyperbola centered at the origin with
a horizontal transverse axis 4 units in
length and conjugate axis 6 units in
length.

Chapter 7 Review 417

 Chapter 8 Vectors

Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Dot Products

8.1 Recognizing and In this chapter, we extend the learning started in Chapter 4
Representing Vectors : : ; 3
and connect it back to some ideas first introduced in
8.2 Vector Arithmetic previous math classes. Recall from geometry that a
8.3 Vector Multiplication directed line segment is a portion of a line that has
both distance and direction. In this chapter, we learn
8.4 Vectors in IR’ and that these line segments are sometimes called vectors
8.5 Vectors and Lines and that we can perform arithmetic operations on
these vectors. Multiplying two vectors together is
Chapter 8 Key ideas’ = one of the more interesting operations, and we refer
Chapter 8 Review to this as finding the vectors’ dot product. When we
find the dot product, we apply one vector to another,
changing the original vector based on the second vector.
Understanding this concept is important to your future
study of linear algebra and vector calculus.

Suppose that we have two vectors in the xy-plane,

u and v, each of which has a length of 1 unit. If the angle
between these vectors is 0 radians, their dot product
is 1 - 1 - cos(0) = 1. What if the angle between the
Tt ;
vectors increases to — radians? The dot product
1
then becomes 1-1. cos2 = 0.87. We complete the

table on the next page, which shows the dot product of

the vectors for increasing values of the angle, 0. We use
this table to create a graph.

What happens to the graph of the dot product if the

length of w remains 1 unit, but we increase v to 2 units?
If the angle between the two vectors is 0 radians, the

dot product is 1 - 2 - cos(0) = 2. For se radians the

dot product is 1 - 2 - cos 2 ~ 1.73. We complete the

remainder of the table and graph the results.

418 Vectors
Look at the graph above. It crosses the y-axis at y= 1 and the x-axis at x = 1.5. Based on
these intercepts and the general shape, we see that this is a graph of the cosine function.
The graph below has the same x-intercept but a y-intercept of 2. It is the graph of
f(@) = 2 - cos(@). Interesting!
4 L
u-+v

Continue exploring the ideas introduced above.

1. Complete the table on the right for
a |u|
=3 units, |v|=1unit
b |ul=2 units, || =3 units

2. Sketch a graph for each of la and Ib.

3. Write the equation of the graph for each of 1a and Ib.
4. As the length of the given vectors increases, what happens to the graphs of the dot
products?

5. Suppose that u=5 units and v =4 units. What equation describes the graph of the dot
product uw: v?
6. If=kunits and y=/ units, what equation describes the dot product u - v where k
and / are positive real numbers?

7. Suppose that the angle between w and v remains the same, but the lengths of u and v
can vary. Is the dot product of u and v one-to-one? Explain.
Exploratory Activity 419
 Chapter 8 Vocabulary
bound vector magnitude scalar multiplication unit vector
dot product orthogonal scalar product vector
free vector

Lesson 8.I]
Recognizing and Representing Vectors

MMMM Directed Line Segments

After spending the afternoon at your house, Marina leaves to drive
home. Twenty minutes after she leaves, Marina calls to say her car has
broken down! She tells you that she is 12 miles away, and then she
hangs up. You know how far away she is, but not in which direction.
Did she drive north? South? East? West? Did she use a combination
of these directions? What should you do?

Numbers are important in mathematics, but, as shown above, so is

direction. We represent direction using vectors. A vector is a directed
line segment. It has both direction and length, more generally referred
to as magnitude. There are two types of vectors, free and bound. A free
vector is identified only by its magnitude and direction. We identify
a bound vector by its magnitude, direction, and its initial point. The
vector that indicates Marina’s position relative to your house is a bound
vector, because it has a specific initial point — your house. If you just
wanted a vector to express a general distance and direction, you could
use a free vector. Free vectors are considered to be equivalent if they
share the same direction and magnitude.

GMerina

Marina

a
Marina Marina

ee ae

Vectors indicating some of Marina’s possible locations

420 Vectors
 MODEL PROBLEMS

COZ Why are all the vectors pictured in the illustration on page 420 possible
locations for Marina?
SOLUTION
All of the vectors could indicate Marina’s location because they are all the same
length, 12 miles, and because we are unsure of Marina’s path once she left your house.

2. Are the four vectors pictured on page 420 equal? Explain.

SOLUTION
A bound vector has three elements: magnitude, direction, and initial point. Although
the magnitude and initial point are equal for these vectors, they are all pointing in
different directions, so the vectors are not equal.

MH Vector Notation, Components, and

Representation in the Coordinate Plane
There are multiple ways we represent vectors. We use an italicized lower
case letter with an arrow over it, like v. Another way we describe a vector is
with an ordered pair like v = (3,2). We can also make use of the basis vectors,
which are the horizontal and vertical unit vectors, 7 and j, respectively. We
describe the vector v = 3i + 2j by its components, (3, 2). Here we note that in
this context, 7 represents a horizontal vector and is not equal to V=1. iy

Because a vector has direction, we can represent them on the

coordinate plane using an arrow. If no initial point is indicated,
the vector is free and we generally start it at the origin. The vector
v =3i+2) is shown on the right. The initial point is the origin and
(3, 2) is the terminal point.

In geometry, we applied vectors without directly stating we were

doing so when we learned geometric translations. Consider AABC,
right. If we want to translate it 2 units to the right and 4 units
down, we move all of the points in the figure by (+2, —4).
Because the figure contains an infinite number of points, all we
really need to do is translate the three vertices, and then connect
those three translated points. Using vectors, we draw t= 2i-4j
from each of the vertices. Then we connect the points to create
AA’ B’ C’ . The vectors we used to translate the triangle
are free vectors, and because they all have the same magnitude
and direction, they are equal vectors.

Lesson 8.1 * Recognizing and Representing Vectors 421

 MODEL PROBLEMS

(ZiaE] Draw two vectors that are equal to the free vector v = 3i +2, but are
different vectors.

SOLUTION
Sy ¥ ee Saascae ae een ee ee
f

There are many different vectors you

could draw. Here are two examples.

2. Identify the vectors in the figure at the right. y

SOLLUTION al
Oi = 3) When identifying the = 3+
v=lit4j vectors, we imagine an ai
origin at each initial point
and find the components
accordingly.

3. Describe the similarities and differences among :

the vectors u, vy, and W, pictured to the right.

SOLUTION
Sy
u and v are the same magnitude, but have |
different directions. —
v and w have the same direction, but are different
lengths.
= = 74 w
u and w have different lengths and directions. u

All three vectors have different initial points.

|

422 Vectors
MM Determining Vector Direction and Magnitude
We describe vectors using the word magnitude. Note that magnitude
is generally used to describe all vectors, while the term length refers
to a particular geometric vector. Magnitude has the same meaning
in this chapter as it did in Lesson 6.2, Lesson 71, and all throughout
mathematics, and we calculate it using the distance formula. You can
think of this calculation as the translation of a point from the tail to the
head of the vector. The magnitude of a vector v = ai+bj is |v|= Va’ +b’.
A vector with its tail at the origin and its head at any point (x,y) has
magnitude of ,/x* + y*. A vector with its tail at some point (x,, y,) and
its head at (x,, y,) has magnitude

z.
|vj= (5 x) TO)

Now that we have reviewed how to find the magnitude of a vector, we'll
look at one last way to represent them. We can describe vectors with
their magnitude and direction, which requires first finding the vector’s
magnitude, |v|, and then the angle between the vector and the positive
x-axis, 9. Thus, we ean express vectors using polar coordinates (|v|, 0)
The vector’s horizontal and vertical components can also be written
separately, as horizontal and vertical vectors

v, =|v|cos6
v, =|v|sin@

Recall from Chapter 4 that in a right triangle, the sine of an lol

Oite= lvisin@
angle, 0, is equal to the length of the opposite side divided
by the length of the hypotenuse, while the cosine of the a) EC
same angle is equal to the length of the adjacent side divided eae
by the length of the hypotenuse. With vectors, the hypotenuse
of the triangle is the vector’s magnitude, while the x and y
components are the adjacent and opposite sides of the triangle,
respectively, as shown in the figure to the right.

Lesson 8.1 * Recognizing and Representing Vectors 423

 MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find the magnitude of v = 3i+2/.

SOLUTION

lyVi=v3° 42° = 924 =4/13 units Use the distance formula.

2. Describe the vector shown in the coordinate plane y

4

to the right using component form. 6+

Al
SOLUTION a
SR mae S. Consider both the initial “4
v=4i-4j : f : 2
point and terminal point. ae
+
ce: 4 (ie yr
-1+

© CiGXJ Describe the vector in Model Problem #2 by its magnitude and direction.

SOLUTION
|v] =V4°+4? = /16+16 = J32 =4V2 Magnitude calculation.
—4 |
@ =tan” a —45° which is 360° — 45° = 315° Direction calculation.

Ve (4/2, a1) Vector description.

MMM Practice
I. Which of the following is (are) correct notation(s) for the
vector v = —3i
+ 3V3j? Select all
that apply.

A. (-6, 120°) C. (6, 60°) E. (-6,=)

B. (6, 120°) D. (6= Fr =3, 33)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
424 Vectors
2. You leave home to walk to school, walking Exercises 9=123 Calculate the magnitude
5 blocks east, and then 6 blocks north. If of each given vector. Give exact answers.
the positive y-axis represents north, write
a vector that describes your position A SI
relative to your home. >. ,
10. f=i+ ]

3. Is the vector in exercise #2 a free vector or ye eee

a bound vector? Explain. "if 7 J

4. Suppose a square is drawn on the xy-plane.

~ v=—31+ 6)
eal Ae
ia Le NITRATE Eg Onsite Express the vectors using polar coordinates.
translation of that square down 13 units. Leave magnitudes in simplified radical

5. Write the vector that represents the POL ane Sle axact ees sees ie ape
: measures when possible. If not possible, round
translation of a circle in the xy-plane
; ‘ the angle measures to the nearest degree.
4 units to the right.
13. w=-2i-2j
6. What is the vector that represents the
translation of a triangle in the xy-plane 14. u=6i +8]
7 units to the left and 9 units up?
N5snq 2, 31-5)
7. Match the vectors listed below to the
vectors in the figure. 16. r=15i+8)

i m =2i-5j iit] 17. Write the polar form of each vector.

il. ie os 2] Round to the nearest hundredth, if
iii, P=—2i+5] needed.
pete a (4.21,-1.47)
b (-9.51,-11.16)
=
a
© u=-5.78i+3.67j
d u=1.611+0.32j
; d —_ 18. For each of the following, write a component
tert bePee vector and a unit vector to describe the
ed ea ee ee f >x situation. Note that the notation N31°E
means to go 31° east of north. If we graphed
this, the vector would make a 31° angle off of
the positive y-axis and a 59° angle off of the
positive x-axis. Round your answers to the
8. For the vectors shown in exercise #7, nearest hundredth, if needed.

a Calculate the magnitude of each a N81°E,3 miles

vector. be 535-W, lo meters
b Are they all equal vectors? Why or c §$24°E, 21 kilometers
why not? d N13°W,77 yards
Lesson 8.1 * Recognizing and Representing Vectors 425
 Lesson 8.2
Vector Arithmetic

MG Vector Addition and the Parallelogram Rule

Recall the problem introduced at the beginning of Lesson 8.1, when
Marina called in distress. We showed several possibilities for her
location (see page 420). In addition to those options, Marina could have
been located at the intersection of two vectors. This option seems more
reasonable than what we presented in the previous lesson. Consider the
streets in your neighborhood. Are the streets pointing in all directions
from your house? Probably not. The illustration at the right represents
a likely way that Marina could have arrived at a particular location, by
traveling east and then turning north.

We know from Lesson 8.1 that Marina traveled 12 miles before her car
broke down. The 12-mile long vector in the illustration above is equal
to the sum of the other two vectors. When adding vectors, we add the
x-components together and the y-components together to get the x- and
y-components for our final vector.

Let’s look at some more examples of vector addition. A common !

application of vector addition is nautical navigation. Today, most boats
have navigation systems that take wind and currents into account when
determining heading. These systems do the work that boaters used to
have to do by hand. In the figure to the right, b represents the speed
and direction in which the boat is steering, while ¢ represents the speed
and direction of the current. We use vector addition to find the boat’s
true heading, which takes into account the effect the current has on the
speed and direction. There are two ways to graphically represent the
addition of these two vectors. One is by putting the tail of one vector
at the head of the other, as shown on the figure on the next page, left.
The other way is by drawing a parallelogram, with the two vectors to be
added as adjacent sides of the parallelogram. The sum of the vectors is
the diagonal line extending from the vectors’ mutual tails to the heads
of their parallel counterparts. This is illustrated in the figure on
the next
page, right.

426 Vectors
So what is the boat’s true speed and direction? It is represented by the
vector h. Note that in general the magnitude of h is not equal to the
sum of the magnitudes of b and ¢:|h| 4 |b|+|c|. Rather, we determine
the magnitude by first adding the x components, adding the
y components, and then using the distance formula to find the
magnitude of the new vector.
A Gen ae
Bos SOs ee
R= (x, +x J+ On +30
and
[n|= fy, +x)? +04 + ¥,)?
We refer to the illustration on page 426 and find we can represent the
boat’s direction as
pe

b= 61+2]
¢=2i+3)
h=(6+2)i+(2+3)j =8i+5j

Nautical speed is measured in knots. A knot is one nautical miles

per hour and is equivalent to about 1.51 miles per hour. In our boat
example, the speeds are

|b|= V6? +2? = /36+4 =/40= 6.3 knots

|c|=V2? +3? = /4+9 = 13 = 3.6 knots
|h|= V8? +5° = J64 +25 = /89 = 9.4 knots

Vector addition is a form of translation. Our boat started at the tail of

b and C. The boat itself was translated 6 units horizontally and 2 units
vertically, while the current was translating the boat 2 units horizontally
and 3 units vertically. This resulted in a net translation of 8 units
horizontally and 5 units vertically.

Lesson 8.2 * Vector Arithmetic

 MODEL PROBLEMS

@ (SGHE] Add the vectors w=2i—5/ and v= 4i+6/

a head-to-tail.
b __using the parallelogram method.

We draw u,v, and u+ v.

BA
os
Wee
5a =
Saas

For this part, we must draw a parallelogram.

CN Cn it one ~~ 4 sive

2. Again using the vectors u = 2i—5j and y = 4j + 6);

a __add the vectors algebraically and write the resultant vector in component form.
:
b find the magnitude of the resultant vector.

SOLUTION
a U+Vv= (2+4)i+(-5+6)j =6i+1j We substitute in the vectors and then add
the components.

b Ju+vy/=V6> +1? = /3641 = J37 We determine the resultant vector’s

magnitude using the formula.

428 Vectors
MH Properties of Vector Addition
Does the order in which we add two vectors matter? No. Real number
addition is commutative, and since vector components are real numbers,
we can add in any order we like without changing the answer. You can
see from the figure below that a+b=b+ta.

otot 21

a1 ae sol)
SY

How does adding a third vector affect the commutative property of

addition? Suppose we want to incorporate c into our equation. We can
see from the figure below that b+a+c=a+b+c=a+ctb.

SY

SY
aLate eyezis wy

We can also see from the illustration above that vector addition is
associative as well as commutative. While we have not exhausted the
possible combinations in which we can group and add a,c, and b, rest
assured they would all produce the same result.

Here are some additional vector properties that are consistent with real
number properties and, thus, are important.

a Property Explanation

d= 0 has no direction and jA=0

DRE
Equal and opposite vectors |tf 74-5, then a and 5 are equal in magnitude (|a| =|b))
and opposite in direction.

Lesson 8.2 * Vector Arithmetic 429

 MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Prove that the addition of three unique vectors is commutative.

SOLUTION .
We provide a proof in paragraph form. We could also use a two-column proof if we
wanted.

Suppose that a,b, andc are any three unique vectors such that a= a,i+a,j,b =b,i+b,j,
and ¢ =c,i+c,j where a,,a,,b,,b,,c,,and c, are real numbers. If we sum the vectors, we
find a+b+c= (a,+b,+c,)i+ (a,+b,+c,)j, but since the addition of real numbers is
commutative, a, + b, +c, can be equivalently expressed as any of a, +c,+b,,b,+a,+<¢,,
b,+c,+a,,c,+b,+a,,orc, +a, + b,. We can make a similar argument for the sum
a,+b,+c,.Sincea+b+c=at+c+b=b+a+c=b+c+a=ct+b+a=ctatb, vector
addition of three unique vectors is commutative.

Gd DiTaE] Add the vectors r = 3i+5j and s = —3i—5j. What property does this
demonstrate?

SOLUTION
r+s=(3+(-3))i+(5+(-5))j =0i+0/ Sum the vectors.
Refer to the table on page 429. This is a representation that the sum of equal and
opposite vectors is the zero vector.

WE Vector Subtraction
Refer to our boat problem on pages 426-427, How do our calculations
change if the boat were moving with the opposite speed and direction?
How would we calculate its speed and direction? Remember from
your long-ago pre-algebra class that subtraction is the same as adding
the opposite. So to calculate the heading of a boat traveling
with the
opposite speed and direction, we subtract the vectors. But which
vector
do we subtract from the other? Does it matter? Let’s try and
see.
>
b-c=(6-2)i+(2-3)
=4i-1;
j
c-b=(2-6)i+(3-2)j =-4i+1j

430 Vectors
We are reminded by this example that subtraction of real numbers is
not commutative, so vector subtraction is not commutative. The decision
of which vector is the minuend and which is the subtrahend depends
on the particulars of the problem. Just as subtraction of vectors is not
commutative, it is not associative either.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. For the vectors u = 3i—4j and v =5i +6/,

a __ graphically represent the subtraction u—v.
b algebraically solve u—v.

SOLUTION
a

We draw the vectors and the subtraction.

b u-—v=(3-5)i+(-4-6)j=-2i-10j We algebraically subtract the vectors.

[1 For the vectors u = 3i—4j and w = -2i- j,

a __ graphically represent the subtraction w—-u.
b algebraically solve w-u.

SOLUTION
a We draw the vectors and the
subtraction. Note that we choose
to use the parallelogram rule for
subtraction, creating the parallelogram
bob
Fees
cee
| with the minuend and the opposite of
the subtrahend. The diagonal of the
parallelogram is the difference vector.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.2 ¢ Vector Arithmetic 431

 b w-u=(-2-3)i+(-1-(-4))j=-5i+3j We algebraically subtract the vectors.

3. Show that subtraction of vectors is not associative by comparing (u—v)—w with

u—(v—W) for u=3i—4j, v =5i+6/, and w =-2i-j.

SOLUTION

(u—v)—w =((3—5)—(-2))i+ ((-4-6)-(-1))j =

(-2+2)i+(-10+1)j = 01-9) We substitute the given

w =(3-(5-(—2)))i+
u—(v—w)
t valulues.
vector

(—4-(6-(-1)))j =G-7)i+(-4-7)j =-—4i-11j

We conclude that vector subtraction is not associative since 0i — 9j —47 — 11).

Technology
Activity |

We can add and subtract vectors using GeoGebra. We can also use the
software to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant
vector.

For u = 2i- 3j and v = 4i- J, add and then subtract the vectors. Find
the direction and magnitude of each resultant vector. Round to two
decimal places where needed.

Step I: We will start by summing w and v. Graph u by selecting

the vector tool and then clicking on the origin and then
on (2, -3). GeoGebra will graph the vector.
Step 2: Now draw vector v, starting where w ended. Select the vector
tool, click on (2,—-3), and then move 4 units right and 1 unit
down. Click on that point.
Step 3: Draw segment AC. This segment’s distance represents the
resultant vector’s magnitude. GeoGebra calculates this
value as 721 units.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

432 Vectors
 Step 4: To determine the resultant vector’s direction, we will draw
an angle. Create a point on the positive x-axis and then
select it, point A, and point C. We see that the resultant
vector’s direction is 326.31°.
Step 5: We repeat the process for the subtraction. Graph uw and
the opposite of v. Then repeat steps 3 and 4 to see that the
resultant vector’s magnitude is 2.83 units and its direction is 225°.

Exercises 1-3: Add and then subtract each of the following vector pairs and find the
magnitude and direction of each using GeoGebra. Round to two decimal places as
needed.
I. w=it+4jandv =-5i-2j
2. u=-4i-6j andy =-4i +3;
3. UW=-3i+5jandv =6i+j

|_LAET eh t Scg O
Exercises 1=3: Algebraically sum the 9. u=6i+2j and v=2i+6j
vectors. > =
10. For n=31+2j and p=—4i-—4j, show that
I. a=4i +4j and b= —31+5] the sum of the magnitudes of n and Dp is
not equal to the magnitude of their sums.
2. c=-3) 42) and d=3i-2; (i.e., |n| + |p| + |n +p).

3she=7 =f andif =2i-6j 11. Demonstrate the associative property of

addition for vectors by adding g = 7i + j,
Exercises 4-6: Sum the vectors using the 7 =2i—5j, and s=—6i +2; in two different
head-to-tail method. ways.

4. g=6i-7jandh=—9i+5j Exercises 12-14: Algebraically subtract

a. = the second vector of each pair from the first.
See = OF and — OF
- = 12. a=4i+4j
and b=-3i+5j
6. n=3i+2j
and p=4i-4j
. 13. c=-3i+2j
and d=3i-2;
Exercises 7-10: Sum the vectors using
the parallelogram rule. 14, @=i-5jand f=2i-6;

7. g=7i+2j and r=-8i-4j

8. 5=—-3i+6j
and ¢=-2i-6j
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.2 * Vector Arithmetic 433

 Exercises 15-17: Geometrically subtract Find the resultant vector that gives
the second vector of each pair from the first. your new heading, true speed, and
direction.
15. g=6i1—7) andh=—%1+5]
What is the true speed, in knots,
of your boat after turning around?
16. [= 8i and m=6j
Round to the nearest tenth.
17. u=6i+2j and v=2i+6j Will you end up back home if you
keep your current heading? Why or
Show that the subtraction of vectors is
why not?
not associative by subtracting g = 7i+j,
fi 5) .and s——o +2) initwo
different ways.
nok wa
20. Suppose that a jet is traveling at a rate
of 550 mph in the direction of S38°E and
19. You are cruising in your sailboat at a that the wind is 80 mph moving N41°E.
speed of 15 knots (b) with respect to the
a Use vectors to determine the speed
water, more or less with the current, as
and direction of the jet. Round to the
depicted in the figure below. The current
nearest hundredth, if needed.
is moving at a speed of 5 knots (c).
Use vectors to determine the speed
and direction of the jet on its return
flight. Round to the nearest hundredth,
if needed.

A kayak is traveling at a rate of 3 knots in

the direction of S74°W and the current is
1.4 knots in the direction of N32°W.

a Use vectors to determine the speed

and direction of the kayak.
a_ Find the components of the vector If the current speed remains the same,
that represents your true heading,
use vectors to determine the speed
following the parallelogram rule. and direction of the kayak on its
b Find the true speed of your boat in return trip.
knots. Round your answer to the
nearest tenth.
¢ Ohno! You realize you forgot
something! You turn your boat
180° degrees to head back. Draw a
vector diagram of your boat’s speed,
new direction, and the current.

434 Vectors
 Lesson 8.3
Vector Multiplication

MB Scalar Multiplication
We defined a vector as a quantity with magnitude and :
direction. We can multiply vectors together, which we discuss
later, and we can also multiply vectors by real numbers.
Recall from Chapter 6 that a real number that has only
magnitude and no direction is called a scalar. Scalar
multiplication is what it seems to be - multiplying a
vector by a scalar. Scalar multiplication is a dilation
of a given vector. Since a scalar has only magnitude,
scalar multiplication changes only a vector’s magnitude.
The vector is dilated by a factor equal to the scalar.
For example, if v = 4i+5j, then 3v = 3(4i+5/) = 12i+15j.

The distributive property of multiplication over addition is a 1 N= w cs So 6. 2

fae
8) 10 i 2

property of scalar multiplication. If c is a real-number scalar,

and wand v are vectors, then c(u+v)=cu+tcv. We illustrate
this property below.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Forw=6i+7j,
a find 2w algebraically.
b show w and 2w on the same graph.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.3 * Vector Multiplication 435

 SOLUTION
a Qw =2(6i+7j) =121+147 We quickly distribute the scalar across
the vector.
b y
val
13-4

We graph both w and 2w. Note that

multiplying the vector by 2 dilates the
vector by a scale factor of 2.

SN
yw
oO
Be
6O1lUON
oOo
co
UN

A hl
che
I A al al

2. Forv=12i-9j,
a find = algebraically.

b show both y and = on the same graph.

SOLUTION
ak [e ae See cece
a me = ye =97) =41—3) Distribute the scalar across the vector.

y
4
Bysl

al
We graph both v and V. Here we note that

scalars don’t have to be integers and that

scalar multiplication can shorten a vector as
well as lengthen it.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

436 Vectors
 a IMP 3, 8| For a =2i-5j and b = 31 +6),
a find 3a +3b and 3(a +b).
b compare your answers.

SOLUTION
a 3a+3b=3(2i-5j)+3(3i+6/)=
(6i—15j)+(9i+18))=151+3]
BaD)
es OL 5) 31 46)))_ W. e calculate both 3a+3b
a+3b and 3(a+b).
a+b

3(5i+1j) =15i+3;
b _Wesee that both 3a+ 3b and 3(a+ b) yield the same result, which confirms the
distributive property.

MH Scalar Magnitude
Scalar multiplication dilates a vector by a factor equal to the scalar. This
means that in scalar multiplication, the vector’s magnitude changes by
the scalar factor. We prove this below.

Proof scalar multiplication is a dilation:

Let v be any vector. v=ait+bj

Multiply by any real number scalar, c. cev=c- aitc- bj

Find the magnitude of v. |v] =Va? +b?

Find the magnitude of cv. |cv| = J(ca)’ + (cb)?

saranine to compare with the (cay ep = aia =

magnitude of y.
Jc?(a’ +b’) =cva’ +b? =clv|

We see that the magnitude of the product of a vector and a scalar is

equal to the product of the scalar and the magnitude of the original
vector. Because scalar multiplication changes only the magnitude of a
vector (and not the direction), it sometimes works in our favor to have
the vector in polar form. Let’s examine scalar multiplication further
with some problems.

Lesson 8.3 * Vector Multiplication 437

 MODEL PROBLEMS

In Model Problems 1-5, we define a = 4i+]j, b= —5i+2), and C= 31-3).

I. Find the sum 2a + 36 algebraically and represent the sum graphically.

SOLUTION
2a+3b =2(4i+ j)+3(-5i+2j)= We substitute, using the defined vectors.
Siz
— 5) 4-0 =—
i oF

We graph the vectors 2a, 3b,

and their sum 2a + 3b.

2. Calculate the magnitude of 2a+35.

SOLUTION
ja+b|= poe =n MS 106 We use our solution to Model Problem #1
and the distance formula to determine the
magnitude.

@ MP 2,5, Algebraically find the difference of 3a—4c and represent that difference
graphically.

SOLUTION
3a — 4c = 3(4i+ j)— 4(3i— 37) = We substitute, using the defined vectors.
12 O) ei Oe 5)

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

438 Vectors
 We graph the vectors 3a, 4c, and their
difference 3a —4c.

4. MP 2, 5| Calculate the magnitude of 3a — 4c.

SOLUTION”
|3a—4c| = 15° =15 We use our solution to Model Problem #3 and the distance
formula to determine the magnitude.

@ [LEXI Convert c to polar form, and then calculate 3c.

SOLUTION
We use our knowledge from Lesson 71 to convert
=,/3° +(-3) =V9+9 =3V2
ld i v2 from rectangular form to polar form.

To convert from ai + bi to ({c|, @), we first find

magnitude.
3) Next find 6, the positive angle between the vector
O = tan 34 and the positive x-axis.

@=2n 2. 1 We want to express our angle as a positive number.

4 4

C= 32,2 This is the polar representation of c.

. In Remember that scalar multiplication changes only

3¢=| 9V2, a the magnitude of the vector. The angle remains
unchanged.

Lesson 8.3 * Vector Multiplication 439

WG Vector Dot Products
As mentioned previously, we can multiply two vectors together.
The product of two vectors in 2-dimensions is called the dot product
or scalar product, because the result is a scalar. The dot product of two
vectors is equal to the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and
the cosine of the angle between them.

Given two vectors w and v, their dot product is

Dot Product > u- Vv=|ullv\cos@
where 0 <0 < 7

The dot product is not a vector because it has no direction. It is the

product of three numbers, so it is a scalar. In the real world, we use
the dot product to calculate impact. For example, what is the work
performed by a force acting on a moving particle? That quantity
equals the amount of energy the particle gains as a result of the force’s
action on it. The dot product allows us to calculate the quantity, taking
direction into account. We know the cosine of zero is one, so if the
force is acting in the same direction as the particle is already moving,
then the total amount of the force is doing work on the particle, which
then gains maximum energy. As the angle between the force and the
particle’s direction of motion increases, the effect of the force decreases,
because as @ increases, cos 9 decreases. When @ = 90°, cos 9 = 0. and
the dot product is zero. A force perpendicular to the direction of a
particle’s motion does no work on the particle and gives it no energy.
Vectors at right angles to each other are orthogonal. The dot product of
orthogonal vectors is always zero. We see orthogonal vectors pictured
below, middle.

As @ increases beyond 90°, cosine 6 becomes negative, and so

the dot
product continues to decrease as well. To illustrate this concept, again
consider the example of a force acting on a particle. If the particl
e is

440 Vectors
moving in one direction, but the force is being applied against that
direction, as in the figure above, right, then the force performs negative
work on the particle and reduces the particle’s energy.

While the formula for dot product calculation involves cos @, we do not
actually need to find the measure of the angle between the two vectors.
Using the Law of Cosines, it can be shown that the dot product of two
vectors, u=u,itu,j and p= VEtv,j, is u- VSR Vee Teeny, We

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Find the dot product of u and v if u=—7i+6j and vy =—4/ +5.

SOLUTION
eae , « V, +40, + v, We use the component version of the dot product.

ev (-7)-(4)+6-5=58 Substitute and solve. Remember that the dot

product is scalar.

SOHSSSSSHSHSSSHSSHSHSSHSHSHSHSHSSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHHHSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHHHSHOHSHSHEHSHSHHHHSHEHEEEEEE

2. Prove that the vectors m = 5i+6j andn = 6i—5j are orthogonal.

SOLUTION
If two vectors are orthogonal, their dot product must be equal to zero. The converse
is also true: if the dot product of two vectors is zero, then they must be orthogonal.
We need to show the dot product of these two vectors is 0.
eine fh tte We use the component version of the dot product,
Sar) « substituting in the variables in this problem.
m:-n=5- 6+6-: (-5)=30-30=0 Substitute and solve. The dot product is 0, so the
vectors are orthogonal.

[GXI Use the dot product to find the angle between a and b if a = 3i +27 and
b=1i+7j.

SOLUTION
|al|bicos@ =a,- b, +a,- a, We have two formulas for calculating dot product,
a- b=|al|b| cos@ and a- b=a, - b, +a, - b,.We can
a 0.42, 2, set these two formulas equal to each other, and
cos @ = Sia then solve for cos 0.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.3 * Vector Multiplication 441

 lal = V3? +2? =J9+4 = 13 To substitute for all the variables, we must first
find the magnitudes of the two vectors.
lbl= v1? +7 =V1+49
— /50
S172 7 #17 ~ 0.667
cos@= Now we can substitute and solve.
Va isn [650
@ =cos |0.667 = 48.2°

MA Practice
I. Which of the following is true of
orthogonal vectors?

A. They are parallel.

B. They have equal magnitudes and
opposite directions
C. Their dot product is negative.
D. Their dot product is 0.

re When multiplying a vector by a scalar, only 10. 3a+4c

the magnitude changes. Why?
For d=3i+4j,
A. Multiplying a vector by a scalar does
not change the direction of the vector. a Find the magnitude |d].
B. Multiplying a vector by a scalar always b Find 3d.
shrinks the vector’s length.
Find the magnitude |3d|.
C. Multiplying a vector by a scalar always ee)Compare your answer from part a with
extends the vector’s length.
your answer from part ¢. Is this what
D. Multiplying a vector by a scalar can should be expected? Why or why not?
change the direction of the vector but
does not always do so.
12. Demonstrate how the distributive
property applies to scalar multiplication
Exercises 3-10: Algebraically perform of vectors. Use the vector v = v,i+v,j and
the indicated operations and then show the the scalar c. |
operation graphically for a =2i+ = yy
Anal CS == By, 13. Find3g for i-(54]
3. 2b
. = = aves
14. Find 2r for r=(728]
4. 3c

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

442 Vectors
 Exercises 15=18: Perform the indicated
21. Use the dot product to show that r
operations for a =2i
b=+4j
3i—2j,¢ =—3i-3/,
, and s are orthogonal if r=7i—2j and
and d = 3i+4j.
S=2i+7}.

Gp
22. Prove that the dot product is
commutative.
i ons

23. Use the Law of Cosines to show that

ah > (al
jullv|cos@ =u, - v, +u,- vy. (Hint: When
b-c considering the triangle for the Law of
Cosines, recognize that if two sides of
Describe how the dot product changes as the triangle are vectors, u andy, then the
the angle between two vectors increases third side can be considered the vector
from 0° to 90°. VU.)

20. Describe how the dot product changes as 24. Use the dot product to find the angle
the angle between two vectors increases between g =-3i+4j and h=12i-5j.
from 907 to 180": Round your answer to the nearest degree.

Lesson 8.4
Vectors in IR? and R?

MH Vector Translation of Figures in R?

A vector translates points and objects in the xy-plane. In the figure :
to the right, the new point (x’, y’)is mapped by a vector, vy= 3i+5j, 9+ (4,9)
from its original location at (x, y). We find the point’s new ei
coordinates by adding 3 to the original x-coordinate and 5 to the cn
original y-coordinate: (x’, y’) =(x+3,y+5)=(1+3,4+5)=(4, 9).
oy 3i + 5j

If we want to move a point or object in the 2-dimensional xy-plane,

we simply apply the same vector translation to every affected point.
Recall from geometry that translating a figure requires mapping !
every point on that figure to its new location. Because figures such
as polygons, or even line segments, are comprised of an infinite
number of points, we only needed to demonstrate the translation of
key points to move an entire figure. We will be able to do the same in
precalculus; however, we will need to arrive at a general formula for
how new points are mapped from the original points.

Lesson 8.4 « Vectors in IR? and R? 443

 Consider the figure shown below. In this figure, the original star is
mapped, or translated, with the vector t = 5i—5j. For every point (x, y)
on the pre-image star, there is the corresponding point (x’, y’) = (x +5, y —5)
on the image star.

Because translations are rigid transformations, each point must be

translated the same distance and in the same direction. We must use
the same free vector to translate every point on the figure.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Translate the graph of 2x + 3y = 6 by a = 2i —5j, and write the equation for the new
mapping.

SOLUTION
Faeroe The vector indicates we need to translate the
7 d x-coordinate by +2 and the y-coordinate by —5.

i We create equations for the new coordinates, (x’, y’),

y=Vy—5 in terms of the given vector. y
Ka) 2x +3y =6 ot
Solving the equations Se ST
VEy ro forx and y. T
2(x-2)+3(y+5)=6 Substitute these new values
2x-4+3y+15=6 for our variables and simplify.
Le tahs y=")
We check our answer graphically. Graph both lines on
the same xy-plane, and then map an arbitrarily selected
point using the translation vector. Check to see that the
mapped point satisfies the new equation. Algebraically,
(3, 0) maps to (5,-5). We see that the point maps graphically
as well, and because
the lines are parallel, we know that the rest of the points will
map correctly.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
WW

444 Vectors
ge C22 REF What vector translates the graph of y = x’ to y = (x — 4)? — 2?

SOLUTION
yi 2e(x—-4) We restate the second equation so the vertical and horizontal
translation pieces lie on the same side of the equals sign.

X=x-4 Write the equations for the new coordinates.

yoy 2
vedi 2 iy Create the translation vector.

3. How far and in what direction has the graph described in Model Problem #2 been
translated?

SOLUTION
We need to determine the magnitude of v = 4i—2j to find how far the parabola has
been moved: ; ;
|v] = V4? +2? = J16+4 =/20 =2V5 = 4.47
The parabola was translated by 2V5 units, or approximately 4.47 units to the right
and down.

4. Consider the graphs of x? + y?=9 and x° + y?+ 2x +6y+1=0.

a Howare they alike?
b Howare they different?
c What is the translation vector that maps x? + y?>=9 tox’? + y*+2x+6y+1=0?

SOLUTION
a The equation x? + y’ = 9 represents a circle,
centered at the origin, with a radius of 3.

We recognize x* + y?+2x+6y+1=0
x+y t+2x+oy+1=0 represents a circle as well, but we must
DEPORT OY 1) rearrange the terms and complete the square
epee | Eyer Oyen = 0 +2 for each variable to put the equation in
Ca et) 2 standard form.

Now we see that the equations represent

graphs of circles, both of radius 3.

b The graph of x? + y? = 9 is centered at the origin, while the graph of (x + 1)’ +

(=3)2 = 9 1s centered at the point (—1, -3).
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.4 ¢ Vectors in IR? and R? 445

 c The equation (x + 1)? + (y + 3)? =9 is the mapping of x? + y* = 9 by a vector, y.
Call the translated points (x’, y’). Then x’ =x +1 and y’=y + 3. Solving for (aay)
to find the mapping vector, we get x =x’ — 1 and y=y’ —3. The translation vector
is v=-i-3j.

MG Vector Translation of Figures in IR?

Many applications of vectors involve movement in more than
just two dimensions. The physical world has length, width,
and depth. Three-dimensional modeling requires a third axis
called z. The z-axis is perpendicular to both the x- and y-axes.
Think of the corner of a room. If the intersections of the z-coordinate

floor with the walls represent the x- and y-axes, then the
intersection of the walls with each other is the z-axis. The x-coordinate

addition of the z-axis creates three mutually perpendicular y-coordinate

axes and allows us to visualize in 3 dimensions. Since the ia
z-axis is a real number axis like the x- and y-axes, 3-dimensional space is
sometimes referred to as R*. As you might expect, we can draw objects,
including vectors, in this space, and we describe vectors along the z-axis
with the unit axis denoted k. The vector v = (2, a 7) S273 ie

We can translate points and objects in R* space with vectors of the form
v=aitbj+ck. As you might imagine, this is very difficult to illustrate
on a two-dimensional textbook page! Technology can help us visualize
these types translations. GeoGebra and Geometer’s Sketchpad are two
examples of software that will allow you to draw and manipulate figures
in three-dimensional space.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Translate the (x, y, z) point (2, -1, 5) by v=3i+ 4j —6k. What are the
coordinates of
the new point?

SOLUTION
(2ates ), (Wt 4) (S16) ),=1(6, 3.21) We apply the proper translation to each
coordinate.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

446 Vectors
 ae IMP 7| Translate the plane represented by the equation 5x + 2y — z = 4 by
w=—2i+3j+2k. What is the equation of the new plane?

SOLUTION
Mau 2 ex +2 We extend the procedure we demonstrated in
Veyts y=y-3 the previous section to R°.
Zaz tO get 2
5(x + 2) + 2(y —- 3) -(z-2) =4 Substitute into the original equation and
5x +10+2y-6-z2+2=4 simplify.
ox + 2y—z=-2

3. The equation for a sphere in R° is an extension of the equation of a circle in R?:

(x —h)*? + (y -— k)* + (z - I)? =r’, where (h, k, 1) is the sphere’s center and r is its
radius. Translate the sphere defined by the equation (xv — 1)? + (y + 3)? + (z- 2)? =9 by
u = 4i +37 —5k. Find the equation for the new sphere. Compare the centers of the
original sphere and the translation to see if the mapping is correct.

SOLUTION
x =xt4 x=x'-4 First, find the translation for each
y=y\yt3 y=y'-3 coordinate.
(ea Z=2z'+5
(x -1-4) + (y+3-3)?+(z-2+5)?=9 Nowsubstitute and simplify. This is the
(x-5)+y?+(z+3y=9 equation that represents the translated
sphere.
The center of the original circle was (1, —3, 2). The center of the translated circle is
(5, 0,-3), which is a translation by u = 4i+3j—5k, so our equation is correct.

MM Vector Magnitudes in R? :
We apply the Pythagorean theorem to R* to calculate the
magnitude of a vector in that space. Consider the rectangular
prism in the figure to the right. The vector u is the hypotenuse
of the right triangle with legs a and b, so u| = Ja’ +b’. And v is
the hypotenuse of the right triangle with legs u and c. Thus,
v|=Vu2 +c =Va’ +b +c’. The vector v= ait+bj+ck. The formula
for the magnitude of a vector in R* is an extension of the formula
for magnitude in R’.

Lesson 8.4 « Vectors in IR? and R? 447

 Remember that vectors have both magnitude and direction. Different
vectors can have the same magnitude. In fact, an infinite number of
different vectors can have the same magnitude.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ (LE M4 Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors.

ad 7 3144) 75k
8 2) 6) 3k
© f= 3-4)5h
SOLUTION
We use the formula for the magnitude of a vector in R*: lv =Va’ +b’ +c’.
a |rl|=V3"+4? +5? = /9+164+25 = /50 =5V2

b |s| = 2? +(-6) +3? = V4+36+9 = 49 =7

¢ jil=Jay +C4y +5) = 9416425 = J50

=5.2

COHHCHHHHHEHEHTHOHHSHHHESEHHTEHHOHHHHHHLEHREE HCO CO HCO LEOSESELEEEEESELEOE OEE OCEOOO®S

LEMP 4 Compare the magnitudes of the three vectors in Model Problem #1. Do
any of the vectors represent the same vector? Why or why not?

SOLUTION
Two vectors, r and?f, have the same magnitude, but they are not the same vector, as r
moves in a positive direction while f moves ina negative direction. Vectors that have
the same magnitude are only the same vector if they also have the same direction.

3. Finding the angle between two vectors in R? is far more complicated than
in R?. But
from observation of the three vectors in Model Problem #1, what conjectu
res can
you make about the angle between any two of the three given vectors?

SOLUTION
Each component of vector f is equal and opposite to the corres
ponding component of
vector r. Thus, the vectors point in opposite directions and are
180° apart.

448 Vectors
ee Technology
Activity 2

It can be difficult to visualize points and vectors in the

plane. In this activity, we will use GeoGebra’s 3-dimensional
capabilities to locate, translate, and describe translations in
this plane.

Describe the location of the point (3, —2, 1), translate it by

u = 2i—3j—k, and then describe the translation.

Step I: Graph the given point. Click on the upper right

menu, choose perspectives, and then 3D graphics.
Make sure that your axes are properly rotated so
that the positive numbers on the red x-axis are
pointing towards you, the positive numbers on
the green y-axis are pointing to the right, and the
positive numbers on the blue z-axis are pointing
up. Graph (3, —2, 1).

Step 2: We describe the point’s location.

It can be-difficult to see it, so rotate R “me > OS & OD & XN vec |]
the image. By rotating the image to : a ef Rotate 3D Graphics View

view it from various angles, we can

see that the point is forward of the
origin by 3 units, left by 2 units,
and finally, up by 1 unit.

Step 3: Next, we translate the point by the given vector,

which gives us (5,—5, 0). By plotting this point and
moving it around, we can see that the translated
point is 2 units forward, 3 units left, and 1 unit down from the
original point.
Exercises 1-3: Describe the location of the given points,
translate them by the given vectors, and then describe the
translations.

I. (-4,3,-5), v=5i-2j+3k
2. (5,3,2) w=-i+3j-2k
3. (1,-2,-4), a=-61+3j+8k

Lesson 8.4 * Vectors in IR? and R? 449

MA Practice
1. In the xy-plane, a vector 7. Consider the equation 2x — 5y = 6 and the
translation it underwent in problem #6.
A. translates a point or figure.
B. always dilates a point or figure by a a Howare the graphs of these lines the
scalar. same?
. always rotates a figure about the b How are the graphs of these lines
origin. different?
. always shrinks a point or figure by a ¢c Explain why certain characteristics of
scalar. the graphs are the same, while others
changed with the translation.
A point in the xyz-plane has coordinates
of (—1, 0, 3). If those coordinates are 8. Translate the line x + 2y = 4 by the vector
translated by the vector a =2i- 3k, what c =—5i+3j. Give the equation of the
are the point’s new coordinates? new line.

WG ere) CIS) be Translate the circle x* + y’ =4 by the vector

B. (1, 0,0) Demers) 04537
Why is the 3-dimensional space referred to a Give the equation of the translated
as R*? cincle:
b Give the coordinates of the center of
A. Because only one of the axes
the translated circle.
represents the real numbers.
c¢ Explain how you know that this
B. Because all coordinate planes
mapping is a rigid transformation.
represent real space.
. Because its axes are composed of 10. Calculate the distance that the circle in
3 real number lines.
problem #9 was translated.
. Because the x- and y-axis are real
number lines, but the z-axis represents Translate the parabola y = 2x? + 3 by the
the imaginary numbers. vector ¢ = 3i—3j. Give the equation of the
new parabola and the coordinates of the
4 Translate the point (3, —4) by the vector
vertex of the translated parabola.
a=2i+6jand give the coordinates of the
new point. Find the vector that maps (x — 1)? + y?=9
onto (x — 4)? +(y+2)?=9.
By what distance was the point in
exercise #4 moved? Give the exact
Translate the plane represented by
answer in simplified radical form.
3x + 3y -4z= 4 by w = 2i — 37 + 2k. What
is the equation of the new plane?
Translate the line 2x — 5y = 6 by the vector
b = 4i—3j and give the equation of the
translated line.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

450 Vectors
 14. Translate the plane represented by x + y — 20. Calculate the distance that the sphere
z = 1 by the vector m=i+2j-—3k. What is in exercise #19 was translated. Give the
the equation of the new plane? exact answer in simplified radical form.

Translate the sphere represented by AS 21. You are visiting your friend who lives in
the equation (x + 2)?+ (y-—5)?+ 2?=12 a different state. She gives you directions
by w= 6i+2j—2k. Find the equation for to the grocery store: head N48°E for
the new sphere. 0.4 miles, then turn right and continue
for another 0.2 miles. Then make a right
Find the magnitude of the vector and travel for 1.1 miles. Note that turning
r =12i—3]+4k. Give the exact answer means you go 90° in that direction.
in simplified radical form.
a_ Write each vector in component form
Find the magnitude of the vector and give its direction and magnitude.
§ = 31-3] +3k. Give the exact answer Round to the nearest hundredth or
in simplified radical form. nearest degree, if necessary.

b Write the resultant vector in

Find the magnitude of the vector
component form and give its direction
t =—Si— j—6k. Give the exact answer in
and magnitude. Round to the nearest
simplified radical form. Name a different
hundredth or nearest degree, if
vector with the same magnitude.
necessary.
Translate the sphere (x — 3)? +
Nae 22. You're stuck inside your house on a rainy
(y —2)* + (z -1)?=15 by the vector
day. You notice a fly that moves straight
v = 2i—4j-—5k. Give the equation and
towards you for 2 feet, then flies left
center of the new sphere. 4 inches and down 10 inches. Write the
vector of the fly’s path in component form.

Lesson 8.5
Vectors and Lines

MMH Vector and Parametric Equations of Lines

In Lesson 75, we introduced parametric equations as a way of writing
equations in terms of a third variable. We described one application
of the motion of an object with respect to time. If the motion has a
constant speed, the parametric equations take the form
X=Vt+xX,Orx=xX,+Vit
y=vity,ory=y,+vt

Lesson 8.5 « Vectors and Lines 451

 These parametric equations describe the position of an object at any
time. We see that when t= 0, x =x, and y = y,. This means the initial
location of our object is (x,, y,) and the original position of our object is
described by the vector

Py =Xol + Vol

The object’s position at any time after t= 0 is

p=xityj,
while the velocity of our object is

V=VirV]

Let’s look at a specific example. Suppose that we are driving on a

straight stretch of Interstate 15 out of Las Vegas, more or less toward
the northeast. Our motion has a eastward speed of 50 miles per hour
and a northward speed of 45 miles per hour. The parametric equations
that describe this motion are
ox, S08
y=y,+45t

where x, and y, represent the starting location. The initial position

vector and velocity vector are, respectively,

Pp =X yl+ Yo)

y= 45i+50j
How can you describe your location at some time after f= 0 as a vector,
and still include the time parameter? We know that p = xi+ yj. We also
know
x=x,+45t
y=y, + 50t
Substituting, we have

p=xit yj =(x, +450)i + (yy +508)j= (xpi + yy) +(45i +50;)t

We rearranged the terms this way to show that the position vector is
the sum of the initial position vector and the velocity vector. More
generally, any point on a line can be identified by the parametric
equations
X=X,+at
y=y,+ bt
as well as the vector equation

DP=(Xpit yf) +(aitbj)t

452 Vectors
where Py =X i+ yoj is the original position, for t= 0,and v= (ai+bj)
is the direction vector. Note that in the vector equation, fis the
b
independent variable, so — represents the slope of the line, and (O37)
is the y-intercept.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Inthe example above, we arrived at the vector equation p = (xX) + YJ) + (457 + 50,)t.
a What is the direction vector?
b What is the slope of the line?

SOLUTION
a v= 45i1+50j The direction vector is the second part of the vector
equation. (In the example it is the velocity vector.)
50.0 2
beeslope— anit, We calculate the slope of v.

@ (LE «Find a direction vector for

a aline that has a slope of =.

b a line that passes through the points Q = (2,-3) and R = (4, 5).

SOLUTION
: A > : a
a Since slope is defined as = Ay = 4, Ax =5. The vector d = 5i+4) is our

direction vector. However, it is not the only acceptable answer. Any vector
parallel to this vector has the same direction, so any scalar multiple of this
vector is also correct.
b Av=4-2=2 The vector OR passes through the given points,
Ay =5-(-3)=8 so its direction vector can be found by calculating
Ax and Ay.

We use Ax = 2 and Ay = 8 to write the direction

v=2i+8j
vector. As with part a, this is just one of many
acceptable direction vectors. Another one would
be v=i1+4].

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.5 ¢ Vectors and Lines 453

 3. A line passes through the initial point (—1, 3) and point (2, 9).
a Find the parametric equations of the line.
b What point on the line corresponds to a parameter value t= 4?
Find the vector equation of the line.
d Find the parametric equations of a line parallel to the line passing through the
given points.
e Find the parametric equations of a line perpendicular to the line passing through
the given points.

SOLUTION
a es 7 1 3) We are given (x,, y,), but we must calculate Ax and Ay.
Aye D= 2=6
f= Silas ah Find the parametric equations of the line such that
Vassar ey t= 0 at the initial point and r= 1 at the other given
point.
b peal Wea 1 We substitute the given value of the parameter into
VS Oe) Sey the parametric equations.

The point (11, 39)

corresponds to t= 4.
© p=(,ity,j)+(ai+b/)t We write the vector equation for the line.
p=(-li+3/)+(3i4
9f)t
d Tt aereOL Parallel lines have the same slope, so we simply use
Vey a ot the same a and b in our parametric equations.

See Ih ae ah As only the slope is restricted for the equation of our

y=44 9% line, we have an infinite number of choices for our
initial point. We arbitrarily choose the point (1, 4).
e Cae St As with the last problem, our only requirement
y=4-Ilt involves the slope. This time we are looking for
perpendicular lines. Recall that the slopes of
perpendicular lines are opposite reciprocals.

Since the slope of our original line is == =,

we want to write an equation with a slope of -=.

We can write this in a number of ways. We will use the

simplest terms. We will also choose the same arbitrary
value for our initial point as we chose for part d.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

EWE AAA —.— Cee NN

454 Vectors
 [C204 Write the equation of the line of p = (6i—4 J) + (6i—97)t in slope-intercept
form.

SOLUTION
y 60 We determine the direction vector to find the slope.

We
m= 55 Calculate the slope.

aaa -—6
toe i7 x—6) We have the slope and a point, (6, —-4), which we can insert
4 into the point-slope form of a linear equation and simplify
Ve Ae +5 to find the slope-intercept form of our equation.

5. Describe the vector equation of a line as the sum of two other vectors.

SOLUTION
The vector form of a linear equation is given by p = (Xoi+ VyJ)+(ait+bj)t. The initial
position vector is p, =(X,i+ yj), while v= (ai+bj) is the line’s direction vector. So,
the position vector is equal to the sum of the initial position vector and the direction
vector: p = p, +t. Different values of f locate different points,p, on the line.

We Practice
I. Why might it be useful to express a linear 3. Find a direction vector for a line that has a
equation in vector form? 3
slope of —.
P 7
2. In the vector equation p =(5i+6j)+ 4 Find a direction vector for the vertical line
(21-1), that passes through the point (2, -1).
a what is the initial value vector?
5. Find a direction vector for the horizontal
b what is the direction vector? line that passes through the point (5, —4).
c what is the slope of the line?
Find a direction vector for a line that
d find the parametric equations for
passes through the points M = (-3, 3)
the line.
and N = (5, 5).
what point corresponds to the
parameter t= —2?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 8.5 ¢ Vectors and Lines 455

 7. A line passes through the initial point 11. Write the equation of the line of
(8, 1) and point (10, 3). p=(6i-4j)+(6i—9/)t in slope-intercept
; form.
a Find a set of parametric equations
of the line. 12. On your college campus the entrance of
b Is the point (6,—1) on the line? Justify Carter Hall is located 30 feet east and
your answer. 50 feet north of The Old Oak, which is
your college campus’s traditional center.
You start at Carter Hall and walk toward
8. A line passes through the initial point
Haggett Hall with a velocity vector
(6,3 kand point @, 2).
of v=(4i+3/) feet per second with
respect to a coordinate system with the
a Find a set of parametric equations
positive x- and y-axes pointing east and
of the line.
north, respectively, and The Old Oak at
b Write the equation of the line in the origin.
slope-intercept form.
a Write the time-parametric equations

9. Tell whether the following pairs of lines are Sa eased aguas tae Ca ois aNSUeTRe
parallel, perpendicular, or neither parallel b How long have you been walking
nor perpendicular. when you pass the Miller Business
a Building, 164 feet east of Carter Hall?
a r=2i+5j+(3i-j)t
x c What are the coordinates of your
and s =5i—2j+(3i-3))t position at this time?
bp 2) Cra
and g=2i+5j+(6i-2j)t Sif 13. What is the direction vector of a person
who moves 13 meters east, 4 meters
OD iy = a anda = |= 4,
N20°E, 70 meters S10°E, 51 meters
VSO= a
32°W, and 10 meters N6°W? Round
to the nearest hundredth, if needed.
10. Find a vector equation of the line
that passes through initial point 4 14. Find the parametric equations for each
(3,9) and is perpendicular to the line straight part and the journey’s start
p=4i-j+(5i-2/)t. and finish in exercise #13. Round to the
nearest hundredth, if needed.

Chapter 8 Key Ideas

8.1 Recognizing and Representing Vectors
e A vector is a directed line segment that has both magnitude and direction.
e A vector in the coordinate plane has two components and can be represented
as ai + bi or (a, b).
KEY IDEAS continue...

456 Vectors
 A vector with its tail at (x,, y,) and its head at (x,, y,) will have a magnitu
de of
b= (a +(5.
We can represent vectors using the polar coordinates (\v|. 8), where |v| is the vector’s
magnitude and @ is the vector’s direction, measured counterclockwise from the
positive
X-axis.
We can express a vector’s horizontal and vertical components as v, =|v|cos@ and
v, =|v|siné.
y

8.2 Vector Arithmetic

There are two ways to graphically represent the addition of two vectors: head-to-tail or the
parallelogram method.
Vector addition is analogous to rigid translations of points, lines, and figures in the
coordinate plane.
The magnitude of the sum of two vectors is not generally equal to the sum of the
magnitudes of the two vectors.
Vector addition is commutative and associative.
Vector subtraction is equivalent to adding the opposite of the subtrahend, just as with real-
number subtraction.
Vector subtraction is not commutative.

8.3 Vector Multiplication

A scalar is a number with only magnitude and no direction.
Scalar multiplication multiplies a vector by a scalar and dilates a vector by a factor equal
to the magnitude of the scalar.
The dot product, also called the scalar product, is the product of two vectors and is a scalar.
The dot product of two vectors, wu and Vv, is defined as wv -v =|u||v|cos@, where @ is the angle
between vectors.
We can calculate the dot product asu- v=u,v, FIL Ves

8.4 Vectors in IR? and R?

A vector, v = ai+bj, takes a point, (x,y),in the coordinate plane and translates it to a new
location, (x,y) =(x +a,y +b).
Vector notation in three dimensions is an extension of 2-dimensional notation.
The magnitude of a vector, = ai+
bj +ck, is|v|=Va> +b? +c’.
A vector in R? translates a plane figure a distance that is equal to the magnitude of the
vector.

KEY [DEAS* continue...

Lesson 8.5 * Chapter 8 Key Ideas 457

 8.5 Vectors and Lines
e The parametric equations for a straight line are x =x, + at and y=y, + bt, where (X,, y,) 1s
the initial point, a is the rate of change in the x-direction, and b is the rate of change in the
y-direction.
° The vector equation for a line is p =(x,it+ y)j)+(ait+bj)t, where Py=(Xit Vos) is the initial
position vector and v =(ai+bj) is the direction vector; De p, +t.
e The position vector is equal to the sum of the initial position vector and the product of the
direction vector and the parameter f.

458 Vectors
Chapter 8 Review

Exercises 1=4: Suppose we translate a 4. Explain why the vector in Exercise #1 is

Square 5 units to the right and 12 units down. different from the vector in Exercise #3.
I. What vector performs this mapping? A. The vectors have both different
magnitudes and different directions.
SSS B. The vectors have different magnitudes
Bay =5i 12; but the same direction.
Garman aire12] Cxhe vectors have only different
magnitudes.
Diy =17y D. The vectors have only different
directions.
2. How far has the square has moved?
AE 13 units Exercises 5-6: Find the magnitude of
each given vector. Give the exact answer in
B. 5 units simplified form.
Go units x
S$. a=3i-7j
D. 17 units
6. b=-4i+2j
3. Which of the following vectors would move
‘ 5 ; |
CSTE Mc as anor nea Exercises 7=8: Express each vector in
polar coordinates. Give magnitudes and angles,
gy Vahl 3 in exact form, if possible. Otherwise, round
B. v=12i-17j angle measures to the nearest degree.

C. v=12i-5j ib os

Ae ad 8. d=5i-10/

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter 8 Review 459

 Exercises 9-12: Perform the indicated 19. Why isn’t the dot product associative?
operations algebraically, and show them
graphically. 20. For the vectors m=9i+12j and
n=-Tit+24j,
(3i + 67) + (87 + 47)
a find the dot product.
(2i + 7j) + (-6i + 57) b_ find the measure of the angle between
the two vectors, to the nearest degree.
(31 + 6j) — (87 + 47)

21. Translate the point (2, —-6) by the vector

(Zis ie Ol 5)
p = 3i+4j and give the coordinates of the
Steffen and Marua are trying to pull a new point.
box across the room. Steffen pulls the
box toward the north with a force of 22 Translate the line 4x + y =8 by the vector
25 newtons. Marua pulls the box toward g = 6i—2j and give the equation of the
the east with a force of 45 newtons. What translated line.
is the magnitude of the net force on the
box? Round your answer to the nearest
bh ee) Suppose that we translate the circle
tenth.
(x — 1)? + (y —2)? = 9 by the vector

14. For two vectors, uv and v, if |u| + |v| = |u + vi, 3.

what must be true about u and v?
a Give the equation of the new circle.

b Give the coordinates of the center of

Exercises 15-18: Perform the indicated the translated circle.
operations algebraically. Use e = 5i—3/, ¢ What is the magnitude of the
=>

fi=-4 -2j, and g =6i+6). translation?

15. 2(e+f)
24. Find the vector that maps x? + (y - 3)? =4
onto (x — 6)? + y?=4.
2e+3f
25 Translate the plane represented by x —
Oey 2y + 3z =5 by the vector 5 = 2i+2j+2k.

a Give the equation of the translated

ge
plane.

b Find the magnitude of the translation.

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

460 Vectors
26. Consider the vector equation 28. You notice an ant walking across your
u = (8i- 7j)+(3i+4j)t. centimeter-ruled graph paper with a
velocity vector of v = 3i+j Squares per
a What is the initial position vector?
second. You decide to start timing the ant
b What is the direction vector? as she crosses the point (—2, —4). If she
¢ What is the slope of the direction continues at the same speed,
vector? a write the parametric equations for
d_ Find the parametric equations for the ant’s motion in terms of time f in
this line. seconds.

e Give the point that corresponds to b how long have you been timing the ant
the parameter t= 4. when she passes a point 15 squares up
from when you started timing?
27. For the parametric equations x = —3 + 5t ¢ what are the ant’s coordinates at this
and y=—2 +t, ime?
veal:
a_ write the vector equation for this line.

b write the equation in slope-intercept

form.

c find the point on the line that

corresponds to t=3.

Chapter 8 Review 461

 Chapter 9 Matrices

Explorato
Activity

Chapter Contents Matrix Inverses

9.1 Defining Matrices In this chapter we explore matrices, which are

9.2 Matrix Arithmetic rectangular arrays of numbers. Matrices are useful for
organizing information in rows and columns and have
9.3. Matrix Multiplication
many applications outside of mathematics, including
9.4 Using Matrices to computer generated images, video games, electricity, and
Solve Systems optics.

95° Matrices as :
Transformations _ We will demonstrate that we can add, subtract, and
multiply matrices, but we will find that we cannot divide
Chapter 9 Key Ideas
matrices. This creates a bit of an issue, as we will need to
Chapter 9 Review divide in order to solve matrix equations. Fortunately,
we can multiply matrices by their inverse (if the inverse
exists) to solve such equations. Recall from algebra

that the product of a number and its inverse is 1, for

example, 4 - :=1. A similar phenomenon occurs when

you multiply a matrix by its inverse; the product is an

identity matrix, such as this one, ae }which is the

Oe
identity matrix for a 2 x 2 matrix.

When we multiply the matrices ue and ale

mi at 4
we find that their product is ; ;|We can see that

these two matrices are inverses as their product is the

2 x 2 identity matrix shown above. Examine the following
sets of inverse matrices.

462 Matrices
When multiplied, each of these pairs of matrices
produces the 2 x 2 identity matrix. Comparing the
matrix to its inverse, there appears to be a pattern.
The numbers in the top left and bottom right-hand
corner switch places, and the numbers in the top
right and bottom left change signs. Keep this in
mind as you work on the exercises below.

SCSSHSHSHSHHHSHHSHEHSHHSEHESHEHHSHHSSCHOHSHEHSEHEHEHOEHSEECEHEOHECEHOHOHOOHOEOOO
LESH ELEOOOESOS

Exercises 1-4: Using the pattern identified above, state the inverse of the
given matrix.

Cc
2. Ee =|
dp k2

4.

5.
ee 1 0

0
Rasima thinks that the inverse of the matrix
: 10 |. =
B 4 | 1S i is

: E60
When she multiplies the matrices together, she finds their product is : , |

a Are the matrices 6 10 |and a 60 |inverses Why or why not?

=>
=o. 0
b By what number can we multiply each number in the product matrix, ; : |
so that it becomes the 2 x 2 identity matrix?
1
c Suppose that we multiply each number in the matrix ae by Te What is
the resulting matrix? 7) 0 |
d Using sound mathematical reasoning, state why the product of the matrix : :|
and your answer to exercise #5¢ must be inverses.

Exploratory Activity 463

 Chapter 9 Vocabulary
adjacency matrix directed network invertible pre-multiply

coefficient matrix elements leading diagonal translation matrix

constant matrix expansion by minors matrix undirected network
Cramer’s Rule identity matrix network variable matrix
determinant inverse matrix node zero matrix

Lesson 9.1
Defining Matrices

MGM Using Matrices to Represent Data

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. We use brackets [ ] to contain
the numbers, called elements, that form the matrix. Matrices (plural
of matrix) are a useful way to organize, analyze, and manipulate large
quantities of data.

We denote matrices using capital letters and numerical subscripts that

describe their size. The notation A, represents a matrix of m rows and
n columns. For example,

aN lI
BNR
nPw

is a matrix with 3 rows and 2 columns, so we identify it as Al We can.

identify elements within the matrix using subscripts as well. In matrix A,
the number 4 is element a,, because it is in the 3™ row, 1“ column.

While matrices themselves were informally developed over 2,000 years

ago to solve systems of linear equations, over time their use expanded
as mathematical tools for analyzing data. Today we use matrices to spot
patterns in collected data, to develop complex travel schedules, and
more, including uses in quantum mechanics and video game graphics.
We examine some of these applications.

A grocery store manager kept track of how many pounds of specific

types of produce are sold each day during one week:

464 Matrices
 ree
5
La ea ea
We organize this data in matrix P:

50 42 40 12 60 66 45
P| BOSON) 929.5598 767-35
03 (M2 20 942748 532

At first glance, it may not be clear why the matrix is better than the
table. Once the parameters of the matrix are established, it can be used
repeatedly. We know that the middle column is Thursday. At a glance,
we see that Thursday is the slowest day for produce sales. Of course we
can also see this from the table. When we get into matrix operations, the
benefits will become more clear.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Use the “Pounds of Produce Sold” matrix developed above and repeated here, to
answer the following questions.

5042, 40 12 60: 66 45
T=) FO99e00) 45975 * 55976 “35
53 301 2520 42, 748° 32

a How many pounds of bananas were sold on Monday?

On what day were the most pounds of oranges sold? How many pounds were sold?
c What was the best day for selling produce? How many total pounds were sold?

SOLUTION
a We know the banana data is in the second row, and the Monday data 1s the first
column, so in matrix notation, pounds of bananas sold on Monday is p,, = 65.

b ‘The data for oranges is in the third row. The largest number in the third row
is the 6" column, so the most oranges were sold on Saturday. Specifically,
48 pounds were sold.
c We could add every column and compare. But by observation we see that
Saturday, the 6" column, contains the largest number of pounds sold for each
fruit. Thus, the best day for selling produce is Saturday, when the store sold
190 pounds.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.1 * Defining Matrices 465

 CX Use the following matrix, which contains the Algebra 2 test scores for three
students.

78 8&2 o4 SD
de) 91 94 82 8
62 71 10 68

How many rows and how many columns are in this matrix?
Identify the matrix using proper notation.
Did one student consistently score better than the others? If so, which student?
- Did one student's scores increase with each test? If so, which student?
&
S
oof On which test did most of the students score the highest? Justify your answer.
Give the notation for the elements that support your answer.

SOLUTION |
a Wecount the rows and columns. This matrix has 3 rows and 4 columns.

b U6, Proper matrix notation has a subscript of rows x columns.

c Weread the matrix and see that the student represented in the 2™ row has the
highest score on each test.
d__ Looking at the matrix, the student represented by the 1% row had scores that
increase on each test, moving from left to right.
e _ Iwo of the three students had their highest score on the second test. They are
elements ¢,, and f,,.

MG Networks and Other Applications of Matrices

One particularly useful application of matrices is network analysis. B
A network is a set of points, some or all of which are connected
by paths. A network can represent city streets, electric circuits,
relationships among people, flight connections, or a myriad of other A
situations. As an example, let’s look at a simplified map of the homes of
four friends, (A)dele, (B)altassar, (C)orbin, and (D)agan, shown to the
right. Note that each labeled point is called a node.

We can represent these connections in a table. We use the number

0 to represent “no road” and the number 1 to show there is a road
connecting two friends’ homes.

466 Matrices
This information is more easily represented using a matrix:

RP
©RRS|
Se
2 Fe
eR
OR |>
Ss)
Se)

Notice the symmetry of the matrix across the leading diagonal. The
leading diagonal runs from the element in the top left to the element
in the lower right. This symmetry occurs because all of the roads run in
both directions, so if A can get to B’s house, B can also get to A’s house.
Things become a bit more complicated if you have one-way streets,
as shown below. In this network, the road between A’s house and B’s
house only runs in one direction, as does the road between B’s house
and C’s house. The matrix that describes these relationships is next to
the diagram.

to

ass
from

PrROoOO
FR
CO
oOoEe
eS
OF OF
or

» C
Matrices that describe networks using ones and zeros are called
adjacency matrices. Additionally, an undirected network is represented
by a symmetric matrix because all the connections run both ways.
The first example is an undirected network. The second example, with
some one-way streets, is a directed network. In the figure above, you
can see that the road between A and B is one-way from A to B. In the
corresponding matrix, there is a “1” in “from A” row and “to B” column,
but not in the “from B” row to the “to A” column. This is why the
matrices that represent directed networks are not symmetric.

Lesson 9.1 * Defining Matrices 467

 MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Construct an adjacency matrix for each of the networks below.

a B b A

SOLUTION
a [ 010 10 | Starting with point A, fill in the first row of our
matrix, noting that A has connections with both B
and D, but not C or E.

Continuing around the network, we complete the

Ur ee aw
enn Pes Seiten matrix.
Ce Laie Pee
LG) ik
2 A a ae

There are a few ways we can check our matrix. Since this is an undirected
network, the correct matrix will be symmetric about the leading diagonal, which
ours is. Second, we can count the paths in our network and compare them with
the number of 1’s in our matrix. They should be equal. We have 7 paths, and all
of them are two-way paths, so we should have fourteen 1’s, which we do. While
this is not proof, we are confident that our matrix is correct.

b to Because this network has one-way paths, the matrix

Oa ae: will not be symmetrical, and it is important to
OW I ®) indicate “from” and “to” locations.
from ih ey

oO Wo

&p DGAERZY Construct a network using each given adjacency matrix below.
A to
O07
from| 1 0
O 1 =
—

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

eR ria seamen inatenarin tela ear eanACRE

468 Matrices
 eS
Sr

SOLUTION
a A Because this is a 3 x 3 matrix, our network must have 3 nodes.
We call these nodes A, B, and C. Since the given matrix is
B
symmetrical, all paths must be bidirectional. Notice the “1”
C
in the 3" row, 3" column. This indicates a path that connects
point C to itself, but no other location. One network that will
satisfy all these criteria is shown like this.
b We note some key points about this matrix:
e p (1) It is not symmetrical, so there will be one-way paths, and
(2) One element is a 2. Interpret this to mean that there are
two paths from B to A.
D C We show one network that will satisfy all these criteria.

Practice
1
I. For the matrix A-| Ze |
ARS SPH
a how many rows are in A?

b how many columns are in A?

c identify the matrix using proper subscript notation.

d which number is element a,,?

e use proper subscript notation to identify the element “4” in the matrix.

Exercises 2=5: Match the notation to the correct matrix.

2x2

228
eal e(224
sok

il
Blew)

3x2 Dn 8B
lil Dalteomee
303} 31 il —1

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.1 * Defining Matrices 469

 Exercises 6-10: Use the given matrix, Sundays have about 14% fewer customers
which shows the number of points scored by than on Fridays. Construct a matrix that
6 high school basketball teams over their first reflects the number of new entrées the
3 games. restaurant can expect to sell this week.
Round up to the nearest whole number
Ade Da). 51 where needed.
3 2B) ay)
45 61 52 Exercises 12-14% Construct the
50 43 38 adjacency matrix for the network shown.
44 49 51
39D a 12. A B

G
6. Whichelement represents the highest score
by any team? D

7. Which element represents the lowest score i el B

by any team?

Me Which team scored the most points

over the 3 games? Explain how you
E D
determined your answer.
14, 3A B
9. During which week were the most points
scored? How did you determine this? E @
E
10. How many points are represented in
D
element p,,?
115. There are five friends: Felicia, Uduak,
On Monday, a certain restaurant Hailey, Iskra, and Eireann. One week all
introduced three new entrées and ran five friends go to Felicia’s house to study
out of all three! The restaurant sold 50 on Monday. On Tuesday, Uduak and Iskra
orders of each entrée and had requests go to Eireann's house to play some video
for 30 more of the first entrée, 11 more games and on Wednesday, Felicia goes
of the second entrée, and 26 more of to Hailey’s house to hang out and talk.
the third entrée. Of all the days of the Then on Thursday, Eireann goes to Iskra’s
week, Monday has the fewest number house to work on a school project, and on
of customers. Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Friday, everyone goes to Hailey’s house
and Thursdays have about 21% more for movie night. Construct a network and
customers than Mondays. On Fridays its corresponding matrix to describe this
and Saturdays the restaurant has about situation. Use the descriptors outlined in
59% more customers than on Tuesdays. this chapter.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

470 Matrices
 Exercises 16-18: Construct a network Exercises 19=22: Refer to the following
that represents the given adjacency matrix. adjacency matrix.
Oar 2)
to
16.;2 01 Or shoal
cael () ingoyuey| 1 al 0)
2 it @
0 2
7. | 2.40 1
011 19. How many nodes are in the network?
Justify your answer.
OO ae)
hie 20. Are there one-way paths? If so, where?
! How do you know?
18. /1 00 0 1
Le a ee 21. What does the 1 in e,, mean?
Cale eC) at)
22. How many total paths exist in the
network? Explain.

LESSON 9.2
Matrix Arithmetic

MH Scalar Multiplication
In Chapter 8, we learned that a scalar is a real number, and we used
scalars in working with vectors. In this chapter, scalar multiplication
refers to multiplication of a matrix by a scalar. Every element within
the matrix is multiplied by the same scalar. Suppose that the manager
who kept records on the store’s produce sales (p. 465) wanted to double
those sales. How much of each type of produce would the store need to
sell each day? We multiply the matrix by the scalar 2 to determine this
answer:

50 42 40 12 60 66 45 100 84 80 24 120 132 90

i Om OUM 4aee 25 5) 76) 35\= (130. 120: 90 50) 110 152 70
239.30: 25° 20 42 48 32 66 60 50 40 84 96 64

We see that every element in the matrix is doubled. Using the matrix,
the store manager can see what the daily produce sales goals need to be.

Lesson 9.2 * Matrix Arithmetic 471

 MODEL PROBLEMS

as
@ cau Find 34 it =|5 ; |
SOLUTION
532 15 22 | Go 2 DD We multiply each element in A by 3.
a=] 93 23043712 6 2»

1 67ae5
2. Find ne if B=|8 —2|.
gis oe

SOLUTION

eee ass
2 2 2
1 il if :
5 B= 5 8 a =| ol 1
We multiply each element in B by =
i
1. 1 6
9) wh

MS Adding Matrices
If matrices have identical dimensions, we can sum them. For example,
we can sum A,,, and B,,.,but we cannot add A, .and C...,. !oadd one
matrix to another, simply add the corresponding elements. The result
of matrix addition is a matrix with the same dimensions as the addends.
We can easily add small matrices by hand:

Bae a
Sua ae se oe
they oe Sih ese ae
Note that all three matrices have the same number of rows and
columns.

472 Matrices
As matrices get larger, performing operations on them by hand
becomes quite tedious. Fortunately, technology can help us. Throug
hout
this chapter, we will explore some of the matrix Operations you
can
perform on your graphing calculator. Below we walk through a simple

example of adding A= ee |and a-|: 3 on a graphing

calculator. sae

Press the [MATRIX] button on your calculator, scroll over to EDIT and
select 1: [A] to enter a matrix in A. Enter the dimensions ofA as 2 x2.

am4
4
S
6
fe80t—
8
oe
He
we

Now enter the elements of A, pressing [ENTER] after you enter each
number. Once you’ve entered all the elements in A, return to the
original EDIT screen to enter matrix B.

To sum A and B, exit from the matrix screen, then press the
button, and press to select matrix A. Press [+], then [MATRIX], and
then 2: [B] to choose matrix B. Press and the calculator will
return the answer.

>
4
2
6
re 4

Lesson 9.2 « Matrix Arithmetic 473

 Clearly, A+ B -|. ;}Sums of 2 x 2 matrices are easily found by

hand. This example simply illustrates the keystroke steps needed to

use a graphing calculator in summing matrices.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Which of the following matrices can be added to A, ,’

9

SOLUTION_
BIC we, We need a matrix that has exactly the same dimensions as A.
Only choice B is correct.

and n-|3-5
| 2 I
a-|a 7
«For the matrices
2.) (LE)
a findA+B. d 6 5 2
b find 2A +38.

SOLUTION
451 |3 5 2 - First we check to make sure the
a A+B= : :
734 matrices are the same dimensions.
Since both are 2 x 3, we can
Ars pti) Le2 kf 108 add, either by hand or using the
Fi1G 375 442 7) 8.6 graphing calculator.

| 2a 23 2 FH 8 10) 2 We begin by multiplying each

27) 23 2 a ss matrix by the indicated scalar.

ae 33 205) 372 015) 6

36 3/51/3271) 18 15/6

2A+3B= Now
we can add.
ae oe i Se
“14,68 188 6 a on

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

“useless uaa

474 Matrices
 MP 5,6 Mr. Rauf is using matrices to keep track of how many pages his students
are reading each day. The following matrices list the data for 2 of his students
for a
four-week period.

22 27 24.15 32 2393/28 18 a
week I=]
16 19 22 19 20 week 3-]
15/15 20 14 14
25 29 25 17 29 iC26 22 20 .
week
2= week 4=
19 12 25 18 18 20 18-19 1525
Use your graphing calculator to find the matrix that shows how many pages each
student read over those 4 weeks, by day of the week.

SOLUTION
Enter each of the matrices into
the graphing calculator, where
[A] = week 1, |B] = week 2,
[C] = week 3, and [D] = week 4.

MATRIX(C] 2 x5
28
20

[AIl1+(B)+(C]+(D) Sum the matrices

on the main
95-165 99 7-6-1 screen. Scroll to the right to see
Mobo oo 66" 7 the rest of the matrix. The sum
: i 105 99 70 a
7 64 86 66 77h

4. How could we use scalar multiplication to find the average number of pages each
student from Mr. Rauf’s class read each day of the week?

SOLUTION
Pee 058299 «70; 131
Because there are four weeks of data, we can multiply the matrix 10 64 86 6 77

by aa This will give us the daily average number of pages read for each student.

Lesson 9.2 * Matrix Arithmetic 475

Me Subtracting Matrices
Like matrix addition, for matrix subtraction to work, the matrices must
be of the same dimension. The difference will also result in a matrix of
identical dimension. For example, we can subtract the two matrices that
we added on page 472:

2 -3 3s~ 3 -1 -6
Beets Wee ee =|) eh
eo 4 5 3 1

MODEL PROBLEMS

(i 9s 8} 7 Lae
|. For the matrices C = and D= > 3
Aennd Gi ple S58
Oe:
c ime!
2/D) = C.

SOLUTION
nh C=H/p= The matrices have the same

eee) PA OE) 4 1 -8 dimensions, so we subtract,

15 9 i 7 -4 9 7 -§ 9 0O element by element.

b D-C= We subtract. Now matrix D is

ob oS iy Loe ee aay, esa the minuend and matrix C is the
Wp at) 7 = (es 9 = 8 6) subtrahend.

. Ae ee ()
Dyes First, calculate 2D.
14 -8 18

2D-C=

ae Woe H 6 2 -3 } 2 0 1 |Now subtract the matrices.

14 -8 18 -15 9 15313) 9

CEE Using the data of Mr. Rauf’s class (p. 475), find the difference between
the number of pages the students read in week 1 and the number of pages the
students read in week 4 for each day. Does it appear that the students read more the
first week or the last week?

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

haa ret orRe ttt N22 we

476 Matrices
 SOLUTION

([(AJ-(D) Since we’ve already entered

fe hi Pab cha haa the matrices in our graphing
"413 4° -5 calculator, we will just rely on our
technology to do the hard work
for us. We subtract [D] from [A].

As there are both positive and negative elements in our difference matrix, it’s
not immediately clear in which week the students read more pages. Adding the
elements confirms that the students read 12 more pages in the fourth week than in
the first week.

You can see that scalar multiplication, addition, and subtraction of

matrices preserve the dimensions of the matrices involved in the
operations. In the cases of addition and subtraction, the dimensions of
matrices must match in order for the operations to be performed.

MH Practice Sess A
Which of the following matrices can be Exercises 3-16: Use the following
added to A, .? matrices to perform the operation indicated.
If the operation is not possible, state why.
AUB 3
ue
pel a ine oS kesh ;
aes 883 TASC Ip
y
—3 3
Which of the following matrices can be ante =| peo ok
subtracted from A, ,?
DA
ENAD ST
3. A+B

4. C+D

5. A+C

6. B-D

7 C-D

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

477
 2A 19. The cost of importing bananas has
become prohibitive, so the manager
3B wants to reduce the number of pounds of
bananas sold each day by 15.
4D
a Describe the operation that will give
-2C the matrix for how many pounds of
each fruit must be sold each day in this
G2)
situation.
2B-—2C b_ Find the matrix.

14. 3C -2D
20. If the cost of all three fruits is $2.50 a
15. UN BD) pound,

a_ describe the operation that will give

16. SAP 2D
the matrix for dollars spent per fruit
Exercises 17=20: Use the matrix for per day.
pounds of apples, bananas, and oranges b_ find the matrix.
sold each day of the week, reproduced here.
(Hint: Enter this matrix into your graphing AA A store sells three flavors of sports drink:
calculator to make your work easier.) Lemon Lime, Fruit Punch, and Orange.
For a period of time, the checkout
50 42 40 12 60 66 45
scanner is not working properly, so the
los) (ely ey) Vis) eer len 2B)
cashiers document how many of each
Bie) 0 ey 0) ea ee)
flavor they sell. At the end of the week
the computer system shows the store
17. The store manager wants to triple the
sold 126 Lemon Lime, 410 Fruit Punch,
amount of apples, bananas, and oranges
and 318 Orange. The manager compares
sold each week.
this report to the cashier’s notes and
a_ Describe the operation that will give she sees that, beginning on Monday and
the new matrix for how many pounds running through Sunday, Lemon Lime
of each fruit must be sold each day in flavor was scanned 3, 8, 11, 20, 6, 17,10
this situation. extra times. Similarly, the Fruit Punch
flavor was scanned 14, 23, 40, 52, 61, 37, 34
b Find the matrix.
extra times. Finally, the Orange flavor was
There has been a bumper crop of apples, scanned 2, 6, 62, 28, 65, 42, 6 extra times.
and the manager must increase the number Create two appropriate matrices to figure
of pounds of apples sold each day by 10. out how many each flavor of sports drink
was sold on each day of the week.
a Describe the operation that will give
the matrix for how many pounds of
each fruit must be sold each day in
this situation.
b_ Find the matrix.

478 Matrices
 LESSON 9.3
Matrix Multiplication

HE Multiplying Matrices
Matrix multiplication is different from other operations with matrices,
even scalar multiplication. As in addition and subtraction, certain
compatibility is required between matrix dimensions or they may not be
multiplied. The rules and steps of matrix multiplication are very specific.

i The number of columns of the first matrix must equal the number
of rows of the second matrix.
If the matrices may be multiplied, we multiply each element of a
row of the first matrix by its corresponding element of a column of
the second matrix.
Sum these products to create an element of the product matrix.
Continue multiplying each row of the first matrix by each column of
the second matrix, creating a new element with the sum of each set
of products.
The product matrix will have dimensions equal to the number of
rows from the first matrix and the number of columns from the
second matrix.

We illustrate these rules and steps with an example.

Bre 4 a laa:
Let 4-| |ana a es
2-1 5 Wee Mag

1. We see that we can multiply matrix A by

26 Sin amb
pie 2
matrix B because the number of columns
A, ial nice ie
of matrix A equals the number of rows ee ee ean aes
in matrix B. This is the only way we can
multiply these matrices.
. We multiply the elements in the first
row of matrix A by the corresponding
elements in the first column of matrix B
P,,=(3-3+2-2+(-4)4)
and sum the products.
. Find the sum. We place this number in
the first row, first column of the product P,,=(3-3+2-2+(-4)4)=-3
matrix, P.

Lesson 9.3 « Matrix Multiplication 479

 4. Multiply the remaining rows by columns. | P, ,=(3:5+2-2+ (-4)3) =7
P,,=(3-2+2-1+(-4)7) =-20
P, ,=(3-6+2( -5) + (-4)3) =-4
P, =(2-34+2(-1)+4-5)=24
PpDae SO See
Be Dae (2 2c ee are
12a= 2 8) PEGS) 223)
5. Create the product matrix, P. Its ee i
dimensions are P,,,. i 24 23 38 32

Aye Dir ae
As you can see, keeping track of all the products and sums in matrix
multiplication can become convoluted as the dimensions of the matrices
involved become larger. As with addition, subtraction, and scalar
multiplication, a graphing calculator allows us to quickly and accurately
multiply matrices, which we will demonstrate in the model problems
below.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. For the following matrix multiplication problems, find the missing dimensions,
m and n.
a eee ee
b eo Van apo)

c Giga Sunt Laie

SOLUTION
For all of these questions, the number of rows in the product matrix is equal to the
number of rows in the first matrix, and the number of columns in the product matrix
is equal to the number of columns in the second matrix.
a N=) n=3
b (i=).
in = Ml
c =

3 2
2..IMP 2 For matrices c-| 4 ; 1|ana D=\-4, 1),
Ss) 2
a___ what are the dimensions of the product C- D?
b ofind the product C.D,
MODEL PROBLEMS continuc,
© INS SRE ARG BANS SG RRR HN a R\

480 Matrices
 SOLUTION
The outer dimensions of the
factors form the dimensions
Pes be 22 of the product, so the product
matrix is 2 x 2.

bolas
> 2
b CC De 4 241
i =

We multiply these matrices by

Re eoue .2)42 141-2) = hand, using the rules listed on

23]
G-34+3C4+5-5) @G-C2)+1-14+5-2) page 479.

SSHSHSHSHSHSHSHEHHSHSHSHSHEHSHEHSHHHSHSHHSHHSHEHHHSHHHEHHSHOHEHESHHOHHOHCHOHOHOO
OHOHOHOEHOOO OOOO OOOO OES®E

LPP 8)
3 2 1
3. and B= , use technology to find
0 2 4
2 -1 0

First we check to make sure we can multiply

matrix A by matrix B. Since the number of
columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B,
we are able to multiply. We note that the product
matrix will have dimensions 3 x 3.

Enter matrices A and B by pressing the [MATRIX

button and selecting EDIT.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 481

 On the home screen, select matrix A, press [x] and
then select matrix B. Pressing enter makes the
calculator return the product matrix. Our solution
has dimensions of 3 x 3, as expected.

We must check to make sure we can multiply matrix

B by matrix A. The number of columns in B is
equal to the number of rows in A, so we are clear
to multiply. The matrices are already entered in our
calculator, so we use its functionality to solve this
problem. In this case, the product matrix is 4 x 4.

4. In Lesson 9.2’s practice set, you used scalar multiplication to calculate the income
from the sale of 3 types of produce, assuming all were priced at $2.50/pound,
which is not very realistic. Now that we have a more sophisticated method of
multiplication, we can calculate gross income when each fruit is priced differently.
Consider the following matrix, which shows how many pounds of apples, bananas,
and oranges were sold each day of the week.

50 42 40 12 60 66 45
P=|65 60 45 25 55 76 35
33 30 25 20 42 48 32

If apples cost $2.49/pound, bananas are $0.79/pound, and oranges are $1.99/pound,
find the gross income from total produce sales each day of the week.
SOLUTION
C=[2.49 0.79 1.99] We set of the cost of each
fruit as a 1 x 3 matrix, C.
This allows us to multiply
C by P, which has dimension
of 3 x 7 The result will be a
| x 7 product matrix.

50 42 40 12 60 66 45 You can calculate this product

[2.49 79 1.99]}}65 60 45 25 55 76 35 by hand or through the use of
Bel 7 Ih a ti technology. We leave this up
to the student.
P=[241.52 211.68 184.90 89.43 276.43 319.90 203.38] The product matrix P, which
gives us the information
requested: income from
produce each day of the week.

482 Matrices
MH Arithmetic Properties and Matrix Arithmetic
In Model Problem #3 on pages 481-482, we saw that for matrices,
multiplication is not commutative. We have to check to make sure we
can multiply matrices, both as AB and as BA, when the factor matrices
are of different dimensions. Matrix addition, when able to be carried
out, is commutative, because it consists solely of adding corresponding
elements of matrices, which are numbers, regardless of the order of the
matrices.

What else can we say about arithmetic properties of matrices?

Justification
Matrix addition is addition of corresponding
py elements. The position of these elements
Associative property
does not change with the position of the
of addition
matrices. Since addition of real numbers of
associative, matrix addition is associative.
Individual elements can be shown to be
Associative property equal.
of multiplication (A mxn 2DEe) nxr = AB (CS rxs ABC
(B
rxs mxr mMxXS

mn nxr ) mx nxs mXS

CA
Distributive property es mxXn ( nxr nxr mxXr mxr

MXN nxr mxn

1 nxr
AB mxr
AC mxr

MODEL PROBLEMS

6 2
I. For matrices 1-|Ss vy > |an K=| — 3 |, showthatJ): K#K-J.
5 0 4 pon

SOLUTION

Fas Baa Paxr We can show that the two products cannot be equal
Baa Sas = Px because they have different dimensions.
Lae a Deokas

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 483

 6 2
m 5 1
ca [Lae] For matrices a-|. ; a =| —2 : , and c-| i show that
1
the associative property of multiplication is true.

SOLUTION
62
A Bic 2 vl ee ‘9 3 51 |We will set up the equations by hand,
oe 5 70.4 V4 3 4 | but use our graphing calculator to find
the results. To show the associative
property of multiplication is true for
5. | these matrices, we want to show that
(A B)IC=AB-O).

C CAI *(B] o*(C]

SOG
248 re

We see the two matrices are equal.

While this does not prove the
associative property for all matrices,
(AJ*C
(BI *(C] > it does demonstrate it for these
“3 eal matrices.
248 138

3. For the matiees A =|ib ee | B=|-2

eee3], and C=|3_es§
|, show that the
5 0 4
1 4 1 6
distributive property applies.

SOLUTION
sae “8 Again, we will set up the
A(B+C) 2 3 ‘ 2 3l4l3 5 expressions that should
5 0 4 1 A (one yield equal results, then use
our technology to do the
ee: ae ; 4 2] calculations for us. We want
AB+ACH| j >| BiGy oe 42 ; A 3 5 | toshow that A(B+C)=
. pal ip ees A-B+A-C.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

assonnnennzyzzieenr

484 Matrices
 [Al*< (BI+ICI)d
[3 44
58 40

The two results agree. Again, while we

have not proven the distributive property
[Al*([BJ+(Al¥ICl for all matrices, we have demonstrated
[<3 44 that it works in this case.
58 4a

For Model Problems #2 and #3, note that the associative and
distributive properties apply only for those combinations of matrices
that can be multiplied together, and that the order of the matrices
cannot be changed, because matrix multiplication is not commutative.

MB Zero and Identity Matrices

Continuing our earlier extension of number properties to matrices,
what matrix can we add to another matrix and not change the value of
the original matrix? In the number system, we can add 0 to any number
without changing its value; with matrices, we can add the zero matrix.
A zero matrix is exactly what it sounds like — it is any matrix whose
elements are all equal to zero. For example, the 2 x 2 zero matrix is

0 -|! ;}The notation for the zero matrix is a bold zero. Subscripts

are optional. Adding this zero matrix to any 2 x 2 matrix does not
change the value of the original matrix. For example,

eb aed
We also call the zero matrix the additive identity matrix.

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 485

 Is there a multiplicative identity matrix? Yes. It is referred to simply as
the identity matrix. This matrix is square and contains 1s on the leading
diagonal and zeros everywhere else. For example, the 2 x 2 identity
|
matrix is [, = ‘|The notation here is / for identity and only a
0
single subscript indicating dimension since this matrix is always square.
Multiplying any matrix by its identity matrix will yield the original
matrix. For example,

a 8 Ny |. CAE) td ssah |? ‘|
SNe ee ete (aed 6 5 |

Because the identity matrix is square, does that mean only square
matrices have multiplicative identity matrices? No. Consider the matrix

Ax -| : es |We can multiply A by J, and the result is a 2 x 3

matrix. But will the result of this multiplication be matrix A?

eas iO eet)
We multiply A by /,. As 1; -| 5 | O20
i Woe GL

a,,=(4:1+2-0+(-1-0))=4
(he Oe relates ())
Calculate the value of each a, =(4-0+2-0+(-1-1))=-1
element in the product matrix. as =(1-1+5°04+3-0)=1
Gaye eS Osi yl ay) 5
@,=(1-0+5:043-1)=3
The product matrix is identical to 4 2 -1 |
matrix A. 5

Is multiplication by the identity matrix commutative? That is, if A -/=A.

does J. A = A? It turns out the answer to that question depends on the
dimensions of matrix A. First consider the 2 x 2 matrix on page xxx and
repeated here. We multiply the identity matrix by this 2 x 2 matrix.

! alle |. (2:1+6-0) (-1+5-0) |? 4

OAc S| este osiy Genie Sai) eS

In this case, A,.,-1,=1,- A,,,. We expand this idea and generalize it.
For any square matrix, M nxn?

nmxn n n nxn nxn

486 Matrices
But what if the matrix in question is not square? Looking at
4 2 -l é
A, -| |we see that A, ,-J,# I, - A,,., because those matrices
Leow
cannot be multiplied in the reverse order. The dimensions will not allow it.

The square matrix J, -|: i|will satisfy the equation J,- A, ,= A.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. rorm-| 3 ga ‘i
=a ere
a name the zero matrix that is M’s additive identity.
b show that M+ 0= M.

SOLUTION

. 0 -|OPOreO | Since M is a 2 x3 matrix, we create a

OF O50 zero matrix with the same dimensions.

b u+o=| 3 sgeolnk cease

sa= 5 3 0 0 0 We move through the steps needed to
aur ete() At20) 3-41 ee atte et
7a ies () Saal il eae 05.63

pA oe tID
2. For N=| 0 3 4 |,
OM Gre

a find N’s identity matrix /.

b showthatN-[=I1-N=N

SOLUTION

Oe C For N,_.,, we write the

a fe eae corresponding identity
Oe Ort matrix.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

~pmrynesscrtcrarannon yn

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 437

 We need to show
CAlees Cee) (sWkeseee! (alesse
ie) RY he
(0-1+3-0+4-0) (©-04+3-1+4-0) ©-0+3-0+4-1) |= TAN
=aNe We
(9-1+6-041-0) (9-0+6-141-0) (©-0+6-0+1-1) begin by showing
Nie ae

(20-0705 9); (lsd+0°320-6) d-1+0.470-1) x ae

O251-05,09) (0541-30GO et Oe W tha

(0-2+0-0+1-9) (0-5+0-3+1-6) (-140-441-1) 7

Both N-Zand/- N equal N.

WE Determinants
We now leave the idea of matrix multiplication to look at an operation
on a single, square matrix. We find the determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix by
calculating the product of the diagonals and then subtracting one from
the other. For any 2 x 2 matrix,

mel
the determinant is

488 Matrices
Determinants of 3 x 3 and higher dimension matrices are calculated
by hand in multiple ways. One such way is called expansion by minors.
Given any 3 x 3 matrix

Ga C
|Gd ee
§ fo

choose any row. We will choose the first row. Starting with the first
element in the chosen row, multiply it by the determinant formed from
the elements that are in the other two rows and columns separate from
the chosen element. Continue the same process with the second and
third elements in the chosen row, subtracting the second product from
the first and adding the third to that difference, as shown below:

\M|=a
i 7
lien cart
d
+¢
él
poy
@

Following the steps for calculating 2 x 2 determinants yields

|M| = a(ei — fh) + b(di— fg) + c(dh — eg) = aei — afh + bdi — bfg + cdh — ceg

While it is not impossible to calculate the determinant of a3 x 3 matrix

or higher by hand, you can see that it is very easy to make an arithmetic
error, SO we often rely on our graphing calculators to perform these
operations. We demonstrate the process by finding the determinant of
eal
matrix E in our calculator, when E=| 2 -—2 5
=| "6 3

Enter the values for the elements of matrix FE, and

then exit out of the matrix menu.

Press [MATRIX], scroll over to EDIT, and select 1: det(.

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 489

 det¢(E]>
“142
Select matrix E and press ENTER. The calculator
returns the determinant’s value.

Determinants have many practical problem-solving applications.

In Lesson 9.4, we will learn how matrices and determinants simplify
the process of solving systems of linear equations. The determinants
of 2 x 2 matrices can also help to describe linear transformations in
2-dimensions. We can describe a linear transformation using a system
of two linear equations. When those equations are converted to a
matrix, the determinant of that matrix gives us the scale factor by
which the area of the transformed figure changed. We will explore
these concepts in Lesson 9.5.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ (iL Find the determinant for M -|; : by hand.

SOLUTION
as We follow the equation for the determinant
|3 5-2 8-5:9=16-15-1 of a 2 x 2 matrix as set out on page 488. The
determinant of this matrix is 1.

2 3 =1
2. Find the determinant for| 5 4 6
14 2
SOLUTION

det¢ (Al) For this matrix, we

could calculate the
determinant by hand,
but it is much simpler
to use our graphing
calculator.

490 Matrices
SN CLcI:Ac U1CCR NCAR INES MhAicip\ imine eirtivenwn tah 6
1. Find the missing dimensions foreachofthe II. a Find/-K
following matrix multiplication problems.
6 P P b Find K-J
Ee Kee 1x4
wiles He nis = mxn ¢ Use the answers to parts a and b to
at - x4 a explain, in your own words, whether
Cath: Sit e reece = 15.29 ; RE
or not matrix multiplication is
ae) mxn rie
" 2x reel:
3x8 commutative.

Exercises 2-20: Use the following 12. What are the dimensions of
matrices:
a L-M?
Av=
Hebe
Dal
teee
er i = eo
Blt
| 13
b M.-L?

Show that D(E + F) satisfies the

22 innO distributive property.
p48 |e 2p Ae Pee NG
= Atel a NGS Find the determinants of

Se ae nee a A ec G

CA) Pin ee “af s-|4| b B ad

2 4 6 536 Are the four matrices listed in exercise

8 #14 the only four ofA through M for
es. rel a a ew ae which we can calculate determinants?
9 Explain your answer.

If a given product cannot be calculated, a Which of the matrices, A through M,

explain why. have the same additive inverse matrix?
2.-A-B
Why do the matrices in part a share an
additive inverse?
32 A-C
17. Find the zero matrix, 0, that is the
4.A- D
additive identity for F.
Sie CD Show that F+ 0=F.

6. D.- es) Which of the matrices, A through M,

have the same identity (/) matrix,
The E.
when we multiply the given matrix
by JasinA-I?
= — Qa>
Why do the matrices in part a share an
identity matrix?

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.3 * Matrix Multiplication 491

 19. a Find an identity matrix, /, for E. Lt 22. A tee-shirt store sells 4 different types
of shirts: V-neck for $9, crew neck for
b Show that E./J=E.
$5, scoop neck for $11, and crop tops for
$15. On Monday the store sells 5 V-necks,
20. a Find an identity matrix, /, for L.
18 crew necks, 9 scoop necks, and 20
bs Show thatdj-/ = L, crop tops. On Tuesday, the store sells 6
V-necks, 10 crew necks, 11 scoop necks,
i 20. Suppose a car dealership is running and 23 crop tops. Wednesday the store
specials on three models: the Barrage, the sells 18 V-necks, 7 crew necks, 8 scoop
Spirit, and the Motive. During the special necks, and 17 crop tops, and on Thursday,
the dealership sells 10 Barrages, 12 Spirits, the store sells 6 V-necks, 6 crew necks, 20
and 9 Motives for $20,999, $18,999, and
scoop necks, and 23 crop tops. On Friday
$22,999 respectively. the store determines that for the rest of
a Set up and carry out the appropriate the week the sales will drop by 5% each
matrix multiplication to determine day based off of Monday’s numbers. Set
the dealership’s gross profit during the up the matrix operation and find how
special. much money the store received each day
b During the week before the special, the this week (Monday — Sunday). Round
dealership sold 8 Barrages, 11 Spirits, with the thought that the owners would
and 12 Motives for $22,999, $20,999, rather underestimate than overestimate
and $24,999 respectively. What is the their profits.
percentage increase or decrease in gross
sales from the week before the special
to the week of the special? Round to
the nearest hundredth of a percent.
c Based on this information, should
the dealership run this special again?
Explain.

LESSon 9.4
Using Matrices to Solve Systems

WH Inverse Matrices
In this chapter, we have discussed several properties of numbers and
whether they extend to matrices. For example, we found that matrices
have both additive and multiplicative identities. As with numbers, we
can use inverse operations on matrices to demonstrate these identities.
A number multiplied by its inverse equals one. When you multiply a
matrix by its inverse, the product is the identity matrix. Among other
constraints, a matrix must be square in order to have an inverse.

492 Matrices
We did a bit of investigation with inverse matrices in the chapter
exploration. Here we want to note that the pattern we found in the
exploration only holds when the determinant of an invertible matrix
is 1. If the determinant of an invertible matrix is not 1, we also have to
multiply the matrix by the reciprocal of the determinant. Given a 2 x 2

matrix, M -|
ae |the inverse matrix is M7! =at| ee }Below
Gad Od DGC a
we show that the product of any 2 x 2 matrix and its inverse is equal to
the identity matrix J..

M by M+.
Wemultiply ep el od | 1 fe
c ad | ad—-bc| -c

Rewrite so the scalar factor is in front of the matrices.

(ad—bc) (-ab+ba) |
Multiply the matrices.
(cd—dc) (-cb+da)

Simplify within the product matrix.

Distribute. The result is the identity matrix.

Here we want to emphasize that while we show the multiplication of

M by M'', the multiplication M™ by M is also valid and will be equal to J.
We can calculate inverse matrices by hand or with a graphing calculator.
We will walk through some problems with each method. But first we
note that not all 2 x 2 matrices have inverses. Generally, when a matrix’s
determinant is zero, there is no inverse, because we cannot divide by zero.
This is another constraint on inverse matrices.

MODEL PROBLEM

(ie/ For each of the following, determine the inverse of the matrix, if it exists.
If an inverse does not exist, explain why. If the inverse exists, show that multiplying
the matrix by its inverse, in either order, results in the identity matrix.

4 3 a 5 56 | 1]
b w=]? | : : 4 23
= = p= d AS

: u-|4 2
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 493

 SOLUTION
a 4B We determine the solution to this
| =A)
| | problem by hand and start by calculating
Loe the value of the determinant.
») 3 Now build the inverse matrix using

ee Le a
1. 4 Cg ad—bc| -c a
ii oil

ee
un|4 ee
Toe) 8
ii oi
2 3 1 og
Ii. 11 ii iL Carefully multiply
M by M!. The result is
oe the identity matrix.
tout 11 ll
613 12-12
11 1 |
2-2 + =#3:8 1 0
1] 11
b O56 Again we solve by hand, first finding the
) 9
=U 9 5-2) -10 alaiue ofFined
the determinant.

2
N7 19 5) 2
(il) 6 ; Build the inverse matrix.
5

2
vin |? |0 a
0G ele
>

9 1 1
21048
Ga 5
5 (-=]-0+
B
0-5
/, Multiply
N! by N. The result is the
9 1 i J dentivy matrix,
aes baee
10 2 2 eS

Shee
2

ate a) Lo
2 MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

494 Matrices
 For this problem, we start by finding the
determinant, and it is equal to 0. Because
the determinant is equal to zero, and
division by zero is undefined, this matrix
does not have an inverse.

We work this problem using our graphing

calculator. Begin by entering the given
matrix in [A].

det¢ fA] >

13
Calculate the determinant.

(Al oa
» 1578947368
Find the inverse matrix by selecting
-. 1652631579
matrix A in the home screen and then
pressing [x-] and then [ENTER]. The inverse
matrix shows some messy decimals.
Remember that by finding the inverse,
we divided through by the determinant,

|-. 1652631579
siJfrortf ooo in this case, 19. Division by 19 is rarely
>
pretty. Fortunately, we can use the [FRAC]
command to clean up the screen a bit and
express all the decimals as fractions. This
matrix is the inverse of A.

Now we use the calculator to show that

A multiplied by A”! is the identity matrix.
We take this opportunity to reiterate that
A“! multiplied by A also results in the
identity matrix.

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 495

HEME Solving Systems in Two Variables with Matrices
Now that we can find the inverse of a matrix, we will use this
information to solve systems of linear equations. Consider the simple
system

eee
5x—4y=—3

With our knowledge of matrix multiplication, we can rewrite these

equations as a matrix multiplication problem:

Pelee
The first listed matrix, C -|
a4 |is the coefficient matrix, since it is
q 4
composed of the coefficients of the variables in the system of equations.
XxX : 3 :
The second matrix, X = , 18 the variable matrix, and the last

matrix, N -| |is the constant matrix. We would like to solve for the

variables x and y and we will do so by finding the 2 x 1 matrix, X, that

solves the matrix equation

(ONC IN
In this equation, C and N are matrices composed of constants, and
we are solving for the variable matrix, X. If this equation contained
numbers instead of matrices, we would divide both sides of the equation
by the constant, C (or we could multiply both sides by the multiplicative
1
inverse of C, rab We apply the same principle to solve the matrix

equation. From earlier in this lesson, we know the generalized inverse

ol a2 <2 matrixis Me = ye Ee }which we can apply here.

ad—bciy—-c a
We also know that C"!- C=T. So,

Cae Gia xia Ge aN:

DEM C2 oN
REEMES SIN)
This means that in order to solve for the variables x and y, we first need
to find the inverse of C. We can use our calculator to do this, or
we can
compute it by hand, as shown on the next page.

496 Matrices
 4
Crp | i pals Si | 7 7
Mesa SS) Sea es Bo 2
17, 7

is NE.
la 5 F
& oils
ier

. a)
Now that we know the inverse of C, we can AG 1h (.
substitute in ¥ = C-- N and solve for _X. 5 =3 bs
Ss aa)
iy Ly

20=38| | 417
me et -|I
25+9 || 34 || 2
U7 7

We see that the matrix ;| é|and x=1,y=2.

We can also solve problems like these using a graphing calculator, as we

will show in the model problem set.

MODEL PROBLEMS

-4x+9y—9
@ (1 Solve the system | Z ee using matrix equations.
x-3y=
SOLUTION
We solve this problem by hand, following
42.9 x ||. 9 ‘ : : ; :
i 3iiy lle the steps outlined in this section. We begin
by writing our matrix equation.

C
.: = 1 |3
————.
-9 |
12] | 4
Next, we find the inverse of the coefficient
1 3 0 } -1i -3 matrixix.

3| 1 4 ee

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 497

 7 —6
7 Now, multiply the constant matrix by the
19 306 inverse matrix.
. -|9416 | 9
——-9——(-6) -3+8 5
3 3

(vy) - (9,5) State the solution.

2. Solve the system feee using matrix equations.

—5x—20y=—-15
SOLUTION
5 8 = 6 We follow the same procedure as in
5 _20 i y ||45 | Model Problem #1. We write the matrix
equation.
1 ty a | ai) 2. 3 Calculate the INVES of use coefficient
= 5 3 eal So | matrix. There is an issue with the
determinant. We stop calculating and
interpret our numbers in context of this
problem.
For this system, the determinant is equal to zero, which means this matrix has no
inverse, SO we cannot solve the system using matrices. But what does this tell us
about the system of equations itself? Examine the two equations. If we divide the top

equation by 2 and the bottom equation by —S, that gives us the system :i ‘2
44 y=
The equations are the same. We know from our previous studies in algebra that the
system has an infinite number of solutions, because both equations represent the same
line. A determinant of zero indicates there is not a unique solution to the system.

3. Solve the system .<a using matrix equations.

—3x-2y=-12 I
SOLUTION q
= iV We will solve this system using our calculator, '
but first we must collect all the variables in
=
oes Aly) each equation on one side of the equal sign.
We choose to move everything to the
left-hand side of the equation.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

498 Matrices
 Now we write our traditional matrix
equation.

Instead of finding the inverse of the

coefficient matrix, we combine the
coefficient and constant matrix into a
single 2 x 3 matrix. We enter this matrix
into [A] on our calculator.

In the menu, select MATH, and

then B: rref. This function produces a
matrix in row reduced echelon form.
When carrying out this process by hand,
=cumSume we use row operations to change the
A: ref ¢
rref¢ elements of the coefficient matrix into the
= rowSwar ¢ identity matrix. The calculator does these
operations for us at the touch of a button.
The elements of the constant matrix, which
were added to the coefficient matrix,
represent the system’s solution.

(x,y)
= (2, 3) This is the solution to the system.

CCS SSOSOSSSSSSSSSSSHSHSSHSHSHSSHSSSSSSSHSHSSSSSSSEHSHSSSSSHSSSHSSSSSSEHSSHESHEHEHEHESHEHEEHEEEE

4.) ({LX23 The senior classes at Lopez High School and Morse High School planned
separate trips to Yosemite National Park. Lopez High School rented and filled
1 van and 6 buses with 372 students. Morse High School rented and filled 4 vans
and 12 buses with 780 students. Each van and each bus carried the same number
of students.
a Write a system of equations to determine how many students a van and a bus
can carry.
Solve the system using matrices.
c Howmany students can ride in a van? In a bus?
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 499

 SOLUTION
a The equation for Lopez High Start by defining the variables for the
School is 6b + 1v = 372, and the system. We let b represent the number
equation for Morse High School is _ of students that can ride in a bus, and v
12b + 4v = 780. represent the number of students that
6b 3p can ride in a van.
The system is oe 7180)

b 6 137 Here we have the choice of solving by

12 4 so | hand or by using the calculator. Since
it can be so easy to make a mistake in
calculation, we will use our calculator.
We create the combined coefficient and
constant matrix.

We enter the matrix into the calculator

and use the rref function to solve.

c We interpret our results in the context of the problem. In this case, b = 59

students are in each bus and v = 18 students are in each van.

i Technology
Activity |!

In Model Problems #3 and #4, on pages 499 and 500, we utilized the rref
function on our graphing calculators to solve systems of simultaneous
equations. As mentioned, rref stands for “reduced row echelon form,”
which is also called Gauss-Jordan elimination. This procedure works by
using row operations to change the coefficient matrix into its associated
identity matrix. The resulting values in the far right column of the
matrix are the solutions to the system. In this technology activity we
explore the row operations used to convert matrices in this manner.

Solve the following system of equations using Gauss-Jordan

2x—-3y=13
elimination: .
—3x+5y=-20
TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY |] continues...

500 Matrices
Step I: Write the system as a matrix, A.

There are 3 types of elementary row operations we can

perform on matrices: swapping the position of two rows,
multiplying a row by a non-zero scalar, and adding one row
to the scalar multiple of another row. Remember that the
goal to is convert the coefficient matrix into its associated
identity matrix. For this matrix, notice that if we multiply
row | by the scalar 5 and row 2 by the scalar 3, then sum the
rows, the element in position A, ,will become 0. We will start
there, although there are several ways in which to solve this
problem.
Step 2: To multiply row 1 by the scalar 5, press and then
choose MATH, E:*row(. On the main screen enter 5, [A], 1).
The calculator displays the result. We must save it in matrix A,
which we accomplish by pressing and selecting [A].
NAMES
6TtcumSum
sref¢
srref ¢
= rowSwar ¢
srowt¢
INOOD

Step 3: Follow a similar key sequence to multiply row 2 by the

scalar 3 and save the result in matrix A.

Step 4: We sum row | and row 2, placing the result in row 1, saving
the matrix.

E is 2a]

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY I! continues...

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 501

 Step 5: Now we turn our attention
to row 2. If we multiply |a A A 1 ae
row | by 9 and then sum
rows | sid2, placing the wr) bay ial
result in row 2, this will Ans? (Al
change the element in 3 i) 45
A, ,to 0. We will then 915 -60
have zeros in the places
we want them.

Step 6: To finish this problem,

we need to perform row
operations to change
each of A, , and A,, to 1.
We multiply row :by 5 | 5 is sl
and row 2 by 5°

Step 7: From the far right column,

we read that x =5 and y =-1.
We confirm that we did our
row operations correctly by
using rref.

b(-)Ta ta "ZExercises 1-3: Use your graphing calculator to solve

the following systems with Gauss-Jordan elimination.
Write down your steps.
5x+4y=1
i. —3x+7y=37

7%
OV 20
a. | Fy -2y=-31
284 3V7457=10
3. Sk+Sy+2zZ=11
5z+2y+3z=-1

ME Solving Systems in Three or More Variables

with Matrices
We can usually solve two-variable equations by hand without much
difficulty. Three-variable equations, however, can get onerous.
Fortunately, we can use matrices to solve three-variable equation
s, and
the calculator is very handy at doing the number crunching
for us.

502 Matrices
Consider the system of equations

I=
0) —ie37
6x —4y+10z=-34
2x+4y-—3z=29

We will follow the same steps we developed for solving a system with
two variables by hand.

The system needs to have all the variables on

5x-—6y-—7z=7
the left-hand side of the equal sign. The variables
6x -—4y+10z=-34
also need to appear in the same order in each
2x+4y—3z=29
equation in the system. We check to make sure
these guidelines are adhered to.

Now we write the system as a matrix equation

with a coefficient, variable, and constant matrix.
5-6 =7 |x t
6 -4 10 =| —34
2 4 -3 Z 29

Find the inverse of the coefficient matrix using

the graphing calculator. lea
148 296 74
ye
296 592 148
pe ee
2). i, SH
Multiply the inverse matrix by the constant
matrix Te
148
Be
296 74 7
ae
8 peey iflpaein
296 592 148 29
eo
ae ae
3) eo, SH

The solution is a 3 x 1 matrix that gives the 2

values of x,y, and z. =| 4
Al (kas)

This tells us that the solution to the system of equations given above
is (x, y, Z) = (2, 4, -3). If we want to confirm that this is correct, we can
substitute this point back into our 3 equations.
5(2)-6(4)—7(-3) =10-24+21=7
6(2)-4(4)+10(-3) =12-16-30=-34
2(2)+4(4)-3(-3)=44+16+9=29
Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 503
 As true statements result, we are assured our answer is correct.

In our process page 503, we used a graphing calculator to find the

inverse of the 3 x 3 matrix, which not only saves time but also reduces
the chance of making a calculation error, as the process of finding the
inverse of a 3 x 3 matrix by hand is quite tedious. Still, knowing how to
calculate these values is useful. The process is an extension of what we
do for a 2 x 2 matrix. Suppose that we have a 3 x 3 matrix

@ fb €
Meader
By A

then the inverse matrix is

e df @ Ip) G

ja i oh a

uv ae anc oO © Cone
Peal) |) a ey f a
6 @ Dane a
g h d

So all you have to do is evaluate the determinant of M, and then

evaluate nine 2 x 2 determinants! The tricky part is in placing the
correct elements into the 2 x 2 matrices, which is why we find it so much
more reliable to use technology.

MODEL PROBLEM

@ MP 3, 7| Use matrices to solve the following systems of equations.

Ax 5) 2-16
a yok 0y- 22-12
o20 7 3y1 22-4

1oy 0722
b 4x—5y+4z=19
c= 20
tty

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

504 Matrices
SOLUTION
a
4 -5 -l x 18 We will solve this problem by hand.
oe y jet 12 We begin by writing the matrix
2 eB Z 4 equation.

Next, find the inverse of the coefficient

matrix. We use our graphing calculator
to make the process easier.

O. 025 -0.25 18
Wel 6405 03 | 1 Now multiply Me constant matrix by the
1 1s 205 4 coefficient matrix.

—4
X=! 0 The solution is (x, y, z) = (-4, 0, -2).
—2

b .
=1 2 x 2 For this problem, we will use the rref
Ao 4 | oy ie O19 function on our calculator to solve.
PS i z —20 Write the matrix equation.

-1 5-5 2 Combine the coefficient and constant

4 -5 4 19 matrix into one 3 x 4 matrix. Enter this
1 > 1 SO20 matrix into the calculator.

Use the rref function on the |MATRIX

MATH menu. Read the solution from
the final column of the matrix. It is
(x,y, Zz) = (2, -3, 3).

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 505

Se Cramer’s Rule
In the preceding sections, we alternated between solving matrix
equations by hand and solving using our graphing calculator. Tools
such as graphing calculators are fantastic for matrix operations if they
are available. But before we had this technology, we solved all matrix
operations by hand. To ease calculations, mathematicians developed
alternative solution strategies, such as the one we discuss in this section,
Cramer’s Rule. This process helps us solve matrix equations and also
allows us to solve for only a single variable, if needed, rather than
solving for all the variables at once.

Recall that when we solved a system of 2 variable equations by hand,

we followed a series of specific steps. We restate them here in general
terms, for any system of 2 equations with 2 variables, where a, b,c, d, e,
and
f are numbers.

Write the system of equations in ax +by=e

standard form. cx +dy = f

, (19) xX} | e€
Express the system as a matrix equation. ne, y f

Find the inverse of the coefficient ih d -b |

matrix. ad—bc| -c a

Multiply the inverse matrix by the i} d -b | e

constant matrix. dd =bc\.—e==a f

de —bf de —bf
The solution is a 2 x 1 matrix that gives A |e \ad—06 el ead —be
the values of both x and y. y —ce+af af —ce
ad —bc ad —bc

Wesco (rat ece 2a gan eee cae ern anor

ad —be ad —be
these solutions have the same denominator, which is equal to the
determinant of the coefficient matrix. The numerator of the x-value is
equal to the determinant of the matrix comprising the y-coefficients
and the constants, while the numerator of the y-value is equal to
the determinant of a matrix comprising the x-coefficients and the
constants. For clarity, we'll write out the solutions as the ratios of the
determinants.

506 Matrices
For any system of linear equations
ax+by=e
Ceray=
the solutions are

@ 1p) ae
ie Cae
x= y=
a b a b
Gad Cc od

This method of using determinants to solve systems of equations is

known as Cramer’s Rule. We can also use Cramer’s Rule to solve a
system of 3 equations in 3 variables. Given

Oe Dy ee
ax+ey+ jz=k
exthy+iz=l

where a through / represent real numbers, the solution, (x, y, z), for the
systemis

ip OAS Up te AD Is
Ke Cum sf dunks de
Lh i cma g hl
X= y= 5Z=

i WY fe ah Toe ee EM
By xe
Sp Cony eof
We a het h i

The denominator for each coordinate is the determinant of the

coefficient matrix. The numerators for each coordinate are consistent
with those for 2 x 2 matrices as previously explained. They are
determinants that combine the constant matrix with coefficients from
the two other variables.

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 507

 MODEL PROBLEMS
—2x —9y=—25 ; ;
I. Solve ea _9y=-23 by hand, using Cramer’s Rule.

SOLUTION
There are several ways to organize
your information as you begin to use
Lin cae and understand Cramer’s Rule. You
ae oie can express the system as a matrix
ne ae equation or you can identify each
coefficient/constant as we have done.

e b 2 |
_|f 4} | -23 -9| 225-207 18 ae
yaaa | 2) | am O36 1S
ea) 4729 Now we can substitute the
appropriate values and evaluate the
a ES determinants.
oo) |=4 -23 ana OO
|e a aie
Cd

The solution is (x, y)=(—1,3) . Note that, since the denominator for the solutions is the
same determinant, we need only calculate it once.

4+ y=6
2. Solve : pice at using Cramer’s Rule. Confirm your solution using a graphing
—35x — y =

calculator.

SOLUTION
a=—4 =—5
b=1 gat Identify the coefficients/constants.
C= f=21

OW 6
Oe 2h) ae
sees = = =-3
a b —4. 1 ")
(etal =) =]
Substitute and evaluate. The solution using
ee 2 haar: Cramer’s Rule is (—3, -6).
SA. ese esa
ae a b
= )
aoe u)
rae MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

508 Matrices
 We enter the matrix in [A] and use the rref
function to evaluate. The same solution
results and we have confirmed our answer.

6x—y+3z=-9
3) MP 1, 5| Solve ) 5¥+5Y—5z=20 using Cramer’s Rule.
3x—y+4z=-5
SOLUTION

A ys
hoe 7 0 5 5
bon: 5 -l1 4 65
a ares — SS

a Dc 6 1 2 65
def 2. >)

If needed, you can identify the

Palio 1216-9: 3 coefficients/constants for this system.
dk 5 2.5 In this problem, we begin with the
elt 3 -5 4 390 substitution. Note that your graphing
eee
y he
oe
65
= —_
65
=
calculator will be useful for finding
determinants quickly and accurately.
a 6 f Otherwise, refer to Lesson 9.3, page 489,
ent for details on finding the determinant
of a 3 x 3 matrix by hand.
Zi i6 1 9
ae a 20
BP 8 tS) gs '
| rn ee i re ae aNE Noel Fo
ee 65 65
ef
g I

The solution is (x, y, z) = (-1, 6, 1).

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems 509

MN Practice. EE EEE
Exercises 1=—4: Find the inverse matrix, 10. The high school band is selling tickets to
if it exists. When stating the inverse, do not its annual talent show. On Monday they
round any of the elements. If the inverse does sold 3 adult tickets and 9 student tickets
not exist, explain how you know. for a total of $57 On Tuesday, they sold
8 adult tickets and 3 student tickets for a
I. A -|is | total of $68. What is the price of a single
ce student ticket? Of a single adult ticket?
Oz ’
2b B-|Ona | 11. In your boat, you traveled downriver and
back, a total of 336 nautical miles. The
Te SS) trip downriver took you 12 hours, while
sees ||eS the trip back took 14 hours. What was the
speed of your boat in still water? What
3 I 3 was the speed of the current?
4 D= 2 -4 3
o 2 al 12. Raj is taking his physics test, which is
worth 100 points. The test has multiple
Exercises 5-8: Use matrices to solve each
system of equations. choice questions worth 3 points each
and problem-solving questions worth
= vet 11 points each. If there are 20 total
a Diy = 19 questions, how many of each type of
question are on the test?
y=6x-11
oe oN aa \AA 13. Suppose I have 18 coins in my pocket

TX that are all dimes or quarters. If the total

| = :
J. 7 value of these coins is $3.30, use a matrix
EM equation to determine how many of each
y=-3x+5 coin I have.
EB Gy aby og
Sit, 14. The homecoming dance was a success!
The committee earned $4,900 in total off
Exercises 9=1 23 For each situation, of ticket sales by selling couples tickets
A Uidladinnionioentiene for $50 each and singles tickets for $30
represent the problem. each. If a total of 180 students attended
b express the system as a matrix the dance, use a matrix equation to
d
equation and sone it etermine how many of each type of
¢ interpret the solution in the context licket was sold.
of the problem.

9. The difference between two numbers is

3 and their sum is 13. Find the numbers.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

510 Matrices
 Exercises 15-17: Use matrices to \AA 20. You and 5 friends go to the fair, choosing
solve each system of equations. Remember to eat dinner from the same food truck,
to put the equations in standard form. which sells pulled pork sandwiches, hot
x-6y+4z=-12 dogs, burgers, fries, and drinks. Kelly orders
a pulled pork sandwich and a drink for
15. coy az?
$7.25, Sandra gets a hot dog, fries, anda
2k 2y+52=—15
drink for $700, Megan has a burger and
—3x+3y+6z=4 2 drinks for $725, Renate orders a hot dog
14 V+52——9. and a hamburger for $7.25, and Ophelia has
16.
2 hot dogs and a drink for $750. You want
4x+2y+z=13
to order 3 pulled pork sandwiches, 1 burger b)

x=3y-—3z+8 2 hot dogs, 5 fries, and 4 drinks because two

z=4x+5y-14 of your other friends texted you and are
17.
on their way. Use a matrix equation to help
3y+2z=14
determine how much your order will cost.

Suppose I am comparing the ages of some 5x+5y+5z=-20

family members. The sum of our ages is 21. Consider the system 4x+3y+3z=-6
100. Hilda is 5 years older than Alice and —4x+3y+3z=9
if you sum Hilda’s age and Alice’s age, a_ Solve this system of equations using
it’s 18 more than my age. Use a matrix Cramer’s Rule.
equation to determine everyone’s age. b What was your solution? How can we
interpret this result?
AAI9. A ball is thrown into the air from a
certain height. After 1 second, it’s Exercises 22=24: Use Cramer’s Rule to
32 feet off the ground. After 2 seconds, solve each system of equations.
it’s 42 feet off the ground. After 4 seconds, x-3y=5
it’s 50 feet off the ground. 22.
—3x+6y=8
a Use the standard form of a parabola 36x -6y+6z=-1
and matrix equations to write the
23. 12x 0z7=—3
quadratic equation of the trajectory
18x -6y+6z=-1
of the ball.
b From what height was the ball thrown? OX
ava Z=—/
c At what time does the ball land? 24. 4z7=-6
d When does the ball reach its maximum 4x-—24y+24z=17
height? What is its maximum height?
25. Sini’s grandfather gave her $20 to spend
on her marble collection. At the toy store
she learns that for her $20, she can buy
14 steelies, 20 agates, and 24 cats’ eyes,
or she can buy 20 steelies, 15 agates, and
19 cats’ eyes, or she can get 30 steelies,
5 agates, and 13 cats’ eyes. How much
does each type of marble cost?

Lesson 9.4 * Using Matrices to Solve Systems Sil

 Lesson 9.5
Matrices as Transformations

WG Transformations of R > R, R* > R’,and

R? > R?
In geometry, we defined a transformation as a change in the location,
orientation, size, or other geometrical property of a figure. Recall also
that transformations are said to be rigid if the transformed figure is
congruent to the original figure. We divide transformations into four
categories.

Translation |Moves a figure to a new location; is a rigid

transformation.
Rotation | Turns a figure about a fixed point called the
center of rotation; is a rigid transformation.
Reflection | Flips a figure across an axis called the axis of
reflection; is a rigid transformation.
Dilation | Shrinks or expands a figure to produce a similar
figure; is not a rigid transformation.

We can perform all of these transformations in the 2-dimensional

coordinate plane and in 3-dimensional space using matrices. For example,
we can express the point, (3,5), as a 2 x 1 matrix and translate it with
matrix addition.

In this case, we have translated the point 6 units to the right and 1 unit

up using the translation matrix ;|Subtracting the translation matrix

moves the point 6 units down and 1 unit to the left.

5 1 4

It is possible to perform multiple translations by using more than one

translation matrix. Keep in mind that we can add matrices in any order
because we showed that matrix addition is both commutative and
associative. These properties are most easily seen on the coordinate plane

S512 Matrices
where we represent matrices as vectors. The figure on the next page
shows both
(3i+57)+(6i+
j)=(91+6))
and
(61+ j)+(3i+5j) =(91+6))
and
(3i+5j)—(6i+ j) =(-3i+4)) .

Suppose that we’d like to perform a rigid translation of a polygon,

such as a triangle. To do so, we create a 3 x 2 matrix that contains the
coordinates of the triangle’s vertices, and then add a translation matrix.
The sum represents the new coordinates of the translated triangle.

2 Dalldastind | © 9 4
0 4 4 650-56 op A

The translation matrix performs a rigid translation because every element

in the top row, which translates horizontally, is the same. The same must
be true of the elements of the bottom row, which translates the points
vertically. We can see that the translation results in an isometry.
y

il Bey a oe 7h a D2 Kha:

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 513

 Matrix addition and subtraction translates points and figures in the
plane. We can achieve a rotation using matrix multiplication. Consider
what happens to the triangle in the last example when we pre-multiply

it by the matrix ; i |(We say “pre-multiply” to specify the

order of multiplication, remembering that matrix multiplication is not

commutative.)

pen ps ae -4 4]
0) 0 4 4 ED TU

We see from the figure that this produces a 90° counterclockwise

rotation about the origin.

me cOs Cee sino ;

More generally, the matrix | | generates a counterclockwise
SIm/O COs 0
rotation of @ degrees about the origin. Because this is a 2 x 2 matrix, we
can use it to rotate a point (2 x 1), line segment (2 x 2), or polygon with
nm vertices (2 <7).

Performing reflections using matrices is a bit more complex. The

following table summarizes the information needed to perform
reflections with matrix multiplication.

514 Matrices
We accomplish the fourth form of transformation, dilation, using scalar
multiplication. To dilate a point or figure about the origin, simply
multiply the matrix by the scalar, k.

We can also perform dilations with matrix multiplication. Recall that

multiplication with the identity matrix, / -|il u |yields the original

i
matrix. Replacing the 1’s with a different number will dilate the figure
by a scale factor equal to that number.

We can combine transformations, for example, dilating and translating

a figure. We can use these composite transformations to prove that the
distributive property holds for matrices. Given any point, (x, y), we will
show that

We want to show the distributive

property holds for matrices.

Simplify within the parentheses.

k (x+a) kx+ka |
Multiply through by k. =
k(y+b) | | ky+kb
Factor out the common factor, k.
Now we have each matrix multiplied
by k. We have shown the distributive
property is true for matrices.

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 515

 MODEL PROBLEMS

2 5 5 2
a [L28} Use matrix multiplication to rotate the square S$ -|5 5 5 by

45° counterclockwise about the origin. Give the matrix representation of the rotated
‘square and graph both the pre-image and the image.

SOLUTION

Ss ol
(2 L 2
2 2 Recall that sin 45°
= cos Oe
a use
sug cos8] | CUD
eo Se this value to create our rotation matrix.
2 2

ee
2 Lae 5 a
(0 6 2 2 55
oo
Multiply the rotation matrix by S.

Graph both the pre-image (black), and the

image (tan).

2. Reflect s-|25 5 2 |across

Js 92 Se

a __ the x-axis. Give the matrix representation of the reflected Square and then graph
both squares on the same coordinate plane.
b the y-axis. Give the matrix representation of the reflected Square and graph both
Squares on the same coordinate plane.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

516 Matrices
 SOLUTION
a 1 0 2 5 5 2 To find the vertices of the reflected square,
Qe = find the product of the appropriate reflection
matrix and the matrix representing the
Ee 5 5 A square.

The graph of the pre-image and image of the

square reflected across the x-axis.

WZ Sa O67, 28

b 10 ||2 5 5 2 | Multiply by the appropriate matrix.

Graph both squares.

; 4 3 by
3. Use scalar multiplication to dilate the triangle represented by T -|. a

a factor of 2. Give the matrix representation of the dilated triangle and graph both
triangles.

SOLUTION

2: ie =|) See | Multiply the matrix T by the scalar 2.

0 21-6 One LZ
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.5 © Matrices as Transformations 517

 For this problem we graph the triangles
using our calculator.

3. Use matrix multiplication to dilate T -|: : : by a factor of 3. Give the matrix

representation of the dilated triangle and graph both triangles.

SOLUTION
Multiply the triangle matrix by the dilation
es ap eae | mts
0 3JL0 1 6}lo 3 18] matrix)
©, |.

The graph of this transformation.

os Technology
Activity 2

We can use GeoGebra to more clearly illustrate how matrices transform

figures graphed in the xy-plane.

Graph a pentagon with vertices (0, 0), (2, 0), (4, 1), (4, 3), and (2, 4).
Individually perform the following transformations on the pentagon
and describe how the transformed pentagon differs from the original.

SAGE oO aes 2)
TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

518 Matrices
Step I: We graph the requested pentagon, renaming it P by double
clicking the input field that reads “poly1 = 10,” highlighting
the current name, typing P, then pressing enter.

P)OO 4 N x0 =
t
aw Le ] re
4» Polygon LJ ca m3 @ c=41) pon
a
aa
I>>
| ae>
Regular
Re Polygonwa aC E
@ 0-43)
Db Rigid Polygon ys 18 @ E=(2,4)
F/
> Vector Polygon , i
Pentagon

© P=Polygon[ABCDE &

Segment

. © a=2

Step 2: We now define the first matrix, M. In the empty input field we
enter the elements as shown. Once we press enter, GeoGebra
shows M in matrix notation.

M = {{2,0},{0,3}}

Step 3: We must apply the matrix transformation to the pentagon.

Input “ApplyMatrix[M,P]” into the empty field and press
enter.

Step 4: Both the original and the transformed pentagons appear

sO we can easily compare the two. The matrix M dilates
P horizontally by a factor of 2 and vertically by a factor of 3.
+X
ApplyMatrix[M,P]

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

Lesson 9.5 « Matrices as Transformations S19

Step 5: Now we repeat the steps. The matrix

: ;|rotates P clockwise 90° and

dilates it horizontally by a factor of 4.

{—+—_} —+—_} —+}— +} +—_ + ++ *

oo 8) 9910) I PS oS
iE

Step 6: Finally, we see that the matrix Y :

rotates P by 180°, and dilates it

horizontally by a factor of 5.

I SS
—20 -19 -18 -17 -16 -15 -14 13

NT red Exercises 1-4: Describe the following matrix transformations

on P. Sketch what you see on your screen.
rf a 0 |
0 -4

ie i
0 4

5 ES |
6 0

ie 0 a
—2 0

3. Write a matrix that will dilate P horizontally by a factor of 2,

vertically by a factor of 3, and rotate P counterclockwise 90°.
Apply your matrix to P and sketch what you see on your screen.

520 Matrices
Mf Transformation of Figures in the Plane Using
Matrices
To this point we have performed single transformations on a point or
figure by multiplying sets of coordinates by specific matrices. What
happens if we multiply the coordinates of a figure’s vertices by any 2 x 2
matrix? (Remember that the transformation matrix must be 2 x 2 in the
2-dimensional plane in order be able to multiply the matrices together,
and to preserve the number of points.) For example, if we multiply the

unit square, below, by the matrix M -|°;, the square is transformed

é
into a parallelogram with vertices (0,0), (a,c), (a+ b,c + d)(b, d).

ess mo EY, a+b b

Cd OOM Last 0 ¢ ct+tdd

+ + 6
SAL Ge eo Lo —3 -2 -1 2a eo: AS Sis Oe 89)

What is the area of the parallelogram, and how does it compare with the
area of the square?

il
A=(a+b)(c+d)-2{be+ 4ba+ Lac]

=ad-—bc

=|M|

The area of the parallelogram is equal to the absolute value of the

determinant of the transformation matrix.

We can extend transformations by matrices from 2-dimensions to

3-dimensions by expanding the size of our transformation matrix.
Because a point in 3-dimensions has 3 coordinates, it must be
represented by a 3 x 1 matrix.

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 521

 Transformation Matrix

ae
Reflection Across yz-plane ST Om

O tf @
Qe! Oe al

Across xz-plane 1

Across xy-plane

Scalar multiplication by k.

The matrix operations for rotations in 3-dimensional space are more

complicated because we can rotate about one of 3 axes — the x-axis,
y-axis, or z-axis. This means our rotation matrix is a 3 x 3 matrix that
is a combination of the identity matrix and a 2 x 2 rotation matrix. For
example, to rotate a point or figure about the z-axis, we want to change
the x and y coordinates, while leaving the z-coordinates unchanged.
This rotation matrix is

cos@ -—sin@ 0
R,=|sn@ cos@ 0
0 0) 1

We leave it for the student to determine the matrices for rotation

about
the x- and y-axes.

522 Matrices
Let’s look at the effect of some of these transformations on a cube.
Consider the unit cube with edges on the three axes and points with
only positive coordinates or zero, as shown below, right. We can
represent this cube with the matrix

Vat s) SOM 10
C= |,O SORE weet Pee 0), 20
OR Ott Orla kde ol

=jh. Aes
Multiplying
C by the reflection matrix} 0 1 O | converts all of the
OF Ora
positive x-coordinates into negative 1’s. As expected, this operation
generates a reflection of the cube across the yz-plane. Multiplying C
Shy.
by the vector} 0 3 0 | dilates the lengths of all the cube’s sides by
Oni Ow 3
a factor of 3. What happened to the cube volume after it was dilated?
As we know from geometry, increasing the dimensions of a solid by a
factor of k increases the volume by k’. Each of the sides of our dilated
cube is now 3 units long, so the volume is V = 3° = 27 cubic units, which
is equal to the determinant of the dilation vector. Geometry programs
such as GeoGebra and Geometer’s Sketchpad can perform these
transformations and graph the results.
Oe
What happens if we multiply C by the matrix A=| d e f |?The
a hy
cube is transformed into a parallelepiped whose volume is equal to the
determinant of A. This is the same relationship that the transformed
square in 2-dimensions with its transformation matrix.

Having performed transformations with matrices, can we undo them?

That is, are matrix transformations invertible and, if so, how can we find
the matrix that will invert them? Recall that inverse functions must
satisfy the condition f(f'(x)) =x. So if a transformation matrix has an
inverse matrix, then the transformation is invertible.

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 523

 MODEL PROBLEMS

Onley, 0 by the matrix

1. Transform the unit square represented by S -|
00 11
N= F 2 . Graph the transformed figure and find its area.

SOLUTION
aes as To transform the
; ;\|; ; ; ;} 01 cad square by the matrix, N,
multiply N by S.

——>
Leo)

>=

The graphs of the unit

square and transformed
4 oats
fF
Oo
NO
ODN figure.
OOF
ND)
me
(Sy
Gaon

A
= an w
SSS
oe Oo lon N too}
S28
No}
<=
=e) all
felt
2
eit ots
2 OL Oe Onae

The area of the

parallelogram is the
|N|=2-4-5-1=8-5=3 value of determinant
of the transformation
matrix. Its area is
3 square units.

oa
ak a at Ue Uy a
2. Transform the unit cube C=|0 0 1 1 1 1
0 0 | by the matrix
|ORO RO 2) One ela
Laas aes :
R=| 7 2 4 |. Find the volume of the transformed figure.
— -6 -3

SOLUTION

i Ce ne a
Tea O70. Sie eel ens Oa
A Mey WO LOL OC) Saleh Se gh
Multiply the cube matrix by the
Oi we oS he ee transformation matrix.
a Ge oe toy 1) ei ZI
ie eee Ek eye

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

524 Matrices
 Based on the information on page 523, the
transformed figure is a parallelepiped. Its
|R| =133 area is found by calculating the determinant
of the transformation matrix. The volume of
the parallelepiped is 133 cubic units.

3. The point p = (5, -2) is transformed by M -|A :|

a___— Find the transformed point, p’.
b Find the matrix that will invert this transformation.
¢ Show that the matrix from part b transforms p’ back to p.

SOLUTION
> 4 5 ) We find p’ by multiplying the matrix
a tas ei NPR od leat representing the point by the
transformation matrix.
01 04 The matrix that will invert the
b Mr = transformation is the inverse of M
03 —0.2 ;

é We = Multiplying the transformed point by the

inverse matrix should give us the original
0.1 04 ||
' 2 }
= point.
AS ace 2 13

5
=) We have shown that M™- p’=p.

Mi Composition of Linear Transformations

As with functions, we can have compositions of matrix transformations.
The matrix produced by the composition of two linear transformations
in the 2-dimensional plane is the product of the matrices of each
a, a b, b, ;
transformation. Let A= B= , and the point p=(x, y)
dma
3) 4 lak, Nay,

2 We ;
be represented by the matrix P -|*. Then the composition of matrix

ab eb Dial,
A and B is the product A: B= a Aj Pee |i

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 525

 Calculations related to the composition of matrix transformations in
3-dimensional space are made much easier with graphing calculators.
4 2 =1 >) =o)
For example, when A=|3 7 2 | and B=|6 4 —5|,to perform
Oe i)
the composite transformation Ao 8B, enter the matrices into your
calculator, and simply multiply them.

MODEL PROBLEMS

i. For A-|: 2}B-|a : }and the point P| :}show that A composition

B(P) = A(B(P)).

SOLUTION
‘ -]1 4 5 Bil
P -B-P-| ope \|9 } 7 | We first find the transformation ofB on P.

P| ee, oil 8
pl= 6 ot lagi hs2 Now transform P’ by A.

foo =3
An B= » 18 To compare, we will transform P by A - B.

P= A-B(P) |t valle 8 We calculate A(B(P)). The two answers agree

a Aten (2) (BY and the relationship is confirmed.

424 3s 3
@ ca For the 3x 3 matrices L=|3 7 2 |, M=|6 4 -5|, and pointP=| 1
5 6 6 12 6 2
in 3-dimensional space, show that L composition M(P) = L(M(P)).

SOLUTION

2 ) 6
Pl 6 4 8A For L composition M(P), we first find the
107 6 2 5 transformation of M on P.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

526 Matrices
 42-1 6 43
Bee 3 72 12 || 112 Now transform P’ by L.
> 0 Oo S) 75

42-1 2) |
Mel 3 | 2 6 4 5 l=
> U 8 f 2. 0
To compare, transform P by L - M.
23 -14 -6 We calculate L - M.
93 17 32
24 i }

Poel M(P)=

214 26 1 3 43 Find L(M(P)). Our two answers agree, so the

3. 17) 22 1 j= 112 relationship is confirmed.
24°) 3 2 ie.

M8 Practice
I. Which of the following is the best 2. Of the following matrix operations,
definition of a translation matrix? which does not represent an isometric
transformation?
A. A matrix that represents the vertices
of a figure’s pre-image in the plane.
B. A matrix representing the translation
applied to a point or figure in the
plane.
C. A matrix that represents the vertices
of a figure’s image in the plane.
D. A matrix showing the new area of a
translated figure in the plane. W ©
Or &

~)
lca
Se
+

WwW
wo Or
4 ©
KK
| gue

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 9.5 * Matrices as Transformations 527

 3. Use matrix operations to translate the 10. Explain why replacing the 1’s in the
point (4,7) by identity matrix with a different number
will dilate a figure in the plane by a scale
a adding the vector v=5i+3j and factor equal to that number.
subtracting this vector.
c Graph the vector equations on the Dilate the triangle represented by
coordinate plane.
ib Moor3 by a factor of 3 using
2 |e
Use matrix dimensions to explain why the
order of the factor-matrices matters when a scalar multiplication. Show your work.
reflecting or rotating a square on the b matrix multiplication. Show your work.
coordinate plane.
c Give the matrix representation of
Rotate the square represented by the dilated triangle and graph both
triangles.
Se EOee | counterclockwise
il il © 6
Transform the unit square represented
about the origin. Consider using
matrix multiplication. Give the matrix
bys -|° Bie by the matrix
ORO aehaat
representation of the rotated square and
then graph both squares. | | and
Spe
be Rotate square S from exercise #5 by 180°.
a give the matrix representation of the
Consider using matrix multiplication.
transformed parallelogram.
Give the matrix representation of the
rotated square and then graph both b graph both the square and the
squares. transformed figure.

ce find its area.

What is the rotation matrix needed
to rotate a figure or point in the Show that the quadrilateral created by
3-dimensional plane about the x-axis? the transformation in exercise #12 is a
parallelogram. (Hint: what do you know
o What is the rotation matrix needed
about the slopes of parallel lines?)
to rotate a figure or point in the
3-dimensional plane about the y-axis? Transform the unit cube represented

Use matrix multiplication to reflect the Cee ar ee Ca) eed)

pe Se ae hak Tt by the
Square represented by S= avn. ey10
OF Ose) SeCie eee el
25 1004
a across the x-axis. Give the matrix 3 5 -4
representation of the reflected square matrix C=| 7 -—2 1 |, Give the matrix
and then graph both squares. » 1) 3
of the transformed parallelepiped and
b across the y-axis. Give the matrix
find its volume.
representation of the reflected square
and then graph both squares. PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

528 Matrices
 15. The point p = (3, 4) is transformed by
Cicagit 18. For p-| Le? | |and
M= Ae —4 -5 1 -3
omroe |!
a_ Find the new point, p’.
b Find the matrix that will invert this point P-|:|on the coordinate plane,
transformation.
¢ Show that the matrix from part b show that D composition E(P) = D(E(P)).
transforms p’ back to p.
2 0 4 3 7 -3
16. Show why a transformation by the matrix 19. For F=| 9 1 6|,G=|-5 2 6 |, and
5 a 0 ik Ke es
R -|4 :|is not invertible.
3
17. Show why a transformation by the matrix ponte — in 3-dimensional space,
2
1 ‘|
rs) 3 4 | is not invertible.
show that F composition G(P) = F(G(P)).
8 ON

Mi Chapter 9 Key Ideas

9.1 Defining Matrices

e A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, which are called elements.
e A matrix is identified by its dimensions as M_., where r denotes the number of rows in the
matrix and c the number of columns.
e The leading diagonal of a square matrix is the diagonal that runs from the top left to lower
right.
e An adjacency matrix is a matrix comprised of ones and zeros that describes a network. The
ones represent paths from one location to another within the network.
e Asymmetric matrix represents an undirected network because all connections run in both
directions.
e A directed network has some one-way paths, so its adjacency matrix is not symmetric.

9.2 Matrix Arithmetic

e Scalar multiplication is multiplication of a matrix by a scalar. This operation preserves
matrix dimensions.
e Matrix addition is commutative.
e Wecan find the sum or difference of two matrices if they have the same dimensions.
e Wecan perform matrix arithmetic on a graphing calculator.
KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter 9 Key Ideas 529

 9.3 Matrix Multiplication
To multiply two matrices, the number of columns in the first factor must equal the number
of rows of the second factor. .
The product matrix will have a number of rows equal to the number of rows in the first
factor and a number of columns equal to the number of columns in the second factor:
mxn nxXp mxp°
Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
Matrix multiplication and addition are associative.
Matrix operations follow the distributive property.
a b
The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix is found by |M|= =ad—De.
d
The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix can be found using expansion by minors.
A zero matrix is any matrix all of whose elements are zeros.
The identity matrix, / is a square matrix with 1’s in the leading diagonal and all other
elements equal to zero.
The product of any matrix, A, with its identity matrix, is A.

9.4 Using Matrices to Solve Systems

Generally, a matrix, M, has an inverse matrix M™ if, and only if, M- M7 =1.

Given a 2 x 2 matrix, u-| ow |the inverse matrix is M7 vat |ae |

Cd @d—De\=G a
Every square matrix has an inverse, unless the determinant of the matrix equals zero.
We can express and solve systems of equations using matrices.
When technology is not available, we can use Cramer’s Rule to solve systems of equations
using the determinants of matrices.

9.5 Matrices as Transformations

We can use matrices to perform transformations on points and figures in the 2-dimensional
coordinate plane and in 3-dimensional space.
To perform a rigid translation in the 2-dimensional coordinate plane of a polygon with
n vertices, create an n x 2 matrix of the polygon’s vertices, and to that add ann x2
translation matrix.
: (cose
In 2-dimensions, the matrix | — ‘ —sin' 0 will - ;
generate a counterclockwise rotation of 0
sin COS
degrees about the origin.
We can perform reflections of points and figures in the plane using
matrix multiplication.
Dilation of points or figures in the plane is accomplished with scalar
multiplication or
matrix multiplication.
If the unit square is transformed by a matrix, the Square becomes
a parallelogram with
area equal to the absolute value of the determinant of the transfo
rmation matrix.
KEY IDEAS continue...
530 Matrices
We can extend transformations by matrices from 2-dimensions to 3-dimensions by
expanding the size of our transformation matrices.
In 3-dimensions, we can rotate about one of 3 axes — the x-axis, y-axiS, OF Z-aXIS.

ike ek GB
Multiplying the matrix for a unit cube by the matrix A=|d e f | transforms it into a
ee iat!
parallelepiped whose volume is equal to the absolute value of the determinant of A.
If a transformation matrix M has an inverse matrix M~', such that fUF'(«)) =~, then the
transformation is invertible.

Chapter 9 Key Ideas 531

 Chapter 9 Review

1. Is the matrix addition[ 3. 1 5 |+ 4. Give the additive identity matrix for

possible? Why or why not?

Pa
ee
90 3
A. Yes because the number of rows in the Veet
first matrix is equal to the number of
columns in the second matrix. OmGnKO Bre
B. No because the matrices do not have
Adl00 0.0 Ce | OMNnO
identical dimensions.
00 0 in il
C. Yes because you can always add
matrices.
7 tat
ela ¢ Ds 00D
D. No because there are an equal number 1 ae 001
of elements in each matrix.

Consider the following adjacency matrix, §. If Ais a2 x2 invertible matrix, what is the

dk ey al
product A.A?

Paleo]
; i ; where the columns represent

“from” and the rows represent “to.” How

a[e|
many total paths are in this network?

IX.
B. 4
Exercises 6-8: Give the proper subscript
Ge
notation for the matrix, and state how many
ID 2 rows and columns are in each matrix.

Suppose there is a matrix A... Which of i 1S)

the following matrices, B, can perform the 6. A=| 29
multiplication A, - B? 4 6

A. a (e

B. 1B ae

C. Dates

D. B cxXn

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

532 Matrices
 9. Construct an adjacency matrix for the
a Omen
network below.
iS. G—l0() 37 2
A B 5 4 9

Exercises 19-203 Solve the following

systems of equations with matrices.
D 22 =)
sie doy
= 20
Exercises 9-13: Perform the indicated
operations, if possible. If not possible, explain Lie 2) l4z=23
why. 20. Ox +1 2y+7zZ=20
10x+15y—8z=-24
2 4
21. Partha needs to rent a van for the day to
| Ly atte drive the jazz band to a concert. Acme
it see Pi cheees Rental Agency charges $68 for the day
plus $0.40 per mile. Rent-a-Wreck charges
$23 for the day plus $0.65 per mile. After

2. [SL] how many miles will the cost to rent the

van be the same for both companies?
How much is the cost for this mileage?

22. Find the matrix representation

that results from rotating triangle

veo (aa ee rol! a DWC

e f
b arse
about the origin

counterclockwise by an angle, 0.
Exercises 15-16: Find the determinant
of the given matrix. 23. Transform the unit cube represented
Oi lee eR eo
15. p-|3 a Dye =| ONO lee eee ee OOF sDyaLie
4 1 Oh Oe rsh a ah a

Pim fs)
matrnxel =| 5687 s\)Givethe matrix
AM)
of the transformed parallelepiped and
Exercises | 7=18: Find the inverse of the find its volume.
given matrix.

-1 3
17 ots |; 3

Chapter 9 Review 533

 Chapter 10 Probability and Statistics

Activity

Chapter Contents Counting

10.1 Multiplication and In this chapter, we discuss probability and statistics.
Counting Rules
You have previously learned several counting rules, in
10.2 Pascal’s Triangle and order to determine the number of ways something can
Binomial Theorem
be done, such as determining the number of ways we
10.3 Discrete Random can select three people from a pool of 10. But where did
Variables these counting rules come from?
10.4 Discrete Probability We can trace this branch of mathematics to the Italian
Distributions and
physician Girolamo Cardano (1504 — 1576). You will
More on Expected
Value remember him from the Chapter 6 Exploration (p. 332).
Although professionally successful, Cardano did not
10.5 Determining
manage his money well and he kept himself solvent by
and Interpreting
Discrete Probability gambling and chess playing. In addition to his publication
Distributions Ars Magna, he also wrote a book about games of chance
10.6 Expected Value and that was the first systematic treatment of probability.
Chance Probabilities Unfortunately, this manual was not published until almost
100 years after his death. In the mid-1600s a French gambler
10.7 Decision Making
named Chevalier de Méré became interested in increasing
10.8 Decision Analysis his winnings in a dice game. De Méré devised a particular
method, which was largely unsuccessful. After repeated
Chapter 10 Key Ideas
losses, de Méré turned to his friend, mathematician Blaise
Cinapter 10 Review Pascal for help. Pascal began studying de Méré’s problem
as well as other related problems, and with his colleague,
Pierre de Fermat, they laid the foundation of probability
theory, including the counting rules.
While Cardano, de Méré, Pascal, and Fermat made their
breakthroughs in probability theory studying games of
chance, we will mirror their discoveries by exploring two
different examples that come from popular restaurants.
A particular restaurant offers a 3-course meal for $12
and another popular restaurant offers a 2 for $20 deal. In
the You Try exercises, we'll examine how many different
combinations you can order in each of these situations
and see if we can determine a pattern. But first, we'll
start with something more straightforward.
Suppose that you are working with strings of numbers,
all of which are 1s and 0s. We have 5 digits in a single :
534 Probability and Statistics
string and we want to figure out how many distinct strings we can create. We begin by
listing the possible strings:

00010 00101
01010

There are 32 distinct strings. As we created each string, we had 2 choices for each position: 1 or 0.
There are five digits in each string and we note that 2° = 32. Raising the number 2 to the number
of digits in the string produces the total number of distinct strings. Suppose we want to determine
how many distinct strings of 1s and Os we can create using 8 digits. There would be 28 = 256 distinct
strings! We can conclude that if we have two choices for each position in the string, the possible
number of distinct strings is 2” where n is the number of digits in each string.
What if we'd like some of our digits to be numbers other than 1 or 0? How many distinct
strings can we create if we allow the first and last digits of the string to be 0, 1, or 2? Let’s
reason our way through this. For the first digit, there are 3 choices: 0, 1, or 2. The middle
three digits can be only 0 or 1, and the last digit can be a 0, 1, or 2. That means there are
3 -2°?.3=72 distinct strings.
eesoeeeeeaeeesesceeceneecoeoeaeoeoseeeeeceeseeeseeeeeeeoeneeoeeneooeneoeoeooaoeo
ee eee oe eee e880

Use your prior knowledge and the example in this Exploration to answer the
following questions.
I. A particular restaurant offers a 3-course meal for $12. To qualify for the special price,
you must order a salad, an entrée, and dessert. Suppose there are two salad choices,
three entrée choices, and three options for dessert.
a Make an educated guess as to how many distinct combinations are possible with
these choices. Why do you think you are correct?
b Use a systematic method to list the possible distinct combinations. How many
combinations are there? How does this number compare to your guess in part a?

2. You and your friend are eating dinner at the restaurant that offers the 2 for $20
menu. You can each choose one appetizer and one entrée. There are four options for
the appetizer and six entrées to choose from.
a Using a systemic method, begin listing out the possible combinations of
appetizers and entrées you and your friend could order. What pattern emerges?
b How many combinations are possible?

Exploratory Activity 535

 Chapter 10 Vocabulary
binomial coefficients counting principle independent events random variable
binomial coefficients dependent events law of large numbers random number

HOGS discrete random multiplication rule generar

combination variable Butecomes relative frequency
conditional probability expected value Pascal’s Triangle sample space
continuous random experiment permutation statistically fair z

MUTE histogram probability distribution theoretical probability

Lesson 10.1
Multiplication and Counting Rules

ME Independent Events
As you learned in Algebra 2, any activity with observable outcomes is
called an experiment and any collection of one or more outcomes is
called an event. The collection of all possible outcomes in an experiment
is called the sample space. You also learned that some events have
equally likely outcomes, such as flipping a fair coin, rolling fair number
cubes, or drawing a single card from a well-shuffled deck, among others.
Recall that for all events, the theoretical probability of an event, E, is

# of outcomes of event E
PUD =
#of outcomes in the sample space

MODEL PROBLEM

1. If you roll a pair of standard number cubes, what is the probability that the total
shown on the face of the number cubes is greater than 7?

SOLUTION

We need to determine the sample space

for this experiment. We list all the
possible outcomes. The sums of 7 are
circled. All the sums greater than 7 are
below the diagonal.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

536 Probability and Statistics

 P(sum greater than De 2) a os We count the number of outcomes with a
S60 vet sum greater than 7 There are 15 out of 36
total outcomes.

Relationships between events are of crucial importance throughout

our study of probability, and we are often interested in the likelihood
that more than one event occurs. If one of the events in which we are
interested depends on another event occurring, we say those events
are dependent events. In contrast, independent events are events in
which the outcome of one event has no effect on the probability of the
other occurring. The probability of two independent events occurring
simultaneously is the product of each event occurring individually,
which is known as the multiplication rule.

Multiplication > P(A and B) = P(A) - P(B)

Rule given that events A and B are independent.

MODEL PROBLEMS

CT Suppose that you have a fair coin and a fair number cube. What is the
probability that you flip the coin and the result is heads and you roll the number
cube and it lands on 6?

SOLUTION
1
i 2 Define event A to be the event that you get heads
when you flip the coin and define event B to be
P(B)= i landing on a 6 when you roll the number cube.
6
ee Clearly these two events are independent, as the
P(A and B)= 56 DD outcome of the coin flip has no effect on the number
cube. We use the multiplication rule.

2. A survey indicates that 72% of high school students like pizza. If two students are
randomly selected, find the probability that both students like pizza.

SOLUTION .
A person’s preference for pizza is independent of any one else’s opinion, so we may use
the multiplication rule to calculate this probability.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.1 * Multiplication and Counting Rules 537

 PA 072 Let event A be the event that the first student
et(GL3 ae=en ie likes pizza and let event B be the event that the
second student also likes pizza.

P(A and B) = (0.72)? = 0.5184 Using the multiplication rule, the probability of
two randomly selected students liking pizza is
about 52%.

3. Anexperiment consists of two trials, E and F. If P(E) = 0.4, PF) = 0.2, and
P(F and E) = 0.16, are E and F independent events?

SOLUTION
PB) - PF) =04- 02 S08 liz and’ areindependent eventsthen
PCE and f= PCE aren):

Since P(E) - P(F) # P(E and F) the events are dependent.

Many times an event will be influenced by whether or not a related

event has occurred. This is the idea of conditional probability, or the
probability that event A occurs given that event B has already occurred.
The notation P(A|B) is read as, “The probability of A given B.”

Conditional >
Probability

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Suppose that P(A and B) = 0.6 and P(B) = 0.8. Find P(A\B).

SOLUTION

P(A|B) = S76 Use the given formula, substituting where |

De appropriate. P(A|B) is 75%.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

NNN NN

538 Probability and Statistics

 MP 1 In a certain high school, 85% of the freshmen passed the English final and
74% passed both the English and math finals. What percentage of freshman students
who passed the English final also passed the math final?

SOLUTION
P(E) = 0.85 Define the events as E = passed the English test and
P(M and E) = 0.74 M = passed the math test.

Use the conditional probability formula. About 87%

P(M\E) = . 0.871 of freshman students who passed the English final also
passed the math final.

3. Ina given city, the proportion of people who have cable TV and cable Internet is
35%. The proportion of people who haye only cable TV is 0.42. Find the probability
a randomly selected person has cable TV given that they have cable Internet.

SOLUTION
PT) 2042 Define the events as
P(T and I) =0.35 T =a person has cable TV and
I= person has cable Internet.

0.35 Use the conditional probability formula. About 83%

P(T|1) =—— = 0.833 of people with cable Internet also have cable TV.
0.42

(LMI Again consider again the experiment of flipping a fair coin and rolling a fair
number cube. Determine the probability of obtaining a head, given that a 6 is rolled.

SOLUTION
1 Define the events.
P(H
(H and
and 6)6)=—s H = coin flip results in heads
6 = number cube lands on 6
P(6) =<

Use the conditional probability formula. The probability of

obtaining a head on a coin flip is not affected by the outcome
of the number cube as these are independent events.

Lesson 10.1 * Multiplication and Counting Rules 539

ME The Fundamental Counting Principle
Suppose that you have two pairs of shoes
and four sweaters. How many ways can you
match a pair of shoes with a sweater? First,
we must know the number of outcomes
8 outcomes
in this sample space. In this case, we will
make a tree diagram, as shown at the
right, to help us. There are 8 outcomes. You
might note that there are two options for
the first choice (shoes) and each of those choices branches
into four options for the second choice (sweaters).

Generally, with two or more choices, you can calculate the number of
outcomes in a sample space by multiplying the number of options for
the first choice by the number of options for the second choice by the
number of options for the third choice, and so on. We formalize this
pattern with the fundamental counting principle.

_ Fundamental Counting Principle

Let m, be the number of options for the first choice, m, be the number of options
for the second choice, all the way up to m,, the number of options for the Ath
choice. Then the total number of outcomes in the sample space is de LUN ren NZ ke

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Suppose that we conduct an experiment where we Spin a spinner that can land on
one of eight numbers and then roll a number cube with six faces. In how many ways
can we perform this experiment?

SOLUTION
Using the fundamental counting principle, m, =8 and m,=6, and there are 8 - 6 = 48
possible outcomes.

2. Ikenna is choosing an outfit for work. She must choose a shirt, a pair of pants, a pair
\
of socks, and shoes. If she has 6 shirt choices, 3 pants choices, 4 choices for
socks,
and 8 different choices of shoes, in how many ways can Ikenna select an
outfit?

SOLUTION
To find the number of outfits Ikenna can choose we multiply 6-3
- 4-8 =576 possible
outfits.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

540 Probability and Statistics

 3. Ifa license plate consists of three alphabet letters followed by three single digit
numbers, how many unique license plate combinations are possible using the letters
A - Z and the numbers 0 — 9, if numbers and letters may repeat?

SOLUTION
There are 26 possible choices for each letter and 10 possible choices for each number.
The total number of unique license plates is then 26 - 26 - 26 - 10 - 10 - 10 = 17576,000.

Mi Permutations and Combinations

It should now be clear that computing probabilities mainly consists
of counting outcomes. While the counting principle aids us greatly in
this task, we have some more sophisticated methods of counting called
permutations and combinations.

An ordered arrangement of a set of A selection of elements where the order

objects. The order of the objects matters. | does not matter.

The number of ordered sets of r items The number of unordered sets of r items
chosen from among nv items is denoted by chosen from among n items is denoted by
n!
ioe (n- r)!

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. For each of the following, state whether it is a permutation or combination and

identify r and n.
a _ Choosing 12 jurors from a pool of 100 jurors.
b Choosing a batting order for a baseball team with 9 players.
c The number of ways three medals, gold, silver and, bronze, can be distributed
among 8 athletes.
d= The number of ways a five-card hand can be dealt using a standard deck of
52 cards.

SOLUTION
a Each juror is distinct but the order in which we choose the jurors does not
matter, so this is a combination with n = 100 and r= 12.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.1 * Multiplication and Counting Rules 541

 b Each player is distinct and the order in which they bat matters, so this is a
permutation with n =9 andr=9.

c This is a permutation since each athlete is distinct and the order in which the
medals are handed out matters. In this case n = 8 and r= 3.

d Since the cards are all distinct and the order in which they are dealt does not
matter, this is a combination with n = 52 andr=5S.

2. A debate team of three members is to be randomly chosen from a pool of5 females
and 7 males. Find the probability that all three members are male.

SOLUTION
The order in which the three members are chosen does
, not matter so this is a combination. We need to find the
ie eeeeye
PEON total number of outcomes in this sample space. Since
there are 12 possible members and only 3 are chosen,
we compute ,,C,.

Pe sil. ms 35 Now we compute the number of ways in which a team of

DS TG Sey ey all male members can be chosen.

1€3 _ 32 0.159 Calculate the probability. There is about a 16% probability

ca 7D that all three members of the team are male.

({L2E} An urn contains 5 red, 6 blue, and 8 green marbles. Four marbles are chosen
at random. ;
a___ Find the probability that 2 marbles are red and 2 marbles are green.
b Find the probability that at least 1 of the marbles is red.

SOLUTION
a Number of ways to choose 2 red marbles: In this problem the order of
se SL 1: the marbles drawn does not
2 21(5—2)! 7 matter so long as two are red
Number of ways to choose 2 green marbles: a NG ae ahaa ibhette eat
a ways in which we can select
Ce De two red and two green marbles
(1 2822)
as well as how many outcomes
Number of outcomes in the sample space: are in the sample space.
19}
C, =—————= ° 3,876
TOs
41(19- 4)! MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

542 Probability and Statistics

 Now determine the requested
ee gol0..28 probability. There is a 722%
a 3876.* 0.0722 chance of drawing two red and
two green marbles from the
urn.
b The easiest way to complete this part of the problem is to determine the
probability that none of the marbles drawn are red and then subtract that
number from the total probability, 1.

ere ee AO ae There is a 74.2% probability

pC, S070
that at least one of the marbles
P(at least 1 red) = 1 — P(no red) drawn will be red.
1 — 0.258 = 0.742

MH Practice
There are 300 students at Jones High 3. Suppose that you roll a pair of fair number
School, of whom 45% are male and 30% cubes and then flip a fair coin. How many
are male and have a driver’s license. What possible outcomes exist in this sample
is the proportion of males who have a space?
driver’s license?
A. 72 outcomes
A. 0.30 B. 40 outcomes
B. 0.45 C. 144 outcomes
C0135 D. 24 outcomes
ID30.263
Exercises 4-6: Determine if each pair
be Consider the experiment of rolling a
of events, E and F, are independent and state
fair number cube four times. Use the
your reasoning.
fundamental counting principle to
determine how many possible outcomes 4. Event E =earning anA on atest,
there are for this experiment. Event F = getting no sleep the night
before the test.
A. 24 outcomes
B. 256 outcomes
5. Event & = drinking water, Event F =the
C. 216 outcomes
sun is shining.
D. 1,296 outcomes

6. Event EF = student is in 8" grade,

Event F = student has not completed
7 orade.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.1 * Multiplication and Counting Rules 543

 7. In the 2015-2016 NBA regular season, \4\ You use a $5.00 bill to pay for an item
the Golden State Warriors won a that costs, with tax, $4.01. The salesperson
record 73 games and only lost 9. On gives you the least number of coins
average, it rains 64 days a year in San possible for your change, and you have
Francisco. no other coins in your pocket. In another
store, you want to buy some candy for
a Suppose that we choose a random
$0.25. What is the probability you'll have
Golden State Warriors game from the
enough to buy the candy if you randomly
regular season. What is the probability
take two coins from your pocket?
that the Warriors won? Round to the
nearest hundredth, if needed. The probability Devi is late for school
b Assuming that no matter what time is 0.25. The probability Devi is late for
of year it is, it is equally as likely to school and gets an A on her math test is
rain as any other day, what is the 0.05. Find the probability that Devi gets
probability it will rain on a given an A on her math test, given that she is
day in San Francisco? Round to the late for school.
nearest hundredth, if needed.
13. A password for a computer account must
c Are the events “the Golden State consist of § letters and 1 digit. How many
Warriors win” and “it rains in San
passwords are possible?
Francisco” independent? Explain.
If so, find the probability of the 414. In how many ways can a youth soccer
events happening simultaneously. tournament’s groups be set if there are
20 teams in the tournament that must be
In a certain school 5% of female students
separated into 4 groups?
have a last name staring with the letter H
and 80% of female students have a The probability a battery will last more
smartphone. Find the probability that a than 10 hours is 0.8 and the probability
female student has a last name starting that it will last 15 hours-or more is 0.15.
with H and has a smartphone. Are these events independent? Support
your answer.
Suppose P(A) =0.6, P(B) = 0.32 and
P(A and B) = 0.22. Are the events A and Determine whether each given
B independent? Support your answer probability can be found using
mathematically. permutations or combinations and then
give the correct notation using n and r.
Suppose A and B are events in a sample
Do not compute.
space, S. If P(A and B)=0.2 and
P(B) = 0.8, find P(A|B). a In how many ways can the letters in
the word GOLDEN be arranged?
b Determine how many ways a member
of a book club can purchase two books
from 8 possible books.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

544 Probability and Statistics

 17. How many ways can a quality control 20. A car dealership has 6 Quests, 5 Realms,
expert choose 3 phones from a batch and 2 Vanishes. If four cars are chosen at
of 30? random, find the probability that at least
one of the chosen cars is a Vanish. Round
18. Rebekka is randomly selecting a three- to the nearest whole percent
member committee from a group of
5 females and 6 males. Find the hii 21. Out of a field of 16 teams, in how many
probability that all the members are ways can gold, silver, and bronze medals
female. be awarded?

19. A shipment of 30 computers contains

4 defective computers. If 2 computers
are chosen at random, find each
probability that

a exactly one chosen computer is

defective.
b both chosen computers are defective.

Lesson 10.2
Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem

MH Binomial Coefficients and Pascal’s Triangle

Recall from Lesson 1.1 that a binomial is a sum or difference of two
terms that is raised to a power. Generally, we expand binomials by
FOILing so that, for example, (x + y)? = x*+ 2xy + y*. The coefficients in
front of the resulting terms are called binomial coefficients. While we
can expand a binomial raised to any power by hand, it can become quite
tedious to do so. We expand some binomials below.

(a+b)°=1
(a@—D) =a+b
(a+b)?
=a’ +2ab + b?
(a+ bj =a? + 3a*b + 3ab* + Bb?
(a+ b)*=a* + 4a°b + 6a°b? + 4ab? + bt

We see a pattern emerging in both the exponents and the binomial

coefficients. For the exponents, the sum of the exponents of a and b in
each term is equal to the power to which the binomial is raised. Notice
also that the exponents of a begin with the power to which the binomial

Lesson 10.2 * Pascal's Triangle and Binomial Theorem 545

 is raised and then decrease by 1 with each term, and that the exponents
on b begin with 0 and then increase by 1 with each term. Similarly, the
binomial coefficients in each expansion start with 1 and increase from
left to right, and then decrease back to 1 in a reverse manner. These
patterns lead us to Pascal’s Triangle, which is an easy, but not always
efficient, way to determine binomial coefficients.

(a + by? row 0
(a + by! row lL

(a + bY row 2
(a + by row 3

(Gist) row 4
(a + b) row 5

Although we only show Pascal’s Triangle to row 5, it can be expanded,

based on the pattern explained, to any number of rows. We can use the
triangle to expand polynomials of any degree n.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand the binomial (a + 5)°.

SOLUTION

We need to extend Pascal’s Triangle by

one row. The coefficients of any row are
the sums of pairs of coefficients in the
previous row. For example, the coefficient
5 in row number S is the sum of the
coefficients | and 4 in the row above, as
shown. We use this pattern to determine
the coefficients of row number 6.
a° + 6a°b + 15a*b? + 20a°b? + We insert the variables according to the
15a*b* +6ab° + b® pattern.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue... VELL

foe ~ espns QW é

546 Probability and Statistics

 2. Use Pascal’s Triangle to find the 4" term of the expansion (a + b)’.

SOLUTION
a® + 6a°b + 15a*b? + 20a3b3 + We need to use the 6" row of Pascal’s Triangle,
15a*b* + 6ab> + b® as the 4'" term in the requested expansion will be
the sum of the 3 and 4" binomial coefficients in
15 +20 35 the expansion of (a + b)°. We determined these
coefficients in Model Problem #1.
600 D: We determine the exponents on the variables.

Although we can use Pascal’s Triangle to expand a binomial raised

to any power n, it quickly becomes time-consuming and tedious to
determine the values in each row. Luckily, we have a formula we can use
to calculate the coefficients of a binomial expansion.

n!

Binomial >
~ ki(n—k)!
Coefficients Formula

In the formula, 7 is the value of the exponent and k gives the k + 1 term
in the expansion. For example, in (a + b)°,n =5 and if we’d like to find
the value of the fourth term in the expansion, we’d use k = 3.

There is a connection between binomial coefficients and Pascal’s

Triangle. Using the binomial coefficient formula, we can calculate any
number in Pascal’s Triangle directly.

:5 if
a°()@)
e)"0) 0)
AAC

Lesson 10.2 * Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem 547

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. What is the seventh number in row 18 of Pascal’s Triangle?

SOLUTION

n n! .
kK} = k'(n—-k)!
We are determining the value - of a
term in the expansion (a + b)’*. We
18 18! substitute 18 for m and 6 for k in
|6|= 61186)! the binomial coefficients formula.

(ee See
6!. 12f

WF Binomial Theorem
In the last section, we discussed the binomial coefficients formula.
This formula may have looked familiar to you, as it is the same as the
ed 2 n!
combination formula, ,C, = ae discussed in Lesson 10.1. We
ri(n—r)!
can generalize these formulas to determine the kth term in a binomial
expansion of n terms. This generalized formula is known as the
Binomial Theorem.

For all natural numbers, n,

Binomial Theorem P | (a+5)" = ,C,a""'b+, C,a"b+...,.C,b" = sa a" ‘pk

c=0 |

543 Probability and Statistics

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ IMP 8| Expand (2a + b)’ using the binomial theorem.

|
SOLUTION

Jone.
‘ Jones
{3J b? +

‘ (2a)'b? + ea) bee

: _ We use the binomial theorem

[feo
“leayo' + with n = 7 and k —0,1,2, etc.,
in turn.

:
: q
16a*b® | 8a'b*
7
|4a°b? + Simplify.

(1)128a’ + (7)64a°b! + (21)32a°b? + (35)16a*b? + Use the binomial coefficients

(35)8a*b? + (21)4a7b° + (7)2ab® + (1)b’ = formula to finish simplifying.
128a’ + 448a°b! + 672a°b? + 560a*b? + 280a*b* +
84a°b° + 14ab° + b’

CCHOCSHSSHSCSHSSOHHHSSHESEHHSSHHSHHHGHOHSKGHOSHFHEHRHEHSHFEHSCSHSEHHESHEHSOHHOKSHHCHeECHRO
CHE HOHROHBBEOSEEOD

Use the binomial theorem to find the 14" term in (3x — 2y)”*.
y

SOLUTION

23 23-13 5)
13 To find the 14" term in the expansion be

Jo C2) n=23 and k= 13.

(1144066)(59019x'?)(-8192y"3) =
“5.53. 10"xl0yl3 Simplify.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.2 * Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem 5a9

 3. Show that the first and last terms of a binomial expansion of degree n must always
equal 1.

SOLUTION
For an nth-degree binomial expansion, the first binomial coefficient is n Crand
n
the
last is C,. There is only 1 way to choose n items from a set containing exactly m items.
Likewise, there is only 1 way to choose 0 items from a set of n items. Therefore,
n
C= Cai
n

MME
E Practice. OE
1. Which of the following are true about 3. Determine which of the following are true
Pascal’s Triangle? for an odd degree binomial expansion of
(a+b)".
I. The kth row has & + 1 terms.
I. The binomial coefficients consist of
Il. The first row is the 0 row.
pairs of equal coefficients.
III. Pascal’s Triangle can be used to
II. The largest binomial term will be the
expand any binomial of degree n.
middle term.
A. T only
Ill. There will be an even number of terms.
B. II only
Cyliand i) A. All are true.
D. All are true. B. [and II only
C. ILand III only
ree Which of the following are true for the D. I and II only
binomial theorem and (a + b)”"?
- Identify the values of the binomial
I. The binomial theorem applies to all
coefficients and the value of n in the
real values of n for the expansion of
expression x° + 10x* + 40x? + 80x? +
(a+ b)".
80x + 32.
If. When nv is odd and n > 1, the binomial
coefficients consist of pairs of equal Create Pascal’s Triangle for n = 8.
coefficients.
Find the 4" term in (a + b)°.
III. Pascal’s Triangle is a more efficient
way to calculate (a + b)" than the Find the value of the 2 binomial
binomial theorem.
coefficient in (3x — y)°.
A. T only
B. II only Show that the binomial coefficient for the
C. III only r+ 1“ term is the same as the binomial
D. None are true. coefficient for the n —r +1‘ term for a
binomial expansion of degree n.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

530 Probability and Statistics
 Exercises 9=14: Expand each expression. Exercises 1 5=203 Find the indicated
term in each expansion.
9. (a+b)!
10. (m+n): 15. (x—1);5 term

16. (x-3)”,3 term

Hl. (x-1)

12. (u—2)5 17. (p+q)”,7" term

13. (2a—b)° 18. (p+q)”, 13" term

14. (x—2y) 19. (2x+ y)*, 11" term

ZOD (20) eter

Lesson 10.3
Discrete Random Variables
So far in this chapter we have reviewed ideas in probability you have
likely seen and worked with before. We now turn our attention to newer
concepts that will set the stage for your future studies in both calculus
and statistics.

WH Discrete and Continuous Random Variables

In many situations, it is useful to associate the outcome of an
experiment with a number. For example, when flipping a coin we could
assign the number 1 to the outcome “head” and the number 2 to the
outcome “tail.” If we assign the variable X to represent the outcome of
the experiment of flipping a coin, then it is apparent that the value of
X depends on the outcome of that experiment. The variable X is then a
random variable, since it represents a random process.

There are two types of random variables: discrete and continuous. A

discrete random variable is one that can take on only countable values.
For example, if we flip a coin twice, the outcome “heads” can occur 0,
1, or 2 times. Since we can count the number of times the coin lands on
heads, the variable X associated with the outcome is a discrete random
variable. In contrast, a continuous random variable is uncountable. An
example of a continuous random variable is the heights of the students
in a given class.

Lesson 10.3 * Discrete Random Variables

 MODEL PROBLEMS

(ae} For each random variable, state whether it is discrete or continuous. State
your reasoning and if the variable is discrete, give the values the variable can take on.
a X=The number of tails that appear when three coins are each flipped once.
b X= The time it takes to run 100 yards.
c X=The times a fair number cube is rolled until a 6 appears.
d X = The distance from a person’s house to a car driving on the street.

SOLUTION
a This is a discrete random variable because the outcomes are countable. The
Variable X can be 0, |, 2, or 3.

b This is a continuous random variable as the time it takes to run 100 yards can
be any value such that X > 0 seconds. We cannot count these outcomes.

c This is a discrete random variable. Although we cannot know how many rolls it
will take until a 6 appears on the number cube, the value will be an integer and
if will be countable, In this case X —0,1, 2,3, 3.

d This is a continuous random variable. The distance from person’s house to a

moving car can take on any numerical value, including fractions, irrational
numbers, etc. As a result this X variable is not countable.

2. For each random variable, state whether it is discrete or continuous. State your
reasoning and if the variable is discrete, give the values the variable can take on.
a An insurance company sells a $40,000 whole life insurance policy with an annual
premium of $300. Actuarial tables indicate that a person who would be sold such
a policy with this premium has a 0.1% probability of death during any given year;
should the policyholder die during the given year, the insurance company will
pay the beneficiary $40,000, but the company will pay the beneficiary $0 if the
policyholder lives. Regardless, the insurance company receives the $300 premium.
Let X be the random variable representing the insurance company’s profit made
on one of these policies during any given year.
b The waiting time for an elevator in a building is anywhere from 0 minutes to
6 minutes. Let XY = the wait time for an elevator in this building.
¢ A cconsumer advocacy group claims that out of 80 cable subscribers, fewer than
10 are happy with their service. Let Y = the number of cable subscribers who are
happy with their service out of the 80 subscribers in the sample.
d= = Inamurder trial, a shoe expert stated that the range of height in adult
males with
shoe size of 12 is 71 inches to 76 inches. Let X = the height of a man with
size
12 shoes.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

————————————

552 Probability and Statistics

 SOLUTION
a In this case X is simply a value assigned to each possible outcome, so we must
examine each outcome. If the policyholder lives, the insurance company gains
the $300 premium and pays out nothing. On the other hand, if the policyholder
dies the insurance company loses $39,700, as they collect the $300 premium
but have to pay $40,000. This is clearly a discrete variable as the outcomes are
countable. The possible values of X are $300 and —$39,700.
b This is a continuous variable as the wait time can be any value between 0 and
6 minutes. We cannot count all these outcomes.

c For this situation the variable X

is discrete since we can count the number of
people out of 80 subscribers who are happy with their cable service. The values
of X are 0 < X < 80.

d This variable is continuous since the person’s height can be any value in the
interval 71 inches to 76 inches.

SCSSSHSSSHSSHSHSHSHSHSHSHSHHSHSHHSHSHHHSHSHEHSHHOHHHEHSHOHOHSOHHOHHEHEHHHOHH
OHOHOHOOCEOEEHOOEOOHE OO EEOELO®

3. Define a random variable for the experiment and state whether it is discrete or
continuous.
Experiment: An accountant takes her professional certification exam.

SOLUTION
There are several potential variables of interest for this experiment, including the
number of times it takes the accountant to pass her exam, her total score, the number
of questions missed, etc. We are only asked to define a single random variable, so we
will choose X = the number of questions the accountant misses when she takes her
exam. This is a discrete random variable.

MH Tabular Discrete Probability Representations

A listing of all the possible values of a discrete random variable along
with the probability that each of those outcomes will occur, is called
a probability distribution for X. We refer to the probability that each
of the values will occur as the relative frequency, which we often
symbolize as P(X). The mean, or expected value, of X is denoted as
E(X) and is defined as the weighted average of X over the various
probabilities.

Lesson 10.3 * Discrete Random Variables 553

 | es P(x,)|
Expected Value > Where x, is the value of the random
variable for the outcome n and P(x,) is
the probability that outcome occurs.

We calculate the expected value of some discrete random variables below.

We also examine and interpret expected values in context. Note that the symbol
in front of the brackets in the expected value formula is the Greek letter sigma.
In mathematics we use it to indicate the adition of a series of terms.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Consider the following probability distribution for X and P(X), the probability that
each of these outcomes occur. Calculate E(X).

WE

SOLUTION
E(X) =0-0.14+2-0.3+4-0.2 + We use the expected value formula, which states
6-0.34+8-0.1 that we multiply each outcome by its probability of
F(X) =4.0 occurrence and then sum the products.

(12%) Consider the experiment of rolling a single fair number cube. Let
X = number that faces up when the number cube is rolled one time. Calculate E (xX).

SOLUTION
For this problem we need to generate the tabular probability distribution of Y. We list
the possible outcomes of rolling the number cube, X, and their associated probabilities.
We also calculate X - P(X) so we can quickly find E(X).
TY
lo 7
ce
iz
PX)
xY) | le
j
_X!

LLM
EEL

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

STN corre le tert neat
\ MN TORN

554 Probability and Statistics

 We can see that the expected value of X is 3.5. It is important to note here that the
expected value of a discrete random variable does not have to be a value it can
actually take on. We also note that the total probability in this, and any probability
distribution, is equal to 1 (100%).

3. Use the given table to find the value of E(X) and interpret its meaning if X = the
daily earnings of an employee who works on a commission basis.

ro [007 |

SOLUTION
PX Nena Oc te 25a. 0 12 e055 0417 + 75)-.0.14 + We calculate E(X) using the
100 - 0.28 + 125 - 0.18 + 150 - 0.04 expected value formula.

FAX i 800)

We interpret our results. On average, an employee

who works on a commission basis can expect to
earn $78.50 per day.

Lesson 10.3 * Discrete Random Variables B85

WMS Practice
1. Which of the following statements are Exercises 9-13: Define a random
true? variable for each experiment and state whether
it is discrete or continuous.
I. All discrete random variables can only
take on a finite number of values. 9. Experiment: A person measures their
II. Continuous random variables are height.
countable.
III. All discrete random variables are 10. Experiment: A quality control inspector
countable. examines a shipment of 30 tablets.

A. I only 11. Experiment: A person takes an IQ test.

B. II only
C. Land III only 12. Experiment: A student graduates college.
D. III only
13. Experiment: A person examines their
Exercises 2-8: Determine if each value monthly cellphone bill.
of X is discrete or continuous and list all the
values of X, if possible. If not possible, list the Exercises 14-17: Use each given table
range of values that X can take. to find the value of EX) and interpret its
meaning.
2. X =The average interest rate on a 30-year
mortgage. 14. The probability distribution of a random
variable X.
3. X =The number of text messages a certain
student receives on their phone each day.

4. X =The temperature of a pot of water on

the stove.

5. X =The number of correct answers

on a written driver’s license test with
25 questions.

13. An insurance policy has the following

6. X =The age of a giant redwood tree,
in years. outcomes where _X is the amount paid to
the policyholder.

Bens x S
7. X =The number of gallons of water

sooo[ou
pumped out (per day) at a wastewater
treatment plant.

8. X =The number of stocks in a 30-stock

portfolio that rise in value on a given day.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

556 Probability and Statistics

 16. DVD sales per day, X, for a given KAA 18. Your teacher surveys the class on
salesperson. everyone’s favorite number between 1
and 10. The results are as follows:

17. The random variable X is the amount

won on a scratch-off lottery ticket.

What is the expected favorite number?

Round to the nearest hundredth if necessary.

Lesson 10.4
Discrete Probability Distributions and
More on Expected Value
In Lesson 10.3 we introduced and defined discrete and continuous
random variables as well as tabular displays of discrete random
variables. In this lesson we continue this work by discussing graphs of
discrete probability distributions, describing the long-term behavior of
random variables, and making connections to expected values.

MH Graphing Discrete Probability Distributions

In order to understand any real-life situation related 10
to a discrete random variable, it is crucial to know all
the values of the random variable, X, and each
associated probability. Previously, these values were
presented to you in tabular form, but recall that we
can also use a graph, called a histogram, to show these Frequency
relationships. A histogram is a type of bar chart with
the values of the random variable on the horizontal
axis and the frequency of each x-value on the vertical
axis, as shown on the right. We demonstrate concepts
Number
related to histograms in the following model problems.
eee
Lesson 10.4 * Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value 557
 MODEL PROBLEMS

(v8) Consider the following histogram, which shows the number of children in
households in a certain city by frequency. Create a tabular probability distribution
for the number of children in a household. What is the expected number of children
per household in this city?
30

WN
NSo
OT

= ies)

Frequency

TE aE a UI ee ae ay:
Number of Children

SOLUTION
We read the histogram above. The x-axis represents the number of children per
household and the y-axis is the frequency. We use this information to create the
tabular probability distribution.

We use our tabular probability distribution to determine EX) 04a Ve 0990 4

0.23-340.10-4+013-5+0.06-6+0.05-7=3.17 children per household.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

NS

558 Probability and Statistics

2. Arandom sampling of households indicating the relative frequency of the number
of cars per household is shown below.

Number of Cars (X)

ih
Ds
3
4

Consider the experiment of selecting a household at random from this sample.

a What is the discrete random variable in this scenario?
b= Make a histogram of the probability distribution of the discrete random variable,
X, based on the table above.
c What is E(X)?

SOLUTION
a _ In this scenario the discrete random variable, X, is the number of cars per
household.

b y We make a histogram using the

data in the tabular display.

ed S)

Frequency

Number of Cars

ce E(X)=0-0.08+1-0.33+2-0.37+3-0.10+ We again use the formula for

4.0.07 +5 - 0.05 = 1.9 cars per household. E(X).

eee
Lesson 10.4 * Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value 559
We can use our graphing calculators to plot a histogram, which is a good
way to visualize and understand data trends.

of your classmates: 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1, 0, 2, 0, 1, 0, 4, 19, 2, 1, 2, 1, 1, 1,

0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 5, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0.
Step I: Enter the data in list L, by pressing (STAT), 1: Edit, and
selecting L, Be sure to press enter after every entry. For
example, for the first 3 numbers, you would press 0
3 2 (ENTER].
Step 2: Clear out any functions or plots that are active in the
editor.

Step 3: Press to access the Stat Plots menu. Select Plot 1.

Change the plot to On, the type to histogram (first row, third
option), and make sure the Xlist is L,. Exit out of the Stat
Plots menu by pressing (2nd][MODE).

Step 4: Now, we graph our data by pressing (ZOOM), then selecting

9: ZOOMStat.

:2Standard
2lrig
Z2Integer
ZoomStat
ZOOMF it

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY | continues...

560 Probability and Statistics

 Step 3: The histogram produced by the calculator is not easy to read. Let’s fix that by
changing the window settings so that a single bar represents each x-value. We do
this by scrolling down to Xscl and changing the value to 1. We adjust the other
window parameters as shown and then press (GRAPH).

Step 6: With the histogram plotted, we can analyze the data. Generally, our classmates
have 0, 1, or 2 pets. The most popular number of pets to own is 1. It is less likely that
people own more than a single pet.

Exercises 1 — 3: Plot the histograms for the following data. Sketch what you see on
your screen. Provide a brief analysis of the data as shown in step 6 above.

I. On one particular school day, your teacher notes when students came into class. Negative
numbers mean a student is early, 0 means they’re on time, and a positive number means
they redate: 5,24, 6, 1.3) 2,10) 2, 6,—2, —5, —1, 0,.0,0, 0, 0;0,.0,; 0,0,0,,0; 0, 0,0, 0; 0,0, 0, —3,
24) e20.10; 22. 20.
2. Your teacher notes the scores of the last test were 100, 67, 34, 75, 12, 98, 45, 67, 34, 85, 24,
O57 1503 LOO 1009952917980) 92° 75; 94096533) 73, 41; 27,60, 79, 88, 57 44, 100, 17

3. The number of siblings each of your classmates have is 0, 1, 1,1, 1,5,2,3,1,1,1,1,0,0,1,

eee
vee eee to Or Oe Oat

Mi Long-Term Behavior of Random Variables

Thus far we have examined the expected value of random discrete
variables. It is important to emphasize that the true expected value,
E(X), is the mean of the distribution. It is the long-term average of
repeating an experiment an infinite number of times. For example, were
we able to sample an infinite number of groups of households to see
how many cars they own, we would expect the average number of cars
owned to approach 1.9. In fact, the larger the number of trials, the closer
the experimental average will approach the true expected value. This is
referred to as the Law of Large Numbers. We can use the law of large
numbers to confirm the results of experiments as well as to predict the
long-term behavior of random variables.

ae i ES
Lesson 10.4 * Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value 561
 MODEL PROBLEMS

1. The expected value of the average number of heads appearing for a sequence of
throws is 0.50. Suppose three friends flip a coin 1, 10, 50, 100, and 1,000 times and
the mean number of heads that appear is recorded as shown below.
Friend 1
Number of Trials
Mean Number of Heads

Friend 2
Number of Trials
Mean Number of Heads =)=)

Friend 3

1,000
Mean Number of Heads ee
1 Ores Ee :

Are the models generated by the three friends flipping a coin consistent with the law
of large numbers?

SOLUTION
We need to analyze the results the friends recorded against the law of large numbers,
which states that the mean of an increased number of trials will approach the true
expected value, which is 0.50 for this experiment. For the results from Friend 1, we see
that as the number of trials increases, the mean number of heads gets closer and closer
to the expected value. This is consistent with the law of large numbers. For Friend 2,
although the mean number of heads that appeared is slightly further from 0.5 after
1,000 trials, these results could be consistent with the law of large numbers. The results
from Friend 3, however, are not consistent with the law of large numbers. It is not
possible that after 1,000 trials that the probability could be so far off from 0.5.

2. Consider the data presented in Model Problem #2 on page 559 and repeated again below.
Suppose that you had a random sample of 5,000
households with data on how many cars each
household owned. Based on the relative frequencies
on the right, how likely is each of the following?
a __Every household in the sample owned
at least one car.
b 1,800 households had 1 car.
¢ 1,150 households owned at least 3 cars.
d= = 750 households owned more than 5 cars.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

562 Probability and Statistics

 SOLUTION
For this problem we will use our data and the law of large numbers to analyze
potential scenarios.
a It is unlikely that this statement is true, as 8% of households do not own a car.

b We calculate that (0.33)(5000) = 1,650 households. This scenario is somewhat

likely as 1,800 is somewhat close to 1,650.

c We total the given relative frequencies for households with at least 3 cars as
0.10 + 0.07 + 0.05 = 0.22 and determine that (0.22)(5000) = 1,100. As 1,150 is
very close to 1,100, this situation is likely.

d We expect to find (0.05)(5000) = 250 households with 5 cars each. Since the
relative frequencies decrease as the number of cars increases, it is highly
unlikely that 750 households own over 5 cars.

G&S (12) A charity in a large city solicited donations to send children with cancer to
a 3-day camp. Volunteers called city residents’ listed telephone numbers twice, at
different times of day. If no one answered the telephone either time, a donation of
$0 was recorded. Residents who declined to donate were also recorded as $0. The
table below displays the results of the donation drive.

$0 [$20 [$50_| $100

a __- Calculate the expected value of a donation and interpret it in context.
b If the charity conducted the same donation drive next year and contacted
250,000 residents, how much money could they expect to collect?

SOLUTION
a E(X) =0- 0.29 + 20:0.45+50-0.11+ | Weuse the expected value
100 - 0.10 + 200 - 0.05 = $34.50 formula.
If a person was contacted and asked to
donate money to the charity, and this
experiment were repeated an infinite We interpret E(X).
number of times, the average donation
would be $34.50.
b (34.50)(250000) = $8,625,000 We use the value of E(X) to
determine the amount of money
the charity could expect to collect.

SAARRNR TINE ON

eee ee a
Lesson 10.4 * Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value 563
MN Practice
Which of the following are statements are
true?
4.
PH)
I. Generally speaking, the larger the
number of trials, the closer the
experimental mean will be to the
expected value.
II. For an experiment repeated an infinite
number of times, the mean is E(X).

A. Lonly Exercises 5-8: Use the given tabular

B. II only probability distribution and the value of E(X)
C. Land II to determine the value of k.
D. Neither of the listed statements are
true. Serie y= B95

A landscaper knows that the expected

value per lawn cut is $24.51. If, after
mowing 20 lawns, the landscaper has
earned an average of $15.67 per cut,
what would you expect to happen to the
sample mean after she has completed
2,000 cuts?

A. The average should rise from $15.67,

B. The average will be around $20.09.
C. The average will be exactly $24.51.
D. The average will stay the same.

Exercises 3-4: Use the given tabular

probability distribution below to create a
histogram.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

564 Probability and Statistics

Exercises 9=12: For each given 15. Ifa large number of these gaming systems
statement, define X in words and interpret were produced, what would you expect
E(X) in context. the average number of defects to be?

9. The expected number of scoops of ice 16. Interpret your answer to #15 in context.
cream on an ice cream cone ordered from
a certain ice cream store is {| Oe | 7. Explain why it iS unreasonable to Say

that every gaming system will have the

10. The expected number of stocks owned in expected number of defects.
a retiree’s portfolio is 174.
18. A lawyer finds that her mean settlement
11. The expected increase in the price of gas in per accident claim is $3,197.23. How
Maryland for the first week of April is $0.03. much should the lawyer expect to earn
in 20 settled accident claims?
12. A health inspector in New York City
found the expected number of code #7 19. You and your friends are playing a game
violations per restaurant was 3.45. with pair of number cubes. In the course
of the game, you notice that the cubes
Exercises 13-14: The probability of always seem to land with high numbers
a family that has three children having a showing. Using the following distribution,
certain number of female children is listed determine if the number cubes are fair.
below. Explain.

EERE
13. Find E(X) and interpret in context.

14. Create a histogram based on the tabular

probability distribution.

Exercises 15-17: The number of defects

observed in a newly manufactured game
system is a discrete random variable. The
random variable’s probability distribution is
shown below.

~EERGRSESERES
P(X) |0.04|0.12|0.35|0.30|0.10|0.09|

Lesson 10.4 * Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value 565
 Lesson 10.5
Determining and Interpreting Discrete
Probability Distributions

MMHG Determining the Discrete Probability

Distribution for a Discrete Random Variable
In this lesson we continue our discussion of discrete random variables
and their associated probabilities. Up to this point, the variable and
its probability distribution was provided in either tabular or graphical
form. We now work on determining the probability distribution of a
discrete random variable. There are multiple real-life scenarios we can
apply such concepts to, including calculating and establishing lottery
odds and payouts, valuing insurance policies, choosing between real
estate development opportunities, creating strategies for political
candidates, creation of traffic management systems, genetic analysis
and more.

Suppose that we have a fair quarter and we flip it twice. The sample
space for this experiment is {HH, HT, TH, TT}. If we define the random
variable to be the number of tails we observe, then the probability
distribution is

Number of Tails (X) il

Probability P(X)
Recall from Lesson 10.4 that the expected value of a variable, E(X), is
the long-term average of repeating an experiment an infinite number
of times. Similarly, the probability distribution of a discrete random
variable is the long-run proportion of the time the value will occur.
Were we to flip a coin twice, it is unlikely that the results of that single
experiment would exactly match the probability distribution. However,
if we were to flip a coin twice an infinite number of times, then the
results would closely match the calculated distribution.

It is important to note here that when determining a probability

distribution, each possible outcome must be listed and their sum
must be 1.

566 Probability and Statistics

MODEL PROBLEMS

(02) Consider an experiment where three fair coins are each flipped once. Let
the discrete random variable X be the number of heads that appear. Create the
probability distribution for X.

SOLUTION
We determine the sample space for this experiment. It is S = {HHA HHT, HTH, HTT,
THH, THT, TTH, TTT}. Since the coins are fair, each of the eight outcomes is equally
likely. The distribution is as follows:

SSSHSHSHSSSHEHSHSHSHSHSHSSHHSHHSHSHHSHSHSHSHSSHSHSHHSHSHHSHSHHHSHHSHSHHHOHOHSHSHHSHHHSHSHHESEHSEHSEEHHEOHEEE®E

2. We roll two fair number cubes. If X is the sum that appears on the number cubes,
create the probability distribution for X.

SOLUTION
We generate the sample space for X.

There are 36 outcomes that range from 2 to 12. The probability distribution is

BS 28 een [Or |e |Mori|D| FT [B94 |HON rats hia

Lhe |pial olLule th-, lta Magoo beneteee Rat elbad Mla Loe
Meneeculrel igo | 936 | 6 | 36 | 9 | 12 | 18 | 36

We check to make sure all the outcomes are represented and that the sum of the
probabilities is 1.

miami tt 1 Fe
BAL (BHO. ONRSG) 6 36.19° 100118 36

ee eaEEUU UEEEEUEUEEEEEEE SEES

Lesson 10.5 * Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions 567

HEE Using Data to Estimate Probabilities of
Discrete Random Variables
In this lesson we have examined how to create probability distributions
for experiments that involve equally likely outcomes. In many real-life
situations we cannot assume equally likely outcomes. While the basic
idea of the probability distribution remains the same, the process of
computing the probabilities is slightly different.

Suppose that a 2015 Gallup poll showed that of people who had flown
on a commercial airline within the last year, 45% were satisfied with
the comfort of the seats on airplanes. Three people were randomly
selected with replacement from the group who responded to the poll,
and the number of those who were satisfied with the comfort of seats on
airplanes is observed.

We develop a discrete probability distribution for the number of people

in the survey who were satisfied with the comfort of seats on airplanes.
For this sample space, we will let S = satisfied and NS = not satisfied.

Probability
(to the nearest
thousandth)

[8 Joss-055-045| 0136 S - 0. AS 2
[ws [ns [ns _[oss-055-055[
0168 NS 6
We sum the probability column to make sure it totals 1. In this case. the
total is 0.998, which is close but not quite 1, due to round-off error.

Now the probability distribution of X is

Number of Respondents
Satisfied (X) :

0.

568 Probability and Statistics

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. A recent poll indicates that 24% of American adults make all of their consumer
purchases using cash. Suppose that two American adults are chosen at random (with
replacement). The number of those adults who make all their consumer purchases
with cash is observed.
a _ Develop a discrete probability distribution for the number of American adults in
the sample that use cash to pay for all their consumer purchases.
b ~~What is the probability that at least one American adult pays for all their
purchases with cash?

SOLUTION
a We develop the probability distribution, starting with the sample space. We let
C = uses cash for all purchases and NC = does not use cash for all purchases.

: Probability (to the

The distribution is then

Number of Respondents
ii
Who Use Cash (X)

EOS) 0.578 |0.364 |0.

b ‘The probability that at least 1 American adult pays for all their purchases with
casi is;PX 1) = P( 1) P(2) = .0.364550.058 = 0422,

2. When it comes to shopping, 58% of adults access online retailers for price
comparison purposes. Three people are randomly selected, with replacement, from
the group who responded to the poll, and the number who access online retailers for
price comparison purposes is observed.
a _ Develop a discrete probability distribution for the number of adults who access
online retailers for price comparison purposes.

b Calculate the probability that no more than 2 adults in the sample access online
retailers for price comparison purposes.

c Out of the 3 selected adults, how many would you expect to access online
retailers for price comparison purposes?
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
tt
eR UAH rn
NOE REC ALESSI Mtl sti Ze rn
aR ee

a
a aS
Lesson 10.5 * Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions 569
 SOLUTION |
a We let PC = price compares on the Internet and NPC = does not price compare
on the Internet.
: Probability (to the

0580.58 0.2
NPC
NPC | NPC 0.42 - 0.42 - 0.58 0.102
NPC 0.42 -0.58 -0.42 0.102
NPC | 0.42 -0.42-0.42 0.074
The distribution is

Number Accessing the Internet 1 4 3

for Price Comparisons (X) -
0.074 |0.423 |0.306 |0.195
b = The probability that no more than 2 adults in the sample accesses online retailers
for price comparison purposes is 1 — P(3) = 1 — 0.195 = 0.805.

¢ 0-0.074+1-0.423 + We need to calculate E(X). The long-run average

2- 0.306 +3 - 0.195 = 1.62 number of adults in a sample of three that accesses
online retailers for price comparison purposes is 1.62.

CI2Z) The chart below shows the number of cars waiting to access a busy onramp
in Los Angeles over a given period of time.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

570 Probability and Statistics

a __ Create a probability distribution for this data. What is the discrete random
variable?
b Find the probability that there are at least 2 cars are waiting to get on the ramp.

SOLUTION
This problem is slightly different than the ones we have encountered thus far. To
determine the probability distribution, we simply divide each frequency by the total
number of observations. The discrete random variable is the number of cars waiting.

b The probability that at least 2 cars are waiting to get on the ramp is
1 — P(only 1 car is waiting) = 1 = 0.065 = 0.935.

Lesson 10.5 * Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions 571

Wa Practice OE
1. Which of the following statements are true? a Develop a discrete probability
distribution for the number of adults
I. A discrete probability distribution for X in the sample who are satisfied with
always contains all possible values of X. their children’s education.
II. The sum of the probabilities in a
b Out of three randomly selected
probability distribution must be 1.
adults, how many would you expect
III. A probability value can never be
were satisfied with their children’s
negative.
education?
A. I and II only
B. I and II only y 6. Your friend won the office of class
C. If and II only president by a large margin. In fact,
D. All the statements are true. she got 74% of the vote. What is the
probability that you pick three random
2. Consider the probability distribution people who voted and only one voted
shown below. for your friend? Round to the nearest
hundredth, if needed.

ae If a fair spinner with 3 equally sized color

portions, red, green, and blue, is spun
twice, create a probability distribution
for X = number of times the spinner lands
What is the value of PLY = 3)? on red.
A. 0.90 C003
B. 0.60 D. 0.70 Exercises 8=103 The distribution of the
minimum age requirement to work without
Exercises 3-4: Use the given probability restrictions in certain states in the United
distribution to answer the questions. States is shown below.

8. What is the random variable, X?

AMEE sex 10) 9. Create the probability distribution for X.

5. A recent poll revealed that 37% of parents
10. Find the probability that a randomly
with children in grades K — 12 are satisfied
selected state has a minimum age
with the education their children are
requirement of between 17 and 19,
receiving. Three adults are randomly
inclusive, to work without restrictions.
selected with replacement from the
group that responded to this poll, and the
number of adults who are satisfied with
their children’s education is observed.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

572 Probability and Statistics

Exercises 1 1-13: A movie production company asked viewers to rate a new movie after a
private screening. The results are as follows:

Rating (X) | Loved It

If. Create a probability distribution for ¥. Round decimals to the nearest thousandth.

12. Find the probability that a randomly selected individual from this group loved the movie.
Round decimals to the nearest thousandth.

13. What is the probability that a randomly selected individual from this group either liked the
movie or was neutral about it? Round decimals to the nearest thousandth.

14. A recent survey of smartphone users AAS. New York City is the U.S. city with the
found that 42% own a Vision Plus. smallest percentage of households with
Three adults are randomly selected a car. In fact, 56% of households in
with replacement from the group that New York City don’t have a car. What
responded to this poll, and the number of is the probability that if you choose
adults who own a Vision Plus smartphone four random people in New York City,
is observed. that at least three of them don’t have a
car? Round to the nearest hundredth if
a Develop a discrete probability
needed.
distribution for the number of adults
in the sample who own a Vision Plus Exercises 16=-17: Suppose that an
smartphone. Round decimals to the opaque jar contains eight balls. Three balls
nearest thousandth. have the number 0 on them, four balls have
What is the probability that at least the number | on them, and one ball has the
one person owns a Vision Plus number 3 on it.
smartphone? Round decimals to the
nearest thousandth. 16. If one ball is randomly selected,
create the probability distribution that
What is the probability that one or two
represents the number on the ball.
people own a Vision Plus smartphone?
Round decimals to the nearest
17. If two balls are selected without
thousandth.
replacement, create the probability
Out of three randomly selected adults, distribution for the sum of the numbers
how many would you expect to own on the balls.
a Vision Plus smartphone? Round
decimals to the nearest thousandth.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.5 * Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions 573

 18. Estera has a life insurance policy that costs her $500 per year and will pay $50,000 to her
beneficiary in the event of her death. The probability that Estera will die during any given
year is 0.03. If the random variable is the amount of paid to Estera’s beneficiary during a
given year, create the probability distribution of X.

Lesson 10.6
Expected Value and Chance Probabilities

MM Chance Outcomes and Expected Payouts

Over the last few lessons, we have demonstrated that E(X) is the long-
run average of a discrete random variable over an infinite number of
trials. We have looked at several examples where knowing the expected
value of a variable would be helpful, but one of the areas where this
type of calculation is most useful is in games of chance.

Suppose you are at an amusement park that has a goblet

game where an array of different colored goblets is O
arranged so that it is a 10 by 10 square. For $1.00 you O
can roll a large ball that is roughly the diameter of a O
goblet’s mouth into the array. If the ball lands on a O
white goblet, you win $0.25. If the ball lands in a O
light gray goblet your prize is $0.50, the medium gray O
goblet’s prize is $1.00, and if you land the ball in one O
of the tan goblets, you win $5.00. If you play the game O
five times, what is the expected monetary value of the O
prizes you will win?
O OOO@®O0O0C00O
OOCO00C0C@0O
O@®OOCO00CO00O
OOOCCO@0COO0O
Lelerererelerel
OOCO00CO00
OOO0C0@0
OOOCO0
O@®OCO
For this scenario we let X represent the monetary
value of the prize you win in one attempt, in dollars. The probability
distribution is below. Note that we calculated P(X) by counting the
number of each color goblet in the 10 by 10 array, above.

574 Probability and Statistics

The expected monetary value of a single play is then 0.20 + 0.05 + 0.08
+ 0.10 = $0.43. Note that you cannot win exactly $0.43 on any single
turn. This is the long-run average of the winnings that could be expecte
d
should you play the game an infinite number of times. Thus, in five
attempts, the expected value would be 5 - 0.43 = $2.15.

MODEL PROBLEMS

(2738) ~Consider a charity lottery that sells 2,000 tickets for $5.00 each. The prizes
available are as follows:

Each lottery ticket can win only one prize and the price of the ticket is not refundable.
Determine the expected value to a participant who buys a single ticket.

SOLUTION
First, we'd like to point out that since the given problem states that the cost of the
ticket is not refundable, we must subtract the price of a single ticket from each
available prize. This is slightly different than the goblet game scenario described on
pages 574, where we simply asked for the expected value of the prize. We create the
probability distribution.

Now we compute the expected value.

)
We sum the final row of the second table to find E(X) = —$2.25. In the long run, each
purchaser loses $2.25 on a single ticket.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.6 * Expected Value and Chance Probabilities 575

 2. Consider a game where two number cubes are rolled and the sum of the cubes is
computed. If the sum is 2 or 12, the player wins three times their bet. If the sum is
4, 9, 10, or 11, the player wins two times their bet. If any other sum appears, the
player loses their bet. What is the expected value of this game if a player bets $5?

SOLUTION
We determine that the discrete random variable, X, is the amount a player gains
playing one time with a $5 bet. We already determined the potential outcomes that
result from summing two number cubes rolled once (see page xxx).

A). IMO ore 1)

37005700 &

We sum the final column to find E(X) = —$0.83.

3. A roulette wheel contains 38 equally likely slots,

similar to what is shown at the right. The red
slots are numbered 1 - 18 and the black slots
are labeled 19 — 36. The 0 and 00 slots are
gray. In this game, a ball is spun around
the outside rim of the wheel and players
bet on where the ball will land. Payouts
for this game are:

a ee 7
Player bets on a color, | Two times the bet
red or black

pone
Player bets ona
me
30 times the original

Find the value a player can expect to win with a $5 bet on

a black
b 00

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

576 Probability and Statistics

 SOLUTION
For this case, the random variable X is the amount a player can expect to gain
from a
single $5 bet.
Determine the probability that the ball
18 45 will land on black and multiply that
a P(black) = $5 - 38 19 number by the bet. Leave the number as
an improper fraction for now.
Find the probability the ball will not land
P(red or gray) = $5 - 20 ~ 50 on black and multiply that number by
sey ANY) the bet.
45 50
oa oo —$0.26 Subtract and simplify to find E(X).

1 75 Calculate the probability of the ball

b P(00) =150 - —=— landing on 00 and multiply by 30 times
38819
the bet.
P(not 00) =5:- il _ 185 Determine the probability of the ball
38 = 338 landing on a space other than 00.

75 485 M 9u.8
eae —$0.92 Subtract and simplify. Thisme is E(X).

4. Consider again the goblet game example on page 574. The average monetary value
of the prizes won per game is $0.43. What are the expected net earnings for the
amusement park if the game is played 150 times per day? What are the expected net
winnings for a player?

SOLUTION
Begin by computing the player’s net earnings for each of the four possible outcomes:

Cost to Play
White Goblet $0.25 $1.00 —$0.75
Light Gray Goblet $0.50 $1.00 —$0.50
Medium Gray Goblet $1.00 $1.00
Tan Goblet $5.00 $1.00 $4.00

Now we compute E(Y), which is the amount a player is expected to win or lose playing
the goblet game a single time.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.6 * Expected Value and Chance Probabilities 577

 We sum the final column to find that E(Y) =—$0.57 If the game is played 150 times per
day, the park can expect to gain an average of $85.50. An individual player can expect
to win an average of —$0.57 per attempt.

WG Strategy Comparisons
The expected value is quite useful for determining the best strategy
for reaching a certain goal. When playing a game of chance, the best
strategy is always the one that will maximize the expected value.

Consider the following carnival games: ring toss, balloon pop, and skee-
ball. Each game costs $0.25 to play and has collectible tickets as prizes.
The tickets can be used to purchase larger prizes at the ticket counter.
If the prize you would like costs 100 tickets, which game should you
play? The ticket payout distributions are as follows:

Balloon Pop Skee-Ball

Probability IEE Brobabiley

Assume you are fairly equally skilled at each game.

We calculate the expected value for each of the games, finding the value
for the ring toss is 2.61, the balloon pop is 5.38, and for skee-ball, the
expected value is 5.02. To win the maximum number of tickets with
each play, you should focus on the balloon pop.

578 Probability and Statistics

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Consider the model problems on pages 575 — 576 regarding the lottery, betting
on
the sum of number cubes, and roulette. If you had $5 to wager on a game, which
would be the best? Which is the worst? Justify your reasoning.

SOLUTION
The best game to play is the one that has the highest expected value. We summarize
the calculated expected values below.

Betting black in roulette has the best payout value, whereas buying a lottery ticket has
the lowest. However, as all of the expected values for these games are negative, the
best option is to stay home and not play any of the games!

(CT) The state lottery offers several scratch-off games. Two of the games each
cost $5.00 to play and their payout tables are listed below:

If you were to play only one of these games twice a week for the next four weeks,
which one is the better option?

SOLUTION
Determine the expected value for each of the games. For Game A, the expected value is
—$0.85. For Game B, the expected value is —$1.85. Clearly Game A is the better option.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.6 * Expected Value and Chance Probabilities 579

 3. A local club plans to invest $10,000 to host a fundraising concert, and they expect
to sell enough tickets to earn $30,000. After planning the concert, the club finds out
that if it rains on the day of the concert the band will not play. If that happens, they
will have to refund all the ticket sales and they will lose the $10,000 they invested. If
the forecast for the day of concert has a 20% chance of rain, should the club host the
event, assuming it can afford the possible loss?

SOLUTION
We can extend our ideas of expected value beyond simple games of chance. In this
case, the discrete random variable is the gain the club realizes from their concert. We
calculate the probability distribution.

Weather P(Weather Net Gain

Outcome Outcome)

$2,000
$30,000 — $10,000 = $20,000 [
NotRain_|
080 | $16,000
The expected value is $14,000. As this value is larger than the value the club would
earn if they did not hold the concert ($0), they should host the event.

4. A company that manufactures electric razors knows that one out of every 50 razors
is defective. The company, however, doesn’t know which razors are defective until
a customer complains. Suppose the company makes a $3 profit on the sale of any
working razor, but suffers a loss of $80 for every faulty razor because they have to
repair the unit. Can the company expect a profit in the long term?

SOLUTION
We determine the probability distribution for the random variable X = profit per razor
produced.

MLL
LLMA_

Thus, E(X) = $1.34. In the long run, the company will make a profit of $1.34 per
razor,
which is more than the expected value of not manufacturing razors ($0).

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

OME

We

580 Probability and Statistics

 5. A real estate developer has two different alternatives for investment. Investme
nt A
has a 20% chance of a $1,000,000 return, a 30% chance of a $200,000 return,
and a
50% chance of a loss of a $300,000. Investment B has a 75% chance of a $300,000
return and a 25% chance of a loss of $100,000. Which investment makes more
sense?

SOLUTION
Calculate the expected value for each of the investments.

E(A) = 1000000 - 0.20 + 200000 - 0.30 + (-300000) - 0.50 = $110,000

E(B) = 300000 - 0.75 + (-100000) - 0.25 = $200,000
Investment B is the better option based on the expected value.

Ue Ne
Which of the following are true? 3. Which of the following games is the better
option to play based on the expected
I. The expected value for a game of value?
chance represents the long-run
average return for playing that game. Game #1: Roll two number cubes, if
II. The sample average for playing a game their sum is a prime number you win $7,
of chance n times will approach the otherwise you lose $1.
expected value as n approaches infinity. Game #2: Roll two number cubes, if their
III. The best decision when choosing sum is an even number you win $5,
among games of chance is the one otherwise you lose $2.
that gives the largest possible return
A. Game #1
when playing that game one time.
B. Game #2
A. I and II only C. Both have equal expected values.
B. I and II only D. Cannot be determined.
C. I and III only
D. All are true. Exercises 4-6: Determine the expected
value for each game of chance.
~ Two coins are each flipped once. You
will win $2 if two heads or two tails are 4. Onthree rolls of a single number cube, you
showing. You will lose $3 if the result is will lose $10 if a 5 turns up at least once,
a head and a tail. What is the expected but if not, you will win $7
value of this game?
5. Asingle card is drawn from a well-shuffled
A. $2.50 Ce-50.50 standard deck of 52 cards. If the card is a
B. $5.00 D. -$1.00 diamond you win $10, otherwise you lose $4.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.6 * Expected Value and Chance Probabilities 581

 6. A five-card hand is dealt from a well- 12. Recall the goblet game from earlier
shuffled standard deck of 52 cards. If the in this lesson. The current probability
hand contains exactly one diamond you distribution leads the player to an
win $50, otherwise you lose $4. average loss of —$0.57 per game. The park
is considering implementing a change in
Exercises 7-8: Calculate the expected the distribution of goblets as follows:
value for each situation and determine which
is the better option. P(X)
7. Raffle #1: 5,000 raffle tickets are sold for
$1 each. There is 1 grand prize of $500,
3 prizes of $100, 5 prizes of $20, and
20 prizes of $5.
Raffle #2: 10,000 tickets are sold for $2 Will this adjustment favor the players?
each. There are 2 grand prizes of $1,000, Justify your answer.
4 prizes of $500, and 10 prizes of $100.
13 You have $1,500 to invest in the stock
Game #1: Three coins are flipped. If the market. After doing some research, you
result is three heads or three tails, the select two stocks that you are interested
player wins $10. If the result is anything in, which have the following probabilities.
else, the player loses $3. You must choose one stock in which to
invest the entire amount.
Game #2: A number cube is rolled and
then a coin is flipped. If the result is an Stock A: 78% probability of earning
even number on the cube and heads on a 15% profit in the first year,
the coin, the player wins $5; otherwise the a 12% chance of earning no
player loses $2. profit, and a 10% chance of
being worthless.
Suppose that you buy a single lottery ticket
Stock B: 72% probability of earning
for $6 out of a lottery of 1,000 tickets.
an 18% profit in the first year,
There will be one grand prizewinner of
a 15% chance of earning no
$800. What are your expected winnings?
profit, and a 13% chance of
A raffle offers a first prize of $2,000, two being worthless.
prizes of $200, and ten prizes of $20 each. a_ Att first glance, which stock seems to
If 10,000 tickets are sold for 25¢ each, be the better investment?
find the expected winnings for a person b Which stock should you invest in and
buying | ticket. why? Is this what you predicted?

A game has an expected value of $100. It

costs each player $100, but if you win you
receive $100,000 for a net gain of $99,900.
What is the probability of your winning?

582 Probability and Statistics

 Lesson 10.7
Decision Making

MH Fair Decision Making

So far in this chapter we have explored some of the mathematics
of probability, such as multiplication and counting rules as well as
calculating the expected payout in certain scenarios, including games
of chance. We can make decisions based on the expected outcome of
a certain situation, as we did at the end of Lesson 10.6, but how do we
know whether the decision made is fair? And how do we statistically
determine whether a decision is fair?

Consider the following scenario: You and two of your friends, Nanako
and Ansigar, all equally contribute to buy a charity raffle ticket for a
large gift basket and you won! You are able to equitably divide up the
items in the basket with the exception of a new smartphone. In an effort
to determine who gets the new smartphone, you suggest rolling a fair
number cube. If the cube lands on a 1 or 2, you keep the phone. If it lands
on a 3 or 4, Nanako will get the smartphone, and if the number cube lands
on a5 or 6, Ansigar will receive the smartphone. Is this method fair?

In statistics, decisions are statistically fair when one outcome is not

favored over another. The idea of rolling a fair number cube where all
people have an equal chance of receiving the smartphone is statistically
fair.

MODEL PROBLEMS

1. Return to the scenario of the smartphone, above. Nanako does not want to roll a fair
number cube. Instead she would like to number equally sized slips of paper from 1 to 9.
She will place these papers in an opaque bag and shake them well, then choose one
paper without peeking. If the number is a 1, 2, or 3, you will receive the smartphone. If
the number is a 4, 5, or 6, she will take the smartphone, and if the number is a 7, 8, or 9,
Ansigar will receive the smartphone. Is this method statistically fair? Justify your answer.

SOLUTION ae
Yes. Each person has a Ae probability of receiving the smartphone on a single

blind draw. Since one person’s outcome is not favored over the others, the method is
statistically fair.
MODEL PROBLEMS continue...
ELE

Lesson 10.7 * Decision Making 583

 Ansigar disagrees with both the ideas put forth by you and by Nanako. She youl
like to flip a fair coin twice for the smartphone. If the coin comes up heads twice,
you will have the smartphone. If the coin comes up tails twice Nanako can take the
smartphone, and if the coin comes up with one head and one tail, in either order, she
will get the smart phone. Is this method statistically fair? Justify your answer.

SOLUTION aaa! . .
Let’s consider the probabilities involved with this method. When flipping a coin twice,
igen |
the probability of two heads or of two tails is Te which means that you and Nanako

each have a 25% chance of winning. The probability of the coin having a head anda

tail, in either order, is 4; Ansigar has a 50% chance of winning. Since the probability

that Ansigar will win is not equal to the probability that you will win or that Nanako
will win, this method is not fair.

Consider the fair methods of determining who gets to keep the smartphone (rolling
a fair number cube or drawing a number). Are there ways to make either of these
methods unfair, as in flipping a coin? Explain.

SOLUTION
Yes, either of the two methods that were initially fair could be made unfair. In rolling
a number cube, you could replace the cube with one that is unfair, such as one that is
weighted on a side so that a certain number is more likely to appear. In drawing slips
of paper from a bag, if Nanako made her slips of paper twice as large, it would be
relatively simple to feel the difference and choose one that favored her.

In addition to flipping a coin, drawing a slip of paper, or rolling a fair

number cube, random number generators can help us make statistically
fair decisions. A random number generator selects a random number
from a predefined set. Each number in the set has an equal probability
of being chosen and it is not possible to determine which number
will be chosen next based on the previous selections. When using
this method, we must have access to technology such as our graphing
calculators or a computer spreadsheet program. There are also a few
smartphone apps that have random number generators. Prior to the
existence of this technology, mathematicians used random number
tables.

584 Probability and Statistics

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. Several people are waiting to board a passenger train. Unfortunately, due to an

oversight, the economy section of the train is overbooked; there are 135 seats,
but
the company sold 142 tickets. There are two seats available in first class. Suppose
that none of the passengers is willing to give up their economy seat. How could the
agent in charge of boarding use a random number generator to make a fair decision
as to which two passengers are moved to first class and which five must wait for
another train?

SOLUTION
The boarding agent could assign each ticketed passenger a whole number from 1 to 142.
She could then use her random number generator to select two numbers. The passengers
assigned those numbers will have their tickets upgraded to first class. After that, the
passengers assigned the next five numbers chosen will need to wait for a later train.

Technology
Activity 2

Our graphing calculator is capable of random number generation. We can use this functionality to
simulate experiments such as flipping a coin, drawing a card from a deck, rolling a number cube, etc.

Simulate spinning a fair spinner of the following colors: red, yellow, green,
blue, and purple. Determine the probability distribution if each of the
colors is equally likely to come up and the person spins the spinner
50 times.
Step I: First, we need to reset the random number generator.
You only really need to do this once, but you can do it
for each trial if you’d like. Enter a random number. In the
home screen, type 42430, then press [STO], [MATH], arrow
over to PRB, then select 1: rand. Press [ENTER].

Step 2: Before we use the random number generator, we need

to assign numbers to the possibilities given. We'll choose 1
for red, 2 for yellow, 3 for green, 4 for blue, and 5 for purple.

Step 3: We will now generate the random numbers by pressing [MATH],

arrowing to PRB, then selecting 5: randInt. Next, we enter
numbers into the randInt function. The syntax is
randInt (lower limit, upper limit, number of trials),
randInt(1, 5,50) for this example.
ee ( ) P TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

Lesson 10.7 * Decision Making 585

 Step 4: We are given a list of
50 numbers, which is
a lot to sort through
and categorize. To make
it significantly easier,
we will put the numbers
into a list. Press [STO], [2nd],
[STAT], select NAMES, and
L1. Note that L1 needs to
be an empty list for this
action to work.

Step 5: Sort the list by pressing

STAT, 2: SortA. Then
enter L1 as the argument. SortAcli >
This will sort the list in Done
L1 in ascending order.

Step 6: Now, we can easily count the number of 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, and 5s in the list, meaning we know
exactly how many times the spinner landed on red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. For
the random numbers generated by our calculator, the spinner landed on red 11 times,
yellow 11 times, green 5 times, blue 13 times, and purple 10 times. This is somewhat
different than the expected 10 times the spinner should have landed on each color.

Exercises 1-3: For each of the following experiments, state the expected distribution,
then use the random number generator on your graphing calculator to run the
experiment. Record your results and compare them to the expected distribution.

1. Rolla fair number cube 100 times.

2. Filip a fair coin 60 times.

3. Survey 80 people and ask which month they were born in.

Ws Fairness in Games
In Lesson 10.6, we determined the amount we could expect to win in
certain carnival games and in other more realistic scenarios. But how do
we know that certain games or situations are fair to us as consumers?
And how are these concepts related to the expected value? In statistics,
a game you must pay to play is fair to both the player and the operator
when the expected winnings are exactly the value of the cost to play. If
the expected value of the winnings is less than the cost to play, the game
is favored toward the operator. If the expected value of the winnings
is
more than the cost to play, the game is favored toward the player.

586 Probability and Statistics

Suppose that your favorite carnival is in town. You are excited to see
that they have a new game, which costs $1.00 to play. In the game, the
operator places 6 equally sized and shaped chips into a bag and mixes
them up. Three of the chips are labeled $0.50, two are labeled $1.00, and
one of the chips is labeled $5.00. You reach in and draw out a single
chip, winning the amount shown. Is this a fair game?

To answer this question, we need to examine the outcomes and the

probabilities those outcomes will occur.

Probability
$0.50 au 0.50
|

$1.00 = 0.33

$5.00 17
Be

The expected winnings for a single play of this game are 0.50(0.50) +
1.00(0.33) + 5.00(0.17) = $1.43. Recall that this is the long-term average
of the winnings that could be expected should you play the game an
infinite number of times, and it is greater than the amount you paid to
play the game. Statistically speaking, the game favors the player.

MODEL PROBLEMS

@ (20284 The manager of the carnival doesn’t like how much money they are losing
on the game described above. She decides to keep the number and distribution of
the chips in the bag the same, but she changes the top prize from $5.00 to $2.00.
Is the game now fair?

SOLUTION
Since the number and distribution of the chips is the same, we only need to recalculate
the expected winnings from playing the game. It is now 0.50(0.50) + 1.00(0.33) +
2.00(0.17) = $0.92. The game now favors the operator.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.7 * Decision Making 587

 2. Brigitta buys a scratch-off lotto ticket for $2.00 that has five squares on it. Four of
the squares have a $1.00 amount hidden under each and one of the squares has a
$20.00 amount hidden. Brigitta must choose two of the squares to scratch off and
she will win the sum of the amount shown on the ticket.
a _ Determine the probability distribution for this game.
b Is this a fair game? Justify your answer.

SOLUTION
a _ Let the letters A — E represent the squares on the lotto ticket, where square E
hides the $20.00 amount. The possible outcomes are S = {AB, AC, AD, AE, BC,
BD, BE, CD, CE, DE}. The winnings associated with these outcomes are

[Outcomes] AB | ac | aD | Az | Bc | BD | BE | CD | CE | DE
There are 10 possible outcomes with varied winnings. We use this information to
create the probability distribution.

Probability
6
$2.000 r
—=().60

4
21.00 —= 0.40

b We calculate the expected value as 2.00(0.60) + 21.00(0.40) = $9.60. The game

favors the player as the cost to play is less than the value you can expect to win.

3. Congratulations! You have won $20! Now, I can give you your winnings, or you can
choose to play my game. I have 6 envelopes. One of them contains $0, two of them
each have a single $5, two contain $20 each, and one envelope has $50 in it! What
would you like to do? Explain your reasoning. Probability

SOLUTION
$0 l S —_~
We start by determining the probability distribution ae
D|
5 ‘

for this game.

$5.00 = 0.33
If we play the game, we can expect to win
0(0.17) + 5(0.33) + 20(0.33) + 50(0.17) = $16.75.
$20.00 = 0.33
This value means the game is not statistically
ee
fair to the player, and you should simply take
your $20 winnings. $50.00 = 0.17
|r

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

588 Probability and Statistics

 4. Consider again the game offered to you in Model Problem #3. We determined that it was
Statistically unfair to the player. What changes could be made in order to make it fair?

SOLUTION
There are a variety of ways in which we might make this game fair. We could increase
the amount of money offered in each envelope, eliminate the envelope with a prize
of $0, or we could change the distribution of prize money. We could also choose more
than one of these methods.

[C223 Lina is buying a new car, which comes with a three-year limited warranty.
The dealership offers her an extended warranty plan that will fully cover repairs
to the car’s engine for an additional two years beyond the three offered by the
manufacturer. Lina estimates that the probability her car will need a major repair
costing at least $500 in the fourth year of ownership is about 8% and the probability
her car will need a major repair costing at least $500 in the fifth year of ownership is
about 15%. If the extended warranty plan costs $99, should Lina buy it?

SOLUTION
500(0.08) + 500(0.15) = $115.00 We determine the expected cost of repairs
in the fourth and fifth years of ownership.
The expected value of the repairs Lina’s car will need exceed the cost of the warranty,
so she should purchase the plan.

WH Practice
1. Which of the following best describes the concept of fairness in statistics?

A. The probability distribution is not uniform.

B. No possible outcome is favored over other possible outcomes.
C. The outcomes are sequentially ordered.
D. A single possible outcome has a significantly higher probability than the other outcomes.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.7 * Decision Making 589

 2. Is the following situation fair? You are 6. A hiring manager cannot decide between
playing a game where it costs $1.00 to roll three equally qualified candidates. She
a pair of fair number cubes. If the sum of decides to spin a spinner that is divided
the roll is 7 you win $3.00. If the sum is into three sections such that 50% of the
not 7 you win $0. area is red, 25% of the area is green, and
25% of the area is blue.
A. Yes, the game is fair because you can
win $3.00. 7 As the least senior staff, you and two other
B. No, the game is not fair because the cost coworkers must decide who is going to work
to play is equal to the expected value. the Spm to 11pm shift this Friday night.
C. Yes, the game is fair because the amount
a Determine a statistically fair way to
you can win is greater than the cost to
decide who works.
play.
D. No, the game is not fair because the cost b Determine a method that will favor
to play is more than the expected value. you so you do not have to work this
Friday night.
&s e A random number generator can be used to
Describe a situation in which a random
A. make statistically fair decisions. number generator would be a statistically
B. find the outcomes of certain scenarios. fair way in which to make a decision.
C. calculate the probability distribution
of games. Exercises 9=I1 1: Determine if each
D. determine if a decision was statistically presented game is fair. Justify your answers.
fair.
9. A game that costs $1.00 to play provides
Exercises 4-6: Determine if each presented the player with a single coin to flip. If the
method is statistically fair. Justify your answers. player flips tails, the game ends. If the
4. Neria and her sister Maui are fighting player flips heads, the game continues for
over who gets to play a certain character
up to three flips. The player is paid $1.00
for each head. If all three flips result in
in a video game. Their mother has had
heads, the player wins $3.00 plus a $2.00
enough. She says that she will roll a fair
bonus.
number cube to determine who gets to
play the character. If the number cube
In an Internet sweepstakes, players must
lands on a 2,4, or 6, Neria will play the
print out and mail in an entry form.
character. If the number cube lands on a
The cost to play is $0.45 (the cost of
1,3, or 5, Maui will play the character.
the stamp), and the prize is $6,000,000.
The coach of a t-ball team needs to decide A single player has a 1 in 256,000,000
the order in which her team will bat. All chance of winning.
the children can be considered equally
The cost to buy a ticket in a charity raffle
skilled, so she decides to assign each child
is $5.00. The grand prize is $12,000. The
a number and then use a random number
probability you will win the grand prize
generator to pick the batting order.
is 1 in 3,000.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

590 Probability and Statistics

 12. Suppose that Jeanie is renting an a How much should the carnival
apartment for the first time. She manager charge each player so that
decides to buy renter’s insurance to this game is fair?
protect her belongings in case of fire,
flood, or a break-in. She estimates the b The carnival manager decides to
probability that she will need to make charge each player $2.00 per throw.
If 200 people play this game each
a claim on the insurance to be 0.05 for
weekday, what is the carnival’s net
the year. She must choose between two
companies. Company A will pay claims SHON
up to $2,500 and the annual premium is ¢ How many prizes will the carnival
$150. Company B will pay claims up to need for a typical weekend if 250
$3,500 and the annual premium is $165. people play on Saturday and on
Which company is offering Jeanie a fair Sunday?
premium?
14. Your parents gave you a tablet for your
13. A carnival manager is trying to determine birthday. It came with the option of
how much to charge for a new game. In purchasing an extended warranty that
the game, a player throws a ball at a stack provides a free replacement tablet should
of milk bottles. If the player knocks all your original become water damaged
the milk bottles off the platform, they win within the first 6 months. You estimate
a stuffed animal that costs the carnival the probability of water damaging your
$10.00. If not all the milk bottles fall off tablet in that time to be about 20%.
the platform the player wins nothing. The The cost of a new tablet is $349 and the
probability that a player will knock the warranty costs $59.95. Should you buy the
milk bottles off the platform on any single extended warranty? Justify your answer.
throw is 0.08.

Lesson 10.8
Decision Analysis

MH Using Probability to Guide Decisions

In previous lessons in this chapter, we used a variety of measures to
analyze game outcomes, scenarios, and make decisions. In this lesson,
we focus on pulling all those ideas together so we may use probability
to make decisions that are advantageous to an individual and their
goals. We will also revisit some ideas from previous math courses.

Lesson 10.8 * Decision Analysis 591

 MODEL PROBLEMS

(24 Citra is a high school senior who is pondering several college major choices.
She thinks she might like to major in nursing, engineering, creative writing, or
psychology. For the college she has selected, the graduation rates for each program,
as well as the expected average annual earnings for that career, are listed below.

Ts
oe
|Program
en _ SsonBae PG REE
shi
z
Nursing $55,000
Engineering $95,000
Creative Writing $37,000
Psychology $42,000

Which career will maximize Citra’s annual earnings with respect to her probability of
graduating from the program?

SOLUTION
Citra’s best career will maximize the expected average annual earnings with respect to
the probability of graduation. We calculate as follows:

E(Nursing) = 55000(0.70) = $38,500

E(Engineering) = 95000(0.50) = $47,500
E(Creative Writing) = 37000(0.90) = $33,300
E(Psychology) = 42000(0.80) = $33,600

Based on this measure, Citra should become an engineering major.

2. At your school carnival, there are raffle tickets available for five different prizes, A,
B, C, D, and E. The tickets are for specific prizes, so if you would like a chance to
win prize A, you must buy a ticket for prize A. Each ticket costs the same regardless
of the prize you can win with it. A carnival volunteer tells you that they have sold
264 tickets for prize A, 365 for prize B, 115 for prize C, 922 for prize D, and 543 for
prize E. If you want to maximize your probability of winning any prize and can
buy
only one ticket, for which prize should you buy a ticket?

SOLUTION
Suppose that the drawing for the prizes is held immediately after you
buy a ticket.
Your estimated probability of winning each prize is as follows:

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

592 Probability and Statistics

 Unsurprisingly, your best chance of winning comes from the prize with the fewest
number of tickets sold, prize C.

3. Mariel is playing a game that uses only the jacks, queens, kings, and aces from a
standard deck of cards. The cards are shuffled and Mariel will choose four cards at
random; she is trying to draw four cards that are of the same suit. In the game she
has the option of choosing all four cards at once, or she can choose two cards, return
the cards to the deck, reshuffle, and then choose the remaining two cards. Which
alternative should Mariel choose? Why?

SOLUTION
For this scenario, we choose between using replacement and not using replacement.
P(same suit) = We begin by calculating the
P(diamonds) + P(hearts) + P(clubs) + P(spades) = probability of drawing four
We \e ey ays cards of the same suit with
5 (=) (2) = 0.0088 replacement.

P(same suit) = Now we calculate the

P(diamonds) + P(hearts) + P(clubs) + P(spades) = probability without
replacement.
4. x een |ea] [ok = 0.0015
LOS) CLG 16) 16

Since the probability of drawing four cards of the

same suit is higher with replacement than without,
Mariel should choose to use replacement.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.8 * Decision Analysis 593

 4. A candidate running for public office is organizing a fundraising drive. She and her
team determine that they can send out a general mailing with follow-up material,
or they can send volunteers out to do door-to-door solicitation with follow-up
telephone calls. It is known from past fundraising drives, that:

General Mailing with Follow-Up Door-to-Door Solicitation with Follow-Up

Probability of return Probability of return
0.30 0.30
020 0:10
050
What is the expected return for each option? Which option should the candidate
choose? Why?

SOLUTION
E(mailing) = 10(0.30) + 5(0.20) + 0 (0.50) = $4 We calculate the expected
E(door-to-door) = 15(0.30) + 3(0.10) + 0(0.60) = $4.80 value for each option.

The candidate should choose to send volunteers

door-to-door because the expected value is higher
than sending a mailing.

5. After careful testing and analysis, an oil company is considering drilling in two
different sites. Site A has a 20% probability of generating $60 million and an 80%
probability of generating a $4 million loss. Site B has a 10% probability of netting
the company $80 million and a 90% probability of losing the company $5 million.
Discuss which site is better for the company to drill in.

SOLUTION
F(A) = 60(0.20) — 4(0.80) = $8.8 million The expected values of both sites.
E(B) = 80(0.10) — 5(0.90) = $3.5 million
Based on the expected value alone, Site A is the better choice.

MMMM Using Probability to Analyze Outcomes

Often we would like to know whether the results of an experiment are
likely to happen. For example, if we flipped a single coin ten times and
all ten results were heads, is it likely that coin was fair? We can use
probability as well as the expected value of discrete random variables
to
help us answer questions such as these.

594. Probability and Statistics

MODEL PROBLEMS

[CGM Naira buys a large bag of candy. The package labeling states that there
are a roughly equal number of red, orange, yellow, and blue candies. Naira opens
the bag and randomly selects 12 candies, all of which are red. Do the results of this
experiment contradict the company’s package labeling? Explain.

SOLUTION
If the package contained a roughly equal number of each color of candy, then a sample
of 12 should have contained about three each of red, orange, yellow, and blue. The
probability of randomly selecting 12 red candies from a bag where there were about
te
an equal number of each color is *) = 0).00000006, which is highly unlikely. Thus

the results of this informal experiment cause us to doubt the company’s claim on the
candy package.

2. A pool of equally qualified candidates has applied for 4 available promotions within
a company. Of the pool, 3 applicants are female and 4 applicants are male. When the
promotions are announced, 3 of the people promoted are male and 1 of the people
promoted is female. When the person in charge of determining who is promoted is
questioned, he states that he randomly selected the people to be promoted since
they were all equally qualified.
a___ If the person in charge did use random selection to choose whom to promote,
what is the probability that 4 males and 0 females would be chosen from the
pool?
b Do you think the person in charge of deciding the promotions showed a
preference for the male candidates? Explain.

SOLUTION

a Nhe P21) Sens Determine the probability.

TIL OJ SJL 4

b Using random selection, there is a 2.9%

probability that all four males would be
selected. There is evidence that the person in
charge of determining who was promoted had a
preference for the male candidates.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.8 * Decision Analysis 595

 3. Bente is the eldest of five siblings. She is in charge of determining which siblings
handle four daily chores. To be fair, Bente writes the names of each sibling on a slip
of paper and puts them in a bag. Each afternoon she draws four names to complete
the chores. After eight days, Bente’s younger sister, Nuka, notices that Bente’s name
has not yet been drawn from the bag. She accuses her older sister of not drawing
names fairly from the bag.
a Does Nuka have a valid argument? Why or why not?
b Suppose that another 10 days pass and Bente’s name has still not been drawn from
the bag. What is the probability this would happen if Bente were drawing names
fairly?

SOLUTION
1) We determine the probability that
a P(Bente not chosen) = [1‘|= 0.168 Bente’s name would not have been
drawn after 8 days.
While itis not impossible that Bente’s name would not have been chosen after
8 days, Nuka might reasonably begin to doubt Bente’s claim that she is randomly
selecting names from the bag each day.
1)8 We determine the probability that
b P(Bente not chosen) = [| ~ 0.018 Bente’s name would not have been
drawn after 18 days.

MB Practice. oemic so 5 es
I. You have $250,000 to invest for a year. If you put all your money in the stock market, there
is a 50% probability that you will net a return of $40,000. There is, however, also a 20%
chance that you'll lose $20,000 and a 30% chance that the market will really decline and
you'll lose $50,000. If you put all your money in the bank, there is a 95% percent chance
that you'll earn $17,500 in interest over the year. There is a very small chance, 5%, that the
bank will go broke, and since FDIC insurance covers only $100,000 worth of deposits per
account, you would lose $150,000. Which investment should be made and why?

2. Satomi has a very serious illness for which doctors have recommended surgery. The
possible
outcomes of the surgery are as follows:

Probability
Recover, live another 50 years
Recover, live another 20 years
Die during the operation

If Satomi does not have the operation, there is a 60% chance that
she will live only another
five years. There is a 15% percent chance that she will live 15 years.
And there is a 25% chance
that she will spontaneously recover and live 50 years. Should she
have the operation? Why?
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
596 Probability and Statistics
3. Hedvika is choosing between three used cars, all of which are priced the same. The
outcomes
and probabilities associated with each car are listed.

a Outcome
| rpbabilty
Spend $400 to tune up the engine.
Car 1 :
Spend $2,000 to rebuild engine.
ews Car works fine; no additional repairs needed.
(Us Make $200 in minor repairs to pass emissions test.
Spend $5,000 for California smog conversion.
Spend $800 to repair transmission. roc
Car 3 |Spend $100 for small engine repair.
Spend $1,600 to rebuild transmission.
Which car should Hedvika buy? Justify your answer mathematically.

4. Pallavi, a professional diver, is asked to assist a large company in salvaging one of three
sunken treasure ships off the coast of Florida. Her only problem is determining which ship
to salvage. Each ship can be salvaged, but there is some uncertainty as to whether any of
the ships have already been salvaged (meaning there is no treasure left on board). Judging
by the records of each ship’s inventory Pallavi determines:

$5,000,000
Jules’ Revenge $3,000,000
The JRH
$4,000,000

If the ship chosen has already been salvaged, the cost of the salvage will be a loss to the
company. Which ship should Pallavi recommend salvaging? Support your answer using
expected values. Note that although the salvage cost will need to be paid regardless of
treasure found, it should be included in your expected value calculations.

5. Thekla sells you a coin that she claims is weighted toward tails. You flip the coin 5 times and
find that tails results 3 of the 5 times.

a_ If the coin were fair, what is the probability that you would flip Number of Tails
the coin 5 times and have three tails result? (out of 10)
b How does the outcome of a fair coin compare to your results?
c You are not sure the coin is really weighted toward tails, so you
flip the coin in sets of 10, recording the results, as shown at the right.
Does the coin appear to be weighted toward tails? Explain.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 10.8 * Decision Analysis 597

 6. In two groups of students, group A has 5 male 10. The annual return of a particular mutual
students and 15 female students, group B fund is advertised at 8%. We take a
has 10 male students and 10 female students. random sample of 500 annual returns of
A teacher claims to randomly select three this mutual fund for the last five years and
students from each of group A and group find that the mean rate of return is 6%.
B. From group A three males students were What does this indicate about the average
chosen and from group B three female rate of return of the mutual fund?
students were chosen. Do you think the
teacher was randomly selecting students Consider the famous Monty Hall
from each group? Justify your answer. problem. There is a game show where a
contestant can choose one of three doors.
7. In a certain town, 90% of people with Behind one door is a brand new car and
children have at least three people living behind the other two doors are donkeys.
in their household, and 15% of people Assume the contestant wants to win the
without children have at least three people car. After the contestant makes her first
living in their household. Eight households pick, the host reveals one of the doors
are randomly chosen and it is found that with the donkey behind it. From there,
five of the households have children, and the contestant must determine if she
four of those five have only two people should stay with her original selection or
living in the house. Were the households switch her choice to the other door.
randomly chosen? Justify your answer.
At the beginning of the game, what is
There are two urns sitting on a table.
the probability that the contestant has
The red urn contains 2 dimes and
chosen the door with the car behind
6 pennies while the blue urn contains
it? Make a list of the possible ways the
1 dime and 8 pennies. Suppose that a
prizes can be ordered behind the doors,
single urn is chosen randomly and two
highlighting the contestant’s choice in
coins are drawn out without replacement.
each situation.
If both coins are pennies, which urn was
Simulate the host revealing one of
the more likely one chosen? Support your
the losing doors to the contestant
answer mathematically.
by crossing it off in each of your
9. Your friend claims to be rolling a fair outcomes.
number cube, but in 10 rolls, you notice At the end of the game, should the
that the number 6 comes up 5 times. contestant stick with her original
choice or switch to the other door?
a_ Based on these results, is there reason Explain.
to suspect the number cube is unfair?
b How could you test to see if the
number cube is truly fair?
¢ Suppose that your friend rolls the same
number cube 10 more times and the
number 6 only shows up twice. Now
what do you think about the fairness of
the number cube? Justify your answer.
—_—_———————

598 Probability and Statistics

Chapter 10 Key Ideas
10.1 Multiplication and Counting Rules
e Calculate the probability of two independent events occurring by multiplying the
probability of one event by the probability of the other.
° Ifthe outcome of one event affects the outcome of a second event, the events are dependent.
¢ Conditional probability, P(A|B), is the probability that an event A occurs given that an
event B has already occurred.
e Use tree diagrams and the fundamental counting principle to determine the number of
total of outcomes possible for a given sample space.
e Permutations count the number of ways objects can be arranged when the order is
important.
e Combinations count the number of ways objects can be arranged when the order is not
important.

[0.2 Pascal’s Triangle and Binomial Theorem

e The numbers in each row of Pascal’s Triangle reveal a pattern that provides the values of
the coefficients for binomial expansion (a + b)".

e The formula ama finds the coefficient for the k + 1 term in the expansion of
Coane kK} k\(n-k)!

¢ Binomial theorem represents the expansion of the power of a binomial expression as a

sum: (a+b) n
=) n
Gales
n—-k Lk

aK

10.3 Discrete Random Variables

e A discrete random variable takes on only countable values.
e Acontinuous random variable can take on any value in its range.
e A discrete probability distribution lists the possible outcomes for a discrete random
variable along with the probability that each outcome will occur.
e Find the expected value, E(x), of a probability distribution by summing the products of the
values of the possible outcomes, x,, multiplied by their respective probabilities, P(x,).

KEY IDEAS continue...

Lesson |0 Key Ideas 599

 10.4 Discrete Probability Distributions and More on Expected Value
e Frequency tables, dot plots, and histograms can be useful representations to display
probability distributions and expected values.
¢ The law of large numbers states that as the number of trials increase in an experiment, the
experimental mean will approach the expected value.

10.5 Determining and Interpreting Discrete Probability Distributions

¢ Known statistics can help to create and interpret theoretical probability distributions for
a discrete random variable, where all known outcomes are listed and the total probability
has a sum equal to 1.
e The expected value of a random variable is helpful in determining the best strategy for
reaching goals.

10.6 Expected Value and Chance Probabilities

e We can use the expected value of a variable to predict the long-term gains (or losses) for
real-world applications such as business investments, raffles, and games.

10.7 Decision Making

e In statistics, a game is fair to the paying player if the expected winnings are equal to or
greater than the cost incurred to play the game.

10.8 Decision Analysis

e Probability and expected value work together to help make real-world decisions in
scenarios such as fairness in games, advertising claims and purchasing choices.

Chapter 10 Review
1. What is the 3“ term of (2a + 7b)°? 3. A cafeteria offers 3 choices for a main
course, 2 choices for dessert, and
P9200Db (Case en 5 choices for a beverage. How many
B. 10a°*b? D. 3920a°*b? different options are there for a lunch
that consists of one main course, one
2. Two events,A and B, are independent. dessert and one beverage?
If P(A) =0.5 and P(A and B) = 0.1,
what is P(B)?
CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

600 Probability and Statistics

 4. A library wants to display books about 11. A card is drawn from a well-shuffled
summer vacation trips. There is room standard deck of 52 cards, the color of the
on the shelf to display 8 books, but the card is recorded, and the card is replaced
library has 15 books about summer in the deck. This process occurs three
vacation trips. How many different ways times. Let X be defined as the discrete
can the library choose 8 books to put on random variable of the number of red
display? The order that the books are put cards that are drawn from the deck.
on the shelf does not matter. Create a probability distribution for X.

5. What are the values of the coefficients,in 12. Ina survey of adults with small children
order, for the expansion of (a + b)*? between the ages of 0 and 5, 24% of the
adults reported getting the recommended
6. Expand (3x + 2y)’. 8 hours of sleep each night. Two people are
selected from the survey, with replacement,
7. Consider the probability distribution
and the number of adults who reported
shown in the table. Calculate the
getting the recommended amount of
expected value, E(X).
sleep is recorded. What is the probability
Score on 70 that both people selected are getting the
Math Test, X recommended amount of sleep?
. : .40 | 0.2
Exercises 13-152 Ina carnival
:
game, you
8. Describe the difference between a discrete pay $2 for the chance to pick up a plastic duck
and a continuous random variable. Give floating in a pool. There are 50 total ducks
an example of each. in the pool, 10 of which have a star and 2 of
which have a heart painted on the bottom. The
9. The table below shows the number of times _ rest of the ducks do not have a symbol painted
a head was flipped on a fair coin for a on the bottom. A player’s prize is based on
given number of trials, X. choosing a duck with a star or a heart on the
bottom. The possible winnings are shown in
ix 10 | 50 |100] 1000 |5000,
as eal the table below.
De 4 |22 | 58 | 490 |2508
of Heads Type ofDuck
State how the data in the table ==
demonstrates the law of large numbers.

10. Calculate the missing value in the table if

the expected value is 26.90.
P(X)

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter 10 Review 601

 14. Calculate the expected value of the prize 17. A consumer can purchase an extended
winnings. warranty for a coffee maker for $12.95.
The warranty covers the repair or
15. Inthe long run, does a player earn money replacement of basic parts and will
or lose money playing the duck game? replace the coffee maker if it breaks
Explain your answer. within the warranty time frame. There is
a 1.5% probability that the coffee maker
16. A carnival game has a board with will need to be replaced at a cost of $45.
50 sticks. On the hidden end of each stick The probability that the coffee maker will
is a color and each color is associated need new parts costing $22.50 is 30%. Is
with a monetary prize. The game consists the warranty a good purchase? Explain.
of a player drawing a single stick, and
then collecting the prize money as shown 18. Gittel and Delyth simultaneously come
in the table below. across a valuable baseball card at a
rummage sale. They decide to choose who
Number of Sticks

;
gets to buy and keep the card based on
this Color
the following game: The friends will draw
one card out of a well-shuffled standard

Daw [Ss
deck of 52 cards. If the card is a heart or
0 1 a face card Gittel wins. If the card is an
even number Delyth wins. Is this a fair
The game costs $2 per draw. Statistically way to decide who gets the baseball card?
speaking, is this game fair to the player? Justify your answer.
Explain.

19. A family is determining which of three used campers to purchase. Option | is a tow-behind
camper, which they will pull with their current truck. Options 2 and 3 are RV-style campers.
Each camper option may incur additional cost to the purchase. All three campers have the
same base price. Based on the cost information in the table, and assuming that the family
does not have a preference in camper style, which camper has the lowest possible additional
costs? Justify your answer mathematically.

Possible Cost Probability

ay ne $50 to fix the waterline
$1,000 to fix current truck to pull the camper
Chine TD $200 to fix the stove Lr 4
$500 to replace the brakes
Cee 4Be $1,500 to fix the transmission
$200 to obtain operator’s license to drive the RV

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

602 Probability and Statistics

20. Suppose that in a classroom of 30 students, five of the students have a first name
that starts
with the letter A. None of the students have exactly the same first name. Five students
are
chosen at random, without replacement.

a In how many different ways can five students be selected from this group?
b What is the probability that the 5 names starting with A are chosen and are
in alphabetical order?

Chapter 10 Review 603

 Concepts in Calculus

Exploratory
Activity

Chapter Contents Zeno’s Paradox

pee ns The Tortoise challenged the mighty Achilles to a

11.2 Continuity and the footrace, and claimed that he would win so long as he
Difference Quotient had a small head start. Achilles laughed at this but he
Vik BDeayitiee was intrigued and so he asked, “How much of a head
start do you need?”
Chapter II Key Ideas “Ten meters,” the Tortoise replied.
Chapter ||| Review Achilles laughed. “ You will surely lose, my friend, but let
us race, if you wish it.”
“On the contrary, I will win, and I can prove it to you by
a simple argument.” said the Tortoise.
“Go on then,” Achilles replied. He was nervous. He knew
he was the better athlete, but the Tortoise was smarter
and Achilles had lost many arguments with him.
“If you gave me a ten-meter start, could you cover that
10 meters between us very quickly?” asked the Tortoise.
“Very quickly,” Achilles replied.
“And in the time you cover the 10 meters, how much
further should I have traveled?”
“Perhaps a meter—no more,” said Achilles.
“Very good,” said the Tortoise. “So there is a meter
between us. Would you catch up that distance very
quickly?”
“Very quickly indeed!” Achilles bragged.
“And yet,” the Tortoise replied calmly, “in that time I
shall have gone a little way farther, so that now you must
catch up that distance as well. And while you are doing
so, I shall have gone a little way farther, so that you must
then catch up the new distance.”
Achilles said nothing.
“And so, while you are catching up the distance between __
us, I am adding a new distance, however small, for yout
catch up again.” :
“Indeed, you are right,” said Achilles.
The Tortoise sadly said, “You can never catch up
“You are correct,” said Achilles tiredly—and he
conceded the race. :

604 Concepts in Calculus

This is an odd argument. Let’s consider each runner’s distance as a geometric sequence.
Recall from Algebra 2 that a geometric sequence is one in which each term equals the
product of the previous term and the common ratio. Recall as well that we can find the
infinite sum of a geometric series, as shown in the last column.

Consider Tortoise’s argument and the geometric series and sum above as you
answer the following questions.

I. Explain Tortoise’s logic. What is the mathematical argument he is making?

2. Is the Tortoise’s logic flawed? If so explain the flaw. If not justify your thinking.
3. Can Achilles win the race? If so, what is the minimum distance needed?

4. Zeno’s paradox is similar to the idea of a function whose output values approach an
asymptote. Provide an example of a function whose output values are approaching 1.
5. Write a function for each of the following situations. What value, if any, does the
function tend toward?
a A basketball starts bouncing at a height of 50 inches. Each time it comes back up,
the height is 75% of the amplitude of the previous bounce.
b Valentina is trying to improve her running times by doing 100 m sprints. She
completes the first one in 20 seconds and the second one in 25 seconds. Valentina’s
times continue to increase until her completion time is 40 seconds.

6. Examine the graphs below. As the x-values become increasingly large, is there an
output value that each function tends toward?

15 20

10-15 20. |
Pecks Eee preset LENNON

Exploratory Activity 605

 Chapter II Vocabulary
average rate of change __ differentiation intermediate value removable
d ti
diiscontinuous theorem discontinuityae
average spee
eee ne e . =e left-hand limit (LHL) right hand limit (RHL)
continuous infinite discontinuity
:instantaneous speed limit secant line
cusp
j i tinuit tangent line
derivative instantaneous rate of jump discon Y g
change oscillating discontinuity
difference quotient

Lesson I 1.1]
Limits

GG Tangents
In this chapter, we explore concepts in calculus, the most fundamental
of which is the idea of limits. Limits allow us to discover the behaviors
of functions as they approach certain values. Consider the slope of a
line. Many math classes ago, you learned that to calculate slope you
need to know two points on the line and that slope is equal to

pe aE OA
Xy
—

If the graph is linear, the slope is the same everywhere, and so ty

we can pick any two points on the line. But what if the graph is y(x)
a curve? For example, what is the slope of the graph of y(x) =x? /
at any given point? The direction, and therefore slope, of that
curve is constantly changing. We can estimate the slope at the
given point, a, by drawing a line tangent to the curve at that
point. Recall from geometry that a line tangent to a curve
touches the curve in only one place. How can we be sure that
the line we drew is actually a tangent? We cannot just by < i >
observation, but we can approximate the slope of the curve .
by drawing a secant line through the point in question and another
point on the curve close to it as shown in the graph to the right. As x
approaches a, the slope of the secant line approaches the slope of the
(brown) tangent line. Another way to say this is that the slope of the
tangent is equal to the limit of the slope of the secant, as x approaches a.
The notation for describing the limit of a function is

hm f(x)=m

which is read, “the limit of f of x as x approaches a is m.”

606 Concepts in Calculus

 MODEL PROBLEM

1. The graph of y = sin x, in radians, is shown at the right. y

Estimate the slope of the tangent to the graph at
ane x0

i ee.
p
Co = 1

SOLUTION
a At x =0, the graph appears to have a slope of +1.

b = While it is difficult to pinpoint the location of x = - on a number line, we know

that it occurs where the sine is a maximum. At this point on the graph, the slope
appears to be 0.
c Again, because x = 7 is an irrational number, it cannot be specifically located on
a number line. But we know that sin m = 0, so we can identify this point on the
graph. The slope at x = 1 appears to be —1.

MM Rates of Change
Suppose that you drop a rock off a 200-foot tall cliff, and it takes about

3 seconds to hit the ground. You can calculate the rock’s average

speed over the course of its journey from your hand to the ground:

om distance _—_200 feet . feet

time —« 3.5 seconds second

Is the rock travelling at that speed the entire time? When you first
dropped the rock, its speed was 0 feet per second. For its average speed
to be about 57 feet per second, it must have been going faster than that
when it hit the ground. How fast was it moving when it hit the ground?
After 1 second? After 2 seconds? We can calculate the rock’s average
speed, but how can we calculate the rock’s instantaneous speed?

Generally speaking, we can calculate the average rate of change for

a function, because we can identify two points on the function. The
average rate of change over an interval is the change in the function
divided by the interval size. The average speed is the change in position

Lesson I 1.1 © Limits 607

 divided by the time interval. The instantaneous speed is the rate at
which an object is changing position at an instant. Instantaneous rate
of change is the limit of the change in the function as the interval size
approaches zero.

Let’s return to the equation y = x?, and examine both its average and
instantaneous rates of change. The average rate of change for the
function over an interval [a, b| is

bas
m=

b-a

We can’t find the instantaneous rate of change at point a, for example,

because that requires an interval size of zero, and we cannot divide
by zero. But we can get close to the instantaneous rate of change at a
by taking smaller and smaller intervals of b — a. We will estimate the
rate of change of y= x? at x = 2 by calculating over smaller and smaller
intervals. That is, we will find the slope of a series of secant lines that are
approaching the tangent line at x =2:

5.0625

2.125 | 4.515625 sg lO = 4.125

MO =P

2.0625 |4.25390625 shee eOG Ua = 4.0625

2.0625 —2

The slope appears to be approaching 4 as our interval approaches zero.

This value, which is the instantaneous rate of change of the function at
x = 2, is the limit of the function at that value. It is also the slope of the
line tangent to the curve at x =2.

608 Concepts in Calculus

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Use iteration to estimate the slope of y = sin x at x= 0.

We create a chart similar to that on page 608 to determine the limit. Since this is a
trigonometric equation, we use intervals appropriate to the function.

SOLUTION

sin x —sin0
m = ———_
x-0

rR.
SS SNe
Mm = ——— qx

24 6
eee _= 0.3827
sin— — sin0
ee: = 0.9745
0.3927

4. UE Til)
at _ 0.1951 ie

Za 01951
i

16
We see the change between our slopes becoming larger and moving toward to single
number, so we are fairly confident that m = 1.

By CAE] Use iteration to estimate the slope of y = sin x at x = =

SOLUTION
Again we create a chart similar to that on page 608 to determine the limit, using
values appropriate to the function.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

saris erie niceernie eGR EOE NAR IT I

Lesson I1.] * Limits

 sin7 — sin
Lo —0.6366
fear

It seems that the limit is moving toward 0, which is what we estimated the slope of
the line to De at x — - The algebraic answer appears to agree with the graphical

answer. [he limit is 0.

OW The Limit of a Function

So far we have used limits to estimate the rate of change of a function
whose graph is not a straight line. We can also use limits to describe
the behavior of a function’s output as the input approaches a certain
value. This is useful for functions that are undefined for certain x-values.
:
For example, consider the function! Si ;
y= , and its behavior as x
Be
approaches zero. We cannot directly calculate the value of this function
at x = 0 because it is not defined there. But, using limits, we can describe
its behavior at x = 0. First, however, a formal, strict definition of
limits is
in order.

610 Concepts in Calculus

Let a and L be real numbers, and let f(x) be a function that is defined in

\N
the neighborhood of a. Then f(x) has a limit, L, as x approaches a if, given
any positive number €, there is a positive number, 5, such that, for all a

Bites

ac Epsilon-Delta Definition of a Limit

x—al<6= |fix)-Ll<e

| ie) +6

and is written

lim f(x) =L
eo SNS tes
So our question becomes, what is lim ——? We answer this with a graph
x— ( ENG

sities
and a table. The graph of y = —— is

Sie ae
It appears that the limit is 1. We use a table to confirm that lim =i,
Baer d XG

As we approach 0 from the left- and right-hand sides, the function

values approach 1.

It is important to note that a function can have a limit at a point where

the function itself is not defined. We will explore this concept further in
the next lesson.

Lesson I 1.1 ¢ Limits

 MODEL PROBLEM

tan +
@ [XM] Use a graph and a table to determine lim ae

SOLUTION
The function itself is not defined at x = 0,s0 we cannot calculate its limit directly.
We eraph the function and examine the table of values near x = 0.

The graph of this function indicates that the

limit is 1.

oz
Roocl|a We confirm the limit using the table of values.

eooe
Wreeo
ways
POmw

Me One-Sided Limits
On page 608, we estimated the slope of y = x? at x = 2, using iteration
from the right-hand side of x = 2. Do we get the same answer, 4, if we
iterate from the left-hand side of x = 2?

3.0625 —4
= 3.75
1.75-—2

612 Concepts in Calculus

 Vows 3.515625—4
5 (5625bh 3 875

199 | 3. 3.96014
se ees 99

Again we see that the slope, or rate of change, appears to approach 4.

When estimating the instantaneous rate of change for a function at a

particular value, it is important to calculate the slopes from both the
right-hand and left-hand sides of the value. Likewise, when calculating
the limit of a function it is important to calculate both the right-hand
limit (RHL) and the left-hand limit (LHL). For example, let’s look at
both the right-hand and left-hand limits for the greatest integer function
f(x) =|Lx]|. The greatest integer function is a step function, introduced
in Chapter 2, where f(x) is the greatest integer not greater than x. For
example, f(1.5) =|1.5]=1, because 1 is the greatest integer that is not
greater than 1.5. Recall that the graph of the greatest integer function
looks like

What is the limit of this function as x approaches 2? Using proper

notation, we want to find

lim|x]
First, we evaluate the left-hand limit (LHL). We denote the left-hand
limit with a superscript negative sign as shown below. From the graph
above, we see that

limLx]=1

Lesson I I.1 * Limits 613

 We can also determine this limit analytically. For all values of x greater
than or equal to 1 but less than 2, the integer not greater than x is 1.

Next we must evaluate the right-hand limit (RHL). The right-hand limit
is denoted with a superscript plus sign. Again, first looking at the graph,
we can see that

fim |x |=o)

Analytically this makes sense. For all values of x greater than or equal
to 2, but less than 3, the integer not greater than x is 2.

Putting these limits together, we see that

limLx]=1# lim| x] =2

Since the LHL is not equal to the RHL, the function does not have a
limit at x = 2. Sometimes the shorthand “limit does not exist (DNE)”
is used in this situation. The limit of a function exists if and only if its
RHL is equal to its LHL. Notice that the actual value of the function at
xX = ais irrelevant to the existence of a limit.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Use the graph of f(x) to estimate the value of the

function and the limits, or explain why the limit
does not exist.

a lim eo)

b lim f(x)
¢ lim f(x) al
d f(-) et
4
SOLUTION
a lim f(x)=3 We do not know the equation that generated the graph, so
we can only rely on it for estimation. Here we are asked to
determine the limit of the function as x approaches —1 from
the left. The graph shows us that this answer is 3.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

AEs Wo. Wn Ne ssp eene

614 Concepts in Calculus

 b lim, f(x) =3 For this question, we determine the limit of the function as x
approaches —1 from the right by reading the graph.

€ fim f(x)=3 We need to evaluate whether the limit at this value exists.
Since the LHL is equal to the RHL, the function has a limit
at -1.

d f(-1)=4 We need to find the value of the function at x =—1. From the
graph we see there is a hole with a point at y = 4.
Remember that the actual value of the function at a certain point does not determine
whether a limit exists at that point or what the limit is. The converse is also true.
The existence and/or value of the limit of a function at a particular point does not
determine the value of the function, nor whether the limit exists at that point.

CE Use the graph pictured in Model Problem #1 on page 614 to estimate the
value of the function, and the limits, or explain why the limit does not exist.
a lim f(x)

b lim f(x)
elim f(x)
d- fl)

SOLUTION

Sims)? For this question, we use the graph to find the limit.

p im f()=3 Again, we read the value off the graph.

lim f(x) DNE This limit DNE because LHL #4 RHL.

d= f(1)=3 We read the value from the graph.

WI Limit Laws
Limits follow certain mathematical laws that allow us to calculate their
value using algebraic techniques. Suppose that a, k, M, and N are real
numbers, and

lim f(x)=M and lim e(x)—N,

Lesson I 1.1 * Limits 615

 then the following laws apply to limits.

The limit of the sum of two functions lim(f(x)+g(x))=M+N

The limit of the difference of two
Difference Rule functions is equal to the difference lim(f(x)-g(x))=M-N
of their limits.
The limit of the product of two
Product Rule functions is equal to the product of lim (f(x): g(x))=M-N
their limits.
The limit of the quotient of two
functions is equal to the quotient of
Quotient Rule
their limits, provided the limit of the
denominator is not zero.
The limit of a constant multiplied by
Constant Multiple Rule a function is equal to the constant lim(k:f(x) =k-M
times the limit of the function.

MODEL PROBLEMS

Questions 1-4: Use f(x) = x’, g(x) = 2x — 6, and the limit laws to calculate the following
limits, if they exist. If a limit does not exist, explain why.

From a graph, table, or our knowledge of the two functions, we know that LHL =
RHL = f(x) and LHL = RHL = g(x) for all values of x. So for each of the problems,
we can substitute the value of the function at the given value of x for its limit.

I. lim (f(x) + 2(x))

SOLUTION

lim (f(x)+ g(x))=4+(-2) =2 Apply the sum rule.

@) OED tim (fx) g69)

SOLUTION
lim (f(x): g(x)) =1-4)=-4 Apply the product rule.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

616 Concepts in Calculus

 Se lim F(x)
x33 g(x)

SOLUTION
reeen f(x) L 2, Apply the quotient rule. The denominator is
Sec )y) 0 undefined so the limit DNE.

4. lim, (2x7)

SOLUTION
lim (255) =2 lim x° =18 We recognize that 2x* = 2f(x),so we can apply the
53 53 constant multiple rule.

While we could have easily found the last limit by simply evaluating 2x?, we want to be
sure we understand how to apply the constant multiple rule, as it will become useful
when we tackle more complex problems.

mi Practice
I. Is the following statement true or false? For a limit to exist, the value of the LHL must be
greater than the value of the RHL.

2. Which of the following accurately describes the difference between the average rate of
change and the instantaneous rate of change?

A. The instantaneous rate of change is the change in the function divided by the interval
size while the average rate of change is the limit of the instantaneous rate of change of
the function as the interval size approaches zero.

B. A function’s average rate of change is how much the function changes over a given
interval, but the instantaneous rate of change is how much the function changes over a
more specific interval.

C. The average rate of change is the change in the function divided by the interval size
while the instantaneous rate of change is the limit of the average rate of change of the
function as the interval size approaches zero.

D. The average rate of change of a function refers to the limit of the function at a certain
value. The instantaneous rate of change is the actual value of the limit near that value.

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson I 1.1 ¢ Limits 617

 3. Suppose that a given function, g(x) is
undefined at the point x = 3. Can g(x)
have a limit at that point?

A. Yes, a function can have a limit at a

point where the function itself is not
defined.

B. No, if the function is undefined at a

certain point, there is no limit at that
point.

C. No, limits only exist where the Exercises 9=12: Estimate the
function is defined or where there is a instantaneous rate of change of the given
hole in the function’s graph. function at each given value.

D. Yes, limits exist everywhere along a

Oia + 1
given curve.
Ph Sots. bac
- A function, h(x) has a limit, M, as x
approaches 5. Which of these best 10. f(x)=V4x41
describes what is happening at h(5)?
dee) i Sa
eae dineon (coins Dut these Elinor
Ue x) re
AG Asi
B. The LHL of h(x) is greater than the aie Da)
RHL at h(x).
bee eh cosne
C. The RHL of h(x) is greater than the
aot Ge).

D. The LHL of h(x) is equal to the RHL

of h(x).

Exercises 5=8: Find the average rate Exercises 13-16: Use a graph, table, or
of change of the function over each given substitution to find the limit of the function
interval. at the given value. If the limit does not exist,
explain why.
Ly (Co haee
e il
3. For f(x) =x? —6, find lim ite

14. For f(x) =In x, find lim f(x).

15. For f(x)=|x+1], find lim f(x).

16. Forfa stn, find lim ifOG).

a, x=

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

618 Concepts in Calculus

Exercises 17-19: Use the graph to Exercises 20-24: Use the limit laws to
find the value of the function and the limits, calculate the limits when f(x) = x3 and
or to explain why the limit does not exist. CO)
y
20. lim (f(x)
+ g(x))
21. lim (f(x) -g(x))
22.

23. lim (f(x) @(x))

24. lim (-2f(x))
2

25. Draw a sketch of the graph for y=x?.

Show there is more than one unique
17. a lim f(x) tangent line through (0, 0) by stating
x0

three different possible equations for the

lim f(x) tangent lines.

lim
x0
f(x) 26. At a large amusement park, ticket prices
are $105 for persons aged 10 or older, $99
f(9) for children aged 3 to 9, and there is no
charge for children under 3 years old.
lim f(x)
x21"
a Find the limit of the ticket price as
lim f(x) a child’s age approaches 4 years old.
Explain.
lim f(x) b_ Find the limit of the ticket price as a
child’s age approaches 10 years old.
fa) Explain.

19. a lim f(x)

lim f(x)
lim f(x)

f(3)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS contin ue...

Lesson II.| ¢ Limits 619

 \1 27. A small gift store records the number of items customers purchase each day. Here is the
data for December 20 — 26.

Dec. |Dee |Dec |Dec | Dec. | Dec

OA TDD, D3: 24 25 26
Number of Items 62 15 Pal 93 104 po |56|
Purchased

a Explain the meaning of the 0 on December 25" and the —56 on December 26".
b Find the average rate of change over the entire given interval. Round to the nearest
tenth.
c Find the average rate of change from December 22™ to December 24". Round to the
nearest tenth.
d_ Find the average rate of change from December 20" to December 24". Round to the
nearest tenth.
e Suppose we consider intervals of a single day. Which interval has the largest average rate
of change? Which interval has the smallest rate of change?
f If there were a day when the instantaneous rate of change was the largest, which day do
you think that is? Explain.

Lesson 11.2
Continuity and the Difference Quotient

MM Continuity Defined
In Lesson 11.1, we looked at a few functions where the limit y
was different than the value of the function at a given point. al
We also examined some functions that did not have a limit oe
at a given point because the LHL did not equal the RHL. aa
When the LHL is not equal to the RHL, the function is not ai
continuous at that point. Simply said, a function is continuous pe al dl es a a
if you can draw the graph of the function without picking up a dibs ea EEDE TA Sod
your pencil. Consider the figure to the right, showing the graph 2+
of a function that we looked at in Lesson 11.1. This function is Sih
discontinuous in several places: col

620 Concepts in Calculus

 lim f(x) =3, but 3# f(-1)
lim f(x) DNE because lim 7 (ee nine AC)
x3 x1 x1"

lim f(x) =0 but f(3) DNE, as 3 is not in the domain of f, This is not a
discontinuity because this x-value is not in the function’s domain.
These points are not in the domain of f.Again, this is not a
discontinuity because it is not in the domain of the function.

Even though the function does not exist where x < —2 or where x > 4,we
can still calculate one-sided limits at each of those values.

lim, tix =2 and lim f(x)=-1

Mathematically, a function is continuous at an interior point in its

domain if

lim f(x) = f(a)

We must specify an interior point, because, as we have seen, for a
function to have a limit at a given point, it must have equal left- and
right-hand limits. We can also define continuity for an endpoint. A
function is continuous at a left endpoint, a, if

lim f(x) = f(a)

A function is continuous at a right endpoint, b, if

lim f(x) = f(b)

If the function is not continuous at point a, then we say that fis
discontinuous at a, and that a is a point of discontinuity.

A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous

at every point on the interval. A continuous function is one that is
continuous at every point of its domain, but a continuous function
need not be continuous on every interval. The limit laws we learned in
Lesson 11.1 imply that the following types of functions are continuous
functions:

Polynomials Power

ee ee Se
Lesson |1.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 621
 Algebraic compositions of these functions are also continuous, provided
none of the compositions involve division by zero.

It is important that we note some of the functions mentioned above are

undefined at certain values of x. But that does not mean that they are
discontinuous functions. If those values of x are not in the domain of
the function, then the function is continuous over its domain.

MODEL PROBLEMS

sinx
1. Consider the function f(x) = :
x
a Are there any values of x where this function is undefined? What are they?
sinx
b Are there any discontinuities in the graph of f(x) =——?
sin x . :
c Is f(x) =—— a continuous function? Explain.
38

SOLUTION
a Clearly this function is undefined where x = 0. It is everywhere else defined.

b Because the function is undefined at x = 0, it is discontinuous at x = 0.

c rete
Even though a discontinuity exists at x = 0, f(x) =
sinx .
is a continuous
function because it is continuous over its domain. Zero is not in the domain of
this function.

COSHH HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH EHEC EHH HH EH EE OCE EHEC OOC EOC EEOC LCE HOLE LOCC ECL ECO OOO

GD Gaaea For fp =L 1,
OOOO CCC®S

a _are there any values of x for which f(x) is undefined? Where?

b are there any discontinuities in the graph of f(x)?
¢ is f(x) a continuous function? Explain.

SOLUTION
a No. This function is everywhere defined.
b The graph of the greatest integer function reveals discontinuities at every
integer value.
c This function is not continuous because there are discontinuities within
its
domain.

ee. Neo

622 Concepts in Calculus

ee Technology
Activity |

We can graph functions on our graphing calculators to visualize

left-hand limits, right-hand limits, the limit itself, and the value of
the function.

Determine the left-hand limit, right-hand limit, the limit, and the
corresponding value of the function lim sec(x). Is the function
continuous at x = 0? oe
Step I: Graph f(x) =sec x.
Step 2: To find the left-hand limit, we press and move the =
cursor around with the left- and right-hand arrow keys. Start
from left of 0 and move right toward 0 to see what value the
function approaches. We see that it approaches 1.
Step 3: We follow the same process to find the right-hand limit, but
we start with our cursor on the right-hand side of 0 and move
it to the left, towards 0. We see that the function value again
approaches 1.

Step 4: What is lim sec(x)? Since the left- and right-hand limits are

equal, lim sec(x) = 1. We can use the function to confirm

this information. Start the table at x =0 and set the table

increment to 0.01.
8=.21276596 (%=1.0230696
Step 5: Now, we calculate the function value at 0. Pressing
, we select 1: value. The function’s value at that point is 1,
which we expected since the left- and right-hand limits of the
function at x = 0 are both 1.
Step 6: Lastly, we determine continuity at x = 0. We know that if the
limit exists at a point, then the function is continuous at that
point.

Exercises 1 — 3: For each of the given functions, find the

left-hand limit, right-hand limit, the limit (if it exists), the
corresponding value of the function, and determine if the
function is continuous at that point.

f.. lim
x1 peal

Ze lim 2 x+1
x>-1

3. lim tan*(x)
4. Consider the function in problem #1. Generally, rational functions
are continuous. Explain, in your own words, whether this function
is continuous across its domain.
ee
Adil
Lesson 11.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 623
ME Types of Discontinuity
We can divide discontinuities into four categories:

Jump A discontinuity where the

Discontinuity | left- and right-hand limits
exist, but they are unequal.

Removable A discontinuity that is not

Discontinuity | part of the domain of the
function.

Infinite A discontinuity that results in

Discontinuity | the function moving toward
infinity on each side of the
asymptote.

d
o
)

we
==_———

Oscillating A discontinuity that exists

Discontinuity | when the function values
appear to be approaching
two or more points
simultaneously.

Functions that are continuous on intervals have some useful properties

in mathematics. One of these is the Intermediate Value Theorem, which
says that if a function is continuous over a closed interval [a, b], then

624 Concepts in Calculus

it takes on every value between f(a) and f(b). For example, yi 1s
continuous over [0, 4]

f(0) =0
f(4) = 16
and so, y has in its range every value between 0 and 16.

MODEL PROBLEM

1. For each the following functions, find the point(s) of discontinuity, and state what
type of discontinuity exists.

SOLUTION
a (x3) = 0 We know that this function is rational
Li=3 and will be discontinuous only where the
denominator is equal to 0. This function will
be discontinuous at x = 3 and will have a
vertical asymptote at this point. As such, it is
an infinite discontinuity.
b This one is difficult to visualize. We use our
graphing calculator to help us. The function
has a discontinuity at x = 0. Because the
function’s LHL is not equal to the RHL, this
is a jump discontinuity.

aoe ; KC
The function is discontinuous at x = oe

for all odd integers k. These are all infinite

discontinuities.

LE aN re
Lesson 11.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 625
EEEME Limits Involving Infinity
ies
We know that the graph of f(x) =— is not defined at x = 0. But what 1s
x
fe To answer this, we need to consider the limit of the function as
=) XG

we approach 0 from both the left- and right-hand sides. We graph the
function and examine its associated table.

From the right-hand side, we see that as x — 0,f(x) gets very large.

Since there is no finite number large enough to describe the output

values for f(x) as x moves closer and closer to 0, we can say that

Recall that the symbol for infinity, oo, is the mathematical way of
describing a quantity that has no upper limit. What happens to f(x) as
x — 0 trom the lett?

We say that

lim — = —co
rye

This function is infinitely discontinuous at x = 0. We can also use infinity

notation when describing the behavior of the function as the domain
becomes infinitely large or small. What happens to the value of this
function as x — oe or x + —co?

626 Concepts in Calculus

 lim ae 0)
x—-0co XG

and

Fern
X—o0o 3%

MODEL PROBLEMS

G CLE} Evaluate lim.

ba eew) i

SOLUTION
We could use a table or a graph to evaluate this limit, but let’s reason our way through
it. When we divide a small number by a very large number, the result is close to 0. And
the larger x becomes, the smaller f(x) will become. The fraction will never equal zero,
: : : : ol
but will get increasingly close to it. Therefore, lim—
X30 ¥
=0.

2. Evaluate na.
x30 x

SOLUTION
Since substituting 0 into the expression will result in a
0 denominator, we examine the function’s graph.

We can see that although a discontinuity exists at x = 0,

the limit is the same on both sides. As x gets increasingly
smaller, the function becomes increasingly larger.
Recognizing that that denominator is x-squared shows
why the limit is positive on both sides of zero. Our
reek is
answer is lim— =.
=O) Fe

3. What is lim cot x?

x>0°

SOLUTION

We graph the function. As x approaches 0 from

the left-hand side, f(x) approaches negative
infinity. So, lim cotx = —ce,

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

EEE EEE EE

Lesson | 1.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 627

 4. Find aed
ree 1

SOLUTION

We graph the function. As the x-values move

toward the right-hand side of the graph they
appear to be increasing.

We examine the table for clarity. As the values

of x increase, the function output values are
moving toward 1. This makes sense analytically,
as the + 1 in the denominator becomes
insignificant, and the graph looks like an
x
So lim
[21 =1.
X00 XY + I

Ms The Difference Quotient

Let’s return to our first discussion of limits, when we used limits to
estimate the instantaneous rate of change of a function. How can we
apply our knowledge of limits and continuity to find the instantaneous
rate of change of a function?

We know that the average rate of change of a function from some point
(a, f(a)) to another point (x, f(x)) is the slope of the tangent line and can
be expressed as

M1
_ f@)-F(a)
360

We call this expression the difference quotient.

The instantaneous rate of change at (a, f(a)) is the limit of the average
rate of change as x approaches a and it is

nz timl o£
xa ENG _ a

628 Concepts in Calculus

The instantaneous rate of change of f(x) at x =a is the slope of the line
tangent to the graph at that point.

Another way to find the slope of the tangent of a graph at a is to

consider the function’s value at a point (a + h), which is a point that is
not a,i.e.h #0. Using this idea, we can express the difference quotient as

_ flath)— fla) _ flath)-f@)

(at+h)-a h

The instantaneous rate of change of the function is the limit as

(a+h) >a or rather, as h > 0.

m= lim
flat+h)— f(a)
h0 h

MODEL PROBLEMS

an IMP 5, 7| Consider the function f(x) = Vx atx=4.

a Use lim F(x)-F@) to find the slope of the line tangent to the function at the
x-a
given point.
b Find the equation of the tangent line.
¢ Graph the function and the tangent line on the same coordinate plane to verify
that the line is tangent to the curve at the point (4, 2).

SOLUTION

- V4 vx +4) _
iim (Vx -V4 In this part, we are asked to consider
x34 x-— 4 4. Pas

Vie va)”
ae re aed a) when x = 4. We see that we cannot
i sa x34 yea

x4 (x 4)( +4) simply substitute 4 into the expression in this

case because that will result in a 0 denominator.
We need to manipulate the equation to the point
ne A iA where we can substitute 4 for x.

1 —

Vx +4

: Now we can now substitute 4 for x.

V4+V4
toe
2+2 4 MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

EEE
oe
Lesson I1.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 629
 bf one? We know that the slope of the tangent line is

ne + and that it passes through the point

(4, f(4)). We evaluate f(4).

We want the equation of the line that passes

1
through (4, 2) and has a slope of 7

We graph the function and the tangent line.

2. Use lim flat ag) to find the slope of the line tangent to y = x at x = 2.
h0

SOLUTION
peo =
h0 h

i 4+4h+h>—4 _ Again we must manipulate the equation, so that

=o ,, 7 we can substitute h = 0.

ttt
ne
h+h’_,. Hh)
h ny
K(4+h
Ke

Recall from Lesson 11.1 that we estimated the slope of y = x? at x = 2 using iteration,
and arrived at the same answer (p. xxx).

3. Returning to our problem from Lesson 11.1 of the rock dropped off a cliff (p. 607),
we calculated the rock’s average speed as it fell 300 feet over 3.5 seconds as about 57
feet per second. The equation that gives the distance the rock has fallen ¢ seconds after
it has been dropped is s(t) = 167. The rock’s instantaneous speed at any time fris i.
NS

ee S(U+ h)— s(t)

hao h

a _ Find the instantaneous speed of the rock after 1 second.

b Find the instantaneous speed of the rock just before it hits the ground.

630 Concepts in Calculus

 SOLUTION
a 2 2
lim 16(1+h)° —16(1) 2
ho>0 h

We use the given difference quotient

m6 32h
h? —16 to find the instantaneous speed
i} ee
h>0 h
when t= 1. The answer is 32 feet per
Pe second.
fim = = lim(32 +h) = 32

b q 2
im LOS t= 166.5)" _ From previous calculations, we know
h>0 h
it takes the rock 3.5 seconds to reach
201964112) 416h- — 196 the ground. We perform essentially
lim =
h>0 h the same calculation as in part a, but
D with ¢ = 3.5. The answer is 112 feet
ae 112K +16h
= lim(112 +16h)=112 per second.
h>0 Ke

| [reevetil ters = ae ecm Re a S

KAA|. Which of the following functions is 3. Alba goes out to exercise. She runs a bit
most likely to contain an oscillating faster than she walks, so she decides to
discontinuity at x = 0? run for 2 minutes, walk for 2 minutes, and
then rest for 1 minute. She repeats this
IN Gee eee ec f(s) =siofae: cycle a total of 6 times.
us

B. fs D(x) 374 a Does this run/walk cycle represent a

continuous function? Explain.

Which of the following best describes a b If the question represents a continuous

continuous function? function, alter the question so it is not
continuous. If the question does not
A. A continuous function is one that represent a continuous function, alter
is continuous at every point of its it so the function is continuous.
domain.

B. A continuous function is one that Exercises 4=—7: For each given function,
is only discontinuous at 0, when 0 is identify any discontinuities that exist in their
included in the function’s domain. domain. Is the function continuous? Explain
why or why not.
C. A continuous function is a function
that is not discontinuous anywhere
4. f(x)=x°-2x? +3x-1
except at its endpoints.
x
D. A continuous function is a function 5. 2) aap
that has less than 2 discontinuities in
its domain. 6. /(x*)=tanx
PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...
ene
ee ern ieeeeee eee
Lesson 11.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 631
 | 15. am
[=
7. ee) = x+2 .

-1, x<-l a lim es)

. b lim f(x
Exercises 8=I 1% Find the point(s) of x30" aes
discontinuity, if any. If discontinuities exist,
state what type they are. Exercises 16-19% Use the limit of the
difference quotient to find the instantaneous
8. f(x)= _
(x42) rate of change of each function at the given
(x+2)(x-6) point.
9 (yo) csc
i 16. (4)
= 4
10. f(x)=e"
17. y(x)= —, at x=2
Bi, SD on
I. = ts Gales
Oise Aiea 2
P) ne BS
[9s vG@)y=|x atx —4
Exercises 12-15: Use tables, graphs, and/
20. For y=2—3%—6,
or your knowledge of the given function to
find the requested limits. a_ Find the slope of the line tangent to
1 the function at x = 1.
D2)cos =
ae b Write the equation of the tangent line
a lim f(x) at this point.
ih le Pea c Soapn both equations on the same
i coordinate plane.

i cOsx
13. NOD are 21. For y=x 22.
a lim f(x) a find an expression for the slope of the
ry TFs yea tangent line at x =a.
im f(x
a b describe what happens to the slope of
1 the tangent line as a changes.
14. f(x) =——
x+4
Ay Naren Ge.)
x47

b im, ee)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

632 Concepts in Calculus

22. If you drop a rock while standing on 23. A rocket sitting on a 250-meter tall cliff
the surface of Jupiter, its position after shoots straight up into the air with an
t seconds is described by s(t) = 12.4467 initial velocity of 50 meters per second.
where s is the distance, in meters, that the Its height above the ground ¢ seconds
rock has fallen. Suppose a rock is dropped after launch is
from the top of a 500.0-meter cliff.
h(t) = 4.9 + 50t + 250
a_ Find the speed of the rock after
2 seconds. Round to the nearest a What is the rocket’s height 5 seconds
hundredth. after launch? Round to the nearest
b How many seconds does it take for the tenth.
rock to hit the ground? Round to the b What is the rocket’s velocity 5 seconds
nearest hundredth. after launch? Round to the nearest
c Find the speed of the rock just before tenth.
it hits the ground. Round to the c How long will it take for the rocket
nearest hundredth. to hit the ground, 250 meters below
the cliff’s edge? Round to the nearest
tenth.

d What is the rocket’s velocity on

impact? Round to the nearest tenth.

———
Lesson |1.2 * Continuity and the Difference Quotient 633
 Lesson I 1.3
Derivatives

The Derivative Defined

In Lesson 11.2, we defined the slope of the line tangent to a curve at the
point x =a as the limit of the difference quotient

ken: f= =e£@)
sea) X — a

When this limit exists, it is called the derivative of f at a and the process
of finding the derivative is called differentiation. There are several
derivative notations that mean the same thing.

y erie
ACS) Sf piabems Ole”
dy 2 ae ee ets: . 2
rs dy/dx” or “ the derivative ofy with respect to x

df i Seer i.
ae “dfldx” or “the derivative of f with respect to x
os

The first notation,

y’, is the most informal. It does not indicate the
independent variable, which is sometimes important to specify,
and other times is clear from the function itself. As you work with
derivatives, you will become comfortable using different notations,
according to the situation.

MODEL PROBLEMS

a3 (EXY Find the derivative of y = 7 atx = -3.

SOLUTION
Because we are finding the derivative at a
1 cay specific location, the best notation to use is f’(x).
f’ (-3) = lim Aa From previous lessons, we know that
X93 me (—3)
eae. lim Me) We set up the problem.
Ae a _—

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

OO

634 Concepts in Calculus

 93 yt 8

Simplify.

x3-3 x43

FCS) = 14
lim
a
5 (x-3) Divide (x + 3) out of both numerator and
: 1 6 3 denominator so we can substitute x =—3.
TC. fe 5)- Lo

2. Differentiate f(x) = aealo.

x
SOLUTION
We can use the limit of either difference quotient
a * i for our derivative. This time we will use
oN a Poe oe Apes A
f(2)= lim h ee a) f(a)

pes a = a : gad Create common denominators in the numerator

: 2+h 2 2 2+h
lim terms.
ho>0 h

2-(2+h)
i (2+h)2 Simplify the numerator.
a h

=);
(ess 44+2h Combine like terms.
h0 h

li oh ——. Factor
ctor and simplif
ee
(4+2h)
(442h)fh "0 ——
m0 —— é ;

fl 2) = fe Now we can substitute h = 0

. San 74

eS

Lesson I1.3 * Derivatives 635

WWE Derivatives at Points
We have formalized a new relationship! The slope of the line tangent to a
function at point a is equal to the derivative of the function at that point. So, to
find the equation of a line tangent to a curve, we differentiate at that point, then
use the point to write the equation.
To restate, the derivative of a function is the limit of the rate of change of that
function at the given point. Recall from Lesson 11.1, that for a limit to exist, the
right-hand limit must be equal to the left-hand limit (RHL = LHL). If they are
not equal, then there is no limit at that point. It follows that, if the limit does
not exist, the derivative does not exist and consequently, the function is not
differentiable at that point. A function can have a derivative at some points but
not at others, just as it can have limits at some points but not at others.
Let’s consider the circumstances under which a derivative might not exist. These
are most easily recognized by looking at the graphs of the functions. The first
one, which we have already discussed, is when there is a discontinuity at a point.

A function has no derivative at points If a function has a sharp corner, no

where it is not continuous. derivative exists at that point.

If a function has a cusp, or a point where If a function has a vertical tangent, there
two branches of a curve meet such that is no derivative where that occurs.
the tangents of each branch are equal,
there is no derivative at that point.

For the first three graphs, we can clearly see points where RHL + LHL. But
what about the fourth graph? The slope of the curve appears to be gradually
changing, so that there is no point where RHL ¥ LHL. This is true, but
there is a
point at which the tangent is a vertical line. Because the slope of a vertical
line
is undefined, the function is not differentiable at that point.

636 Concepts in Calculus

MODEL PROBLEMS

(XL Find the equation of the line tangent to y = LT at x = —3. Graph the function
and its tangent on the same coordinate plane.
SOLUTION
We already found the slope of the tangent line
J 5 Y
f(-3)= Tor ay at this point, m= f’ (-3)= -: (see pp. 634 if
needed). The next step is to evaluate f(-3).

Given a point, [| and the slope, m= -,

we can write our equation.

We graph the function and the tangent line.

1
2. Find the equation of the line tangent to f(x) =— at x = 2. Graph the function and its
tangent on the same coordinate plane. a

SOLUTION
We have already calculated the slope of this tangent

ie he : line as m= f’ (2)= - (see pp. 635, if needed). We

will evaluate f(2).

1 1
»-(3)--Ge-2 1 1 we can
2 4 Given a point, | 2, 5 and the slope, m= a

y= Pip +1 write our equation.

4

We graph the function and the tangent line.

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

i SEU EEE

Lesson |1.3 * Derivatives 637

 © [ZL2t-3 Show that the derivative does not exist at v = 0 for f(x) = |x |:

SOLUTION
lim |x| = -1 We know from our prior knowledge that this is ao a value
a function, which has a sharp point at x = 0. We use limits to show
lim |x| =1 that the function does not have a limit at x = 0, so the derivative
does not exist at this point.

Because LHL # RHL, the limit at x = 0 does not exist, so the derivative does not exist.

We can use the [TABLE] function on our graphing calculators to help

us determine function derivatives at certain numbers using the limit
definition f(x)=lim= LORE AN)
h>0
Find the derivative of ¥/x° —5x+2 atx =-3.
Step I: Use the limit definition to find
2 GEG)i are
i gS h
Step 2: Since we’d like to know the derivative at x =—3, we
substitute —3 for x:
f(x) = lim VB + MY 53 +H) +2 Vy S5-3)42
ho0 h

Step 3: We are now ready to enter the limit expression into Y,. Be Ploti Plote Pilots
sure to substitute x for / throughout.

TECHNOLOGY ACTIVITY 2 continues...

638 Concepts in Calculus

Step 4: Press to set up the table. We want to examine
TABLE SETUP
values that are close to 0, so we'll use 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, -0.1, Tb1Start=6
—0.01, and —0.001. It will be easiest if we enter each of olbl=1 :
these values in separately, so we will highlight ASK rather Indent: Auto EAR
than AUTO for the independent variable and AUTO for the Derend: S
dependent variable.

Step 5: Using the [TABLE], we enter in the x-values 0.1, 0.01, 0.001,
—0.1,-0.01, and —0.001 individually. We show the calculator screen for the first
three values only. Record the x- and y-values as xy-coordinates: (0.1, 0.73), (0.01,
0.70), (0.001, 0.70), (—0.1, 0.67), (—0.01, 0.69), and (—0.001, 0.70).

Step 6: We can see that the limit from both the left- and right-hand sides approaches
a value of about 0.70. We can reasonably conclude that the derivative of this
function at x =—3 is about 0.70.

Exercises 1 — 3: Find the derivative of each of the following using the limit
definition and the function on your graphing calculator. State the points
you used to determine the derivative.

Dian aD.
AAOsdiet &
=A $5x° 42x=1
Qe inwox> atc =—L

sin | c= 4)at x = 2. For this problem, state your answer in radians.

Xx

Lesson 11.3 * Derivatives 639

HM Slopes, Velocities, and Other Rates of Change
Previously, we used the limit of the difference quotient to find
instantaneous velocities. We can also use derivatives for the same purpose,
as well as to find other instantaneous rates of change. If f(t) is the function
of the position of an object at time f, then f’(t) = v(2) is the velocity of the
object at time ¢. Be aware that velocity is a vector indicating speed and
direction. An object’s speed is |f’(0)].

MODEL PROBLEMS

a (L228 On the surface of Mars, the equation for free fall is s(t) = 1.867, where £ is
measured in seconds. If a rock is dropped from a 200-meter high cliff on Mars, what
is its speed after 1 second?

SOLUTION
fo) fo The speed of the rock will be the instantaneous
lim LG change of its position at t= 1. We will use the limit
of the difference quotient.

ds _,, 1:86? 2-1.86(-1)

ne
a tl t—1

2
sf)
at tol fet

as )(¢+1)
lim 1.86(¢-1 We find the derivative at t= 1.
at y pot

ds
—= lim 1.86(¢+1
Fe (a)

d.
1864 1)-—
dt Substitute for t= 1.
3.72 meters/second

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

640 Concepts in Calculus

 ey IMP 6| What is the rate of change of the area of a circle, with respect to the radius,
when r= 3 inches?

SOLUTION

A(r) = ar?
d 2
GA _ fim m(3) 2 Start with the equation for the area of a circle.
ar r33 r=3

2
eo)
or
ae
FG
dA. ale-3)(r+3)
ce Le ee We want the derivative of A with respect to the radius,
rat r= 3.
dA
er = lim u(r ate 3)

dA
——=f(ri3)=
dr Substitute for r= 3.
67 inches

MH Derivatives as Functions
Up to now, we have been differentiating functions at a particular
point. That is, we have taken the derivative only for specific values
of a. We can extend this process to differentiate a function over the
interval(s) for which it is differentiable. Once we find a function that is
the derivative of another function, then we can use that derivative to
find the instantaneous rate of change at any point where the derivative
exists. If a function is differentiable over an interval, then it must be
continuous over that interval. The converse of this statement is not
necessarily true, as we have seen from the examples of functions that
are continuous, but are not differentiable over their domain.

Lesson 11.3 * Derivatives 641

 A function is differentiable over an interval (a, b) if, for every point c,
where a<c<b,lim f(x)= f(c). The derivative of a differentiable
function is the limit of the difference quotient.

dy _ in fees
dx h>0

If this limit exists everywhere in the interval, then we say the function is
differentiable over the interval.

MODEL PROBLEMS

I. Find a if y = 3x’ + 7x. Over what interval(s) is this function differentiable?

SOLUTION

wy = ira ia Dood) We use the relationship stated above.

Gio D0 h

i 3(x +h)? + 7(x+h)—(3x? + 7x) Substitute into the limit of the difference
mn h quotient.

lim SNe Is ? gli) ea Sia) Expand the squared binomial.

_ 3x +6xh+ 3h’ +7x+ Th—3x — 7x ates Orns

lim h Continue simplifying.

_ 6xh+3h+7h f(6x+3h+7) ;
lim hy = Ht Cancel terms and substitute 0 for h.

We end up with a linear function, whose

dy ee domain is the set of real numbers (—2, «).
dx So the original function is differentiable
over the set of real numbers, (—=, ~).

2. Find f’(x) if f(x) = Vx +2. Over what interval(s) is this function differentiable?

SOLUTION
dy : ee nD We will again use the difference
Fee 5; quotient. YU

MODEL PROBLEMS continue...

642 Concepts in Calculus

 AY igh-0 Wx N+2 ~Vu+2 Vetht2 + Vx42) This problem requires a lot of
algebraic manipulation. We will
dx (h
Vx+ht2+Vx+2)
multiply the numerator and
denominator by J/x+h+2+Jx+2.
This particular technique is very
useful. Be sure to make note of it.
i (x+h+2)-—(x+2)
im
n=O h(/x+h+2+JSx+2)
h
lim Simplifying.
ho0 h(Vxt+h+2+V/x+2)

ho0 (Vxt+h+2+Vx+2)

Now we can substitute h = 0. This

function is defined over the interval
[—2, cc) but differentiable over the
dy | 1 ae!
interval (—2, cc). The function is
Aen Dee toy ee?
defined at x = 2, but not differentiable
at that point, because it has a vertical
slope.

MURGRIAGUICC Meee SR ne
If a function is differentiable over a given 3. Which of the given statements is the most
interval, then the function must correct?

A. be linear. A. If a function is continuous over an

interval, then it must be differentiable
B. be continuous over that same interval.
over that interval.
C. have a derivative equal to 0 over that B. Velocity is a vector indicating speed or
same interval. direction, depending on the problem’s
D. be discontinuous over that same context.
interval.
C. The slope of the line tangent to a
function at point a is equal to the
Ls Which of the following best completes the
derivative of the function at that point.
sentence: When lim piles)= 6a) exists, it
xa x-a D. The derivative of a function is the
is called the of the function. speed of that function at the given
point.
A. differentiation C. limit
B. derivative D. continuous PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

Lesson 11.3 * Derivatives 643

 Exercises 4-8: Use the difference 18. Recall from Model Problem #1 on page
quotient to find the derivative at the given 640 that the free fall equation for an
point. object dropped on the surface of Mars
is s(t) = 1.86f, where s is measured in
4. f(x)=2x° -6atx=-1 meters and fin seconds. If the rock from
the model problem is dropped from the
5. f(x)=V5-x atx=1 200-meter cliff, how long will it take for
the rock to hit the ground? What will
Risin Gara be the rock’s velocity at the moment of
impact?
7. f(x) == at x=6
; rAd
, Exercises 19=23: Find =.
8. f(xX)=x atx=—-1 dx
19. y=2x —3x45
Exercises 9=1 33 Find the equation of the ea
line tangent to the curve at the given point. 20. )- i
Nees
9. Mit
lees
ae alt se = al 21. Ve x+4

il
I 0. y = Raney at el
x 22. ; y=7x—15
= es

Il. y=o6atx=12 23. Vee

1 , ; :
12. y= ae atx=1 he 24. The function f(t) =—16r + 65 + 4 gives
Sea he a ball’s height, in feet, where ris the
13. y= = 4:= alee number of seconds.

a Ifa calculation for a specific value of

Exercises 14=163 Find the value(s) of x
t yields a negative result, what does
and describe the graph of the given function
this mean in context of the problem?
at the point(s) where the derivative does not
exist. Use the chart on page 636 to help you. b Find the speed of the ball after
, 2 seconds.
| 4. y == Ne
¢ Find
$
the speed of » the ball after
sees
4 seconds.

d= Write a function that allows us to find

16. y=#(x-2) the speed of the ball after t seconds.

17. What is the rate of change of the volume

of a sphere with respect to the radius
when r = 2? (Hint: The formula for the

volume of a sphere is V = snr)

PRACTICE PROBLEMS continue...

644 Concepts in Calculus

AS 25. You observe a 20-foot ladder that Ait 26. You have exactly 100 feet of fencing
forms a right triangle with a wall and to enclose a rectangular area in your
the ground. A worker is sliding the backyard. You plan to use the back wall
ladder’s base away from the wall at a of your house as one side of the rectangle.
certain rate.
a_ Sketch this situation.
a Write a function with which we can b Write an equation for the perimeter of
find the speed that the ladder is sliding the fence.
down the wall when the distance from c Write an equation for the area of
the base of the wall to the base of the the enclosed rectangle using a single
ladderas xdteet: variable.
b Write the equation of the tangent line d= What is the derivative of the equation
when the ladder’s base is 10 feet from you wrote in part ¢?
ACAD One e If you want the maximum fenced-in
area possible, what should the
dimensions of the fence be?

MH Chapter || Key Ideas

11.1 Limits
A line is tangent to a curve at a given point if it touches the curve at only that point.
We can use a secant line to estimate the slope of the tangent line.
The instantaneous rate of change of a function is the limit of the change in the function
over the interval size (i.e., the limit of the difference quotient) as the interval size
approaches zero and is equal to the slope of the tangent line at that point.
The instantaneous rate of change can be approximated through iteration of increasingly
smaller intervals.
The epsilon-delta definition of a function’s limit states that if a and L are real numbers, and
f(x) is a function that is defined in the neighborhood of a, then, the function fhas a limit, L,
as x approaches a if, given any positive number €, there is a positive number, 6, such that,
for all x,|x—a|< 65 >|f(x)-Ll<e.
When calculating the limit of a function it is important to calculate both the right-hand
limit (RHL) and the left-hand limit (LHL).
The limit of a function exists if and only if its right-hand limit is equal to its left-hand limit.
There are several laws we can use to algebraically calculate limits.

KEY IDEAS continue...

Chapter || Key Ideas 645

 | 1.2 Continuity and The Difference Quotient
A function is continuous at an interior point in its domain if lim fieo=ai (a):

A function is continuous at a left endpoint, a, if lim f(x) = f(a).

A function is continuous at a right endpoint, b, if lim ea) =

A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at every point on

the interval.
A function may have jump, removable, infinite, or oscillating discontinuities.
The limit of a function as its independent variable approaches a finite number can be
positive or negative infinity.
The difference quotient is the average rate of change of a function, f(x), at a point, a.

The difference quotient for x =a is m= fla+h)- f(@) , where / denotes the difference.
h
The limit of the difference quotient is the slope of the tangent line to the function f(x) at
point a.
The difference quotient can be used to calculate instantaneous rates of change by finding
its limit.

.3 Derivatives
The derivative of a function f(x) at a point, a, is the limit of its difference quotient at that
point.
There are several notations we can use to indicate a derivative.
The slope of the line tangent to a function at point a is equal to the derivative of the
function at that point.
To find the equation of a line tangent to a curve at a given point, a, we differentiate at a
and then use the derivative and (a,f(a)) to write the equation.
Some places where derivatives fail to exist include discontinuities. corners, cusps,
and
vertical tangents.
If f(4) is the function of the position of an object at time ¢, then f’(t) = v(t)
is the velocity of
the object at time, ¢.
A function is continuous over an interval, (a, b) if, for every point
c, where
GiGi. lim f(2) = f(c).
The derivative of a differentiable function is the limit of the differe
nce quotient.

—__—————————

646 Concepts in Calculus

MM Chapter || Review
1. The function f(x) = x? + 1 is differentiable Exercises 5=8: Use the graph of f, below,
over the interval (—«, ©). Which of the to answer the questions. If a limit does not
following is a true statement about f(x)? exist, explain why.

A. The function f(x) is continuous over

(—2, 00),

B. The limit of the function f(x) is 0 as

x approaches positive infinity.

C. The slope of the tangent line at x = 0

ison UL

D. The function f(x) has a jump

discontinuity at x = 1. 5.

De Whit uit ee
xe x+5

As
B. 0
‘om
Dee

Exercises 3=43 For each function,

(a) find the average rate of change over

the given interval and,

(b) estimate the instantaneous rate of

change at the given value of x. 7.

8.
4. f(x)=vx+2

a [-2,2]
bye?

CHAPTER REVIEW continues...

Chapter | | Review 647

 Exercises 9=1 1: Use limit laws to 18. For y=-x’
+3,
calculate each of the following if f(x) = x’,
a_ find the slope of the line tangent to the
and! @(%) =~ 2.
function at x = 1.

9. lim(f(x)
+g(x) b write the equation of the tangent line
at this point.
10. lim( f(x) g(x) c graph both equations on the same
coordinate plane.

x1 g(x) if
19. FOR — 1
Exercises 12-143 For each function,
36 =

identify the location and type of any a_ find the slope of the line tangent to the
discontinuities. Then tell whether the function is function at x = 2.
a continuous function. If not, explain why not. b_ write the equation of the tangent line
at this point.
12. lx) ==
c graph both equations on the same
coordinate plane.
13. fx) =

en Be
20. Find ey for y= ae Oa
p42) dx ~ Al

21. Pind (Ge) fon fxy= or = 4.

15. For the equation y= — find each of 22 Find the instantaneous rate of change of
—Xx
the volume of a cone with respect to the
the following limits. If the limit does not
radius, r, if the height, h, does not change
exist, explain why.
te = arn]
oda eee 3

Da eet 23. An explosion at a demolition site

launches a rock into the air with a
ae ye vertical velocity of 160 feet per second.
Its height, in feet, after ¢ seconds is
cater. vee? s(t) =—162? +160¢.

a What is the velocity of the rock when

Exercises 16-17: Use the limit of the
it is 256 feet above the ground on its
difference quotient to find the instantaneous
way up?
rate of change at the designated point.
b What is the velocity of the rock when
ia
16. PSE es at a) it is 256 feet above the ground on the
way down?
17. ye z all
xe = 1 ¢ How are your answers to a and b
different? Why?
d How long does it take for the rock to
hit the ground?
648 Concepts in Calculus
24. Suppose that your teacher says she’ll poe 25. You closely follow the speed limit on your
stand at one end of the classroom drive to school because you do not want
and then walk half the distance to the to receive a speeding ticket. For the first
classroom’s opposite side for every 2 minutes of your drive you are travelling
minute of class the passes. at 25 mph. Then you must stop at a red
light for | minute. For the next 7 minutes
a_ If the total distance from one end of
of your drive, you are able to travel at 50
the classroom to the other is 30 feet,
mph. In the school parking lot, you cruise
write an equation that defines the total
at 10 mph looking for a parking space.
distance your teacher will walk.
This takes you 2 minutes.
b Using your equation from part a,
a Graph a possible piecewise function to
how far has your teacher walked in
represent your drive.
3 minutes? Round to the nearest
hundredth of an inch. b During your drive, is there a time
where you are traveling at 30 mph?
ec Ifthe class lasts for 60 minutes, how
How do you know? If you do travel at
far will your teacher walk? Round to
30 mph, approximate the time(s) when
the nearest hundredth of an inch.
you are traveling at that speed.
d What amount of class time is required
for your teacher to reach the opposite
wall? Explain.

Chapter || Review 649

 1-to-1 function (p.62) A function in which average speed (p. 607) The total distance
every element of the range corresponds to traveled by an object divided by the amount
one and only one element in the domain. of time it took the object to travel the
distance.
A
axis of symmetry (p. 10) A line that divides
a figure into two symmetric halves. Also
absolute value (p. 344) (1) A number’s
known as a line of symmetry or a line of
distance on the number line from the origin.
reflection.
(2) Another term for modulus.

adjacency matrix (p. 467) A matrix that

describes a network using 1s and Os. Where
a path between two nodes exists, a | is binomial (p.6) A two-term mathematical
indicated; otherwise 0. expression consisting of the sum or difference
of monomials. A two-term polynomial.
amplitude (p. 248) (1) The distance from
the midline to the tallest point on a periodic binomial coefficients (p.545) The
function. (2) Half the distance between the coefficients of the terms in the power
maximum and minimum values of the sine expansion of a binomial of the form (a +b)".
and cosine functions.
binomial coefficients formula (p. 547)
arccosine (p. 264) The inverse of the cosine A formula used to determine the binomial
function. Note that y = cos x if and only if coefficients in a binomial expansion of the
x =cos y under certain domain restrictions. form (a+ b)".

arcsine (p. 264) The inverse of the sine bound vector (p. 420) A vector identified by
function. Note that y = sin x if and only if its magnitude, direction, and fixed initial and
x = sin y under certain domain restrictions. terminal points.

arctangent (p. 265) The inverse of the tangent

Cc
function. Note that y = tan x if and only if
x =tan" y under certain domain restrictions.
center (ofa circle) (p.385) A fixed point in
argument (p. 368) In the complex plane, the the plane from which all points on a circle
measure of the angle (in radians) formed by a are equidistant.
vector that represents a complex number and
circle (p. 385) All the points in a plane that are
the real axis, moving in a counterclockwise
equidistant from a fixed center point.
direction.
closed (p. 92) In mathematics, a set is closed
asymptote (p.99) A line that the graph of an
under a mathematical operation if, when
equation approaches but never reaches.
we perform the operation on two or more
average rate of change (p. 607) (1) Given numbers in the set, the result is also a
two distinct points on a graph, the change member of the set.
in the y-value divided by the change in the
x-value. (2) The slope of the secant line.
coefficient (p.7) A number that is multiplied
(3) The amount of change divided by the to a variable.
length of the interval.

650 Glossary
coefficient matrix (p. 496) A matrix whose conjugate axis (p. 397) The axis of a
elements are the coefficients of the variables hyperbola that does not pass through the
in a system of linear equations. vertices and the foci.

cofunction (p.291) A trigonometric function constant function (p. 122) A function whose
whose value for the complement of an angle output value is the same for a set of input
is equal to the value of a given trigonometric values.
function of the angle itself.
constant matrix (p. 496) A matrix whose
combination (p.541) The number of ways of elements are the constants from a system of
choosing from among the elements of a set equations. The constants are the values that
without replacement and disregarding order. the equations in the system were set equal to.

common logarithm (p. 154) A logarithm of continuous (p. 620) A function whose graph
base 10. has no holes, jumps, or gaps.

complex conjugate (p.45) A complex continuous random variable (p.551) A

number whose imaginary part has the random variable that can take on an infinite
opposite sign of a given complex number range of values.
but whose real parts are equal.
cosecant (p. 225) The reciprocal of the sine
complex number (p.36) Any number that is function.
written in the form z =a+ bi where a and b
cosine (p. 192) Ina right triangle, the ratio of
are real numbers and i = ee, ;
the length of the side adjacent to the given
complex plane (p. 335) An infinite two- angle to the length of the hypotenuse.
dimensional space defined by a real
cotangent (p. 225) The reciprocal of the
horizontal axis and an imaginary vertical
tangent function.
axis.
coterminal angle (p. 197) Angles that have
composite function (p. 133) A combination
their terminal and initial sides in common.
of two or more functions where the output of
one function becomes the input of another counting principle (p.540) A rule which
function. helps us determine the possible number of
outcomes for events that happen together.
conditional equation (p. 282) An equation
whose solution set is a proper subset of the Cramer’s Rule (p.506) A method used to
equation’s domain. solve a system of linear equations using
determinants.
conditional probability (p.538) The
probability that an event A occurs given that cubic function (p.33) A polynomial function
a second event, B, has already occurred. Ondecrees:

conic sections (p. 385) A group of curves cusp (p.636) (1) A sharp point on a curve
formed by the intersection of a plane and at which the function is not differentiable.
a double-right circular cone. The conic (2) A point where two branches of a curve
sections include circles, parabolas, ellipses, meet such that the tangents of each branch
and hyperbolas. are equal.

Glossary 651
 dilation (p. 358) The shrinking or expanding
of a figure, with each side shrinking or
degenerate zero (p.39) A repeated zero. expanding proportionally about a center of
dilation. Dilation is a direction-preserving
degree (p. 195) The measure of an angle equal similarity.
to a single 360" part of a circle.
directed network (p. 467) A network in
degree (ofa polynomial) (p.7) The highest which not all the paths are two-way, .1.e., the
power on any term in a given polynomial of path between A and B may not be valid for
one variable. By tOAe
de Moivre’s theorem (p. 379) A theorem discontinuous (p. 620) A function whose
for raising a complex number to any integral
graph contains holes, jumps, or gaps.
power once the number is expressed in polar
form. Conversely, this theorem can also be discrete random variable (p.551) A
used to find the roots of a complex number random variable that can only take on a
for any power n, given that n is an integer. countable number of values.
This theorem is a direct consequence of
Euler’s equation and connects trigonometry discriminant (p.21) In a quadratic
to the complex numbers. Note that equation, ax’ + bx +c =0, the discriminant
de Moivre’s theorem fails if 1 is not an is D = b’ — 4ac and is used to determine the
integer. number and type of solutions to a quadratic
equation.
dependent events (p.537) Events whose
probabilities of occurring have an effect on domain (p. 60) The set of independent
each other. variable values for which a given function is
defined.
derivative (p. 634) (1) The limit of the
difference quotient as the independent dot product (p. 440) The product of two
variable approaches a given value, a. vectors in two-dimensional space, it is equal
(2) The slope of the line tangent to the to the product of the vectors’ magnitudes and
curve. the cosine of the angle between the vectors.
The product is a scalar. Also called scalar
Descartes’ rule of signs (p.22) A product.
technique for determining the number of
possible positive and negative real roots of
polynomial functions with real coefficients.

determinant (p. 488) A numerical value that e (p. 154) (1) Euler’s number. (2) The
represents a defined alternating sum of base of the natural logarithm, In. (3) A
products of elements in a square matrix. transcendental number with approximate
value 2.718281828....
difference quotient (p. 628) A quotient used
to determine if a function is differentiable at eccentricity (p.389) A measure of an ellipse’s
a certain point, a, and to determine the value lack of roundness.
of the function’s derivative at a.
element (p.96) All the members of a defined
differentiation (p. 634) The process of finding set. The elements can be numbers or objects.
the derivative.
element (ofa matrix) (p. 464) Any of the
terms in a matrix.

652 Glossary
ellipse (p. 387) (1) A closed geometric shape F
that is symmetric about a major and a minor
axis, which are different lengths. (2) A conic factor (p.7) Any integer or polynomial that
section with eccentricity less than 1. (3) The divides into another integer or polynomial,
set of all points in a plane that are a constant leaving a remainder of zero.
distance from the foci.
factor theorem (p. 24) The theorem
end behavior (p. 32) The behavior of a which states that (x — a) is a factor of the
function as the input variable approaches polynomial P(x) if and only if P(a) = 0.
positive infinity or negative infinity.
focus (plural foci) (p. 387) (1) Point(s) used
equivalent (p. 112) Equal to. in the construction and definition of conic
sections. (2) A fixed point inside of a conic
even function (p. 66) Functions whose graphs section. Regardless of the conic section, the
are symmetric about the y-axis; a function distance from any point on the conic section
that satisfies the relation f(x) = f(-x). to the foci and to a fixed line outside of the
curve, called the directrix, is a constant ratio
expansion by minors (p. 489) A technique
for all points on the curve.
used to calculate the determinant of a 3 x 3 or
larger matrix. free vector (p. 420) A vector identified by
only its magnitude and direction.
expected value (p.553) A representative
value of a variable. It is equal to the sum function (p.60) A relation in which each
of all the possible values for the random element of the domain is paired with exactly
variable, each multiplied by the probability one element of the range.
that value will occur.
fundamental theorem of algebra (p. 39)
experiment (p.536) An activity with A theorem that states that every single
observable outcomes. variable polynomial function of degree
n= 1has at least one zero in the set of
exponential decay (p. 169) (1) A process
complex numbers. One consequence of
in which a quantity decreases at a rate
this theorem is the algebraic closure of the
proportional to its current value. (2) An
complex numbers.
exponential function with a base between
0 and 1.
G
exponential growth (p. 169) (1) A process
in which a quantity increases at a rate greatest common factor (GCF) (p. 13) In
proportional to its current value. (2) a polynomial, the largest monomial that is
An exponential function with a base common to each term.
greater than 1.
greatest integer function (p. 123) A step
function that returns the largest integer that
extraneous solution (p. 73) Extra solutions
that result from the solving process, but are does not exceed a given real number. Also
not accurate. When evaluated in the original
known as the floor function.
problem the extraneous solution will not
yield a true statement.

Glossary 653
 independent events (p.537) Events whose
probabilities of occurring have no effect on
histogram (p.557) A type of bar chart with each other.
the values of a given random variable on the
horizontal axis and the frequency of each index (p. 73) Another term for exponent or
x-value on the vertical axis. power.

hole (p. 102) (1) A point on the graph of a infinite discontinuity (p.624) A type of
function for which the function has no value. discontinuity where the output values move
(2) An x-value that is not within the domain toward infinity and/or negative infinity on
of a function because the function does not each side of a vertical asymptote.
exist at that input value.
initial side (p. 196) The ray of the angle that
horizontal asymptote (p. 100) A line the lies on the positive x-axis.
graph approaches as x > +00.
instantaneous rate of change (p. 608) (1)
horizontal line test (p. 63) A visual test The rate of change at a particular moment
used to determine if'a function is 1-to-1. Ifa in time. (2) The derivative of a function at a
function passes the horizontal line test, it is given point. (3) The slope of the tangent line
invertible. at a given point.

hyperbola (p. 396) (1) An open geometric instantaneous speed (p. 607) The speed of a
shape that is symmetric with respect to the given object at a particular moment in time.
conjugate and transverse axes. (2) A conic
intermediate value theorem (p. 624) (1)
section with eccentricity greater than 1, that
A theorem that states that if a function is
has two mirror-imaged curves opening in
opposite directions. continuous over a closed interval [a, b], then
it contains every value between f(a) and f(b),
guaranteeing the existence of a y-value for an
x-value between a and b.
identity (p.282) An equation for which the inverse function (p. 139) Two functions that
solution is the set of all real numbers. satisfy f(x) = y, g(y) =x. For inverse functions,
the domain of the first function is the range
identity matrix (p.486) A square matrix
of the second function and the range of the
where the elements that lie along the leading
first function is the domain of the second
diagonal are all 1s and the remainder of the
function.
elements are Os.
inverse matrix (p. 492) Given a square
imaginary number (p.36) A number of the
matrix A, the inverse matrix, A~. is the
form bi where b is a real number, excluding
matrix such that A - A= 7, where J is the
(andy == Imaginary numbers are
sometimes called pure imaginary numbers so identity matrix.
they are not confused with complex numbers inverse trigonometric function (p. 263)
when they are of the complex form 0 + bi. The inverse functions of sine, cosine, and
included angle (p. 194) The angle that lies tangent (as well as cosecant, secant, and
between two sides of a triangle. cotangent, although not discussed in the
text):

654 Glossary
invertible (p.523) The inverse matrix exists. left-hand limit (LHL) (p. 613) The value
a function approaches as the independent
isometry (p.352)A translation that preserves
variable approaches a given value from the
distance.
left.
iteration (p. 608) The process of repeatedly
limit (p.608) A value that a function
evaluating a formula in a way that the result
approaches as the value of the independent
obtained is then substituted in and evaluated variable moves toward a given value or
to get the next result.
increases without bound.

J linear factorization theorem (p. 22)

A theorem that states a polynomial has the
jump discontinuity (p. 624) A type of same number of factors as its degree.
discontinuity where the left- and right-hand
limits exist, but they are unequal. logarithmic function (p. 153) The inverse of
an exponential function such that log, x = y is
true if and only if a’ =x.
L

Law of Cosines (p.317) A trigonometric law

used to find missing side lengths and angle
magnitude (p. 369) Generally, the size of a
measures of oblique triangles.
mathematical object.
Law of Large Numbers (p.561) A law
magnitude (ofa vector) (p. 420) The length
which states that the larger the number of
of a vector, which can be found by taking the
trials of an experiment, the more closely the
square root of the sum of the horizontal and
experimental average value approaches the
vertical vector components.
expected value.
major axis (p. 387) The longer axis of an
Law of Sines (p. 321) A trigonometric law
ellipse; passes through the foci.
that relates ratios of the sine of a given angle
in a triangle to the length of the side opposite matrix (p. 464) A rectangular array of terms,
the angle. which are called elements.

leading coefficient (p. 7) The coefficient of midpoint (p. 347) The point on a line segment
the term with the highest degree in a given that is equidistant from the segment’s
polynomial. endpoints.

leading diagonal (p. 467) (1) The diagonal minor axis (p. 387) The shorter axis of an
that runs from the top left of a square matrix ellipse; perpendicular to the major axis.
to its bottom right. (2) Also refers to the
elements that lie along the leading diagonal, modulus (ofacomplex number) (p. 344) A
which are the elements a... Sometimes called positive real number that represents the
the main diagonal. magnitude of a complex number. Modulus is
denoted by |z| and is calculated by Va* +b’.
least common denominator (LCD)
(p. 87) The smallest integer or the polynomial monomial (p.6) A mathematical expression
of lowest degree that is divisible by all the consisting of a single term.
denominators in the set.

Glossary 655
 multiplication rule (p.537) The rule which P
states that the probability of independent
events occurring is equal to the product of parameter (p. 403) An auxiliary variable
their individual probabilities. upon which parametric equations depend.
This variable influences the behavior of the
multiplicative inverse (of acomplex parametric equations.
number) (p. 341) The number that when
multiplied by the original complex number parametric curve (p. 403) The graph
yields a product of 1. Denoted z7. generated by parametric equation(s).

multiplicity (p.39) The number of times a parametric equations (p. 403) Equations
specific zero appears in the solution set of a with one or more auxiliary variables that
given polynomial. express coordinates as a function of an
outside variable called a parameter.
mutually inverse functions (p. 143) Two
functions such that f(g(x)) = g(f(x)) =x. parent function (p. 68) The simplest function
of a function family.

partial fraction decomposition (p. 89)

natural logarithm (p. 154) A logarithm of A method for determining the set of fractions
base e. that, when added or subtracted, yield the
given fraction.
network (p. 466) A set of points, some or all
of which are connected by paths. Pascal’s triangle (p.545) A triangular array
of numbers such that each row gives the basic
node (p. 466) A vertex in a network. binomial coefficients of the power expansion
of a binomial of the form (a + b)", where n is
Oo the row number.

odd function (p. 66) A function whose graph period (p. 229) The distance needed for a
is symmetric about the origin; a function that periodic function to complete one full cycle.
satisfies the relation f(—x) = —f(x). periodic function (p.241) (1) A function that
onto function (p. 65) A function where every returns the same values over given intervals.
element of the range has a corresponding (2) A function whose graph repeats itself
element in the domain. after a given interval.

orthogonal (p. 440) Vectors at right angles periodicity (p. 240) The tendency of a
to each other. The dot product (or scalar function to repeat its values in a certain
product) of any two distinct orthogonal pattern over its entire domain. All
vectors is equal to 0. trigonometric functions have periodicity.

oscillating discontinuity permutation (p.541) An ordered

(p. 624) A type
of discontinuity that occurs when the arrangement of objects in a set.
function output values approach two or more
phase shift (p.252) A horizontal shift in the
points simultaneously.
graph of a periodic function.
outcome (p.536) The possible result of an
experiment.

656 Glossary
piecewise-defined function (p. 114) quadratic function (p. 32) The function y(x)
A function defined by more than one = ax’ + bx +c where a,b, and c are numbers
sub-function, each of which is defined for with az 0.
an interval in the function’s domain.
R
polar coordinates (p. 368) (1) Coordinates
expressed as (r, 8). (2) A coordinate system in
radian (p.201) A unit of measure for angles
which points in the plane are defined by the
based on arc length of a circle.
length of the line that joins the coordinate to
the origin (v) and the measure of the angle radical function (p.72) A function where
(@) that line creates with the x-axis. the independent variable is contained in the
radicand.
polar form (ofa complex number) (p. 369)
A complex number that is expressed in the radicand (p.73) The number or quantity
form polar coordinates r(cos 8+ sin @). underneath the radical sign.

polynomial (p.6) A mathematical expression radius (p. 385) The straight line that joins the
consisting of the sum or difference of center of the circle with any point on the
monomials. circle’s circumference.

pre-multiply (p.514) (1) The multiplication random number generator (p.584) A

of two matrices where the order of the matrix program or device that is used to generate a
factors is specified. (2) Multiplying a given random sequence of integers that cannot be
matrix by a preceding factor. predicted.

probability distribution (p.553) A listing random variable (p.551) A variable whose

or display of all the possible values a random value is the outcome of an experiment.
variable can take, paired with its probability
range (p.60) The set of values a given function
of occurrence.
yields, based on the elements in the function’s
proper subset (p. 282) A set of values A that domain.
contains some but not all of the values of A.
rational expression (p. 83) A fraction in
Pythagorean identity (p. 284) A group which the numerator and/or the denominator
of trigonometric identities that expresses are polynomials.
the Pythagorean theorem in terms of
rational function (p.95) A polynomial or a
trigonometric functions.
ratio of two polynomials.
Pythagorean theorem (p. 190) A theorem
rational zeros theorem (p. 23) A theorem
that relates the lengths of the legs of a right
that provides a method for generating a
triangle to the length of the right triangle’s
list of all the possible rational zeros of a
hypotenuse.
polynomial.

Q reciprocal trigonometric function (p. 225)

In trigonometry, any of cosecant, secant, or
quadrantal angle (p. 199) An angle whose cotangent functions.
terminal side lies on one of the axes.

Glossary 657
 reference angle (p. 197) The acute angle that rotation (p. 354) Circular movement of an
the terminal side of a given angle makes with object in the plane about a specific point
the x-axis. or line.

reflection (p.356) A transformation of an

Ss
object in the plane where we replace each
point in the object with a point that is
sample space (p.536) The set of all possible
symmetric with respect to a line.
outcomes.
relative frequency (p.553) The number of scalar (p. 337) (1) A real number multiplier.
times a certain outcome occurs divided by
(2) A quantity with magnitude but not
the total number of outcomes in the sample
direction.
space of a given experiment.
scalar multiplication (p.358) The process
remainder theorem (p. 24) A theorem
of multiplying a vector by a scalar, where the
that establishes a method for determining
result is another vector.
the remainder of a polynomial, P(x), when it
is divided by (x — a). The remainder is P(a). scalar product (p. 440) The product of two
vectors in two-dimensional space, it is equal
relative maximum (p. 232) The maximum
to the product of the vectors’ magnitudes and
value of a function over a certain interval in
the cosine of the angle between the vectors.
the domain.
The product is a scalar. Also called a dot
relative minimum (p. 232) The minimum product.
value of a function over a certain interval in
secant (p. 225) The reciprocal of the cosine
the domain.
function.
removable discontinuity (p. 624) (1) A type
secant line (p. 606) A straight line that joins
of discontinuity that is able to be removed by
two points on a function.
redefining the function. (2) A discontinuity
for which the limit exists, but the point does set builder notation (p.96) Notation used
not exist where the limit is approached. to describe a set by stating the properties
right-hand limit (RHL) each element must satisfy.
(p. 613) The value
the function approaches as the independent sine (p. 192) Ina right triangle, the ratio of the
variable approaches a given value from the length of the side opposite the given angle to
right. the length of the hypotenuse.
right triangle (p. 190) A triangle with one slant asymptote (p. 101) An asymptote
angle measuring exactly 90°. defined by a specific linear equation, that is
rigid transformations (p. 373) not x =a or y=b, where both a and b are real
Transformations that preserve length such numbers. Also called an oblique asymptote,
as reflections, translations, rotations, or a it occurs when the degree of the numerator is
higher than the degree of the denominator.
combination of these three.

root (ofan equation) (p. 19) The value(s) that standard form (ofapolynomial) (p. 7)
Satisfy an equation when it is set equal to 0. A polynomial with its terms written in
descending degree order.

658 Glossary
standard position (p. 196) When an angle trigonometric equation (p.305) An
is drawn with its vertex at the origin and its equation whose variable is expressed in
initial side along the positive x-axis. terms of a trigonometric function.

statistically fair (p.583) A decision is trinomial (p.6) A polynomial expression that

statistically fair when one outcome is not contains three terms.
favored over the other possible outcomes.
U
step function (p. 119) A function whose
graph resembles a staircase. This function
undirected network (p. 467) A network in
produces different constant values over
which all the paths between the nodes run in
disjoint intervals.
both directions, i.e., the path from A to B is
symmetry (p. 243) A graph where one half also the path from B to A.
of the image is the mirror image of the other
unit circle (p.206) A circle in the xy-plane
half. whose center is the origin and whose radius
system of equations (p. 49) A set of is | unit.
two or more equations defined by the same unit vector (p. 421) A vector with magnitude
variables. equal to 1.

T Vv
tangent (p. 192) Ina right triangle, the ratio variable matrix (p. 496) A matrix whose
of the length of the side opposite the given elements are the variables in a set of linear
angle to the length of the leg adjacent to equations.
the angle.
vector (p.337) A quantity with both
tangent line (p. 210) A straight line that magnitude and direction.
touches a given function at only one point.
vertex (of a parabola) (p.9) The point at
terminal side (p. 196) The side of an angle which the graph of a parabola changes
where rotation has stopped. direction. For a parabola that opens upward,
it is the minimum point of the graph, and for
theoretical probability (p. 536)
a parabola that opens downward, it is the
(1) Probability determined using reasoning
maximum point of the graph.
and analysis. (2) The number of favorable
outcomes divided by the total number of vertex form (ofan equation) (p. 13) Writing
possible outcomes. a quadratic equation as y = a(x —h)’+k so
that that coordinates of the vertex (h, k) are
translation (p.352) A change that shifts
plainly visible.
an object horizontally or vertically in the
xy-plane, but does not change the size, vertical asymptote (p. 100) A line the graph
shape, or orientation of the object. approaches but does not reach, where an
x-value is undefined or unbounded.
translation matrix (p.512) A matrix used
to transform a point or figure in the plane. vertical line test (p. 61) A visual test used to
determine if a relation is a function.
transverse axis (p. 396) The axis of the
hyperbola that passes through the foci.

Glossary 659
 vertices (p.387) (1) The plural of vertex.
(2) A point where 2 or more straight lines
meet.

zeros (ofafunction) (p. 19) Values of x that

make a function equal 0.

zero matrix (p. 485) Any matrix whose

elements consist entirely of zeros. The zero
matrix is also known as the additive identity
matrix.

zero-product property (p. 19) The property

that states that if the product of two factors
is zero, then at least one of the factors must
equal zero.

660 Glossary
1-to-1. See One-to-one minor, of ellipse, 387 Cofunction, 291
function; One-to-one transverse, of hyperbola, 396 Coinciding lines, 49
properties Axis of symmetry, 11-12 Combination, 541-543
Common factors, 83-84
A B Common logarithm, 154
Absolute value Base Common terms, 83-84
complex number, 344-345 change of base formula, Commutative property, of
parent function, 69 159-160 vector addition, 429, 430
Addition, matrices and logarithm of base, 164 Complex conjugates, 45,
associative property, 483 Binomial, 6 334-335
Additive identity (zero) Binomial coefficients, 545-546 Complex numbers, polar form
matrix, 484, 487 Binomial coefficients formula, converting between
Adjacency matrix, 467-469 547-548 rectangular and polar
Al-Khwarizmi, Muhammad Binomial Theorem, 548-550 forms, 370-372
ibn Musa, 4 Bound vector, 420 converting from rectangular
Amplitude, 248-250 to polar form, 375
Angle-Angle (AA) postulate, c derivation, 368-370
190-191 Cardano, Gerolamo, 332-333, raising to powers, 378-380
Angle(s) 534 rotations, 372-375
coterminal, 197 Center Complex number(s)
measure, 196-200, 216-217 circle, 385, 387 conjugates, 334-335
quadrantal, 198-200, rotation, 354 definition, 36
206-208 Chance, games of. See Games determination, 37
reference, 197-200, 202-203, of chance dilations, 358-360
306 Change, average rates of, division, 343-344
Argument, 368 607-610 ellipses, 392-394
Associative property of See also Instantaneous rate graphing, 335-336
addition of change graphing roots, 366-367
matrices, 483 Change of base formula, 159-160 hyperbolas, 400-401
vectors, 429 Circle, 385 modulus, 344-345
Associative property of See also Unit circle multiplication, 332-333
multiplication, 483, 484 Circle equation multiplicative inverse,
Asymptote complex plane, 386, 387 341-343
exponential functions, parametric, 408, 410 multiplied by 7, 336-337
169-171 standard form, 385, 386 n roots, 380-383
rational functions, 99-102 Closed set, 92 operations, 37-38
Average rate of change, Closure, of rational number reflections, 356-358
607-610 under addition, 92-93 rotations, 354-356
Average speed, 607-608 Coefficient scalar multiplication,
Axes binomial, 545-546 337-338
conjugate, of hyperbola, 397 polynomial, 7 transformations, 352-354
major, of ellipse, 387 390 Coefficient matrix, 496

Index 661
 Complex plane graph, 230-231 Degree measure, converting
circle equation, 386, 387 inverse, 264, 267 between radian measure
definition, 335 periodicity, 240 and, 201, 202
distances, 347-350 special right triangles, Del Ferro, Scipione, 332
ellipse, 392 217-222 De Méré, Chevalier, 534
midpoints, 347-348, 350 Cotangent De Moivre’s Formula, 366-367,
See also Complex numbers domain and range, 236 379-380, 380-383
Composite functions graph, 235 Dependent events, 537
domain and range, 135-136 overview, 225-228 Derivative(s)
evaluate for specific values Coterminal angles, 197 definition, 634-635
of x, 134-135 Cotes, Roger, 188 as functions, 641-643
modeling real-world Counting graphing calculators,
scenarios, 136-137 binomial coefficients, 638-639
notation, 133 545-546 instantaneous rates of
simplification, 132-134 binomial coefficients change, 640-641
Compound interest problems, formula, 547-548 at points, 636-638
177-178, 180, 181 Binomial Theorem, 548-550 Descartes, René, 4
Conditional equation, 282 Pascal’s triangle, 546-547 Descartes’ Rule of Signs, 22—23
Conditional probability, permutation and Determinant, 488-490
538-539 combination methods, Difference of cubes, 15
Conjugate axis, of hyperbola, 541-543 Difference of squares, 15
sy random variables, 551-553 Difference Rule, 616
Constant function, 122 Counting principle, 540-541 Differentiation, 634
Constant matrix, 496 Counting rules, history of, 534 Different quotient, 628-631
Constant Multiple Rule, 616 Cramer’s Rule, 506-507 Dilation
Continuous exponential decay, Cubes complex numbers, 358-360
177, 178, 179-180, 181 difference of, 15 definition, 512
Continuous exponential sum of, 15 matrices, 515, 517-518, 523
growth, 177-178, 180 Cubic equation, solutions, Directed line segment. See
Continuous function, 620-622 45—46 Vector(s)
Continuous random variable, Cubic function, end behavior, Directed network, 467
551-553 B2n50 Discontinuous function(s)
Cosecant Cubic property, of parent definition, 620-622
domain and range, 236 function, 69 infinitely, 626-628
graph, 232-233 Cusp, 636 types, 624-625
overview, 225-228 Discrete random variable
periodicity, 241 D definition and identification,
Cosine Decision making 551-553
amplitude, 248 fair, 583-585 histograms, 557-559
angles in unit circle, 206-210 probability for, 591-594 probability distribution,
domain and range, 236 Degenerate zero, 39 560-561, 566-567, 568-571
even function, 244 Degree, of polynomial, 7 tabular display, 553-555

662 Index
Discriminant, 21 conditional, 282 Factor Theorem, 24-26, 27
Distance formula, 349 roots, 19 Fair decision making,
Distributive property See also individual types of 583-586
matrices, 483, 484-485 equations Ferrari, Ludovico, 333
multiplication over addition, Equivalent rational Fiore, Antonio Maria, 332
of scalar multiplication, expressions, 112 First degree trigonometric
435 Even function, 66—68, 243-246 equations, 306-309
Domain Expansion by minors, 489 Focus (foci), of ellipse, 387
composite function, 135-136 Expected value calculation, Free vector, 420
equation, 282 554-555 Function compositions. See
function, 60 definition, 553-554 Composite functions
piece-wise defined function, games of chance Function(s)
115-116, 117-118, 119 comparison of strategies, combination, 132 (See also
producing inverse function 578-581 Composite functions)
by restricting, 149-151 fairness, 586-590 continuous and
radical function, 79-81 overview, 574-578 discontinuous, 620-622
rational function, 95—97 outcomes analysis, 594-596 definition, 60
Dot product, 418-419, 440-442 Experiment, 536 differentiating between
Double-angle formulas, Exponential decay, 169, 172, exponential and
296-298, 302 177, 178, 179-180 logarithmic forms, 154
Exponential equations even and odd, 66-68,
= one-to-one property for 243-246
Eccentricity, of conic section, solving, 174-175 graphing, 146-149
389 power property for solving, greatest integer, 123-126
Elements, 96, 464 175-176 inverse (See Inverse
Ellipse real-life scenarios, 176-181 function)
in complex plane, 392 Exponential functions limit, 610-612
definition, 387 graphs, 155-160, 169-174 one-to-one, 62-64
features, 390 one-to-one property, 174-175 onto, 65-66
parametric equation, transformations on, 170-171 piece-wise defined, 114-119
408, 409 Exponential growth, 169, step, 122-126
Ellipse equation 177-178, 180, 181 terminology, 60-61
derivation, 387-391 Exponential property, of types of discontinuous,
standard form, 390, 391 parent function, 69 624-625
End behavior Exponents, rules of, 8 Zeros; Lo
cubic function, 32, 33 Extraneous solution See also Exponential
polynomial, 33 logarithmic equation, 165 functions; Logarithmic
quadratic function, 32 radical equation, 73 functions; Parent
rational function, 98-99 functions; Rational
Epsilon-delta definition limit,
F functions
611 Factor, 7 Fundamental Counting
Equation Factoring Principle, 540-541
patterns, 19-21 Fundamental Theorem of
algebraic vs. trigonometric,
306 review, 13-17 Algebra, 39-40

Index 663
 G verifying truth of reciprocal, 282, 283, 285-286,
Games of chance trigonometric identity, 288
comparison of strategies, 288-289 sum and difference formulas
578-581 Greatest common factor as, 291-296, 302
expected value, 574-578 (GCF), 13-15 Identity matrix, 486-487
fair decision making, Greatest integer function, Identity property, of vectors,
583-586 123-126 429
fairness, 586-590 Imaginary number, 36, 37
Gauss-Jordan elimination, H Included angle, 194
500-502 Half-angle formulas, 299-302 Independent events, 536-539
GeoGebra Histogram, 557-559 Index. 72
angles with same reference Hole, in graph, 102 Infinite discontinuity, 624,
angle, 313-314 Horizontal asymptote 626-628
complex ellipse, 393-394 exponential functions, Infinity, limits and, 626-628
inverse of complex number, 169-171 Initial side, of angle, 196
342-343 rational functions, 99, Instantaneous rate of change
matrix transformation, 100-101 derivatives, 640-641
518-520 Horizontal line test, 63, derivatives as functions,
numbers in complex plane, 149-150, 151 641-643
Sey) Horizontal reflection, determining, 608-610
vector subtraction, 432-433 356-357 difference quotient, 628-631
vector translation in 3D, 449 Horizontal stretch, in one-side limits, 612-615
Graphing calculator trigonometric functions, Instantaneous speed, 607 608
classifying function as even, 251,254 Integers, closed set of, 92
odd, or neither, 67-68 Horizontal translation, 170 Intermediate value theorem,
compound interest, 181 Hyperbola 624-625
coordinates of parabola’s complex plane, 400-401 Inverse, 492
vertex, 10-11 definition, 396 Inverse function(s)
derivatives, 638-639 features, 399 algebraic creation, 141-143
histogram of probability parametric equation, 408, graphing, 130-131, 146-149
distributions, 560-561 409 mutual, 143-145
left-hand and right-hand Hyperbola equation, 396-399 restricting domain to
limits, 623 Hypotenuse, 190 produce, 149-151
logarithmic function, tables for construction,
160-161 | 138-140
periodicity of sine function, Identity(ies), trigonometric Inverse matrices, 462-463,
242-243 definition, 282 492-495
random number generator, double-angle, 280-281 Inverse trigonometric
585-586 double-angle formulas as, functions
real zeros in polynomial, 28 296-298, 302 domains and graphs, 273
transforming rational half-angle formulas as, modeling, 268-273
functions, 110-111 299-302 overview, 263-268
two-variable equations with Pythagorean, 284-288 Invertible matrix, 523
matrices, 500-502 quotient, 283, 288 Isometry, 513

664 Index
J M GeoGebra, 518-520
Jump discontinuity, 624 Magnitude, of vector invertible, 523
determining, 423-424, 428 multiplying coordinates of
E scalar multiplication, vertices, 921—525
Law of Cosines, 316-320, 437-439 reflection, 514, 516-517, 523
441-442 using Pythagorean rotation, 514, 516, 522
Law of Large Numbers, theorem to calculate, translation, 512-513
561-563 in 3-dimensional space, Mean. See Expected value
Law of Sines, 320-323 447-448 Midpoint, in complex plane,
Leading coefficient, 7 Magnitude, vector, 420 347-348, 350
Leading diagonal, 467 Major axis, of ellipse, 387, 390 Minor axis, of ellipse, 387
Least common denominator Matrix(ces) Modulus, of complex number,
(LCD), 87-88 addition, 472-475 344-345, 349-350, 358
Left-hand limit (LHL), adjacency, 467—469 Moivre, Abraham de, 366
613-615, 623 arithmetic properties, See also de Moivre’s
Leg, of right triangle, 190 483-485 Formula
Limit(s) coefficient, 496 Monomial, 6
epsilon-delta definition, 611 constant, 496 Multiplication, associative
function, 610-612 definition, 464 property of, 483
infinity, 626-628 determinants, 488—490 See also Scalar
laws, 615-617 identity, 486-487 multiplication
notation, 606 inverses, 462-463, 492-495 Multiplication rule, 537-538,
one-sided, 612-615, 623 multiplication, 479-482 oy
rates of change, 607-610 network analysis, 466—469 Multiplicative inverse, of
slope, 606-607 pre-multiplication, 514 complex number, 341-343
Linear Factorization Theorem, representation of data, Multiplicity, 39
22-23 464466 Mutually inverse functions
Linear property, of parent scalar multiplication, definition, 143
function, 69 471-472 determination, 143-144
Line of reflection, 356 subtraction, 476-477 graphs, 146-147
Line of symmetry, of vertex, variable, 496
9-11 zero, 485, 487 N
Logarithmic equations, Matrix equations Natural logarithm, 154
165-167, 176-181 Cramer’s Rule for solving, Network
Logarithmic functions 506-507 directed, 467
common, 154 three-variable, 502-505 overview, 466-469
definition, 153 two-variable, 496-502 undirected, 467
graphs, 155-160, 160-161 Matrix transformations Node, 466
natural, 154 3-dimensional space, Numbers, law of large, 561-563
properties and laws, 161-164 521-523
categories, 512 Oo
Logarithmic property, of
composite, 515 Odd function, 66-68, 243-246
parent function, 69
compositions, 525-527 One-sided limit, 612-615
Logarithm of 1, 164
dilation, 515, 517-518, 523 One-to-one function, 62-64
Logarithm of base, 164

Index 665
 One-to-one properties Permutation, 541-543 Probability
exponential functions, Phase shift, in trigonometric conditional, 538-539
174-175 functions, 252-253, 254, decision analysis, 591-594
logarithms, 162, 164 255-256 fair decision making,
Onto function, 65—66 Piece-wise defined function 583-585
Orthogonal vector, 440-441 definition, 114-115 games of chance
Oscillating discontinuity, 624 domain and range, 115-116, comparison of strategies,
Outcomes 117-118, 119 578-581
event, 536 evaluation, 118-119 expected payouts, 574-578
games of chance, 574-578 graphing, 116-118 independent events, 536-539
probability analysis, 594-598 Points, derivatives at, 636-638 multiplication rule, 537-538
Polar coordinates, 368, 423 outcome analysis, 594-596
P
Polar form, of complex theoretical, 536
Parabola, 9-13 numbers, 368-372 See also Counting
Parallelepiped, 523 Polynomial equations Probability distribution,
Parallelogram Rule, vector Descartes’ Rule of Signs, 553-555
addition and, 426-427, 428 22-23 discrete random variables,
Parameter, 403 Factor Theorem, 24-26, 27 566-571
Parametric curve, 403 higher degree, 46-49 histogram, 557-561
Parametric equations Linear Factorization Product Law, of logarithms,
conic sections, 408-410 Theorem, 22-23 162, 164
definition, 403-404 Rational Zeros Theorem, Product Rule, of limits, 616
graphing, 405—407 23-24 Proper subset, 282
graphing periodicity of sine, Remainder Theorem, 24, 26 Pythagorean identity, 284-288
242-243 roots, 19 Pythagorean theorem, 190,
vectors, 451—455 systems, 49-53 447-448
Parent function(s) Polynomial functions
definition, 68 complex, 39-40 Q
determining, 171 end behavior, 32-33 Quadrantal angles
graph, 170 graphing, 29-33 coterminal, 200
properties, 69 theorems for solving higher definition, 198-199
Parent rational function, order, 44 sine and cosine functions,
transformation of, 107-110 Polynomial(s) 206-207, 208
Parent square root function, 72 classification, 7,8 Quadratic equations
Partial fraction decomposition, definition, 6 complex solutions, 40-42
89-92 factoring, 13-17 discriminants, 21
Pascal, Blaise, 534 multiplication, 8-9 factoring patterns, 19-21
Pascal’s Triangle, 546-547 standard form, 7,8 roots, 19
Perfect square trinomial, 15 zeros, 27-28, 218-219 two solutions, 45
Period, 241, 252 Power Law, of logarithms, Quadratic formula
Periodic function, 241 162, 164 complex quadratic
Periodicity, in trigonometric Power Principle, 73-76 equations, 40—42
function graph, 240-241, Pre-multiplication of matrices definition, 20-21
’

244-246 514 derivation, 4—5

666 Index
Quadratic function adding and subtracting, Remainder Theorem, 24, 26
end behavior of, 32 87-89 Removable discontinuity, 624
graph of (parabola), 9 definition, 83 Right hand limit (RHL),
Quadratic property, of parent equivalent, 112 613-615, 623
function, 69 multiplying and dividing, Right triangles
Quartic property, of parent 85-86 similar, 191-192
function, 69 partial fraction sine, cosine, and tangent for
Quotient, difference, 628-631 decomposition, 89-92 special, 217-222
Quotient identity, 283, 288 simplification, 83-84 sine, cosine, and tangent
Quotient Law, of logarithms, Rational functions ratios, 192-193
162, 164 asymptotes, 99-102 trigonometry of, 190-193
Quotient Rule, of limits, 616 definition, 95 Rigid transformation, 373
domain restrictions, 95—97 Root(s)
R end behavior, 98-99 definition, 19
Radian, 188, 201 graphing, 58-59, 103-105 of equation, 19
Radian measure, 188-189, transformations, 107-110 using zero-product property
201-203 Rational numbers, closure of, to find, 19-20
Radical equations, 73-76 92-93 Rotation
Radical expression, 72 Rational Zeros Theorem, center of, 354
Radical function 23-24 complex number multiplied
definition, 72 Real number, 36 by i, 336-337
domain and range, 79-81 Reciprocal (multiplicative complex numbers, 354-356
graphing, 77-79 inverse), of complex definition, 512
Radical property, of parent number, 341-343 matrices, 514,516, 522
function, 69 Reciprocal identity, 282, 283, polar complex numbers,
Radicand, 73 285-286, 288 372-375
Radius, of circle, 188, 385, 387 Reciprocal trigonometric
Random number generator, function, 258-261 S
584-586 Reduced row echelon Sample space, 536
Random variable form (Gauss-Jordan Scalar, 435, 440
discrete and continuous, elimination), 500-502 Scalar multiplication
551-553 Reference angle, 197-200, application, 472
long-term behavior, 202-203, 306 complex number dilation,
561-563 Reflection 358-359
See also Discrete random complex numbers, 356-358 complex numbers, 337-338
variable definition, 512 definition, 471
Range horizontal, 356-357 vectors, 435-437
composite function, line of, 356 vector’s magnitude, 437-439
matrices, 514, 516-517, 523 Scalar (dot) product, 418-419,
135-136
function, 60 over the x-axis, 170 440-442
vertical, 357, 358 Secant
piece-wise defined function,
115-116, 117-118, 119 Relation, function vs. domain and range, 236
radical function, 79-81 nonfunction as, 60 graph, 233-234
Relative frequency, 553 overview, 225-228
Rational expression(s)

Index 667
 Secant line, 606 graphing solutions, 49-51 using factoring for solving,
Set builder notation, 96, 97 309-311
+ using quadratic formula for
Sine
amplitude, 248, 249-250 Tangent solving, 312
angles in unit circle, 206-210 amplitude, 249 using substitution for
as odd function, 244 as odd function, 244 solving, 312-313
domain and range, 236 domain and range, 236 Trigonometric functions
graph, 228-230 graph, 231, 245-246 amplitude, 248-250
inverse, 263-264, 265-267 inverse, 265, 268 angles in unit circle, 206-210
periodicity, 240, 242-243 periodicity, 240-241 domain and range, 236
special right triangles, Tangent line, 210-217 graphing, 228-238, 253-257
217-222 Tangents, 217-222, 606-607 horizontal stretch, 251, 254
Slant asymptote, 99, 101 Tartaglia, Niccolo Fontana, period, 252
Slope, 606-610 332-333 periodicity, 240-241,
Solution, of equation, 19 Terminal side, of angle, 196 244-246
Speed Theoretical probability, 536 phase shift, 252-253, 254,
average, 607-608 Transform 255-256
instantaneous, 607, 608 Transformations reciprocal, 224-225
Squares, difference of, 15 categories, 512 right triangle, 192-193
Staircase function. See Step complex numbers, 352-354 symmetry, 243-246
function exponential function, vertical translation, 252, 253
Standard form, of 170-171 See also Inverse
polynomial, 7 radical functions, 77-79 trigonometric functions;
Standard position, of angle, 196 rational functions, 107-110 individual functions
Statistically fair decisions, See also Matrix Trigonometric function
583-585 transformations transformations
Step function Translation graphing, 253-255, 257
definition and properties, complex numbers, reciprocal, 258-261
122-123 352-354 Trinomial(s)
greatest integer function, definition, 512 definition, 6
123-126 real vs. complex plane, 352 factoring, 14-16
Stevin, Simon, 4 See also Vector translation
Sum and difference formulas, Translation matrix, 512-513 U
291-296, 302 Transverse axis, of hyperbola, Undirected network, 467
Sum of cubes, 15 396 Unit circle, 206-210
Sum Rule, 616 Tree diagram, 540 Unit vector, 421
Symmetry Triangles
axis of, 11-12 area, 194-195 Vv
trigonometric functions, similar, 191-192 Variable. See Random variable
243-246 See also Right triangle Variable matrix, 496
vertices and lines, 9-13 Trigonometric equations Vector addition, 426-430
System of equations definition, 305 Vector equations, 451-455
algebraic methods for first degree, 306-309 Vector multiplication, 435-439
solving, 52-53 Vector(s)

668 Index
 application, 421 2-dimensional plane, Z
bound, 420 443-446 Zeno’s paradox, 604-605
definition, 420 3-dimensional space, Zero matrix, 485, 487
direction and magnitude, 446-447, 449 Zero-product property, 19-20
423-424, 428 Vertrex,9 Zero(s)
free, 420 Vertex form for quadratic definition, 19
magnitude, 420, 423, function, 13 degenerate, 39
447-448 Vertical asymptote, 99, 100 polynomial function, 29-31
orthogonal, 440-441 Vertical line test, 61-62 polynomials, 18-19, 27-28
properties, 429 Vertical reflection, 357, 358 Zero vector, 429
representation, 421-422 Vertical stretch, 170, 172
scalar multiplication of Vertical translation, 170
complex numbers, 337-338 Vertical translation, in
unit, 421 trigonometric functions,
Vector subtraction, 430-433 Za2p 2a 3, 294
Vector translation Vertices, of ellipse, 387

Index 669
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