History O level notes

Content

Topic1 : changes from Late Stone Age to Early IRON AGE

Topic 2: Late Iron Age States

Topic 3 : The Nguni Incursions

Topic 4 : Early European Colonial Activities

Topic 5 : The Industrial Revolution in Britain

Topic 6 : The Scramble and Partition of Southern Africa

Topic 7: The Colonisation of Zimbabwe

Topic 8 : Economic Development in Zimbabwe during Colonial Era

Topic 9 : Economic Development in South Africa during Colonial Era

Topic 10: Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

Topic 11: Struggle for Independence in Zimbabwe

Topic 12: Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation Mozambique

Topic 13: Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation in South Africa

Topic 14 : The Constitution of Zimbabwe

Topic 15 : Post Independence

1. CHANGES FROM LATE STONE AGE TO EARLY IRON AGE .
The Early Iron Age replaced the Late Stone Age. The early iron age people made
toought in a lot of changes economically , socially and politically.

How do we know about iron age societies ?

 Oral tradition : listening to stories passed down from generation to

generation by word of mouth. This helps bring light on the iron age
activities.
 Archeology : the study of artfects / objects and fossils left behind by
earlier generation. It gives clues as to what tools and weapons were
used. Accurate dating of objects and buildings can be done using radio
carbon dating methods.
 Written records : left by traders and explorers to Central Africa such as
the Arabs and later the Portuguese in the 15th century, help explain the
iron age activities e.g in the Mutapa state.
 Anthropology: which involves comparing current and previous societies
,is not so popular due to likely mispresentation by anthropologist. Biasis
during interviews is also a greater danger.

The development of productive forces

 The Late stone age people tools such as digging sticks , axes , scrappers and
clubs made of wood and stones .
 These tools were good for an economy based on hunting and gathering as
well as limited cultivation of crops.
 The Early Iron Age replaced the Late Stone Age.

Examples of Iron Age tools included hand axe, spears , hoes ,knives and arrow
heads.
  The Iron Age also produced better weapons such as swords, spears and
metal tipped arrows .
 These iron tools were efficient enough to clear the forest and chop down
trees.
 Branches and leaves of trees were burnt to provide fertiliser for the soil.
Crops could then be grown to improve people's diet.
 Examples of crops grown were millet , rapoko , gourds and melons.
 Domestication of animals accompanied crop production . Examples of
animals kept were goats , cattle and sheep.
 These animals supplemented people's food in form of meat and milk. They
also represented form of wealth to the owners.
 Hunting and Gathering continued during the Iron Age .

Benefits of changes from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age

 Crop growing ensured food security.

 Crop growing encouraged people to settle down in one place .
 Domestication of animals made people to live in one area for long time.
 Settled existence led to the building of permanent homes made of
wood ,pole and dagga in place of simple grass structures of the Stone Age .
 Better food security allowed large communities such as villages and later
states to expand .
 Storage facilities such as granaries and kraals improved .
 Specialisation began as some became miners , weavers , hunters and black
smiths .
 Some groups such as hunters , traders and blacksmith began to produce
surplus .
 Surplus production was the biasis for specialisation since it allowed certain
people to do one type of work , the exchange part of their surplus goods
for other necessities like food and clothing .
 Growth of internal and external trade .
  The division of labour as a result of specialisation became an important
basis for the growth of local exchange.
 Security against enemies improved due to better weapons .
 Hunting was more organized as efficient and effective tools were used.

Non - Benefits of changes from Late Stone Age to Early Iron Age.

 Exploitation of man by man began as a result of the production of surplus

( more than could be eaten by the producer) .
 People with more cattle wealth employed others.
 Specialisation also brought class formation and exploitation of man by man.
 The society became clearly divided into the classes of rich and the poor .
 Tribute was a biasis if the exploitation as it was controlled by senior
lineages and the ruling class.
 In the Early Iron Age, division of labour became exploitative as man began
to dominate women.
 Women were given hard works such as cultivating crops and child- rearing ,
whereas men became herders , miners , blacksmith or traders .
 Women increasingly became objects within the production process as they
were equated with wealth in the marriage process as polygamy was
practised.
 There was competition for land for pastures , cultivation and hunting .
 Weapons raised warfare.

FROM EARLY IRON AGE TO LATE IRON AGE.

 Historians noted that there were very few marked developments during the
Early Iron Age.
 Most important changes such as long- distance trade , cattle rearing as
well as state formation were noted during the Late Iron Age.
  Whilst some historians explain changes as having been caused by the
migration of Bantu into Central and Southern Africa , others believe that
changes from Late Stone Age to Iron Age happened naturally.
 Trade in gold and ivory , mining of gold and iron ore as well as ivory hunting
were part of the major activities during the Late Iron Age.
 Gold and ivory were exchanged for luxury items like cloth and glass beads
which became symbol of wealth and status in the society .
 Central Africa was exporting raw materials at low prices and receiveing
overpriced finished products from overseas .
 The prices were dictated to Aficans by foreign traders such as Muslims and
Portuguese who set the prices.
 Foreign traders could threaten to change trade routes if an African State
refused to agree to their terms. This partly led to the collapse of states like
Great Zimbabwe .
 Trade and mining were secondary to cattle rearing crop growing which
were the basis of central African Societies .

THE STATE ( POLITICAL SYSTEM)

Stages of community Development.

Homestead ( one family)

Lineage ( related homesteads)

Clan ( a number of lineages).

Village ( a number of clans)

District ( many villages)

Province ( number of districts)

 A state was made up of various provinces under a ruler King.

  A state had a clearer class structure as well and clear division between the
poor and the rich classes.
 The ruling class controlled all the means of production in the state , so for
the peasants to own land, they had to accept domination by the ruling class
.
 The ruling class used it's position and power to a accumulate wealth in the
form of land , cattle and trade items.
 Rulers received tribute from their subjects as sign of respect or loyalty.
 Land and cattle were then given out for use by the peasants in return for
loyalty to the ruling class.

Lineages and Tributary modes of production.

 A society's way of operation is affected by the way that society produces and
distributes goods, that is ,it's mode of production.
 Agriculture , mining and hunting elephants for ivory were controlled by the
ruling class.
 The tribute system clearly showed exploitation , the major items used to pay
tribute were : ivory , gold , tools , labour , grains / crops and wild animal skins.
 In some kingdoms subjects were forced to pay tribute to the King .
 In other kingdoms people paid tribute as a sign of appreciation for the King's
protection.
 The King protected people through his army.
 Kings controlled land distribution, as well access to cattle , mines and trade
routes. The ruling class gathered wealth for themselves and so led a luxurious
life from what they had not worked for.
 Access to cattle and luxurious imports that were got through trade was
important for marriage ( payment of bride price) because the man's wealth
was measured against the number of wives he had .

THE ROLE OF RELIGION

  In settled communities, religion helped cement the power of the ruling
class by making people accept authority and subordination.
 The spirit mediums reinforced the people's acceptance of their ruler's
authority.
 Religion helped to unify the state as times were set for people to worship
the ancestors of the ruling class.

The role of trade

 Surplus production led to : access to foreign goods , accumulation of

wealth by kings , beginning of class formation and oppression of women .
 There was local trade in salt ,copper and iron goods , and long distance
trade in the Late Iron Age .

(a.) Name any six sources of history . [ 6]

(b.) Describe the economic , social and political changes that occurred in
central Africa as a result of use of iron . [12]
(c.) Did people from Central and Southern Africa benefit from the use
of Iron . Explain your answer [ 8]

2. THE LATE IRON AGE: GREAT ZIMBABWE, MUTAPA

AND ROZVI.
Important changes took place in the Southern African societies during the Iron
Age . These changes included :

 food production
 tool making
 specialisation , leading to trade
 surplus production for trade
 settled existence.

Familiarize yourself with terms such as military , political, social , economic and
religious organization in order to be able to answer questions fairly.

GREAT ZIMBABWE

Great Zimbabwe derives it's name from stone buildings. The stone walls were
built from granite rocks, in a unique manner. Historians agree that the walls of
Great Zimbabwe were build by the Shona people of Zimbabwe.

The origins and Rise of Great Zimbabwe.

 Great Zimbabwe is popular for it's pottery. It is believed to have been

founded by ancestors of the Torwa dynasty around 1200AD.
 It started off as an early Iron Age site.
 The first settlement was a hill settlement . As population grew a village
sprouted into the valley ( valley settlement).
 A huge stone wall ( Great Enclosure ) was built around the ruler's residence.

The stone walls of Great Zimbabwe.

 Were skillfully built in granite rocks.

 Were carefully fitted and set in straight lines.
  No mortar was used to hold stones together.
 The lower parts were decided.
 The walls symbolized : power of the state , achievements if the ruling class ,
luxurious wealth of the king , family and other relatives .

Reasons for settling ( rise of Great Zimbabwe state).

 Availability of adequate pastures.

 Availability of arable land (fertile soil).
 Availability of water sources.
 Suitable climate.
 Hill provided defence
 Religious purpose (it became a religious centre).
 Military strength.
 Availability of minerals such as gold , tin ,iron and copper in the outlying
areas.
 Trade control .
Uses of cattle
 Draught power
 Provided with milk
 Animal skins
 Meat
 For paying lobola
 For pay tribute to the King .

Economic Organization of Great Zimbabwe.

The economic activities included:

1. Agriculture: Due to availability of arable land ( fertile soil) , people in Great

Zimbabwe were able to grow different types of crops such as millet ,
rapoko etc. They also practised pastoralism ( the rearing of livestock) such
as cattle that provided them with milk , meat and used for draught power.
 2. Trade: They practised internal trade and external trade. Internal ( trade
within the state e.g exchange of salt for a hoe) and external trade , trade
outside the state with other states and foreigners. For example exchange of
gold and ivory to gain beads , jewellery. The state became a trade centre .
3. Blacksmithing: Due to introduction of iron , the subjects were able to make
their own iron tools and weapons. They made weapons such as spears,
arrow heads that enabled them to defend themselves from their enemies.
They also made iron tools such as axes and oxdrawn plough that improved
agricultural activities. They were able to grow large piece of land and
protect their animals from thieves .
4. Hunting and Gathering: people in Great Zimbabwe hunted wild animals
for meat and elephants for ivory. Due to iron tools they were able to hunt
animals as source of food . The women also gathered wild fruits to feed
their families.
5. Mining : the state was rich with minerals such as gold , copper and tin.
These minerals enabled trade with foreigners in exchange for cloth, beads
and jewellery. The foreigners needed these in order to make jewellery.
6. Fishing : They practised fishing as their source of food.
7. Weaving
8. Basketry

9. Pottery
10.Tribute: The subjects paid tribute to the King in form if ivory , gold to show
respect and loyalty to the King. The subchiefs and weaker chiefs also paid
tribute to the King.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF GREAT ZIMBABWE.

 The Great Zimbabwe walls are said to have been built to display the power
of the state.
  Historians have suggested that the conical tower in the Great Enclosure and
the Zimbabwean bird have been symbols of royal ancestors .
 Rulers had authority over their subjects .
 Rulers at Great Zimbabwe had considerable wealth and power.
 The rulers monitored and supervised economic activities and trading
activities as well as payment of tribute by their subjects.
 The army protected the state and trading routes.
 An advisory council helped the ruler.
 The senior wife, religious leaders and army commander were part of the
advisory council.

Social organisation of the Great Zimbabwe.

1. The state was a religious centre : the people believed Mwari through
ancestors. The conical tower in the Great Enclosure and Zimbabwean
bird are symbols of royal ancestors.
2. It was a patrilineal society : ll
3. It was polygamous : men were allowed to take many wives . Having
many cattle and wives was a symbol of wealth in the state .
4. The bride price (lobola ) was paid in marriage: Lobola/ roora was paid
to the bride's family as an appreciation. It was paid in form of cattle .
5. There was division of labour based on gender: The roles in the state
were divided between men and women. Men's roles were herding
cattle, hunting and women's roles included Gathering fruits , taking care
of children, fetching firewood and cultivating crops.
6. They lived in thatched poles and dagga huts.
7. They wore animal skins
8. The people had totems .
9. Exploitation of the poor by the rich

Possible Reasons for the Decline ( Fall) of Great Zimbabwe State .

There are various reasons that led to the decline of Great Zimbabwe State . They
can be political , social and economic reasons .

Economic Reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe.

 Overpopulation: Population growth led to overcrowding due to land

shortage . As the state was polygamous, more children were born and
the population increased faster leading to overcrowding.
 Overgrazing: Shortage of pastures led to overgrazing. The livestock's
began to starve as the state expanded. There were too many people in
the state also rearing large herds of livestock's.
 Exhaustion of natural resources such as gold , ivory , fertile soil ,salt
and wildlife : The state was no longer able to practised trade as the
gold deposits were exhausted. Hunting and agriculture was the main
source of food in the state. As the state expanded , the wild animals
were exhausted and the soil was no longer fertile. They were not able to
grow crops to feed their families.
 Persistent drought leading to food shortages .
 Decline in trade routes : trade routes shifted to Zambezi valley.
 Outbreak of diseases such as small pox and cholera.
 Discovery of reasources in the north.

Political Reasons for the decline of Great Zimbabwe

 Emergency of ambitious leaders .
 Corrupt leaders
 Incompetent leaders
 Succession disputes
 Civil wars.
 The rise of Mutapa State .

THE MUTAPA STATE

It is also known as Munhumutapa , Monomutapa , Mwenemutapa. Various
reasons have been suggested for it's rise and it is believed that the Mutapa
State was an offshoot from Great Zimbabwe state. The Great Zimbabwe
stateand Mutapa had similar pottery.

Origins of the Mutapa State

 It rise around 15th century. It's rise coincided with the decline of Great
Zimbabwe State.
 According to oral tradition , the state was founded by Nyatsimba Mutota
who left Great Zimbabwe because of : shortage of salt , drought ,
population growth , succession disputes and shifting of trade.
 Nyatsimba Mutota reached the Dande region where he conquered the
Tonga and Tavara people and established his capital at
Chitakochanganya.
 The Mutapa state , stretching from Limpopo to the Zambezi ,was one of
the most powerful and largest state in the pre-colonial Africa.
 At it's peak , it had provinces such as Guruuswa, Fura , Dande , Khami ,
Mapungubwe , Danangombe , Great Zimbabwe , Naletale and lngombe
llende.

Economic Organization of the Mutapa State.

The Mutapa State survived into the 19th century is evidence of a strong
economy based on :
 Crop growing.
 Pastoralism ( livestock keeping)
 Trade with the Swahili and Portuguese.
 Tribute payment
 Hunting
 Mining
 Iron smelting
 Fishing
 Pottery
 Weaving
 Raiding
  The basis of Mutapa economy was agriculture ( livestock keeping &
crop growing) and trade.
 Cattle were sign of wealth ,used to pay tribute , and appease
ancestral spirits ,as well as source of food in form of meat and milk .

Political and Military organisation of Mutapa State .

The Mutapa were efficient rulers who were powerful. To maintain power , the
rulers relied on :
 Religion
 Army ( military machine)
 Tribute payment
 The royal fire
 The army protected and defended the state from enemies.
 The army also in raiding for food ( grain and animals).
 It enforced laws and collected tribute on behalf of the King
 The principal officials in Mutapa political organization were governors of
provinces, treasurers , doorkeepers, priests , divines and chief confidants .

Some important Kings of Mutapa State

1. Nyatsimba Mutota
2. Nyanhehwe Matope
3. Nyamhita Nehanda
4. Gatsi Rusere
5. Nyahuma
6. Chikuyo Chisamarengu
7. Mavhura Mhande
8. Negomo Mapunzagutu
9. Nyambi Kapararidze
10.Mukobwe
11.Nyakunembiri
12.Chioko
Social organization of the Mutapa State

 It was a patrilineal society.

 It was a polygamous society.
 Bride was paid in marriage
 There was division of labour based on gender .
 Etc same as Great Zimbabwe State.

Religion of The Mutapa State

 The people of the Mutapa State recognized the existence of a supreme God
called Mwari. They approached him through their ancestral spirits
( vadzimu)
 The Mutapa King himself was feared and respected for he was considered
to be a chosen God. This way , possibilities of rebellions or uprising could be
minimised and peace prevailed in the state.
 The spirit mediums were consulted during the installation of Kings and
during times of trouble such as drought, war , starvation and diseases .
These spirits were known to provide solution to the problem .
 The Mutapa ruled with the blessings of religious powers of the land. So ,
religion and politics were closely linked and this ensured the continued
survival of the state into the 19th century.
 They held rain -making ceremonies.
 They worshipped at natural shrines .

The Decline of the Mutapa State

1. The Portuguese activities largely contributed to the decline of the

Mutapa State:
 it divided people by introducing a new religion called Christianity which
contradicted with African Traditiona religion.
  The Portuguese forcibly took away land.
 The Portuguese refused to pay tribute to the King .
 Interfered in succession disputes when they chose puppet chiefs like
Mavura Mhande in 1629.
 Helped the rebellious vassals and gave them guns to fight the Mutapa
Kings .

2. Succession disputes in the ruling family

3. Exhaustion of land.

4. Drought

5. The Mutapa State was tool large and difficult to control.

6. Emergency of weak leaders.

7. Invasion of by Maravi people.

8. Invasion by people fleeing from Tshaka.

9. The rise of Changamire of the Rozvi state.

Portuguese activities in the Mutapa State

Possible Reasons for Portuguese presence in the state:

 To spread Christianity.
 To open up the interior for European settlements.
 To control gold mining.
 To control ivory.
 To get fertile land.
 To establish feiras ( trading posts).
 To control trade routes into the interior.
  To rule local people.
 To look for slaves .
 To avenge the death of father Gonzalo da Silveira.
 They were invited by Gatsi Rusere
 To find legendary Prester John.

Portuguese Visitors in Mutapa State

 Antonio Fernandez
 Father Goncalo Da Silveira
 Francisco Barretto
 Vasco Homen
 Donna Katarina
 Diego Simoes Madeira
 Diego Da Menes
 Diego Simores

Economic activities of the Portuguese in the Mutapa State.

 Barter trade :

The main trade item was gold from Mutapa State in exchange for beads , cloth,
spirit , alcohol, tobacco , ceramics , jewellery , maize seeds and guns .

 The Portuguese established trade centres at Sena , Tete, Quelimane,

Massapa, Masekesa, Dambarare, Beira and Sofala.

 They pushed the Swahili traders out of the interior.

 Plantation agriculture had a negative impact on the lives of the Shona
people of the Mutapa State as it disrupted their agricultural activities.
  Forced labour on mines and farms. The people lost their fertile land to the
Portuguese.
 Practised slavery and slave trade.
 The tax system ( curva) : tax on goods traded in the Mutapa .
 Crop growing
 Livestock keeping
 Mining
 Hunting

Political activities of Portuguese

 Interference in succession disputes.

 Promoted and interfered in civil wars.
 Created prazos as mini- kingdoms .
 Built personal armies (chikundas).
 Went into alliances with Mwenemutapas
 The Portuguese later on stopped paying tribute to the Mutapa and
contributed to the decline of Mutapa State.
 The Mutapa subjects no longer showed loyalty to their King, but the
Portuguese. The Portuguese began to influence the Mutapa political
decisions.

Social activities of Portuguese in the Mutapa State.

 Brought new architecture.

 Brought in a new education system.
 Intermarriage.
 Rapped women.
 Forced labour.
 Established private prisons.
  Slave trade.

The Religious Activities of Portuguese in the Mutapa State.

 Preached Christianity.
 Baptized people.
 Built churches.
 Discouraged African Traditional religion.

An examination question on the Portuguese activities in the Zambezi valley can be

answered using content on Portuguese activities in the Mutapa State.

THE ROZVI STATE

The origins of the state.

 The state rose during 16th century. The Rozvi shared the Moyo totem
which was a great spiritual bond between all the Rozvi regardless of their
social status . The first King was Changamire Dombo .
 The state grew out of several Shona dynasties.
 The state capitals included Bocha , Buhera , Torwa , Manyika and Uteve .
Changamire Dombo drove the Portuguese out of Manyika to Masekesa in
1693.
 The Rozvi provinces were Danangombe , Munyanga , Khami and Naletale.
 The army of Rozvi was very strong and it raided other states to create a
large Rozvi empire .
Economic Organization of the Rozvi state.

 Agriculture : they practised pastoralism ( keeping of animals) and crop

growing. Cattle were very important for payment of lobola , plouging ,
ceremonies as well as providing food in form of milk and meat . Cattle were
also sign of wealth. They grew crops such as rapoko and sorghum.
 Hunting e.g animals such as elephants for ivory.
 Gathering
 Mining
 Blacksmithing
 Internal and external trade with the Portuguese in items like ivory ,gold and
grain.
 Weaving cloth from cotton
 Fishing acted as source of food.
 Raiding especially those who refused to pay tribute. The army raided for
grain ,goats and cattle.

Political Organization of the Rozvi state

 The Mambo / Changamire ( King) headed the state.

 He was assisted by vassal chiefs who were in charge of the provinces.
 The King had an advisory council called Dare raMambo.
 The King's sons- in law and wives were important court officials.
 When the King died , he was succeeded by his eldest son. This form of
succession caused leadership disputes .
 The Mambo was the judiciary , military , political and religious leader.
 The King distributed land and cattle ( kuronzera/ ukusisela).
 Rozvi armies were well - organized and well - trained. These armies ensured
the long survival of the state. The army earned the nickname the
"destroyers".
  Tribute payment as a sign of loyalty in items like gold , ivory , cattle , grain
animal skins and iron tools.

Religion and Politics of the Rozvi

 The Rozvi believed in the power and guidance of the ancestral spirits. These
spirits were praised , consulted and appeased through spirit mediums who
communicated directly with the ancestors on behalf of the people.
 They also worshipped Mwari (God). The Mambo was believed to have
descended from Mwari.
 Religion strengthened politics because the Rozvi subjects could not
question the Mambo's rule since he was connected to high God.
 As such , religion was used to convince the ordinary people that the
political organization of the state was legitimate . This ensured peace and
unity in the state.
 The Changamire was the religious , judiciary as well as political authority in
the state.
 There was a royal fire which burnt all the time at the King's Palace. It was a
symbol of ruler's authority.

Rulers of the Rozvi State

 Changamire Dombo
 Chirisamhuru
 Tohwechipi
 Rupandamanhanga
 Nechagadzike
 Nechasike
 Negomo
 Changa weMbire.

Social organization of the Rozvi state

  The Rozvi practised polygamy
 The men paid lobola for their wives largely using cattle and other items.
 The Rozvi had individual homesteads which formed lineages .
 The state was patrilineal.
 They believed in witchcraft and life after death.
 Held rain - making ceremonies.
 There was division of labour based on sex.
 Local people were made to follow Rozvi customs and beliefs. The examples
were the Makoni , Marange and Mutema dynasties.
 The kuronzera / ukusisela system ensured that people got milk and draught
power.

The Decline of the Rozvi State

There are internal and external factors that led to the decline of the Rozvi
State .
Internal factors

 Drought.
 Succession disputes
 Loss of population as vassal states broke away.
 Exhaustion of gold fields.
 Civil wars.

External factors

 Attacks by products of Mfecane e.g Ngonie , Zwangendaba , Nyamazana ,

Soshangana , the Ndebele.
 Portuguese interference.
 Areas like Zvimba , Seke , Chinamora , Mangwende and Chihota did not
come under Rozvi rule .
3. THE NGUNI INCURSIONS
Perhaps as a response to foreign intrusions in Southern Africa , Shaka if the
Zulu , and the NGUNI clan set about creating centralized a millitaristic
State in the early 19th century. Surrounding please who did not voluntarily
agree to absorptions in the growing Zulu empire had no option but to flee
for survival. Three of these groups were to make a forciful impact on
Zambia, 1500km to the north of the Zulu heartland in eastern South Africa.
One of these was the Sotho clan from today's Orange Free State : it's
leader was Sebitwane and he named his people Kololo after his favourite
wife . Another was Mzilikazi , one of Shaka's generals who quarelled with
him and moved away. After being defeated by the dutch settlers in the
Transvaal , he and his Ndebele invaded and conquered western Zimbabwe .

Origins of the Mfecane

 Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa had started reforms( changes) which
improved his army's efficiency at war. These included creation of a
standing army and the organization of the army into regiments
( amabutho).
 Improved training and discipline of the army made it more efficient and
they were able to conquer neighbouring kingdoms .
 Between 1810 and 1815 , Dingiswayo's conquest extended Mthethwa
control over many small chiefdoms .
 The Mthethwa received tribute in form of cattle and grain from its
vassals . The Zulu became incorporated by the Mthethwa during this
period.
 The major challenge to Mthethwa supremacy were Zwide of the
Ndwande and Sobhuza of the Ngwane ( Swazi) people.
 These three groups competed for land , cattle and control of trade in
ivory and slaves with the Portuguese at Delagoa Bay.
 Zwide and Dingiswayo fought fiercely for supremacy and Dingiswayo
was killed in 1818.

The Zulu state

 The death of Dingiswayo at the hands of Zwide , opened a chance for
the rise of one of his regimental commanders knowns as Tshaka of
the Zulu.
 By 1819 Tshaka had defeated the Zwide's Ndwande and began the
expansion of the Zulu kingdom.
 The Zulu kingdom was created by defeating and incorporating
various neighbouring chiefdoms. Those who resisted were killed or
forced to flee.
 Tshaka was interested in cattle and young men whom he trained as
Zulu warriors .
 The rise of Zulu State worsened the violence which was already there
in the northern Nguniland .
 Tshaka introduced political and Military reforms that made the Zulu
state one of the most powerful kingdoms in Southern Africa.
Military Reforms and Organisation

 Tshaka adopted and perfected Dingiswayo's millitary innovations such as

banning circumsion.
 The introduction of age - regiments (amabutho). There were three age sets.
 All men under the age of forty were put into age - regiments and trained.
 Each regiment had a distinct dress and colour .
 New training techniques .
 Warriors were provided with long shields for protection battles.
 Each warrior was armed with short - stabbingspear for close combat.
 Tshaka's soilders went to war barefooted for greater speed.
 Zulu warriors were not allowed to lose their assegais ( short-stabbing spear)
or run away. For that punishment was death .
 Soilders were not allowed to come back from war with wounds on their
back . This was punishable by death.
 The Zulu men could not marry until they fought in the battle and proved to
be strong. They were only allowed to marry at forty years of age.
 Tshaka made use of baggage carriers during raids.
 Made sure the army was well fed (on beef).
 Soilders were isolated from their communities as a fighting force , so they
became loyal to Tshaka.
 Tshaka made use of surprise attacks on his enemies. These attacks were
carried out at dawn.
 Tshaka destroyed enemies crops and looted cattle ,young men and
women.
 The ruling family of the defeated chiefdoms were eliminated ( killed).
 Tshaka made use of spies.
 Made use of smoke signal for communication.
 Tshaka incorporated survivors into his age - regiments system and trained
them as his warriors.
 Tshaka introduced the cow - horn formation ( the horns fighting system).
  As a result of these reforms , Tshaka created a ruthless and efficient army
which he used to dominate the Nguniland.

Political organization of the Zulu State .

 Tshaka began a highly centralized system of government , a first in

Nguniland .
 Tshaka's decision was final in any issue though he consulted councillors.
 He set up millitary settlements all over the Zululand.
 Tshaka was the commander - in - chief of the army.
 He persided over the first fruit ceremony (inxwala) , with the whole army
in attendance.
 The army went through a traditional magic ceremony used to instill
discipline and morale before any millitary expedition .
 These ceremonies held at national level helped instil unity and destroy
division.
 All people were encouraged to speak Zulu and adopt Zulu traditions so as
to promote national unity.
 Tshaka appointed territorial chiefs.
 He made use of spy network which included women.
 Tshaka's wars introduced Zulu over - lordship on non- Nguni groups who
were tool weak to resist Zulu invaders.
 The Zulu benefited greatly from tribute items in form of animal products.
 By 1828 when Tshaka died , he had brought several changes in Nguniland.
 Chiefdoms continued to exist under the domination and authority of one
ruler.
 Tshaka used National symbols such as the inkatha ( wooven grass coil worn
in the hair ) to instil sense of Nationhood.

Economic Organization of the Zulu State.

 Engaged in external trade and internal trade.

  Tshaka made use of labour of the mabutho to build his state's economy.
 The amabutho undertook important public work programmes.
 Agriculture remained the basis of Zulu society. They practised cattle rearing
and crop growing .
 The homestead also continued to produce food.
 Women mostly grew crops as men spent most of their time in millitary
activities .
 There was division of labour based on skills.
 They were miners.
 They engaged in hunting.
 They also did basketry , weaving , poultry and woodwork.

Tshaka's death

 Tshaka became dictatorial and maintained cruel system and strict system.
 He concentrated political power in his own hands and did not often listen
to the advice from his millitary commanders (indunas).
 Tshaka did not even consult with traditional leaders. This was resented and
so plots were made to get rid of him.
 In 1824, there was a plot to kill him but it failed.
 Tshaka had many of his people murdered for minor reasons , so he had
many enemies.
 His warriors had grown tired of fighting .
 In 1828 , close members of Tshaka's family , his half - sister (Mkabayi) and
his half-brothers ( Dingane & Mhlangana) assassinated him. Dingane then
took over power.

Causes of the Mfecane.

  Nguniland had changed from a region of relative peace into a zone of
conflicts and wars.
The Mfecane is argued to have come from a combination of various factors
such as :
 overpopulation leading to land scarcity
 drought
 famine
 competition for control of trade in ivory
 the importance of cattle and desire to acquire more
 development of advanced millitary tactics which promoted aggression
 power struggles due to emergency of ambitious leaders
 Tshaka's rise to power
 external pressure from European settlers and traders expanding into
the region .
 These factors led to change and conflict in Nguniland.

Results of the Mfecane

 Emergency of new fighting methods.

 Tshaka's millitary tactics enabled him to defeat the Ndwande and become
the most important ruler after Dingiswayo in this region.
 Aggressive Zulu policies spread outward in waves of violence and upheaval
known as the Mfecane / Crushing.
 People attacked by the Zulu three choices : agreeing to be absorbed into
the Zulu state , resisting and getting crushed , running away from
Nguniland like ( Zwangendaba of the Ngonie , Soshangane of the Gaza clan
and Mzilikazi of the Khumalo clan).
 Fleeing groups fought and conquered other tribes they came across.
 Emergency of strong leaders .
 Led to creation of new states .
 Led to the spread of Zulu millitary tactics , culture and language.
 Food ran short and food production activities were disrupted.
  Reduction in population due to mass killing , chaos and hunger. It was true
time of suffering , the Mfecane.
 Decline of trade links.

Zwangendaba , Soshangane and Gaza (Nguni Kingdoms).

 Zwangendaba & Soshangane fled Zululand after fighting Tshaka in 1819.

 They moved with their followers and absorbed other tribes on their way.
 Zwangendaba fled towards Mozambique and built his empire by trading in
slaves with the Portuguese.
 He later moved the Ngoni and settled around lake Malawi after defeat by
the Soshangane.
 The Soshangane fled around 1820 with his Ndwande followers and settled
in the Lower Limpopo region.
 He used fighting tactics acquired by Fri Nguniland to defeat the Tonga ,
Ndau and Tembe , then incorporated them.
 Soshangane kingdom took the name of his grandfather , Gaza. His people
became known as the Shangane .

Millitary activities of the Gaza State.

 Soshangane organized his soldiers into age regiments , armed with long
throwing spears as well as short stabbing spears.
 These soldiers fought and defeated the Portuguese between 1834 and
1836 at Inhlambane and Sofala.
 The Portuguese at Sena and Tete were forced to pay tribute to the Gaza
King .
 Neighbouring people were forced to pay tribute in form of grain and cattle.
They were killed for resistance.

Political organization of the Gaza State.

  The political centre of the Gaza State was the King's court.
 The state was divided into districts , each under the military chiefs
(induna) chosen from the royal family.
 Society was divided into a hierarchical system , graded according to
lineages: the first group was the Ndwande royal lineage, regarded as
the most superior with privileges.
 The second group compromised those who adopted Nguni culture.
 Those who did not adopt Nguni culture were treated as the lowest
third - class citizens . They were collectively referred to as the Thonga
and were not allowed to join regular armies .

Social organization of the Gaza State.

 Had distinct social classes such as BaGaza , Bashangane and BaThonga.

 The Shangane enjoyed the ruwende dish
 They did the Inxwala festival.
 There was division of labour based on sex.
 Practised polygamy
 Paid lobola
 Cattle were symbol of wealth.
 Intermarriage with assimilated groups such as Ndau , Chopi & Manyika.
 Believed in ancestral spirits and spirit mediums.
 Believed in witchcraft.
 Believed in life after death.
 They wore beads.
 They practised ear piercing and incision (nyora).

The Ndebele State

 The Khumalo people lived under Tshaka's rule for fear of food shortages in
the area , attacks and cattle raiding by neighbouring groups.
 They could not argue against Tshaka's decisions.
  The Khumalo also feared their own King Mzilikazi ,who became the
founder of the Ndebele State.
 The Khumalo assumed the name Ndebele from the Sotho who called them
Matebele meaning people of long shields.
 Mzilikazi was the son of Matshobane and Nompethu. He had learnt
millitary skills from his grandfather , Zwide of the Ndwande.
 Zwide killed Matshobane for disloyal and installed Mzilikazi as a vassal chief
of the Khumalo.
 After Zwide was defeated by Tshaka , Mzilikazi paid allegiance to the Zulu
King , Tshaka.
 Tshaka recognized Mzilikazi as chief until 1820 when Mzilikazi after
successfully raiding the Sotho, refused to deliver the captured booty
( cattle) to Tshaka vv.z
 Mzilikazi 's action was punishable by death , so he decided to flee from
Tshaka.
 Mzilikazi left with a few hundred followers , warriors as well as livestocks.

Ndebele Migration.

 The Khumalo moved north across the Drakensberg mountains .

 Mzilikazi attacked other groups on the way such as the Sotho and Pedi.
 Mzilikazi recruited men on the way. The Zulu continued to track down the
Ndebele.
 Mzilikazi and his people rested at Ekuphumuleni , then at Mhlahlandlela .
 Mzilikazi incorporated people from groups such as Sotho , Tswana and
Venda in his group.
 Opponents of the Ndebele included the Griqua and Zulu warriors who were
now under Dingane.and Egabeni ,
 Mzilikazi then moved to Mosega and Egabeni, for fear of Zulu Griqua
attacks.
 In 1836, Mzilikazi fought the Boers and won , getting away with cattle ,
goats and horses.
  In 1837 , the Boers together with the Griqua defeated the Ndebele , forcing
them to move from Mosega and cross Limpopo in 1838.
 The Ndebele divided themselves into two groups with one under
Gundwane Ndiweni and Nkulumane , son of Mzilikazi and the other one
under Mzilikazi himself.
 The two groups met in Zimbabwe in 1840. The first group to arrive in
western Zimbabwe was the one led by Gundwane.
 After waiting for Mzilikazi for a long time , Ndiweni's group thought
Mzilikazi was dead . They installed Nkulumane as the King .
 When Mzilikazi came , he became angry on the installation of Nkulumane .
He killed all rebels including Nkulumane and Gundwane.
 In Zimbabwe , Mzilikazi's warriors raided local lineages for cattle and cattle.
 The Ndebele easily defeated the Rozvi and began to demand tribute in
labour and cattle.
 In 1868 , the Rozvi heir called Sibambamu was captured and killed , the
Rozvi State ended .
 The Shona people in the area were absorbed and Mzilikazi established
himself as the ruler.

Social organization of the Ndebele State

 The society was divided into three distinct groups :

(i). The Zansi : the original Khumalo who had left Zululand with Mzilikazi. They
were the leaders.

(ii). The Enhla : they had joined the Ndebele South of Limpopo e.g the Venda ,
Tswana and Sotho.

(iii). The Hole : Were found in Zimbabwe e.g Kalanga , Shona , Tonga and Ngabi.

 All the assimilated groups adopted the Ndebele culture and language.
 The state was patrilineal.
 They practised polygamy.
  They used cattle to pay lobola and as symbol of wealth.
 They was division of labour based on sex.

The benefits of Ndebele social organization.

 Intermarriage united people.

 Ukusisela / kuronzera system united the people as the poor / needy felt
needed.
 Speaking one language (isindebele) brought unity.
 Having common religion helped to bring people together.
 However, the social organisation had its non- benefits:

(i). Lower class Men were not allowed to marry upper class women.

(ii). The class system resulted in the lower class being exploited , and looked down
upon.

(iii). Lower class men never rose in millitary rank.

Political organization of the Ndebele State.

 The King had absolute power . He was addressed as Inkosi.

 He was a millitary commander , religious leader , Judiciary leader and he
allocated land.
 He also presided over the rainmaking ceremony and organized the First
Fruits ceremony ( Inxwala) . These ceremonies united the people.
 The Kingship was hereditary.
 The state was divided into chiefdoms / provinces under Izinduna (chiefs).
These reported to the King about progress or problems in the State.
 These chiefs formed Part of the King's advisory council , popularly known as
the Umphakathi.
 The King controlled the provinces by placing his many wives into these
provinces as spies.
  Millitarily , the Amabutho maintained law and order in the State.
 The amabutho also headed cattle , and were the King's labourers.
 Women also worked as cooks within the army.

Economic Organization of the Ndebele State.

 The basis of the economy was agriculture: livestock keeping and growing of
crops such as millet and rapoko.
 Tribute was often paid in form of grain , animal skins , salt and feathers.
 Cattle were important to the Ndebele for milk , meat , payment of lobola
and as a sign of wealth.
 Cattle were also used for religious festivals such as the Inxwala ceremony.
 Trade was also very important. The Ndebele traded their cattle and grain
for luxury items such as beads , cloth and guns. The European trickled in
during 1860s and 1870s to look for ivory and gold in the Ndebele State.
 Trade was controlled by the King.
 They raided surrounding areas for cattle and grain.
 They practised mining and blacksmithing.
 They engaged in hunting and Gathering.
 They made pottery.

Religion in the Ndebele State.

 They believed in God , Unkulunkulu , whom they worshipped through the

ancestral spirits.
 They consulted the spirits in times of trouble.
 The Ndebele accepted and believed in the Shona God ( Mwari) for rains.
 They held the Inxwala festival.
 They had religious shrines.
  The religion strengthened the state . The King was known to communicate
with God.

IMPERIALISM

 By 1859 , Mzilikazi had allowed missionaries ( London missionary society) to

settle and build a mission at Inyathi.
 Mzilikazi died in September 1868, followed by a two year succession
dispute , later won by Lobengula in 1870.
 In the 1880s , Lobengula thought of strengthening his position by granting
mining concessions to the whites.
 The Ndebele State finally collapsed and ended with the defeat of the
Ndebele during the Anglo - Ndebele war of 1893 - 94 when Lobengula
disappeared .

The Sebitwane and the Kololo.

 The Sebitwane led a group of Sotho speaking people (Kololo) displaced by

the Mfecane war from the Orange Free State area.
 On the way , they raided the Ngwaketse and other groups around present
day Botswana.
 When the Ngwaketse fought back using guns, the Kololo were pushed into
searching for new land to occupy.
 The Kololo had a lot of cattle.
 The Kololo also fought the Ngwato from whom they seized many cattle.
 They arrived in the Zambezi area around 1832 where they settled next to
the Lozi state ( in present day Zambia).
 By 1833 , the Kololo had imposed their rule on the Lozi by taking advantage
of civil wars in the Lozi State.
  The Kololo set out to spread their language and culture among the Lozi ,
but conciliated and integrated the local leaders through marriage ties. This
political strategy left Lozi people loyal to their Kololo rulers.

(a.) Identity any three groups that fled from Tshaka during the Mfecane and their
respective leaders. [6]

(b.) Describe the political and social organization of the Zulu state during Tshaka's
period. [11]

(c.) To what extent did Tshaka's rule benefit the people living under his rule
during this time ? [ 8]

4. EARLY EUROPEAN COLONIAL ACTIVITIES

 These early Europeans changed the economic and social relations of
Africans.
 The Arabs , Indian and Swahili merchants had been in contact with the
Shona people before the Europeans.
 These traders had established trading centres along the t coast.
The Arrival of Portuguese Traders.

 The major aim of the Portuguese on arrival at the Mozambican coast was to
take over total control of trade and displace the Arabs and Swahili traders
who had come before them.
 They organized a millitary take over of the seas along the East African coast
so as to control all African traders from the interior.
 After bombarding most Swahili commercial centres , the Portuguese
managed to control Sofala in 1505 and establish their settlement.
 They started to cut off all the existing Arab / Swahili trading networks and
redirecting trade towards routes under their control .
 This did not improve their trading activities because:
(i). The Arabs / Swahili traders maintained their trading links with the
interior by opening up new trading routes. So, the Portuguese could not get
much gold and ivory .
(ii). Africans who had befriended Arabs / Swahili traders resented intrusion
by the Portuguese and assisted Swahili traders to open up new routes,
away from Portuguese control.
(iii) . Africans in the interior preferred goods and beads from Asia ,
provided by the Arab / Swahili traders rather than European goods.
(iv). Many wars in the interior greatly affected trade so the Portuguese got
little gold and silver.
.
Portuguese in the interior.
 To improve the quantity of trade , the Portuguese pushed into the
interior so as to control the actual production of mineral resources.
 They made inland settlements for trade and interior markets on the
frontiers of the Mutapa State.
 This disrupted the Swahili trade networks .
 The Portuguese wanted to establish direct communication with the
Mutapa for easy access of resources like gold and ivory .
 The Mutapa rulers wanted guns from the Portuguese , to use to defeat
their enemies.
  The Mutapa rulers also got tax (curva) as permission for the Portuguese
to trade in the Mutapa State.
 In 1530 , Sena and Tete had become the major Portuguese bases for
trade.
 The Portuguese held Bazaars at various trade centres where they
traded with the local people.

Portuguese attempts to take over the Mutapa State.

 The Portuguese sought to control the Mutapa State by reducing the

influence of Muslim traders by means of religious conversion.
 They sent the missionary , Father Goncalo Da Silveira to set up a Christian
base at the Mutapa court at Mt . Fura in 1560.
 He baptized about 300 people including the ruling Mutapa, but Silveira was
killed in 1561. His death /murder was facilitated by the Arabs / Swahili
traders who felt they were being undermined by the Portuguese.
 In reaction to Silveria's death , the Portuguese sent a large army to take
over the Mutapa State.
 The Portuguese soldiers under Fansisco Barreto died from tropical diseases
such as malaria.
 In 1574 , the Portuguese sent another millitary expedition under Vasco
Homen.
 In 1607 , the ruler of the Mutapa State ,Gatsi Rusere faced a rebellions. He
sought Portuguese assistance and grant them mining rights in the whole
Mutapa Empire.

Effects of the Portuguese Penetration.

 In the interior the Portuguese began to influence political decisions. For

example , in 1628 civil war they assisted Mavhura to become a King of the
Mutapa State after Gatsi Rusere's death.
  They ,then demanded any end to payment of tribute by the Portuguese to
the Mutapa and the Mutapa were the ones to pay tribute to the
Portuguese governor in Sofala.
 They controlled trade with Africans directly and set up markets places
( feiras) and took over Muslim Bazaars .
 They set up fortresses which were however weak.
 The Portuguese took direct control of mining .
 They set up the prazo system.
 The Portuguese used for forced labour to increase gold supply. The Mutapa
people resisted by fleeing from mines and the Portuguese ran short of
labour .

The credit system

 It was the method used by the Portuguese to keep the Mutapa people in
continuous bondage.
 The Portuguese gave Africans goods on credit. If they failed to pay ,
they risked losing cattle and being taken into slavery.
 The Portuguese tried to force Africans to increase volume of trade , with
very little success.
 The Portuguese benefited from the trade as they got gold and ivory
( special items ) in exchange for beads , cloth , guns and spirits which
were of economic value.

The Prazo system and it's effects.

 The Portuguese fenced out large tracts of land in Zambezi valley , Sofala
and other areas.
 These large estates were known as prazos.
 The Portuguese settlers ( prazeros) grew crops like tobacco and rice on
these farms.
 The effects of prazo system were :
 (i). It displaced Africans from their land where they had settled and pushed
them to poor and arid land .
(ii). The prazeros enslaved locals to work on their farms/ estates / prazos.
(iii). The Portuguese had private armies called Chikundas which terrorrised
local Africans who resisted Chibharo ( forced labour).
(iv). The prazeros became more powerful than local chiefs and took over
the positions of chiefs , receiving tribute from the local people.
(v). They interfered in African politics by being involved in the selection of
chiefs.
(iv). The Portuguese settlers encouraged wars between African chiefs and
supplied guns to their favourites.
(vii). As a result many wars were fought between various African chiefdoms
and led to great instability South of Zambezi . The Mutapa State began to
breakdown because of these wars.

Zumbo and Masekesa trade.

 By the end of the 17th century the Mutapa State had collapsed. It was
replaced by the Rozvi state.
 The Rozvi stopped Portuguese from penetrating the interior so they had to
rely on the Vashambadzi for trade contacts.
 In 1710 , these Portuguese built a Zumbo which was very far from Tete.
 The Portuguese were heavily taxed and so they got low profits from trade.
 The Vashambadzi were also affected by civil wars and famine.
 Some of the Vashambadzi stole their master's goods and claimed to have
been robbed. They got reach and began to oppose the Portuguese at the
Zumbo.
 At Masekesa in Manyika , trade with Portuguese was more organized and
they got profit.

The gold trade collapses.

  By the end of the 18th century , the Portuguese control of trade began to
decline.
 The Rozvi denied Portuguese entry into the interior.
 Severe drought and hunger between 1818 and 1822 caused many wars in
Southern Africa.
 Gold trade collapsed and the Portuguese turned to trade in ivory.
 The Portuguese formed ivory - hunting armies which could not enter the
interior region.
 So there was very little trade occuring.

The end of Portuguese dominance of trade.

 The Portuguese dominance ended be ause of the Mfecane disturbances.

The trading feiras were destroyed, forcing the Portuguese back to their
main towns.
 The Portuguese merchants exploited local natural resources and helped
destroy the independence of powerful African States like the Mutapa State.
 They also laid foundations of imperialism in this region.
 Other European gold and ivory hunters such as the Dutch , German ,
British , French and others began to stream into Africa.
 By 1990, the Portuguese were facing stiff competition from their European
counterparts.

EUROPEAN MISSIONARY ACTIVITIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA.

AIMS OF MISSIONARIES

 To spread Christianity.
 To pacify the Africans.
 To end slave trade and slavery.
 To bring civilisation to Africans.
  To bring European education.
 To promote equality among all mankind.
 To lay foundations of imperialism.

(i). London Missionary Society (LMS)

 Became the main group in Southern Africa by 1850.

 Under Dr John Phillip's leadership from 1820 , LMS sent out a number of
missionaries such as Robert Moffat.
 They set up many mission stations in most parts of Southern Africa.
 The LMS spearheaded 19th century missionary efforts in Zimbabwe.
 Robert Moffat first made a contract with Mzilikazi in the Transvaal in 1829.
 John Smith Moffat came to Zimbabwe and in 1859 , the first mission was
built at Inyathi in Matebeleland .
 Other missionaries who came to Zimbabwe included Helm , Prestage ,
Francois Coillard , David Carnegie and Robert laws.
 In 1870 LMS build another mission station at Hope Fountain.
 Other mission stations included Empandeni , Chushawasha , Morgenster ,
Waddilove and St Augustine.
 Later the Dutch , Methodists , Anglican , Berlin missionary society ,
Catholics and Lutherans followed.
 By 1830 had built several mission stations e.g Empandeni.

Problems faced by Missionaries.

 Early Missionary effort were not sucessful because Africans resisted.

 The African chiefs did not want missionaries to have free access to their
subjects.
 They were suspicious of missionary intentions , fearing that missionary
teachings might undermine royal power.
 Chiefs prevented conversion among their subjects .
  The Ndebele feared that missionaries would undermine their centralized
authority. This frustrated missionaries and some actively supported
colonisation later.
 Missionaries felt that their success lay in the destruction of such states like
the Ndebele State which resisted them.
 Some African rulers welcomed the Christian missionaries in hope of
material benefits.
 Other rulers wanted skills , firearms and horses.
 Very few converts were made because :

(i). Africans resisted Christianity for they had their own religious beliefs which
they were very anxious to uphold in place of foreign beliefs.

(ii). Christianity despised African culture and beliefs. The missionaries aimed at
changing the customs and way of life of Africans for a new civilisation, which was
purely European.

(iii). Some missionaries interfered with African politics e.g Robert Moffat .

(iv). Some believed that people's progress did not lie in missionary guidance.

 Missionaries also faced challenges such as diseases like malaria and typhoid
, language barriers , transport problems and resistance by Swahili and
Muslims .

Positive impacts of missionaries.

 They helped to abolish slavery in areas like Malawi.

 They persuaded the African rulers to abolish customs like killing of twins at
birth and forced marriage ( betroting and pledging of children).
 They promoted African education in the region as they built schools.
 They improved health conditions by building clinics at their mission centres.
These helped to cure some of the killer diseases like malaria and small pox
which had killed Africans in the past.
  Missionaries introduced new styles of architecture and new methods of
building.
 They were involved in printing of books and helped in writing of vernacular
language .
 Some mission stations became centres of new technologies where Africans
were taught new skills like manufacturing and repairing of guns as well as
crafts .
 Missionaries taught Africans new ways of farming and helped to improve
productivity. They built agricultural centres where African peasants were
taught new methods of successful agriculture. They also introduced new
crops.

Negative impacts of missionaries ( The roles of missionaries in colonisation).

 Missionaries have been blamed for the colonisation and replacement of

African moral values and religion with western ones.
 They collaborated with colonisation - the flag followed the cross.
 Some missionaries like reverend Charles Helm ( as false interpreters)
persuaded Kings like Lobengula into signing away their power.
 Missionaries are said to have taught Africans not to revenge , that softened
indigenous people before conquest.
 The presence of missionaries created bitter divisions between converts and
those rejecting Christianity . These divisions lessened the ability to resist
colonial domination.
 They condemned African institutions and values , so missionary teachings
undermined the power of chiefs.
 The missionaries preached against established cultural practices like
lobola , denounced polygamy and denied existence of sorcery and
divination . This undermined African confidence and self - dignity..
(a.) List six missionary groups which operated in Southern Africa in the 19th
century . [6]

(b.) Describe the role played by missionaries in the colonisation of Southern

Africa. [11]

(c.) To what extent were missionaries responsible for the occupation of Zimbabwe
? [8]

5. The Industrial Revolution in Britain

The Industrial Revolution took place from the 18th to 19th centuries, and it was a
period during which mainly agrarian/ rural societies in Britain became industrial
and urban. Before the Industrial Revolution took place, manufacturing was often
done in people's homes, using hand tools or basic manual machines.

Factors which made Britain to be the first to industrialise

 Foreign trade brought in money that was used to develop the scientific
inventions during the second half of the 18th century.
 The merchant navy enabled Britain to build a vast empire and captured the
wealthiest areas of the world which provided the needed raw materials.
 The population of Britain began to grow fast because of improved
medical facilities – this created a big market.
 Britain experienced more peace and political

stability that promoted an industrial revolution.

 Britain had the scientists who invented the necessary machinery that
precipitated the Industrial Revolution.
 The availability of iron ore and water to power the revolution.
 Improvements in agriculture resulted in the need for machines to process
agricultural products faster to meet demand.
 A developed banking system which offered loans to the middle class to
build industries and factories.
 Availability of cheap labour.

The transformation of the peasant class

 Because of the wealth that came into Britain, serfdom began to

disappear. It was replaced by the peasant system.
 Peasants had more control over their lives than serfs.
 Peasants owned small farms or rented them from landlords or the king.
 They owned farm tools and animals necessary for draught power. The
animals were grazed on the common pastures.
  The family decided the crops to grow, on what to do and on the amount
of food to be stored or sold.
 Some peasants abandoned farming and became craftsmen, skilled
tailors, cobblers, blacksmiths, potters and leather workers.
 Some started shops where they employed servants.
 As the craftsmen became more commercialised the idea of capital
investment, banking and market system spread into rural Britain.
People bought and sold anything, for example eggs, mats, clothes, farm
equipment and blankets.
 The peasant class soon disappeared as they were swallowed into the
factory labour.

The agricultural revolution

 From 1750 onwards, the demand for food increased because people moved
into the factory areas.
 Landlords began to enclose their land and removed the peasant tenants.
 At first the peasants resisted the enclosure system – they farmed without
permission on the enclosed land.
 This was brought to an end when landlords pushed through parliament the
Enclosure Acts.
 Between 1750 and 1820 more than 4 million hectares of land was
enclosed.
 Many former peasants were forced to become farm labourers.
 Some moved into towns as factory workers.
 Some migrated to the British colonies in the Americas, the East Indies
and Australia where they became rich over a short period of time.
 This explains why there was a scramble for colonies in Southern Africa.
 This transformation of British agriculture between 1750 and 1850 brought
in new farming methods and machinery to feed the landless urban workers
who now depended on selling their labour.
 When these former peasants got a chance to go to the British colonies they
became ruthless exploiters.
  In Africa they became landlords.
 They demanded taxes from African peasants.
 They used brutal methods to force peasants to surrender their labour
and pay taxes.

The textile revolution

 New machinery capable of changing the manufacturing sector was

introduced.
 Machines replaced human labour. The machines were owned by the middle
class and peasants were turned into cheap labour. Machines introduced
included the :

- flying shuttle which speeded up the production of hand-woven cloth;

- spinning Jenny which combined the functions of the Spinning Jenny and Water
Frame;

- water Frame driven by water power;

- first automatic weaving machine was inverted in 1737.

 The middle class bought more machines which and were put into bigger
factories – it led to the employment of many people.
 This led to the production of a large quantity of textile products – mass
production.

The transport revolution

 It promoted other areas e.g. the growth of iron and steel industry,
agriculture and the textile industry.
 It made transportation of goods cheaper.
 Most early factories were powered by water.
 River transport was more popular than road. It explains why some
industries were along canals and rivers.
  Coal began to replace wood for both domestic and industrial use.
 It is the steam engine that revolutionised the transport system.
 The steam engines were used to power boats and revolutionised the textile
industry.
 The railway system was introduced and this expanded the steel
industry.
 The use of railway meant large quantities of goods were carried fast, safely
and cheaply.

Results of the Industrial Revolution

Positive

 Growth of towns and cities

 Parliamentary reforms led to democracy.
 Britain became self-sufficient (and isolated herself from the rest of the
world).
 Machines replaced hand use.
 Goods became plenty and cheaper.
 Rural-urban migration by the peasants who became the proletariat.
 The poor (workers) and the rich middle class (capitalists) became the
main classes in society.
 The British economy was transformed from a feudal to a capitalist
system.
 Land became part of the capital investment for the farmer.
 Factories became the capital investment for the manufacturer.
 The middle class became very powerful and they began to challenge the
power of the King and nobles.
 Factory owners, shop owners, traders and various classes of merchants
became so powerful that they went to the extent of giving loans to
countries (governments borrowed money from them).
 The standard of living – diet, education, dress, housing – generally
improved.
Negative

 The middle class merchants helped their own countries to colonise Third
World countries.
 Working conditions remained generally poor.
 Child labour continued.
 Urban population increased due to rural-urban migration leading to
squalid living conditions.
 New agriculture methods displaced the peasants.
 Moral degeneration in urban areas.
 Families broke apart as parents, husbands or wives disappeared into the
cities forever.

(a) List any six causes of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. [6]

(b) Describe the economic developments that occurred during the Industrial
Revolution. [11]

(c) To what extent did the peasants benefit from the Industrial Revolution? [8]
6. SCRAMBLE AND PARTITION OF SOUTHERN AFRICA.
 The Scramble for Africa was when European powers took over most of the
Africa in the late 1800.
 By 1914 all of Africa was under white rule except for Ethiopia and Liberia.
 White rule most places lasted till the 1960s.
 The European powers that took part in the Scramble and Partition of Africa
were : Britain, France , Portugal , Belgium , Germany , Italy , Spain , Holland

Why the Scramble For Africa ?

  The industrial revolution contributed immensely to the colonisation of
Africa :

(i). Due to increased productivity there was need for new markerts.

(ii). Need for new sources of raw materials for expanding industries.

(iii). Need for new areas to invest surplus capital.

(iv). Improvements in transport opened up Africa.

(v). Improved medication, through the discovery of new medicine such as quinine
to cure Malaria , enabled Europeans to venture into the African interior.

(vi). Increased population due to improved standards of living led to the

need for more space to settle excess population.

(vii). Need for land to settle the unemployed who had been displaced by
industrialisation.

(viii). Availability of funds to invest overseas.

 To regain lost prestiges e.g. France had lost the provinces of Alsace and
Lorraine to Germany.
 To strengthen control over sea routes to the Far East, e.g. Britain wanted
the Suez Canal and the Cape.
 Public opinion favoured colonies.
 The desire to spread Christianity in Africa. Missionaries influenced
their governments as political control would make it easy to preach
Christianity.
 To spread European civilisation to Africans.
 To enforce the abolition of slave trade and slavery.
 The existence of ambitious people like Cecil John Rhodes.
 Influence of explorers who wrote about the riches in Africa.
 Influence of traders who wanted protection from their governments
against rival traders.
  Weak African rulers who could not resist colonisation.
 Disunity among Africans.

The Berlin - West Africa Colonial Conference of 1884 -1885.

 The conference was held in Berlin, Germany.

 The conference laid down the rules for the colonisation of Africa to
avoid conflict over territories.
 It concentrated on the two main areas of conflict – the Niger and Congo
rivers.
 It laid down the following principles for the colonisation of Africa:

- Freedom of navigation on the major rivers.

- Signing of protectorate and friendship treaties to be entered voluntarily with

African chiefs.

- Making the treaty public through international media.

- The establishment of a colony would be internationally accepted if the

following were done:

(i) Effective occupation was established (Putting in place an administration

system, hoisting the nation’s flag and developing the land.).

(ii) All other signatories to the conference were informed.

 The result was a rush by European powers to sign treaties with African
chiefs and to send in agents to ‘win’ over African chiefs and establish
colonies.

Impact of colonialism

Positive Impact of colonialism

 New, better and warm clothes and blankets were introduced.

 Durable shelter/houses were constructed.
  New furniture was introduced.
 The colonialists brought new foods – sugar, bread, potatoes.
 They brought books.
 Brought formal education.
 Improved health.
 Better means of transport.
 Improved communication systems.
 Better farming methods such as ploughs.
 Slavery and slave trade were abolished.
 Bad traditional practices such as the killing of twins were abolished.

Negative Impact of colonialism.

 Africans were forced off their land, their means of production.

 They were resettled in drier, hotter and poorer lands.
 Africans were forced to be desperate job seekers.
 The Africans were poorly paid.
 They worked for long hours under harsh conditions.
 They were sjamboked on the mines and farms.
 Forced to pay taxes.
 Groups of European hunters shot elephants for ivory; leopards, cheeters,
giraffes and zebras for their skins and meat.
 Large forests were cleared to make plantations.
 Trees were cut down for timber, railway sleepers and to create farms.
 Trees were cut to provide energy in Europeans’ homes.
 Large quantities of gold, diamonds, coal, iron and copper were exploited.
 African culture was disrupted, e.g. African traditions and religions
were overwhelmed by Christianity syndrome.
 Africans were taken as subhuman beings.
(a). List any six European countries that colonised Southern Africa. [6]

(b) Describe how the Berlin Colonial Conference accelerated the partition of
Africa. [11]

(c) Is it true that colonialism brought more good than harm to the Africans?
Explain your answer? [8]

7. The Colonisation of Zimbabwe

Colonial era (1888–1980) In the 1880s, British diamond magnate Cecil Rhodes'
British South Africa Company (BSAC) started to make inroads into the region. ... In
1898, 'Southern Rhodesia' became the official denotation for the region south of
the Zambezi, which later became Zimbabwe.
Treaties of Occupation.

 Baines Treaty (1870)

 Tati Concession (1870)
 Grobler Treaty (1887)
 Moffat Treaty (1888)
 Rudd Concession (1888)
 Lippert Concession (1889)

Process of colonisation

 After the signing of the Rudd Concession, Rhodes quickly rushed to Britain
to get a Royal Charter that would give him the permission to colonise
Zimbabwe.
 Rhodes created a colonising company, the British South Africa Company
(BSAC).
 Formation of the Pioneer Column – it was an army to invade Zimbabwe. It
was made up of people of different trades (farmers, builders, soldiers,
miners, police, etc) recruited from Britain, Australia and New Zealand.
Its leaders included Colonel Pennefather, Major Frank Johnson and
Frederick Courtney Selous.
 To obtain volunteers for the Pioneer Column, whites were promised
large tracts of land, cheap labour and mineral claims for gold and
diamonds.
 Rhodes also created a police force – the British South Africa Police (BSAP)
to enforce the laws of the company and for the security of pioneers.
 On their way to Zimbabwe, the Pioneer Column set up forts – Fort Tuli, Fort
Victoria, Fort Charter and Fort Salisbury.

SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Pioneer Column route

 The Pioneer Column arrived at Fort Salisbury kopje where, on 12

September 1890, they raised the British Flag called the Union Jack to show
that they had colonised Zimbabwe.
 Missionaries were sent to convert Africans to Christianity.
 Hunters and mineral prospectors were also sent over.
 The first phase of colonisation was the occupation of Mashonaland in 1890
while the second phase was the occupation of Matabeleland after the
1893- 4 war.

Establishment of a colonial government

 The Pioneer Column was disbanded soon after the construction of Fort
Salisbury.
 A semi-military administration was created under a Resident Commissioner
who was assigned to:

- create a new political order under company control; and

- monetise the economy of the region through taxation and labour laws.

 The monetisation of the economy was not easy.The BSAC had to take the
people’s land, cattle, goats, and forced them to work.
 The monetisation of the economy was the major reason for two major wars
against the BSAC, namely the Anglo-Ndebele War of 1893-94 and the First
Chimurenga/Umvukela1 of 1896-97.

Early resistance to colonisation

The Anglo–Ndebele War: 1893-94

Causes of the anglo-ndebele war

  Attitudes towards the Shona – the settlers regarded the Shona as a source
of cheap labour while the Ndebele regarded Mashonaland as their raiding
ground. Therefore, both claimed that the Shona belonged to them.
 Boundary question – the settlers negotiated for the setting up of a
boundary between them and the Ndebele but the significance of such a
boundary was little or not understood at all by the Ndebele who kept on
violating it through raids.
 Tribute question – some Shona chiefs such as Nemakonde and Chivi
believed that settlers had come to protect them so they refused to pay
tribute to the Ndebele. This provoked punitive raids from the Ndebele.
 The Victoria Incident: One chief named Bere stole Lobengula’s cattle – the
Ndebele sent punitive expeditions which disrupted settler activities.
 Failure to find the second Eldorado or rand (gold fields) in Mashonaland
raised suspicion that it was in Matabeleland.
 The Ndebele stood in the way of a proposed railway link between Salisbury
and Mafeking.
 The settlers had since come to the conclusion that there would be no
peace in the area until the Ndebele had been defeated.
 To complete the occupation of Zimbabwe.
 The murder of Lobengula’s peace envoys to the Cape angered Lobengula
and he ordered his warriors to prepare for a war.
 Missionary factor – the missionaries had failed to convert the Ndebele to
Christianity so they encouraged the conquest of the Ndebele State.

Course of the Anglo-Ndebele war

 BSAP columns rode from Fort Salisbury and Fort Victoria, and combined at
Iron Mine Hill.
 The BSAP force totalled about 700 men, commanded by Major
Patrick Forbes and equipped with five Maxim machine guns.
 Forbes’ combined forces moved on the Matabele king’s capital at
Bulawayo.
  An additional force of 700 Bechuanas marched on Bulawayo from the south
under Khama III, a staunch ally of the British.
 The Matabele army mobilised to prevent Forbes from reaching the city, and
twice engaged the column as it approached: on 25 October, 3,500 warriors
assaulted the column near the Shangani River.
 On 1 November, 2,000 Matabele riflemen and 4,000 warriors attacked
Forbes at Bembezi, north- east of Bulawayo
 The Ndebele were no match for the crushing firepower of the Maxim
guns: about 2,500 Matabele were killed at Bembezi.
 Lobengula fled Bulawayo as soon as he heard the news from Bembezi.
 On reaching the outskirts of Bulawayo on 3 November 1893, the
pioneers set the royal town ablaze.They marched into the settlement the
next day, and nailed the company flag and the Union Jack to a conveniently
placed tree. The reconstruction of Bulawayo began.

Results of the Anglo Ndebele war

 The Ndebele were defeated.

 The Ndebele State was destroyed.
 The Ndebele lost their independence.
 Lost their land.
 Lost their cattle.
 Were made to pay taxes.
 Forced labour in mines and farms.
 Creation of Gwaai and Shangani reserves.
 Chiefs and indunas lost their power and authority.
 The Ndebele were not allowed to choose another king after Lobengula
 An administrator was put in the place of a king.
 It marked the complete colonisation of Zimbabwe.

The First Chimurenga/Umvukela: 1896-7

Causes of the first chimurenga

 Forced labour – Africans were forced to work in mines and on farms.

 Abuse of women by police boys and settlers.
 Loss of land – Africans were pushed into reserves, e.g. Gwai and Shangani
in Matebeleland (where they were crowded and the soils were very poor.)
 Natural disasters like rinderpests, locust plague and drought.
 Taxation, especially the hut tax, (1894-95), dog tax, cattle tax, poll tax, etc.
 The disruption of the Shona-Portuguese trade – (a cause on the Shona side
and not on the Ndebele).
 Traditional chiefs’ authority was eroded or reduced– loss of independence
by Africans.
 The Ndebele had other grievances largely based on the Anglo-Ndebele War
of 1893-94 and wanted revenge.
 The killing of rinderpest infected cattle and forbidding people from
consuming the meat.
 Spirit mediums encouraged Africans to take up arms against the settlers.

Course of the first chimurenga

(a) Ndebele uprising

 In Matebeleland the revolt began in March 1896 led by the indunas and
Mwari cult priests.
 The immediate aims were to repossess lost land; to kill and drive out the
Europeans.
 The Ndebele concentrated on targets like:

- European farm houses

- Police posts

- Stores
- Mission stations

- Local ‘collaborators’

 Europeans were taken by surprise. They hid in laagers created by joining

wagons.
 The Ndebele were the first to be defeated, at the Battle of Umguza River.
 Rhodes had to bribe the Ndebele indunas by offering them jobs in the
BSAC’s government.
 The Ndebele ruling class deserted their people and agreed to the offer in
October 1896.

(b) Shona uprising

 Europeans had convinced themselves that the Shona were grateful to the
whites for removing the Ndebele.
 It was based on myths that the Europeans had created, namely:

- That the Shona were weak, cowards, divided and generally peaceful.

- That the Ndebele ruled the whole of Zimbabwe.

- That the Shona had accepted Europeans as rulers.

 The Shona revolt seems to have started on 14 June 1896 near Chegutu.
 It reached Mazowe and Murehwa on 18 June and 19 June, respectively.
 The Shona used a form of guerrilla warfare.
 The Shona targeted symbols of imperialism and capitalist exploitation.
 The Shona did not fight as a unit; therefore the whites could not get one
leader to negotiate a settlement with.

The role of spirit mediums

 They led the struggle against the settlers.

  Organised the people against the whites, for example Mr Pollard, Native
Commissioner of Mazoe, was murdered under the orders of Nehanda.
 The spirit mediums supplied ‘protective’ medicine (muti).
 Instilled courage in the people.
 Coordinated the fighting
 The mediums sent agents to infiltrate European farms, mines and forts.
 They gave the impression of being ‘friendly’ to the Europeans and later
attacked them.
 They are said to have blamed the Europeans for the natural disasters –
influenced the people against the Europeans.
 Some of the religious leaders/spirit mediums involved in the First
Chimurenga were Mawabeni, Nehanda, Kaguvi, Mkwati, Chaminuka,
Umlugulu, Mpotshawana.
 Spirit mediums were ably supported by chiefs.
 Some of the chiefs involved in the First Chimurenga include: Siginyamatshe;
Mlugulu; Kunzvi- Nyandoro; Mashayamombe; Zvimba; Makoni; Chiweshe;
Mangwende.

Reasons for the defeat of Africans

 The settlers used the following tactics:

- Terrorism

- Scorched earth (crop burning)

- Destruction of water sources

- Destruction of villages using maxim and gatling guns as well as artillery such
as seven- pounder guns.

- Dynamited caves into which the Shona had hidden.

 The whites had better methods of communication.

  The whites were mobile: operated on horseback while the Africans
operated on foot.
 The Africans had no standing army.
 Africans used traditional weapons.
 Some Africans collaborated with the whites, for example Chief Seke.
 The belief in ‘muti’ made Africans believe that bullets would not harm
them, hence they were killed in large numbers.
 The spirit mediums were caught and hanged, thus the Africans lost their
source of inspiration.

Results of the first chimurenga

 A lot of lives, especially of Africans, were lost.

 Leaders of the uprisings were severely punished or killed.
 Traditional religion was suppressed.
 A Resident Commissioner was sent by Britain to stay and monitor the
activities of the BSAC.
 A Commandant General was introduced by Britain to monitor the activities
of the BSAP.
 Railway lines were constructed (Bulawayo- Salisbury, 1897 and Harare-
Umtali, 1898).
 Cheap labour became available to the whites.
 Segregatory laws were passed.

The significance/ importance's of Umvukela( First Chimurenga)

 The failure of active resistance in 1896 - 97 discredited violent resistance

and saw the beginning of negotiations and gentle pressure to achieve very
limited improvements.
 It was done through the missionary educated elite.
 Colonial Rule was not questioned.
 The elite aimed to improve their conditions within the colonial system.
  The Chimurenga of 1896 - 97 the laid basis for the dispossession of the
Shona of their more productive land.
 The Shona / Ndebele began to play a subservient role in the building of
Capitalist economy. This would secure a high standard of living for the small
group of European Bourgeoisie settlers.
 The spirit mediums were very important in inspiring the second
Chimurenga in the 1960s.

Establishment of colonial and political structures( 1898 -1923).

The Royal Charter laid the BSAC's legal right to rule Rhodesia. Jameson, who was
Rhodes's administrator was incompetent. A lot of injustices and abuses prevailed
during his tenure of officer as no court system existed. The
Chimurenga/Umvukela changed this :ibgcx;#288÷``¢

 The company began to establish proper government.

 Laws were now backed by a legal system.
 Under the 1898 Southern Rhodesia Order in Council:
(i). Southern Rhodesia became the official name of the country.
(ii). Specific rules were laid down as to how the BSAC should govern.
(iii). A specific administrative structure to run the country was established.
(iv). An administrator was chosen to head the Legislative functions of the
government.
(v). All regulations affecting Africans were subject to British government
approval.
 The British government did not stop the exploitation of Africans in the
Southern Rhodesia. Laws that restricted African movement and
farming , taxing them and forcing them to submit their labour were
enacted with British approval.
 They were tensions within settler interest in Southern Rhodesia . During
a white only referendum of 1922, the majority voted for a responsible
government to remove company control.
 They voted against becoming a province of Southern Africa.
Effects of Company rule on Africans.

 Laws were introduced to legalize the oppression and exploitation of

Africans.
 Numerous commissions were set to force Africans from rich soils and to
surrender their labour . These included:
(i). The 1901 Importation of Labour Ordinance . No 18.
(ii). 1907 Mines and Minerals Ordinance.
(iii). 1911 Native Labour Regulations Ordinance No. 16.
(v). Native Registration Ordinance and 1922 Gwaai Reserve development
Fund.
 Slowly Africans lost their wealth and freedom.
 Legislative Council was to be replaced by all white- legislative assembly
headed by a Prime Minister and a Cabinet.
 Elections were to be held every five years.
 The settlers had three major aims:
1. (i) To increase the power of the Assembly and government.
(ii) To reduce the British Governor’s power.
(iii) To pass racist laws aimed at increasing the wealth and power of the
settlers.
 These aims were achieved because the Governor was surrounded by
settlers and had little contact with Africans. This explains why the British
Government was unable to remove racist laws when they were passed, e.g.
the Land Apportionment Act of 1930.

The 1923 Constitution

 It allowed the Southern Rhodesia Government the sole right to pass certain
laws. Other laws, however, needed British Government approval, e.g. laws
that concerned ‘native affairs’ and racial issues. The British Governor based
in Salisbury would oversee this arrangement.
Some of the oppressive laws passed between 1898 and 1923

Year Act / Law Effects on Africans

1894 Hut tax Male Africans were forced to seek employment

from Whites in order to pay hut tax.

1894 Order in Council Creation of Reserves in Matebeleland.

1895 Native Keeping of records of workers.

Registration Act

1901 Pass Laws Africans were not allowed to move without a pass.

1901 Master & Africans were not allowed to work elsewhere

Servants Act without the permission of their Master.

1903 Rhodesia Native Established to recruit labour. The system came to

Labour Bureau be called Chibharo/ isibhalo.

1908 Private Location African villages on European land were made into
Ordinance locations owned by white farmers. Africans were to
pay taxes to the white farmers.

1914 Native Rerseve Set aside land to be turned into African reserve.
Commission

(a) List any six reasons why Zimbabwe was colonised by the BSAC? [6]

(b) Describe the steps taken by Rhodes to colonise Zimbabwe. [11]

(c) To what extent was Lobengula cheated by Rhodes’ agents during the
signing of treaties? [8]
8. Economic Developments in Zimbabwe during the Colonial
Era
After colonisation the African people’s way of life completely changed. People
were forced to become servants of a group of whites who came from Europe.
Chiefs lost their power to plan and direct the political, economic and social
destiny of their lives. The Europeans gave themselves good land and Africans
were assigned the rocky and infertile land which received little or no rain.

Pass laws

 They were important for they controlled Africans’ right to freedom of

movement.
 They applied to African men; controlled the movement of men looking
for jobs in towns.
 After 1902 all men over the age of 14 were required to register at the pass
office.
 They were then issued with an identification certificate.
 Between 1902 and 1913 a man needed a pass to move from one district to
another within the same country.
 In 1947 the age of registration was raised to 16years.
  Without an identification certificate it was illegal for a man to work for
more than 4 days. In 1957 it was extended to 7 days.
 Men needed a pass to travel outside their location into the white areas of
the town between 9pm and 6am.
 The Pass Laws were a burden to the Africans.
 Many Africans were subjected to prosecution because of the pass laws,
e.g. in 1932, 17 860 African men were prosecuted under the pass laws.
 People convicted under the pass laws were fined.
 These fines were a source of revenue for the government.
 Africans used a number of ways to resist the pass laws e.g.:

- mutilating certificates;

- refusing to produce them;

- not possessing the registration certificate;

- using other people’s passes.

Gender issues under colonial rule

 Women did not carry pass registration books.

 Customary laws were crafted by the colonial officials.
 One of their inventions was that African women of all ages were legally the
same as children and could not make decisions on their own in the
capitalist economy. Because of this, till 1982 an African woman could not
own property in her own name.

- She could not get married or get divorced without the consent of her
father.

- She could not live away from her family as an independent person if her male
guardian did not approve.

- If she was married and employed her wages belonged to the husband.
- She could not make major decisions about her children.

- Women were paid less salary for the same job with men, e.g.
teachers .Women were therefore controlled by men.

 By 1919 rural men began to complain about the movement of women into
towns and a law was passed that made it a crime for a woman to run away
from her husband – the law was against native adultery.
 To restrict the women’s movement, the Europeans began refusing to
allocate urban housing to women.
 They made women to depend more on men and this encouraged informal
relationships and temporary marriages in towns called ‘kuchaya mapoto’
(co- habitating).

Labour and early industrial development

 The first industry to develop in Southern Rhodesia was the mining industry.
 The BSAC rulers had hoped to get rich quickly.
 The whites faced problems in extracting the gold because the gold deposits
were scattered.
 The gold lay deep underground.
 Many deposits had already been mined.
 They began to mine other minerals like coal, chrome, lead and copper.
 Note that, the Europeans depended on agriculture alongside mining.
 African labour became the basis of settler economic development.
 The Africans had to be forced to work because of the poor working
conditions.
 The mine workers faced the following problems:

- They were poorly fed, e.g. they were given sub-standard meat and half ground
mealie- meal.

- They were paid low wages.

- They lived in barrack-like compounds which were dirty and overcrowded.

- There was no privacy in the accommodation.

- Workers could be easily maimed or killed in accidents as mines were

dangerous.

- They had no protective clothing.

- Workers, if injured, were sent home without compensation.

- Many suffered from sexually transmitted diseases and malnutrition as

they were not allowed to stay with their spouses.

- They had no system of medical treatment.

- Workers were forced to work overtime.

- Poor sanitation facilities.

Recruitment of labour

There were two kinds of forced labour in Southern Rhodesia, namely:

(i) Direct forced labour; and

(ii) Indirect forced labour.

 Direct forced labour lasted until about 1901. It involved state officials
who dragged men from villages and sjamboked them to force them to
work in the mines. They were supervised by the police.
 The police would shoot deserters.
 However, after a few years it became clear that the method was not an
effective one.
 Then the mine owners and government tried to import workers from North
Africa. It was not successful.
  Indians and Chinese were employed.
 They also began to use migrant labour from Nyasaland, Mozambique
and Northern Rhodesia. However, it proved to be costly.
 It was then decided to use the labour in Southern Rhodesia.
 They imposed high taxes and closed down other economic opportunities
available to Africans.
 This was indirect forced labour.
 Here is a list of some of the taxes imposed on Africans from 1893 to 1934:

- Officials collected 2 611 heads of cattle in Mashonaland as tax (1895).

- Wife tax – 10 shillings per year to be paid for every wife after the first one
(1903).

- Dog tax (1912).

- Grazing fees imposed in Matabeleland (1912).

- Cattle – dipping was made compulsory at one/ two shillings per cow (1914).

- 2 shillings and 6 pence tax on each slaughtered cow (1931).

- 6 pence tax per head of cattle (1934).

- A tax of 10 shillings per adult male per year called hut tax (1894).

 The government used the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau (RNLB) to make
labour available to mines and farms.
 It recruited labour and forced Africans to sign contracts for long periods.
 The other method used to get labour was to take the land of the Africans;
land was the means of production used for:

- Grazing their cattle

- Fetching firewood

- Growing crops

- Mining of minerals
- Hunting

- Gathering fruits

 By 1930 the good agricultural and grazing land had been allocated to white
settlers.
 Africans were forced into reserves.
 Reserves were unproductive, overcrowded, dry and hilly. They also had
poor rainfall.
 Initial expansion of peasant farming up to the 1930s
 Some effects of colonialism benefited local agriculture in the early years.
Initially agriculture prospered due to the following reasons:

(i). The capitalist system created a market and the peasants began to produce
for sale and not only for subsistence.

(ii). The hut tax system under colonialism made most men to switch roles. (iii).
Men were forced into growing crops to sell in order to get cash to pay taxes.

(iv).They used some foreign tools like the plough.

(v).They still possessed the means of production,namely land.

(vi). The first group of Europeans were not farmers but hunters. They did not
want to do farming.

(vii). Improved transport – Africans moved away from hills into areas where they
had to cut down transport costs.

(viii). Agricultural productivity increased because wages paid to Africans were

very low and people were ill-treated so they decided to concentrate on
agriculture.

LolMethods used to ruin African peasant agriculture

 The white settlers took away African livestock, e.g. about 80% of the
Ndebele cattle were taken.
  The 1894 Order-In-Council created the Gwaii andShangani reserves.
 In Mashonaland and Manicaland grain stores were destroyed and taken in
the 1896-97 war.
 They took the fertile land from the Africans.
 They reduced the size of land set aside for the Africans e.g. the Native
Reserve Commission of 1914-1915 reduced the reserves by one million
acres.
 The Rhodesian Government ruined African agriculture by creating a
white farming community that was heavily subsidised by government.
 They grew similar crops to those grown byAfricans.
 European farmers had the following advantages:

- Ultra cheap labour.

- Nearness to the main roads and railway.

- Loans from the land bank of 1912 to buy inputs such as seeds, fertiliser and
machinery.

- Their agricultural products were paid much higher prices than Africans’.

- They were given agricultural scientific education through the

agricultural journal and this was never given to Africans.

 By the 1930s African commercial agriculture had become almost

insignificant.
 The government pursued a policy of proletarianisation. It is a
process of making people work for others by selling their labour power in
order to survive.
 A number of laws were introduced that destroyed

African agriculture:

 Land Apportionment Act of 1930 which confined African producers

to separate and non-productive areas.
  Maize Control Amendment Act of 1934.
 Beef Levy of 1931.

Settler agriculture

 As time went on, European miners became broke. Companies were forced
to close and the white people began to consider farming as a better option.
 The first serious action came from the directors of the BSAC who set up a
land settlement committee in 1905.
 An Estates Department on land was set up in Southern Rhodesia in
1908.
 The Rhodesian Government created the Department of Agricultural
Journal.
 The company began to work on crops such as tobacco and citrus fruits,
and on cattle ranching.
 In 1912 a land bank was established to give loans to Europeans.
 Some incentives to encourage European settlement were introduced, e.g.
the price of land was reduced, assurance of cheap African labour and
generous loans.
 The Europeans got land on the Highveld which was well watered, and with
rich soils.
 These agricultural policies resulted in a rise in the production of maize,
tobacco and cattle.
 European agriculture began to grow for the export market.
 Great emphasis was placed on tobacco, soya beans, maize, fruits and
wheat. Meat was exported to Germany, Britain, Northern Rhodesia (now
Zambia), South Africa and Belgium Congo (now DRC).
 Africans who remained on European land refused to enter into labour
agreements.
 These Africans were harassed and most of them moved away from
European land into the reserves.
 Those who remained continued to pay the excessive grazing fees, dipping
fees, hut tax, dog tax, etc.
  Many of the poorer Europeans went to extremes in order to get rich
quickly. They used the following methods:

- They stole African livestock.

- Employed Africans and dismissed them without pay.

- Demanded a wide range of high fees.

- They accused Africans of all types of crimes in order to steal their cattle.

Land apportionment Act of 1930

At least 50 000 families were moved off the so-called European land in 1930. They
aimed to:

 Get more cheap labour.

 Get more land.
 Increase productivity.
 Destroy African competition.
 Destroy African independence and cause artificial poverty.

Maize Control Act of 1931 and 1934

 It was designed to destroy African agriculture so as not to compete with

Europeans.
 The Rhodesian white farmers did not want African agriculture to prosper
for it would lead to the creation of a ‘native state’ and competition with
white farmers.
 African farmers’ maize was graded separately, given a lower grade,
lower price and sold last.
 As a result, Africans were forced only to grow crops they needed for their
food.
  European farmers wanted government help in the financing and
procurement of seeds, fertilisers; protection from drought and pests;
provisions of harvest labour and transport of grain to the market.
 Agriculture was insured like any other business venture.
 It resulted in the creation of many small control boards, e.g. Tobacco
Control Board, Dairy Control Board, Tobacco Marketing Board and Grain
Marketing Board.
 As a result European agriculture prospered. African poverty directly
contributed to the success of European agriculture.

African reaction to economic exploitation

 Early protest movements were formed, including trade unions, e.g.

Reformed Industrial and Commercial Workers Union led by C. Mzingeli
and Masotsha Ndlovu.
 Blacks deserted work.
 They went on strike, e.g. 1948 general strike with workers demanding
better wages.
 Barter trade – African workers would steal goods from their employers and
barter trade.

Exercise

(a) List any six uses of land to the Africans. [6]

(b) Outline the methods used by settlers to destroy African peasant agriculture by
the settler government up to 1950. [11]

(c) To what extent were these methods successful? [8]

 9.Economic Developments in South Africa during the Colonial
While there may be other positive effects colonialism, colonialism made African
colonies dependent by introducing a mono- cultural economy for the territories. It
also dehumanized African labour force and traders. It forced Africans to work in
colonial plantations at very low wages and displaced them from their lands.

Mining industry
  SouthAfrica’s economy changed with the discovery of huge deposits of
diamonds in 1867 at Kimberly and gold in 1886 at the Witwatersrand
(Rand).
 South Africa was made up of a number of states.
 There were many African states e.g. Zulu, Xhosa, Griqua, Sotho and Tswana
states.
 There were two Boer states, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.
 The British controlled Natal and the Cape Colony.
 They had governments to protect Boer lifestyle.
 The discovery of gold and diamonds changed the lifestyle for the following
reasons:

(i). Foreign, mainly English speaking, adventurers poured into the Rand to make
fortunes.

(ii). Foreign capital began to be invested in South Africa on a large scale.

(iii). Towns such as Johannesburg and Kimberly developed.

(iv). Africans began to seek paid employment in the mines where wages were
higher than on the farms.

(v). The Transvaal government was faced with the influx of foreigners
(uitlanders). There was rapid industrial growth and interference by the British at
the Cape.

 Paul Kruger, the Boer President, failed to control the influx of uitlanders.
 He tried to deprive them of all civil rights
 He tried vainly to control morality.
 Alcoholism, prostitution and violence were common.
 He also tried to prevent the integration of Africans into the economy.
 Africans had realised that there was more money to be made by supplying
wood, meat, grain and labour to the mine settlements.
 At first Africans could even own the mine claims.
 Such changes were horrifying to Kruger and other Boers.
  Anyone who owned a pick and shovel could stake a claim and dig for
diamonds, including black diggers.
 Small-scale white diggers proposed all sorts of measures to control black
competition.
 They forced them to give up their claims and become workers for the
white diggers.

Rise of capitalism

 Small miners did not last long.

 As digging went deeper, more capital and labour were needed to mine the
diamonds.
 Small diggers were forced to sell their claims to people with capital.
 Many diggers were forced to become wage workers.
 In a short time, the diamond mines/fields came under the control of a small
group of capitalist financiers, e.g. by 1885 the original 3 600 claims had
been reduced to 98 diamond claims in Kimberly.
 In 1887 these companies and individuals were all amalgamated under one
giant company, De Beers Consolidated Mines
 The chairman of the De Beers was Cecil John Rhodes.
 The Randlords had to drive out small miners by pressuring the finance
houses.
 By 1889 over 44 small companies went bankrupt and were swallowed by
monopolies

Second Anglo-Boer War: 1899-1902

 Randlords like C.J Rhodes, Alfred Beit and J.B. Robinson were English
speaking and wanted the new cities to be under the control of the English.
 Some of them used their wealth to gain political power e.g. Cecil John
Rhodes.
 So, it seemed Afrikaners and the British would clash.
  The Boers realised that their survival depended on driving the British out.
 The British and other foreigners were denied civil rights by Kruger.
 The Jameson Raid of 1896 led to a split between Afrikane
 nationalism and the British interest in the Cape.
 Attempts to resolve arguments over the independence of the Boer
Republic failed and in 1899 a war broke out.

Concentration camps

 The Boers were defeated in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899.

 During the Anglo-Boer War, the British introduced the term ‘concentration
camp’.
 These were temporary settlements created to house the old, women and
children from Boer farms.

 They had been made homeless by the British who burnt down farms,
destroyed crops and removed all livestock.
 The British adopted this ‘scorched earth’ warfare after failing to defeat Boer
commandos.
 The camps were created to keep these refugees and cut the guerrillas off.
 As a military policy it succeeded for it isolated and starved the guerrillas.
 Many people died in the camps due to:

- Outbreak of diseases which swept them in the overcrowded and dirty camps
e.g. typhoid, whooping cough, measles and dysentery.

- Lack of adequate medical staff.

- Lack of medicines that made the diseases fatal.

- Serious malnutrition and starvation.

 Britain won the war but gained Afrikaner hatred and world condemnation,
especially for the 2 500 women and children who died of diseases in the
camps.
  World opinion was against the British.

Methods used to recruit and retain labour

 Open force was used to get the labour.

 Taxation was also used to force Africans to seek employment.
 Chiefs were required to supply labour.
 Consumer goods were also used to attract black labour.
 Migrant labour: The Witwatersrand Native Labour Association
(WNLA/WENELA) recruited labour from Mozambique, Southern Rhodesia,
Northern Rhodesia, Nyasaland and Natal.
 Wages were better than in other areas such as Southern Rhodesia.
 Mine owners paid more than farmers.
 They used the contract system which tied down workers.
 Chinese were also recruited and it proved successful provided 35% of the
unskilled labour needed on the Rand.
 Africans had rifles sold to them if they came to work.
 The compound system ensured labourers would not run away.

Living and working conditions of mine workers

The rush for diamonds brought with it disorderly living and poor health
conditions:

 No proper sanitation facilities.

 No running water.
 Many workers slept in the open or in roughly made temporary shelters.
 Meagre wages: many employees were poor because they were given low
wages.
 High death rate.
 Workers were denied any form of communication with the outside world.
  Doctors found out that people from the mines suffered more from dust
related diseases.

The compound system

 These were labourers’ camps/settlements fenced off with high barbed

wire.
 Had only one entrance.
 Consisted of poorly ventilated slums, huts and dormitories.
 No lighting system.
 Initially used the bucket system as toilets.
 Visitors were not allowed.
 Workers were heavily searched.
 Social vices such as theft and homosexuality were rampant.

(a) List any six items bought by migrant African mine labourers in South Africa up
to1910. [6]

(b) What were the economic and political results of the discovery of gold and
diamonds in South Africa up to 1910? [11]

(c) How were the Africans affected by these results? [8]

10. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was a colonial federation that
consisted of three southern African territories—the self-governing British colony
of Southern Rhodesia and the British protectorates of Northern Rhodesia and
Nyasaland—between 1953 and 1963.

There were several different Federation options:

 Southern Rhodesia to be joined with Northern Rhodesia and

Bechuanaland (now Botswana.)
 Southern Rhodesia to be joined with South Africa as the fifth province.
 Southern Rhodesia to be joined with Northern Rhodesia.
 Southern Rhodesia to be joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.

The origins of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland

 The British Government believed that there was need to strengthen

Central Africa to stop it from falling to the Afrikaners who were pushing
 northwards from the Transvaal, the Germans from Namibia, and the
Portuguese from Angola and Portuguese East Africa (Mozambique).
 The unit would be stronger on the military level.
 It would enable the Central African region to economically prosper
– Southern Rhodesia would provide agricultural products and minerals,
Northern Rhodesia would provide copper and Nyasaland would provide
labour.
 It was argued that it would enable the Africans and Europeans to work in
partnership in which Europeans would be senior partners (horse-rider
partnership).
 The whites saw it as a way of perpetuating their supremacy by denying the
political advancement of Africans in the two northern territories whose
constitutional position was different from Southern Rhodesia.
 The Southern Rhodesia Prime Minister, Godfrey Huggins, pressed for a
federation because he feared African Nationalism.

Federal system of government

 All states were represented. There was a federal government, as well as

territorial governments which had their own constitutions.

Functions of the Federal Government

It was responsible for a number of functions:

 The general economic development.

 External/foreign trade.
 Defence.
 Federal taxation and borrowing.
 Supply and distribution of electricity.
 Broadcasting/communication.
 Higher education for all races.
Functions of the territorial government

The territorial governments were responsible for:

 All African affairs like land, agriculture, health and education.

 Local administration.
 Housing, labour, mining.
 Local roads.
 Territorial income tax.
 Law and order maintenance.
 Game and fisheries (wildlife).
 Water development.

The Judiciary system

(a) The Supreme Court

It was the highest court of authority in the federation.

It consisted of:

- The Chief Justice of the Federation.

- Two Federal Justices.

- The Chief Justice of each of the three territories.

(b) The Federal Supreme Court

The Federal Supreme Court had the following functions:

- To deal with disputes between the Federation and other countries.

- To deal with disputes between territories.

- To deal with election petitions.

(c) The Territorial Courts

The territorial courts did the following:

- Maintaining the constitution.

- Enforcing Federal Laws in both civil and criminal matters.

Developments during the Federation

The conditions of Africans during federation.

 The British Government forced white settlers to make constitutional

changes because they were afraid of an armed conflict.
 There were two voters’ rolls, namely the ‘A’ roll for whites and the ‘B’ roll
for blacks with a voting ratio of 1A to 3B.
 For the first time the Federation allowed elite Africans to vote.
 Age restriction was 21 years (i.e. the legal age of majority).
 The position of the Africans was greatly weakened in the Federal Assembly.
 In Southern Rhodesia, Garfield Todd amended the Land Appointment Act
to allow African professionals, e.g. the lawyer Herbert Chitepo, to operate
in urban centres which were designated white areas.

Economic developments

 The Kariba Hydro–Electric Power Station was built on the Zambezi River on
the Southern Rhodesia side.
 The dam made it possible to start irrigation projects like the growing of
wheat.
 Revenue from Northern Rhodesian mines was used to develop economic
projects in Southern Rhodesia – secondary manufacturing developed.
  Southern Rhodesia provided 80% of the Federation’s manufactured
goods.
 Nyasaland provided the largest labour reserve for farms and mines.
 In 1956 the Bulawayo Airport was built.
 The main roads were widened and tarred.
 High-level and low-level bridges were built.
 Rural roads were also improved so as to carry farm produce to markets.
 Bulawayo became the headquarters of the railways of the Federation.
 In 1954 the Land Apportionment Act was amended to make it possible for
hotels, clubs and restaurants to become multi-racial.
 In August 1956, Sir Roy Welensky announced that driving cars and trains
was now open to all races.

Social developments

(a) Education

 Primary and secondary schools were built (for whites) mostly in

Southern Rhodesia.
 The Cambridge Examination board was used.
 Modern libraries, museums, concert halls, cinemas and theatres were
opened.
 A modern art gallery and archives were opened in Salisbury.
 The University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland was opened in 1957.
 The Copperbelt Technical Foundation started in 1957.
 Teacher training schools were started in Mutare and Mkoba in Gweru.
 Southern Rhodesia experienced rapid economic development.
 Working conditions for teachers were improved.
 Correspondence colleges were established.
 Southern Rhodesia used Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland as sources of
cheap labour, raw materials and market for it's industrial goods.

(b). Health
  Rural hospitals were built.
 Salisbury became the capital of the Federation.
 Well-equipped hospitals were built in Harare,
 Salisbury had skyscrapers (tall buildings/ high rise buildings) Bulawayo,
Kitwe and Blantyre.
 Laboratory and research stations were set up.
 A medical school was opened at the University of Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
 State Registered Nurse (SRN) training started.

Dissolution of the Federation

 The Federation performed poorly in view of its intended goals.

 It failed to create a state where Africans and Europeans could live
together as equal partners.
 Only the white settlers benefited from the economic developments.
 Southern Rhodesia benefited a lot and the Northern territories began to
complain that development only favoured Southern Rhodesia, e.g.
Salisbury was the capital and the University College, financed mainly by
exploitation of copper from Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) and the
headquarters of the railways were in Southern Rhodesia. Salisbury, in
Southern Rhodesia, was labelled Bambazonke (take all).
 The upsurge of African nationalism: The nationalists in the north
feared the extension of Southern Rhodesia’s segregatory laws to their
territories. Harry Kumbula of the ANC in Zambia declared, “We know that
our brothers in the South are slaves.”
 The two northern territories saw federation as a barrier to their aspirations
for advancement towards self-determination.
 The British Government opposed federation and accepted that the two
northern territories could separate or secede. Thus in 1963 the Federation
broke up mainly because Britain had lost the will to rule in Central Africa.
  Africans were greatly concerned by Huggins’ explanation of the
partnership between Africans and Europeans as that of “a horse and rider’.
It meant that Africans were to be exploited. Huggins’ idea of a partnership
was that of a horse and a rider where the African was the horse and the
white man the rider.

(a) Identify any six economic and social developments in Southern

Rhodesia during the federal period. [6]

(b) Outline the reasons for the creation of a federation in 1953.

[11]

(c) To what extent did Southern Rhodesia benefit from the Federation of 1953-
63? [8]
11. The Struggle for Independence in Zimbabwe
In the first Chimurenga/Umvukela, Africans were defeated because they fought
the whites separately as Karanga, Zezuru, Manyika and Ndebele; were not united
as one nation. They were divided as they had not yet all fully experienced colonial
cruelty. They had few guns and used poor fighting methods and inferior weapons
like spears, bows and arrows.

The Struggle for Independence in Zimbabwe: 1900-1980

There were many forms of struggle after the First Chimurenga of 1896-7:

 1900-1923: early peasant struggle.

 1924-1945: struggle through associations.
 1946-1965: struggle through formation of trade unions and political
parties.
 1966-1980: the armed struggle.

Early peasant struggles: 1900 - 1923

 From 1908-1914 Europeans grabbed land from Africans and introduced

‘kaffir farming’ which meant forcing Africans to give them food, animals,
land and labour. European culture was to replace African culture in
dress, music, religion, education, food, law, etc.

African response
  Passive resistance: running away, absconding, disappearance and
collaboration.
 Some Africans accepted the new culture e.g. becoming Christians but
others resisted and kept their African Traditional Religion (worshipping
through ancestors).
 Africans noted that white preachers preached equality but did not
condemn racism, the tax regulations, pass laws and segregation.
 Africans formed churches that accepted African traditions like polygamy
and tombstone unveiling (kurova guva/umbuyiso).
 The Watch Tower Movement preached against the oppression of African
workers and condemned the pass laws.
 Church Movements were strong and popular at the mines.
 African church leaders were deported.
 Examples of early African churches: the VaPostori Movement and Church of
Zion. These were also popular.
 African churches praised Africans and gave them hope of gaining
independence from colonialism.
 Male Africans evaded tax collectors and from being captured and sent for
‘chibharo’.
 They hid in caves, forests or went to live with relatives elsewhere or went
to work in gold mines in South Africa at Witwatersrand.
 Resistance was still at individual level and was unsuccessful.
 At timesAfricans raided the Native Commissioner’s Offices and stole guns.
 They organised strikes at the mines and farms.
 They also refused to be resettled.
 All forms of resistance were crushed.

Struggle through associations, unions and societies: 1924-1945

 Resistance against colonialism was better organised after the First World
War because Africans had fought in that war side by side with the whites.
 The centre of resistance shifted from rural areas to mines.
  Resistance was now regional: Africans from Malawi, South Africa and
Rhodesia were united against colonialism.
 African elite opposed the British Government for giving Rhodesia a
Responsible Government status and the decision by the whites to make
Rhodesia a separate state from South Africa.

The Rhodesia Bantu Voters’ Association (RBVA)

 It was formed by African elite in 1923.

 It achieved very little.
 Its leaders, Abraham Twala and Martha Ngano, were deported.
 It showed that Africans could organise themselves politically, work together
with other oppressed people, women could also participate in politics and
Africans could work together with progressive whites.

Political parties

 The first political party was the Southern Rhodesia African National
Congress (SRANC). At this time African countries named their political
parties African National Congress.
 It was formed in 1934 by Aaron Jacha.
 SRANC changed its name to African National Congress (ANC) in 1938.
 Thompson Samkange and Joshua Nkomo then joined it.
 Members were mostly African missionaries, teachers, business people
and clerks.
 The ANC fought for Africans to:

- vote (franchise).
- own farms and houses in towns.

- get rid of Pass Laws, Master and Servant Act and other oppressive labour laws.

 The Africans organised themselves and:

- avoided dangerous mines and cruel employers;

- assisted each other in times of need;

- fought for better working and living conditions.

 From 1905-1953, the Rhodesia Native Labour Bureau recruited

workers from Nyasaland, Mozambique, Northern Rhodesia and
Southern Rhodesia.
 Africans sought to work in South African gold and diamond mines where
the wages and working conditions were better.
 Africans fought against forced labour because of poor wages and ill
treatment.
 Africans warned each other of bad employers by giving them nick names,
e.g.:

- Celtic Mine was called ‘Sigebenga’ meaning murderer or cruel person.

- Masterpiece Mine was called ‘Chayamatako’ meaning beating the buttocks.

- In 1927 miners avoided Bonzo Mine because many people had died there and
people believed that it was bewitched.

Life at the mines

 People formed dancing, ethnic, cultural and mutual aid societies to help
each other during times of death or financial hardship, e.g. the 1915
Mandebele Patriotic Society, the 1917 Nyanga Boys’ Club, and the 1918
Herald Burial Society.
 Mines were centres of resistance because:
- many people lived together;

- organising themselves was easy;

- world War II taught people that they were their own liberators.

Clements Kadalie and the Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union (ICU)

 There was oppression in Malawi.

 Clements Kadalie, a Malawian, fled to South Africa via Southern Rhodesia.
 He had good organising skills.
 He formed the Industrial and Commercial Workers Union in 1919.
 The ICU aimed to unite all Africans working in factories, shops and
transport.
 The ICU fought for better wages and working conditions.
 In 1927 Kadalie sent Robert Sambo to start an ICU branch in Bulawayo.
 The ICU was popular in South Africa and Rhodesia.
 African trade unionism was illegal in Rhodesia.
 Sambo was deported back to South Africa.

The Rhodesia Industrial Workers’ Union (RICU)

 It was a branch of ICU formed in Southern Rhodesia in 1929 by John
Mphamba, Masotsha Ndlovu, Job Dumbutshena and Charles Mzingeli.
 These leaders urged people to fight for better wages and working
conditions.
 Government banned them from visiting rural areas, those who were civil
servants lost their jobs and some were arrested and imprisoned.
 By 1945 RICU had members all over the country.

The struggle for ‘one man, one vote’: 1946-1965

 By 1946 Africans were demanding ‘one man, one vote’.

 People wanted a government voted into power by the majority.
 These radical ideas resulted from African participation in World War
2.
 At war, Africans had seen white soldiers being afraid, wounded, killed,
hungry and thirsty resulting in removing the fear that Africans had for the
whites and the myth of white supremacy (“after all they are people like
us”).
 At war, Africans and whites fought as equals.
 After the war, Africans were reduced to second class citizens.
 World War two weakened European countries, the USA used the Marshal
Plan to support them financially so as to stop them from becoming USSR
satellites.
 The Marshal Plan forced them to change their colonial system from
direct to ‘financial control rule.’
 Direct rule was expensive.
 ‘Financial control’ rule meant allowing poor countries to rule
themselves but making them heavily indebted to the former colonial
masters so that they worked to repay the debt.
 Harold Macmillan, British Prime Minister then, talked happily of ‘winds of
change’ blowing across Africa.
 Many Africans had studied in Europe and America.
 Some whites inAfrica, e.g. the missionaries, wanted a class of Africans
educated in western universities to come back and spread Christianity and
western ideas.
 Unfortunately, these Africans were influenced by movements like Pan-
Africanism, Ethiopianism and socialism. These movements fought for
equal rights.
 Examples of western educated Africans were Kwame Nkrumah and Julius
Nyerere.
 These Africans joined with Mahatma Gandhi of India to fight for
independence.
  The oppressed people were encouraged to fight for independence by the
Russian Revolution of 1917 and the spread of socialist ideas everywhere.
 The Russian Revolution spread ideas of workers’ solidarity, trade union
movements, freedom and independence.
 Ideas spread quickly because:

- Africans had accepted western education and culture.

- There were better means of communication like buses, trains, the radio and
newspapers.

 After World War 2 trade union leaders organised:

- strikes and demonstrations in towns;

- resistance against cattle destocking;

- resistance against forced resettlement of people;

- resistance against payment of poll tax, pass laws and low wages;

- resistance against any form of discrimination;

- strikes for better wages and trade union recognition such as the one in
1945 by workers of the Rhodesia Railways.

 Reverend Thompson Samkange revived the African National Congress in

1945. The ANC was not effective. So trade unionism remained the mover
of nationalist politics.
 The settler governments were ruthless to demonstrators, e.g.:

- shot and sprayed them with tear gas.

- set vicious dogs on them.

- dismissed strikers from their jobs.

- detained strike leaders and put them into restriction camps.

Benjamini Burombo and the British African National Voice Association
(BANVA)

 Benjamin Burombo founded BANVA.

 He was its Organising Secretary.
 BANVA organised Rhodesia’s first general strike on 15th April, 1948 in
Bulawayo.
 A huge crowd was addressed by Burombo, leaders of the Federation of
Bulawayo African Workers’ Union and ANC, about their grievances.
 BANVA was banned in 1952 as it was regarded a subversive organisation.
 Josiah Tongogara (later ZANLA commander) and others were inspired by
Burombo’s militancy.
 According to George Nyandoro, Burombo died on the operation table.
 For saying that, Nyandoro was arrested, fined 25 pounds and given a two-
month suspended sentence.

Formation of the City Youth League (CYL

 It was formed by George Nyandoro, James Chikerema, Edison Sithole

and Dunduza Chisiza.
 It was later called the African National Youth League (ANYL).
 Radicalism in nationalist politics kept on increasing.
 Chisiza was deported to his country, Nyasaland (Malawi) in 1956.
 ANYL organised a successful boycott by Africans in Salisbury (Harare).
 There was cooperation in nationalist politics among the countries of
the Federation e.g. Chisiza of Nyasaland.
 The Youth League and the ANC (Bulawayo branch) joined to form the
national ANC with Joshua Nkomo (President), James Chikerema (Vice-
President) and George Nyandoro (Secretary- General) in September 1957.
Other members included Michael Mawema, Stanley Samkange and Joseph
Msika.
 There was confusion because many followers were more radical than their
leaders.
  Garfield Todd, a liberal white missionary, born in New Zealand, became
Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia.
 Todd called for partnership in politics which frightened the white settlers
and was unacceptable to the nationalists.
 Todd was removed from office in 1958 and the confusion was dispelled.
 There were many African protests, demonstrations and strikes.
 Rallies were organised.
 A State of Emergency was declared in 1959.
 In February 1958 the ANC was banned by Edgar Whitehead. 500 followers
including Chikerema were arrested and 300 detained.
 In January 1960 the National Democratic Party (NDP) was formed with
Joshua Nkomo as its leader. It also had Robert Mugabe, Herbert Chitepo
and Leopold Takawira. The NDP was banned on 9 December 1961.

Some false hope in Rhodesia

 In Nyasaland, Hastings Kamuzu Banda was released from detention.

 The settlers and Africans in Nyasaland agreed to a new majority rule
constitution.
 General Charles de Gaulle of France had reached an agreement with
Africans to decolonise Francophone Africa (French colonies in Africa).
 Harold Macmillan spoken of the ‘winds of change’ blowing across Africa.
 By 1960 there were eight independent countries in Africa and by 1961
there were 26.
 This gave false hope to Africans in Southern Rhodesia that a
constitutional settlement was possible with Rhodesian settlers. Instead:

- The settlers tightened and increased the racial laws.

- In July 1960, the police shot and killed eleven Africans during demonstrations
in Bulawayo and Salisbury.

 Africans opposed the Federation.

 Early in 1961 constitutional talks were held in Salisbury.
  The NDP insisted on parity (an equal number) of Africans and Europeans in
the Legislative Assembly.
 The NDP leaders agreed to 15 African against 50
 European seats in a complex electoral system with separate rolls for black
and white voters.
 Duncan Sands, the British Colonial Secretary, described the agreement
as a miracle.
 The NDP later denounced and rejected the agreement and boycotted
the referendum on the proposals.
 Sir Edgar Whitehead, the Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia, banned
NDP for refusing to accept the new constitution.
 The white settlers opposed the 1961 Constitution for agreeing to share
power.

The formation of The Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU)

 Was formed in 1961 with Joshua Nkomo as its leader, and Tichafa
Parirenyatwa as the vice president.
 Was banned ten months later, in September 1962.

The Rhodesia Front Party

 Was formed by the more conservative settler farmers in 1962.

 It opposed power sharing with Africans.
 The whites wanted independence on their terms and under their control.
 They did not want reforms like removing segregation in swimming
pools and schools.
 Its leader was Ian Douglas Smith.
The armed struggle: 1966-1980

 The Rhodesia Front was anti-African majority rule.

 Only force of arms could bring majority rule to Southern Rhodesia.
 ZAPU was banned in September 1962.
 ZAPU had started smuggling arms and ammunition into the country by
1962 and sending young men for military training in Ghana and Tanzania.
 Africans engaged in acts of arson and sabotage.
 ZAPU leaders including Robert Mugabe were detained.
 Nationalist politics experienced the formation of parties, their banning, and
confusion of members and detention of leaders.
 ZAPU made a decision that no more new parties would be formed. If
banned it would operate underground.

The formation of The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)

 The decision to use force divided the people.
 Some still wanted to negotiate with the whites.
 This division led to the formation of ZANU in August 1963 with Reverend
Ndabaningi Sithole as President and Robert Mugabe as Secretary General.
 ZANU and ZAPU followers clashed in the townships.
 ZAPU, especially Nkomo, wanted negotiations.
 Nkomo formed the People’s Caretaker Council (PCC).

Ian Smith becomes leader of the Rhodesia Front

 In April 1964 Ian Smith became the Rhodesian Front leader and banned
ZANU and PCC in August.
 Nkomo, Sithole, Mugabe and other nationalists started to organise an
armed struggle from outside the country.
  Ian Smith wanted independence for the whites and to keep discriminatory
and segregatory laws in place.
 In a referendum of November 1964, 58 091 whites voted for and 6096
whites voted against Smith’s proposal.
 In a general election of May 1964, the RF won all the 50 white seats.

The Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)

 Harold Wilson became British Prime Minister in October 1963.

 Africans thought that he would stop Smith, instead he encouraged Smith.
 So Smith declared UDI on 11 November 1965.
 Southern Rhodesia became Rhodesia.
 The armed struggle began in Rhodesia and about 30 000 people lost their
lives in a 14-year bitter war.

Early military strategies

 On 4 July 1964, the ‘Crocodile Commando’ led by William Ndangana killed

Petrus Oberholtzer, a local RF chairman, near Melsetter (Chimanimani)
making Oberholtzer the first white man to die in war since the 1890s.
 However, there was no clear ideology for the war.

Recruitment methods for guerilla training

 After 1975, volunteers crossed into Zambia and Mozambique for military
training.
 People were kidnapped to undergo military training.
 Addresses at all night meetings (pungwe) influenced the recruitment of
people.
 Nationalists visited boarding schools, mostly mission schools.
 Use of The Voice of Zimbabwe radio station.
 Advertisements in other countries’ media.
  Published journals, e.g. The Zimbabwe Review (ZAPU) and Zimbabwe
News (ZANU).
 The military wing of ZANU was ZimbabweAfrican National Liberation Army
(ZANLA), while that of ZAPU was Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary Army
(ZIPRA).

The Chinhoyi Battle

 Was in April 1966.

 Seven ZANLA guerillas fought and were killed by Rhodesian forces near
Sinoia (Chinhoyi).
 The seven nationalists who died in the Chinhoyi Battle were Simon
Chingosha Nyandoro, Christopher Chatambudza, Godwin Manyerenyere,
David Guzuzu, Godfrey Dube, Chubby Savanhu and Arthur Maramba.
 It marked the beginning of the armed struggle.
 The early strategy was conventional warfare. This was disastrous because
the nationalists were out- gunned, out-numbered, their strategies were
poor and they had inferior weapons.
 The seven guerillas only had AK 47s while the Rhodesian forces had jet
bombers, helicopter gunships and machine guns.

The Wankie battles

 In August and September 1967, a joint ZAPU and ANC of South Africa
operation fought a series of battles against Rhodesian forces in the Wankie
(Hwange) Game Reserve.
 Though the battles were a failure, they marked the beginning of the armed
struggle in Matabeleland.
 The ZAPU and ANC guerillas only had AK 47s and LMGs while the Rhodesian
forces had jet bombers, helicopter gunships and machine guns.

A shift from conventional warfare to guerilla warfare

  At a Khartoum Conference of liberation movements in 1969, the Soviet
Union did not recognize ZANU, it supported ZAPU.
 A few ZANLA forces came through Botswana.
 The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) supported
ZAPU.
 FRELIMO fought the Portuguese in Mozambique and became the
Government in June 1975.
 FRELIMO wanted the war to be fought in North- Eastern Rhodesia to keep
the Rhodesian forces in Rhodesia.
 So FRELIMO offered ZAPU infiltration routes through Tete in the late
1970s.
 ZAPU did not take up the offer because:

• ZANU was supported by China.

• ZANU adopted the teachings of Mao Zedong.

- North-Eastern Rhodesia was an area for Shona people and ZAPU had no
support there;

• ZANU changed its military strategy after the defeat

- of divisions within ZAPU between the at Sinoia and after learning from
the Chinese who followers of James Chikerema and those of were training its
cadres in Tanzania.

 Jason Ziyapapa Moyo (ZIPRA commander);

• ZANU also changed its structures and philosophy.

- of language barrier.

• Both ZANLA and ZIPRA adopted the guerilla warfare strategy.

 The divisions paralysed the operations of ZAPU.

 Jason Moyo was assassinated in 1977.
 Guerilla warfare depends on the support of the people.
 The people had to be educated and mobilised to support the war.
  The people provided food, shelter, logistics and intelligence-information.
 Education and mobilisation were done at ‘pungwes’ (overnight meetings)
where people’s grievances were discussed and revolutionary songs were
sung.
 At pungwes, ‘mujibas’(young males) and ‘chimbwidos (young
females) were recruited. These supplied information to the guerillas.

The Mozambican connection

 There was a coup d’état in April 1974 in Portugal.

 The army overthrew the Government of Prime Minister Marcelo
Caetano.
 This led to the granting of independence to Mozambique and Angola.
 Rhodesia and Mozambique have an 800 km-long border.
 ZANLA forces now used Mozambique as a springboard to fight Rhodesia.
 Fighting from Zambia was difficult because:

- The crocodile-infested Zambezi River was a barrier.

- The Zambezi Valley was inhospitable and had no vegetation cover.

- The Zambezi Valley was depopulated; the Rhodesian forces could easily
spot the guerillas.

 ZANU had been asking FRELIMO to open infiltration routes through

Tete to Rhodesia since 1968.
 Samora Machel, leader of FRELIMO, agreed to let ZANLA forces pass
through Mozambique in May 1970.

ZANU’s War Council (Dare reChimurenga/ Council of the Liberation)

 Its role was to direct the war.

 Its chairman was Herbert Chitepo. He was also ZANU’s national chairman.
  Other members of the council included: Edgar Tekere, Kumbirai Kangai,
Rugare Gumbo, Rex Nhongo (Solomon Mujuru, Teurai Ropa Nhongo (Joyce
Mujuru), Josiah Tongogara, Enos Nkala, Emmerson Munangagwa, Henry
Hamadziripi and Tichaona Mudzingwa.
 Chitepo was assassinated in a car bomb in 1975.
 Four ZANLA cadres joined FRELIMO forces in Tete in July 1970 in order to:
- learn from them;

- transport armaments to the border with Rhodesia;

- cross into Rhodesia and mobilise the people.

National grievances and popular support

Causes of African dissatisfaction with settler government were:

- seizure of their land;

- lack of equal opportunities in education and health care;

- discriminatory laws;

- oppressive colonial laws;

- destocking.

 These national grievances were discussed at pungwes at night.

 Mujibas and chimbwidos informed guerillas about settler army movements.
 Villagers provided food and shelter; and helped guerillas to cache and
transport armaments.
 Guerilla recruitees were trained in Zambia, Mozambique, Angola,
Ethiopia, Libya, China, Yugoslavia, Cuba, North Korea and USSR.
 The decisive phase of the armed struggle started on 21 December 1972
when guerillas attacked Altena Farm in the Zambezi Valley in North-eastern
Rhodesia.
 The attack shocked the settlers and Smith who had claimed that Rhodesian
Africans were ‘the happiest in the world’.
The role of spirit mediums and missionaries during the war

 The Second Chimurenga still re-echoed the message of Nehanda – the

need to return the land to the children of Africa.
 Spirit mediums joined the guerillas.
 They had tremendous influence on people.
 Because the spirit mediums joined the war, many people followed suit.
 An example of a spirit medium who joined the war was Nyamhita who was
possessed by the spirit of Mbuya Nehanda.
 There were also some missionaries and settler farmers who supported
the guerillas.
 They provided guerillas with food, intelligence (information), medicines,
and transporting guns and armaments.
 Many guerillas were educated at mission schools and were known to the
missionaries.
 These missionaries did not take the guerillas as terrorists.

ZAPU and the armed struggle

 Started the armed struggle with the Hwange Battle.

 ZAPU fought the war in Matabeleland, Mberengwa, Hurungwe and Guruve.
 Jason Moyo (ZAPU) was exiled in Zambia.
 He believed in the armed struggle and the unity of fighters.
 In 1977 ZAPU formed an alliance with the ANC of South Africa to counter
the one between Rhodesia and Apartheid South Africa.
 ZAPU had some challenges e.g.:

- the formation of FROLIZI;

- lack of consistent support by the host, the Zambian Government

- operated from Zambia and had to cross the dangerous Zambezi River.
ZANU and ZAPU military strategies

 ZANU followed the Chinese strategy of guerillas mixing with the people (the
fish and water strategy) and educating them.
 ZAPU followed the USSR conventional warfare strategy which involved the
creation of a mass urban political party based on secret cells from which
recruitment was organised, sabotage carried out and preparations made
for the arrival of ZIPRA invasion forces.
 In 1972 ZAPU and ZANU formed the Joint Military Command led by
Jason Ziyapapa Moyo and Herbert Chitepo.

Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe (FROLIZI)

 The Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe (FROLIZI) was formed in

1971 with James Chikerema as its President.
 FROLIZI leaders said FROLIZI was non-tribal and was formed to unite
ZANU and ZAPU. Its members came from the two parties.
 It was meant to form one revolutionary combat force, and wage a people’s
war of liberation until victory.
 A few FROLIZI guerillas entered and attacked Rhodesia in order to win
support from the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) that had refused to
recognise and support it.
 FROLIZI ended when its leaders joined the Smith government in 1978.
 After the collapse of talks in Lusaka in December 1974, Chikerema on
behalf of FROLIZI signed an agreement with Nkomo of ZAPU and Rev.
Ndabaningi Sithole of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) to unite
with the African National Council (ANC) of Rev. Abel Muzorewa.

The Pearce Commission (1971)

(a) Background

 The British government wanted to end UDI.

 An agreement was reached between Sir Alec Douglas-Home and Smith
for certain amendments to be made to the constitution to allow for the
possibility of African representation increasing to parity and from there to
majority rule through a combination of elected and chiefly representatives.
 In 1970 Smith proposed a new constitution and parliament of 50 whites, 8
wealthy blacks and 8 blacks chosen by chiefs.
 Smith claimed that the blacks were happy with this arrangement.
 The British Government agreed with Ian Douglas Smith.
 Under these proposals it would take 40 to 50 years to reach parity between
the blacks and the whites in parliament.

(b) Results

 In 1971 the British government sent a royal commission to test public

opinion. The commission was chaired by Lord Pearce.
 The Pearce Commission reported that Africans rejected the proposals for
a new constitution.
 There was violent opposition and mass demonstration against
Smith’s idea of independence.
 The police arrested and detained demonstrators.
 The armed struggle continued.
 The UDI did not end.
 This rejection was followed by a re-imposing of an embargo on Rhodesian
chrome by USA, and sanctions against Rhodesia by the United Nations.
 Apartheid South Africa continued to trade with Rhodesia.

The Formation of the United African National Congress (UANC)

  The UANC was formed in 1971 to oppose the Pearce commission proposals.
 The liberation movements — ZANU of Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole and the
ZAPU of Joshua Nkomo — both placed themselves under the UANC
umbrella even though they had some doubts when Muzorewa founded a
national party.
 After ZANU (led by Robert Mugabe after disagreements with Sithole)
and ZAPU undertook guerrilla warfare, the UANC was the only legal Black
party, since it rejected violence.
 These leaders were in detention and in exile.
 Muzorewa denounced the guerillas and negotiated with Smith.
 He signed an agreement without authority from ZANU and ZAPU leaders.
 This agreement of 1973 accepted the Pearce Commission proposals
rejected in 1971.
 In 1974 the Portuguese Government was overthrown and
Mozambique became independent in 1975.
 Mozambique’s independence opened a military base for ZANLA forces.

Smith’s response to Mozambique’s independence

 Smith’s military problems increased.

 He stepped up military conscription of young white men.
 In 1974 Smith held secret meetings with John Vorster, Prime Minister of
South Africa, and Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia.
 Nationalist leaders (Abel Muzorewa, Joshua Nkomo, Ndabaningi Sithole
and James Chikerema) were released from prison:

- They were flown to Lusaka in Zambia.

- They were forced to sign a Declaration of Unity or lose support from the
Front Line States.

The Mgagao Declaration

  Following the assassination of Chitepo in a car bomb in March 1975,
Ndabaningi Sithole assumed leadership of the party, but faced immediate
opposition from the more militant wing of ZANU, as Sithole was a
proponent of détente.
 This crisis grew with the Mgagao declaration:

- ZANLA leaders and guerillas declared their opposition to Sithole.

- Led to the effective split of ZANU into a group led by Sithole, who
renounced violent struggle, and the group led by Robert Mugabe and Simon
Muzenda, with the support of ZANLA, who continued the armed struggle. Both
groups continued to use the name ZANU.

- Rejected talks with Smith.

- Reaffirmed that the armed struggle was the only way to liberate Zimbabwe.

 Guerillas requested to resume the war saying, ‘If we cannot live as free
men, we rather choose to die as FREE MEN.’

Escalation of the armed struggle

 Many young Zimbabweans left the country to join the guerillas.

 To stop them, curfew was imposed and minefields were created at the
border.
 Presidents Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and Samora Machel of Mozambique
then realised that only the war could force Smith to hand over power.
 A new army called the Zimbabwe People’s Army (ZIPA) was created.
 It was headed by an 18-member committee (9 members from ZANLA
and 9 from ZIPRA).
 In March 1976 Machel closed his border with Rhodesia in compliance
with UN sanctions against Rhodesia.
 The war then resumed. Sithole and Muzorewa were surprised because they
did not know about the creation of ZIPA.
 Muzorewa said ZIPA would cause divisions among the guerillas.
  Nkomo stopped talks with Smith because Smith had said he did not believe
in ‘black majority rule…not in a thousand years’.
 In 1976 ZAPU and ZANU formed the Patriotic Front (PF) to coordinate the
war effort.

Rhodesia declares war on civilians

 Reasons for Smith to believe that there could be no black majority rule and
waging war against the civilian population:

- There were power struggles in both ZANU and ZAPU.

- Zambia, Tanzania, Mozambique and other OAU leaders had failed to unite
guerilla forces through ZIPA.

- In 1975 the war had stopped after Chitepo’s death.

- At the Victoria Falls train-bridge meeting, President Kaunda and Prime

Minister Vorster begged Smith to accept the idea of majority rule. This made
Smith feel important and so refused to accept black majority rule.

- Smith continued to work with those nationalists he had released from prison.

 Many young boys and girls left school to join the war and some as refugees
in Angola, Mozambique and Zambia.
 From 1976 to 1979 many trained guerillas entered the country from
Zambia, Botswana, and Tete, Manica and Gaza provinces of Mozambique.
 The guerillas held pungwes to educate the masses.
 They fought the enemies and destroyed enemy war planes, vehicles, and
torched the Harare fuel tanks in 1978.
 The Rhodesians began to attack civilians accusing them of supporting the
guerillas.

Measures taken by the Rhodesians

  Deliberately misinforming the people:

- Described guerillas as cruel people who cut off people’s lips, legs, arms and
private parts; terrorists; rapists and murderers who wanted to spread
communism.

- Described communism as a system where people shared everything

including cattle, wives, money, clothes and land.

- Told the people that the guerillas were being killed like flies.

- Rhodesian soldiers dressed like guerillas, killed civilians and showed them
to the people.

- The Smith regime created many armies, e.g. the Grey Scouts, Selous Scouts,
the Guard Forces who manned the protected villages. Later there were also
Muzorewa’s Security Forces Auxiliaries called Ziso reVanhu (Eye of the People)
and the Spear of the People (Pfumo reVanhu).

Hot Pursuit:

- Rhodesian forces went into neighbouring countries and massacred

refugees and those awaiting training in camps, e.g. at Mumbwa in Francistown in
Botswana; in Angola; Freedom Camp in Zambia; and at Chimoio and Nyadzonya in
Mozambique.

- There are mass graves in these countries where the people were buried.

Protected villages:

- By 1977 there were about 203 ‘protected villages’ in the country.

- People were forced into these concentraction camps.

- People left these villages to work in their fields at sunrise and were locked up
at sunset.

- A dusk to dawn curfew was declared. Anyone found out of the village was shot
dead.

Propaganda:

- The radio, newspapers, magazines and fliers were used to spread falsehoods
about the guerillas.

- The African Times was distributed free to the people in the rural areas.

- A radio programme, Padare, was broadcast daily against the guerillas.

Poisoning clothes that were to be worn by guerillas.

Role of women in the struggle

 Fighting alongside men soldiers or guerillas.

 Some trained women guerillas worked as nurses, teachers and engineers.
 Examples of women guerillas were Teurai Ropa Nhongo (Joyce Mujuru),
Vivian Mwashita, Oppah Muchinguri, Margaret Dongo and Fay Chung.
 Cooking:
- Women prepared food, took it to guerillas and fed them.

- Food was taken in scotch carts hidden under manure, tied under the dress to
make the women look pregnant; and hidden in book cases of very young boys and
girls.

- The food was prepared at night in caves or such places where the fire could
not be seen.

 Transporting war materials:

- Women and chimbwidos carried heavy war materials on their heads for long
distances during the night.

 Disseminating propaganda:

- Guerillas communicated with the people through chimbwidos.

- Chimbwidos spied for the guerillas on the movements of the enemy

soldiers.

- Girls sang revolutionary songs aired on The Voice of Zimbabwe that

broadcasted from Radio Mozambique and Radio Tanzania.

United States intervention

 The western world realised that Smith would not win the war.
 They came as peacemakers but their aim was to protect their interests and
prevent a guerilla victory and the introduction of socialism in Zimbabwe.
 The USA sent its Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger who met Ian Smith
in August 1976 in Pretoria.
 Using USA intelligence information, he told Smith that he would not win the
war.
 With South African support, Kissinger persuaded Smith to accept the
principle of majority rule but Smith refused.
 Kissinger made several‘diplomatic shuttles’ (trips) to Rhodesia.

Results of the diplomatic shuttles

 A ten-week conference, The Geneva Conference, was held in Switzerland.

 It was chaired by Britain.
 Before the Geneva Conference in 1976, ZANU and ZAPU formed the
Patriotic Front (PF) so that they could speak with one voice at the
conference.
 Mugabe and Nkomo were co-chairpersons of the PF.
  The PF was an umbrella organ that put ZANU and ZAPU together but the
two parties remained independent of each other.
 The British-American settlement proposals were rejected by the people.
 Smith sidelined the PF and held discussions with Sithole (ZANU), Muzorewa
(UANC) and Chief Jeremiah Chirau of Zimbabwe United People’s
Organisation (ZUPO).

The birth of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia (March 3, 1978)

 Smith signed an agreement with Sithole, Muzorewa and Chief Chirau in

1978 forming a transitional government.
 This was called the ‘internal settlement’ meant to pave way for majority
rule.
 In 1979, a referendum for the whites endorsed a new Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
constitution.
 Muzorewa won the elections and became the Prime Minister of Zimbabwe-
Rhodesia.
 Sithole did not accept the election results.
 The PF and its supporters boycotted the elections.
 The internal settlement was meaningless because it did not represent the
African majority.
 The guerillas boycotted it and so the war continued.
 Sithole, Muzorewa and Chirau were disowned by the guerillas.
 Muzorewa had no control over major ministries of Foreign Affairs, Defence,
Finance, Home Affairs and Justice. So Smith remained in power.
 Muzorewa, as the Prime Minister, offered an amnesty to the guerillas.
 Guerillas rejected the offer and the war continued.
 A summit of Commonwealth Heads of State was held in Lusaka in 1979.
 Margaret Thatcher (The Iron Lady), the then British Prime Minister
threatened to recognise the ‘internal settlement’ but she did not because it
could have internationalised the war.
 No country recognised the ‘internal settlement’.
  Commonwealth leaders persuaded Margaret Thatcher to call for a
constitutional conference on Zimbabwe and she agreed.

The Lancaster House Conference

 A constitutional conference was held at Lancaster House in London from

October, 1979.
 Three delegates attended the conference: British delegation led by Lord
Carrington; Zimbabwe- Rhodesia delegation comprised of Muzorewa’s
UANC and Smith’s RF; PF delegation (ZANU and ZAPU) led by Robert
Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo, respectively.
 Smith walked out of the conference because he was losing to PF.
 An agreement was reached in December, 1979.
 A system of willing-buyer-willing-seller was agreed on to solve the land
issue.
 A ceasefire followed in 1979.
 General elections followed in February, and independence in April,
1980.

What was agreed at the Lancaster House Conference?

 A parliament of 100 seats.

 20 of the 100 seats to be reserved for whites.
 No changes were to be made to the constitution within a period of 10 years
and no land would be taken to resettle landless people.
 All this was done in order to end the war.

Assemble points

 After ceasefire, guerillas were put in assembly points.

 Commonwealth military observers monitored the guerillas.
  Rhodesian soldiers remained in their barracks.
 But some white soldiers and Muzorewa’s auxiliaries remained out
terrorising people and committing atrocities.

The 1980 general elections

 ZANU and ZAPU contested the elections separately as ZANU (PF) and (PF)
ZAPU.
 ZANU (PF) won 57 seats, (PF)ZAPU won twenty seats, Muzorewa’s UANC
won three seats of the eighty seats reserved for the majority.
 Smith’s RF won all twenty seats reserved for whites.
 The parties of Sithole, Chikerema and Chirau got nothing each.

Independence

 At midnight on 17th April, 1980, the British Flag, The Union Jack, was
lowered forever in Zimbabwe.
 The Zimbabwean Flag was raised forever in Zimbabwe.
 Zimbabwe became an independent sovereign state on 18th April 1980.
 Robert Mugabe became the first Prime Minister and Reverend Canaan
Banana became the first President of the Republic of Zimbabwe.

12. The Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation

in Mozambique

The Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation in Mozambique

The colonisation of Mozambique

  Mozambique was colonised by three companies which operated in specific
areas. The companies were:

- The Niassa Company: ruled over Niassa Province including Cabo Delgado.

- The Mozambique Company: ruled over Manica Province including Sofala.

- The Zambezia Company: ruled over Tete Province including Quelimane.

 The Portuguese government used chartered companies as this

reduced administrative costs.
 Portugal, as the colonial power, ruled directly over Gaza Province including
areas around Lourenco Marques (Maputo) and Inhambane.
 By 1889 (five years after the Berlin Conference) the companies had already
established themselves.
 Portugal itself had its own area of operation.
 Company rule ended in 1930.
 These companies exploited and abused the African peasants and workers.

Reasons for resistance in Mozambique

(a) Land alienation

 Large pieces of fertile land were taken by the settlers and companies.
 Africans remained with little and unproductive land.

(b) Forced labour (chibharo)

 Africans were forced to work like slaves for the settlers.

 They worked in sugar, rice and cotton plantations.
 They also collected rubber for six months per year for very little or no pay.
 They were flogged with a chicote (sjambok) made from hippo hide to force
them to work without resting.
 They were given very little or no food.
  Portugal obtained its labour and resources from its colonies.
 Africans were forced to work in mines, plantations and farms in Rhodesia,
Sao Tome, Cape Verde Islands and South Africa.
 The Portuguese settler government was paid money by these countries for
giving them labour.
 By the 1950s there were over 100 000 chibharo workers.
 Chibharo workers suffered from diseases such as tuberculosis (TB).
 Some were injured and others died.
 Africans died when mines collapsed on them in South Africa.

(c) Heavy taxation

 Was used as a means of obtaining cheap labour.

 Every adult male had to pay hut tax.
 Evaders were flogged and their wives and children were brutalised, abused
and taken hostage till the man paid.
 People evaded paying taxes by running away and hiding away from tax
collectors.
 The Portuguese were helped by chiefs who gave the sipais (police) names
of those who ran away.
 So chiefs became people’s enemies and were killed during the war.
 Taxes were paid in European currency or through labour or in kind to force
African farmers to leave their farms where they grew maize, sorghum,
sesame seeds and millet for food, and work on settler farms called prazos.

(d) Forcing Africans to grow cash or export crops

 Portugal needed cash or export crops like cotton, sugar-cane and rice.
 Each African family was forced to cultivate a stipulated acreage of
cotton.
 State officials set a timetable for planting, a daily work schedule and how
often weeding was to be done.
 Africans had no time to grow their food crops like nuts, vegetables and
sesame seeds.
  Famine and malnutrition resulted and many died of starvation.
 Some African farmers refused to grow cotton and were arrested, beaten up
and exiled.
 Those who failed to produce the required amount of cotton were forced to
work on sisal, tea and sugar plantations for little or no pay or deported to
work on cocoa estates in Sao Tome, another Portuguese colony.

(e) Oppressive system of government

 There was racial discrimination in housing, education and

employment.
 White workers earned twenty times more than black workers.
 In education, schools for whites were given more resources than schools
for blacks.
 Whites received better education than the blacks.
 Very few schools were built. By 1958, 98% of the African people were
illiterate. By 1960 about 400 000 out of 3 million African children were in
school. The missionaries provided most of the schools.

(f) Racial discrimination in residential areas

 Separate residences for the Europeans and the Africans in both rural
and urban areas.
 In cities like Beira and Lourenco Marques, Africans lived in dilapidated and
substandard houses.
 Separate amenities, restaurants, theatres, parks and other public places for
whites and blacks.

(g) Legal discrimination

 They applied the law selectively against the Africans.

Separate legal systems applied: one for the ‘civilised’ Europeans and
another for the ‘uncivilised’ Africans.
(h) Restrictive legislation

 Was enforced by African collaborators such as the sipais (African police).

 Sipais were at each post in the colony.
 Their work was to intimidate the people, to collect taxes, to recruit labour
and to transmit and enforce the administrator’s orders.
 Sipais were allowed to terrorise African trouble causers (politicians).
 They intimidated people through violence, rape, whipping and extortion.

Problems faced by urban workers

 People worked long hours.

 They were given low wages.
 Lived in shanty shelters.
 Engaged in alcoholism and prostitution.

Passive resistance

 Withdrawal of labour by workers by:

- pretending to be ill;

- fleeing to mountains and swampy areas;

- going to live in neighbouring countries like Nyasaland, Rhodesia and South

Africa. By 1944 over one million Mozambicans were living in these countries;

- lying that their tools were stolen;

- falsifying records of work done.

 Working slowly (go-slow).

 Withholding crops to protest low pricing.
 Attacking labour recruitment officers.
  Boiling seeds to stop them from germinating.
 Avoiding paying taxes by falsifying the number of people and animals in a
village.
 Bribing overseers by promising them beer or sex.
 Forming trade unions to defend their rights.
 Workers formed trade unions like the Unia Africano (African Union) in 1911
in Lourenco Marques
 Organising strikes and boycotts against poor working conditions and
low wages. Examples of strikes and boycotts: in 1947, 7 000 women of Buzi
went on strike and refused to accept cotton seeds the administrator had
ordered must be planted; Gaza Province cotton growers organised boycotts
in 1955 and 1958; 1918-1921 seaport workers staged more than seven
strikes.
 Formation of independent churches.

- Africans were unhappy: Christianity taught equality but there was no

equality.

- There was exploitation of man by man, segregation and discrimination.

- So Africans formed their own churches which preached the gospel of

liberation from colonialism.

- By 1945 there were more than 350 independent African churches in

Mozambique.

Why passive resistance failed

 Strikes were short lived and failed to effect changes because:

- Union members were forced out of urban areas.

- They were replaced by unemployed ‘blackleg’ labour that was prepared to

work quietly.
- More skilled Mozambican workers preferred to work in South African mines
where wages were higher.

- The regime and white trade unions were ruthless to opposition.

- Lack of experience in organising trade unions.

- The working class was still very small and could be easily ignored.

 Educated assimilados were very few and out of touch with the life of the
ordinary workers and peasants.
 Some of the assimilados escaped into exile.
 Chiefs and sipias collaborated with the whites.
 The Africans were not united.
 Those who escaped forced labour had their families held hostage, and
women relatives sexually abused.

The armed struggle

 Started in the 1960s but even before that defiant Mozambicans formed
armed rebel groups and attacked Portuguese officials like labour recruiting
officers, plantation overseers and tax collectors.
 After attacking them, they hid in the mountains and forested valleys. For
example, Mapondera’s group operated on the Rhodesian-Mozambican
border for over a decade attacking both countries. Mapondera was
captured in 1904.
 Between 1917 and 1921 rebel peasants in the Zambezi Valley fought
the Portuguese.
 Rebels were led by descendants of the Barwe and numbered about 15 000.
 Revolts failed because peasants had poor weapons.
 There was an armed uprising in Manbone, south of Beira, in 1953.

Reasons for the decline in armed uprising

  After 1920 revolts were rare.
 Continuous failure to defeat the Portuguese.
 Death of old pre-colonial leadership and their replacement by younger
leaders who were born and grew up during colonial era.
 Presence of many collaborators in the communities.
 The growing strength of Portugal when Salazar, a fascist dictator, came to
power in 1928. Salazar tightened control over the colonies, used spies
widely and enforced law and order.
 Passive resistance weakened the effects of colonisation and made the
regime less effective economically and politically.

Assimilados

 Were educated Africans of mixed ancestry/mulatto/ coloured.

 Africans who had adopted Portuguese culture.
 They acted in a ‘civilised’ manner and spoke Portuguese fluently.
 They had white collar jobs.
 By 1974, less than 1% of Mozambican population was assimilado because
there were few schools and few jobs for Africans.
 They were a very small group.
 They could buy property, amass wealth and claim legal protection.
 Most of them sided with the Portuguese, saw FRELIMO as a communist
party and a threat to their privileged positions.
 They fled to Portugal at independence.
 They voiced their grievances through newspapers like the ‘O Brado
Africano’ (The African Voice) which was published after 1936.
 They formed independent churches.
 They were reformists.
 They were not Marxists and did not call for independence.
 The rise of assimilado nationalism was spearheaded by the likes of Samora
Machel, Eduardo Mondlane, Joacquim Chissano and Mariano Matsinhe.
 Assimilado was meant to show that Portuguese rule was multiracial.
Militant/protestant literature

 Militant poets and writers appeared from the 1940s.

 They had wide influence in high schools and were arrested in the 1950s.
 The Nucleo dos Estudantes Africanos Secundarios de Mozambique
(NESAM) or Mozambique Secondary Students Union was formed in 1959
by Joaquim Chissano, Eduardo Mondlane and others.
 NESAM was disguised as a social and cultural group but was a radical
political club that educated and politicised its members.
 Its leaders went into exile and formed resistance movements.

Post World War 2 reformism and radicalism

 ‘War measures’ during World War 2 silenced opposition.

 After the war colonial regimes became very strong.
 Indicators that change was coming included the following:

- Black soldiers and military equipment carriers returning from the war
expected real change.

- The myth that white people were superior disappeared during the war.

- There was increased communication and contact among educated

Africans so radical ideas opposed to colonialism spread quickly.

- The USA and USSR, the superpowers, were against colonialism.

- India and other Asian countries were moving towards independence and were
attacking colonialism at the United Nations.

- The size of the educated elite was increasing.

The assimilado approach to colonialism

  It offered opportunities based on merit.
 It aimed to bring about a multiracial society.
 It was used to stop the spread of communism.
 Portugal wanted Mozambique to remain its ‘overseas province’.
 From the 1950s and 1960s Britain and France were pulling out of direct
involvement in Africa.
 Portugal was encouraging white immigration to its colonies and
increasing the size of its colonial army.
 By 1960 there were 4 000 Portuguese troops in Mozambique and 70000 by
1972.

Radicalism

 There were more whites in Mozambique than in other Portuguese colonies.

 The educated African elite expected to gain independence easily as
Ghana did.
 They organised, wrote and protested against colonialism.
 Portugal responded by sending in more white settlers, persecuting
students and intensifing exploitation of rural and migrant labour.
 People became more politically conscious and more went into exile.
 Political parties like Uniao Democratica Nacioal de Mozambique
(UDENAMO) were formed in exile.
 UDENAMO was based in Bulawayo in Rhodesia, and UNAMI was based in
Nyasaland.
 The MozambiqueAfrican National Union (MANU) was formed in Tanganyika
(Tanzania) by Makonde (northern Mozambique) dock and plantation
workers working in East Africa.
 It was the most progressive and realistic party.
 By 1959 it had realised the need for popular consciousness and
mobilisation.
 It sent two cadres to Makonde to mobilise the peasants by holding
bush political meetings.
 It staged a peaceful demonstration in Mueda in 1960.
  The demonstrators petitioned against forced labour, forced cultivation of
crops and taxation.
 The regime killed 600 of them.

The formation of FRELIMO

 The killing of the 600 people made Julius Nyerere of Tanzania and Kwame
Nkrumah of Ghana see the need for a united front to fight the settlers.
 In June 1962 MANU, UDENAMO and UNAMI joined together to for
 The Frente de Libertacao de Mozambique or the Front for the Liberation of
Mozambique (FRELIMO) with its headquarters in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania.
 A non-aligned intellectual, Eduardo Mondlane became the first President
and Rev Uria Simango of UDENAMO, the Vice President. Joaquim Chissano
and Samora Machel were members.
 FRELIMO aimed to change the political, economic and social conditions in
Mozambique.
 It followed Maoist ideas because Mozambique had a large peasant
population.
 FRELIMO faced many problems:

- No shared ideology.

- No shared idea of achieving independence.

- Faction fighting/ power struggle.

- Tribalism and regionalism.

- Purges and defections.

- Some decisions made were too divorced from reality.

- Some people found FRELIMO too radical.

- The Portuguese secret police (PIDE) infiltrated FRELIMO.

- Use of divide and rule propaganda by the Portuguese.

- Lack of agricultural infrastructure in liberated zones.

The armed struggle

 It began on 25 September 1964 when FRELIMO attacked a Portuguese

administrative post at Charin in Cabo Delgado.
 FRELIMO adopted the peasant based guerrilla campaign for the
following reasons:

- The ‘fish and water approach’ was adopted as taught by Mao Tse Tung.

- The guerrillas were the fish and the peasants were the water.

- The peasants provided the guerrillas with food, shelter, clothing, intelligence
information and logistics.

 FRELIMO cadres were trained in Algeria, China and the USSR.

 Algeria also used the peasant-based armed struggle copied from Vietnam.
 In 1961 an urban-based uprising in Luanda in Angola had failed.
 FRELIMO’s network of cadres in Lourenco Marques (Maputo) was
infiltrated by PIDE and broken up in 1964.
 FRELIMO fought from Tanzania which was far away from urban centres.
 FRELIMO started the war from four fronts, namely Cabo Delgado, Tete,
Zambezi and Niassa.
 The Cabo Delgado front succeeded because:

- MANU and FRELIMO had been organising in the province.

- The Portuguese were weak there.

- The Makonde tribe of this province had a tradition of resistance and had
close ties with TANU, the Tanzanian ruling party.

- The Mueda Massacre (600) was a rallying point.

- It was a centre of extreme labour exploitation in the sisal plantations.

  In 1965 FRELIMO lost its conservative members to the Revolutionary
Committee of Mozambique (COREMO). FRELIMO then began to take shape.
 FRELIMO held its first Congress from 23-28 September 1962 in Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania. The congress:

- Resolved to issue propaganda.

- Agreed to co-ordinate external and internal resistance.

- Undertook to promote and increase the training of cadres.

- Resolved to send guerrilla cadres to conscientise and mobilise the

peasants.

- Condemned Portuguese political, economic and social oppression.

- Demanded independence for Mozambique.

- Called for the establishment of FRELIMO schools, trade unions,

and women’s organisations.

- Championed cooperation with sister independence movements in

Angola and Cape Verde.

Cadre-peasant relationship

Peasants got FRELIMO cadres got

 Protection against Portuguese  Carriers for military equipment.

reprisals.  Food and clothing.
 Protection against forced  (intelligence and logistics) guides,
labour. collaborators, information on
 Increased trade. sell-outs and movements of
 End of colonial tax. colonial forces.
 Democratic structures.  Reservoir for guerrilla
 Education. recruitment
  Access to health facilities.

 FRELIMO moved villagers to remote, defensive places to protect them.

 By 1967 about one million people lived in FRELIMO liberated zones, a
‘mini-state’ or a state- within-a-state.
 The problem was to finance these ‘mini-states.’
 Local products like cashew nuts were exported via Tanzania and consumer
goods like food, soap and matches were bought and brought into the area.
 Administration of these liberated areas was a problem because when
the Portuguese withdrew, a power vacuum was created.
 A black bourgeoisie class emerged, e.g. Lazaro Nkavandane.
 These were Africans who were rich, had businesses, shops and plantations.
 They had trading organisations and used local labour.
 FRELIMO was against the emergence of a black bourgeoisie class because it
would be a replacement of one form of exploitation by another.
 FRELIMO decided to:

- Politicise people about their rights and the need to support FRELIMO.-
Train all FRELIMO cadres politically and militarily.

- End the system of having a political wing and a military wing.

- Establish local democratic structures such as elected village committees in

liberated zones. The power of traditional chiefs and traditional law were thus
reduced.

- Establish basic literacy and primary health care units. Literate and healthy
people would help the armed struggle and act as effective propaganda against the
Portuguese.

- Organise food production on a collective and co-operative basis.

- Arrange and run a commercial sector through FRELIMO.

 FRELIMO became popular because it aimed to:

- create a fairer society where peasants produced food without being exploited;

- protect the peasants;

- improve the people’s quality of life.

 FRELIMO held its second congress in 1968 in Niassa Province inside

Mozambique. It brought in observers.

FRELIMO’s problems in the period 1967-1969

 FRELIMO’s leadership was paralysed by the following divisions:

- Nkavandane and the reformists (conservatives) rejected the idea of
politicising the peasants and prevented the peasants from supplying
 FRELIMO with food, clothing and information.
- The conservatives did not want a policy of the liberation of women
because it led to condemnation of polygamy.

- The issue of whether educated FRELIMO members should be trained

militarily.

- Mondlane wanted the educated members trained to prevent the

emergence of a superior group that was divorced from fighting. Conservative
members rejected this policy.

- Reformists wanted to rid FRELIMO of radical non-Africans in senior

positions, like Marcelino dos Santos, Veloso (a former Portuguese air-force
officer) and Janet Mondlane, an American who headed the Mozambique
Institute, FRELIMO’s secondary school in Tanzania.

 The divisions resulted in:

- Clashes, damage and ransacking of FRELIMO offices in Tanzania in May 1968.

- Boycott of the second congress by reactionary forces.

- Nkavandane getting TANU to close the Tanzania-Mozambique border.

- The war being stopped.

- Nkavandane formed a political party in Makonde.

- Nkavandane established an army in Makonde.

- Nkavandane tried to create an independent state in Northern Mozambique.

- Nkavandane lost his post in FRELIMO in January 1969.

- When a letter bomb killed Mondlane in Dar es Salaam, Nkavandane fled and
joined the Portuguese and worked as a propagandist attacking FRELIMO.

- A three-member council of presidency (a triumvirate) comprising

Reverend Uria Simango, Dos Santos and Machel was created. Machel was head
of FRELIMO army.

- Rev. Uria Simango then left to join COREMO.

- FRELIMO intensified the war.

Portuguese response to the intensified war

 Also intensified its counter-offensive through ‘Operation Gordian Knot.’

 Villagers were put into ‘aldeamentos’(concentration camps).
 ‘Aldeamentos’ failed because:

- FRELIMO infiltrated them.

- They were located away from fertile lands and water.

- Were open to abuse by soldiers.

- Peasants got help from FRELIMO.

- The Portuguese made limited reforms

 More money was spent on the war and on bringing in more settlers to
block FRELIMO advancement.
  Forced recruitment of Africans into the army.
 Use of propaganda: was effective as over 100 000 black collaborators
joined the police, army and PIDE believing that
 FRELIMO was communist and anti-Christianity.
 Destroyed crops outside the protected villages.
 Introduced a system of roadblocks on the borders with neighbouring
countries like Tanzania, Malawi and Zambia.

FRELIMO advancement: 1970-1974

 In 1970 FRELIMO established a war zone south of the Zambezi River.

 In 1972 guerrillas moved into the central provinces of Manica and Sofala.
 In 1973 the Gorongosa Mountain base was established from which
white farming areas around Chimoio were attacked.
 Had effective supply of arms from USSR, Eastern Europe and China.
 The Portuguese obtained help from Rhodesia, South Africa, the USA and
Western Europe.
 Rhodesia and South Africa wanted cheap labour, the ports and power from
Cabora Basa Dam in Tete.
 Settlers saw communism as a menace. Portugal got help from NATO, hence
the United Nations did not condemn it.
 The Wiriyamu Massacre of 400 villagers south of Tete in December 1972
assisted FRELIMO to get help because the incident was published in The
Times; the churches and NGOs condemned it.
 The Wiriyamu Massacre was a blow to Portuguese propaganda which said
Mozambique was a non- racial colony.
 Business people in Portugal criticised their government’s overseas
policies.
 Morale in Portuguese forces went down.
 By 1974 the Portuguese were on the defensive.
 Settlers were angry that the government was not protecting them from
FRELIMO attacks.
  In Portugal, radical young officer corps questioned the expensive and
unpopular colonial policy.
 On 25 April 1974, the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) staged a coup d’etat
and toppled the government in Portugal.
 General Spinola became the President of Portugal and promised to end
colonial wars. But General Spinola intensified the war in Mozambique.
 FRELIMO extended the war into new fronts.
 Many African collaborators were setting up neo- colonial organisations in
Lourenco Marques to prevent FRELIMO from taking over power.
 MFA agreed to a cease fire with FRELIMO to prevent confusion and civil
war.
 The 1974 coup d’etat brought self-determination to Mozambique but not
independence.

Factors that led to independence on 25 June 1975 under FRELIMO

 Anti-FRELIMO parties such as GUMO joined to form the National Coalition

Party (NCP) in 1974 but had no support from workers and peasants.
 FRELIMO negotiated a ceasefire and a handover of power with MFA
military officers.
 President General Spinola lost control in Portugal to more radical junior
military officers of MFA.
 The MFA junior officers wanted FRELIMO to govern an independent
Mozambique.
 On 7 September 1974, Machel and Soares (the new Socialist Portuguese
Foreign Minister) signed an agreement calling for:

- a ceasefire;

- a FRELIMO dominated transitional government to take office on 25

September 1974;

- Mozambique to be independent on 25 June, 1975.

Reaction of white settlers and collaborators

 Opposed the agreement.

 Attempted a coup.
 Called for a Rhodesian type UDI.
 Soldiers terrorised black townships and killed many Africans but
FRELIMO increased its hold.
 From September 1974 to June 1975 many whites and African collaborators
left the country.
 Over half of the 200 000 white population left the country which resulted in
weakening the NCP.
 On 20 October 1974 FRELIMO soldiers were killed by white commandos
and Africans killed many whites in revenge.
 This killing and fear of FRELIMO’s revolutionary economic and social
programme forced many whites to flee the country.

FRELIMO programme

 Machel called for reconciliation, peace and socialism.

 FRELIMO set up ‘dynamising groups’ of FRELIMO supporters to
mobilise and politicise people on the FRELIMO policies in the southern
provinces and urban areas that were not affected by the war.
 The ‘dynamising groups’assumed decision-making positions and created a
form of local government.
 Samora Machel became the first African President of independent
Mozambique.
 FRELIMO began a programme of nationalisation of the legal, medical,
educational and funeral services; land, rented property, banks and several
multinational corporations.

Mozambique’s economic problems after independence

 Lack of Western support due to communism.

  Africans’ wages remained low due to years of neglect by the
Portuguese.
 Shortage of agricultural equipment like tractors, ploughs and inputs.
 Absence of industries and weak capital base.
 Poor infrastructure: poor roads and communication.
 High unemployment and poverty.
 A negative balance of trade: the cost of imports was higher than the
income from exports.
 Declining national income due to war and falling world prices for
Mozambican exports.
 Inflation.
 Corruption.
 Foreign currency shortages.
 Foreign ownership of industries.
 Dependence on South Africa for food and work.
 Brain-drain of skilled labour and managers when the whites and
assimilados fled the country.
 Sabotage of factories, infrastructure, agriculture and records by fleeing
whites.
 Some of the expectations and hopes were not realistic. Some of the
hopes and expectations:

- People hoped and expected to live in city apartments, stop working and
live like kings or to live like the colonisers.

- FRELIMO aimed to create a classless socialist society with a large

industrial sector, mechanised agriculture and a skilled workforce.

 The nationalisation programme was selectively applied. It targeted

companies where management had left and leaving those where managers
were present.
 The distribution and marketing of goods and services collapsed due to
brain-drain.
  Government had no experience in ordering imports, organising rural shops
and the transport system.
 FRELIMO faced other challenges like:

- lack of capital;

- lack of education;

- lack of health facilities;

- a war situation with Rhodesia;

- Mozambique National Resistance (MNR or RENAMO) attacks;

 Given all this FRELIMO chose to have a highly controlled and centralised
government – a one party state.

- A socialist economy and society system were introduced in 1976.

- Agriculture was reorganised around state farms and communal villages.

Rural reorganisation

 FRELIMO prioritised agriculture because 85% of the population lived in the

rural areas and most of Mozambique’s exports were agricultural products.
 FRELIMO created state farms and communal villagisation farms.
 Agricultural production increased and then fell in 1983 due to:

- Falling world prices.

- Lack of foreign investment resulting in no spare parts for machines,

transport equipment, and shops lacked consumer goods.

- RENAMO, with South Africa’s help, destroying the economy, social

infrastructure and destabilising the country.

- Droughts from 1982-84 and in 1992.

  When the agricultural sector collapsed in1990:

- People left the state farms and villagisation farms.

- Villagers hid the little food they produced and some of it was taken by
RENAMO to feed its soldiers.

Industrial democratisation

 Industrialisation was to be the vehicle for development and

transformation.
 However, at independence, Mozambique had consumer industries only
like breweries, steel making, cigarettes and canned foods.
 FRELIMO introduced worker education and production councils:

- To increase production and worker participation in decision-making

and running of the companies.

- To seek capital investment.

 Government faced the problem of lack of skilled people, so colonial

managers were kept in their positions and these repressed ex-FRELIMO
combatants and made the production councils useless.
 Government had no skills and money to run nationalised industries
resulting in:

- Not having much external funding due to Mozambique’s lack of

infrastructure, war- torn situation, strict conditions on foreign investment and
socialism which made foreign investment unattractive.

 By 1980 there was an industrial growth rate of 12% per annum.

 In the 1980s industry collapsed due to:

- lack of capital;

- lack of spare parts and new machinery;

- poor local market. People were too poor to buy goods;

- the repatriation of Mozambican miners from South Africa;

- decreased use of Maputo port by South Africa.

- rising foreign debt repayments;

- escalation of the war against RENAMO;

- reduced supply of raw materials due to drought;

- the collapse of its major trading partners, USSR and East Germany, in late
1980s with which it conducted barter trade.

RENAMO, drought and capitalism

 At independence, Mozambique adopted Marxist- Leninist ideology and was

supported by USSR and East Germany.
 It followed a socialist policy because the USA and South Africa supported
RENAMO.
 USSR and East Germany support helped FRELIMO to resist South
African aggression and destabilisation before and after the 1984 Nkomati
Accord.
 The Nkomati Accord was meant to end South Africa’s destabilising
activities.

South Africa’s behaviour after Nkomati Accord

 It continued to supply RENAMO with weapons.

 Did not close RENAMO bases in South Africa.
 RENAMO increased its attacks. Two million people fled to neighbouring
countries and about four million were displaced internally causing
environmental damage and straining urban services.
 Drought forced many off the land.
  Machel died in 1986 in a plane crash allegedly arranged by South Africa.
 Machel was succeeded by Joaquim Chissano.

Joaquim Chissano’s policy

 He adopted a policy of a free market to attract foreign investment.

 Foreign investment increased.
 Investors were attracted by cheap labour, low costs and quick profits.
 Western aid in loans and food increased.
 Some enterprises, housing and land were returned to private ownership.
 State programmes on industrial democracy and workers’ rights were
removed.
 There was a ceasefire and the civil war ended in 1992.
 Democratic elections were held and FRELIMO won.
 Chissano’s reforms led to disillusionment, high inflation, increase in crime
rate and an increase in the rich-poor gap which had been narrowed.

Education and health

 Colonial policy on education and health was characterised by

segregation.
 During the colonial period, African education was left in the hands of
missionaries.
 After independence, education was nationalised.
 Capital and manpower challenges affected the provision of education.
 The health system was also nationalised but suffered from a lack of
health centres, qualified personnel and lack of equipment.

(a) Give six qualities of assimilados in Mozambique. [6]

(b) Outline the reasons why many assimilados did not support FRELIMO?
[11]

(c) To what extent did the assimilado delay independence in Mozambique?

[8]

13. The Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation

in South Africa
The Dutch led by Jan van Riebeck landed at the Cape in 1652 and established a
half way station to India that would supply passing ships with fresh water,
vegetables and meat. It was meant to be a temporary settlement but ended up
being permanent. African ethnic groups like the Khoisan, Xhosa, Zulu, Tswana,
Sotho and Pedi were later conquered, lost their sovereignty and incorporated into
new political arrangements known as colonies such as Cape Colony, Natal,
Transvaal and Orange Free State. The British conquered the Dutch in 1806 and
took over the Cape. In 1910 the four colonies were joined together to form the
Union of South Africa.

Struggle for Majority Rule and Democratisation in South Africa

The introduction of apartheid legislation (laws) from 1910

 General Jan Smuts established a system of colonial rule called apartheid or

separate development between the blacks and whites.
 Apartheid came into full force in 1948 when the Afrikaners came to power.
 Under apartheid a person’s race determined their political, economic and
social status in the country.

The defining characteristics of apartheid

 Society was ordered on the basis of race and skin colour.

 The whites (about 18% of the population) were the rulers and privileged
class.
 Coloureds and Indians (about 12%) were ranked second and the Africans
(about 70%) were at the bottom of the racial ladder.
 Discrimination against the Africans, Coloureds and Indians in civil, political,
and economic rights was experienced.
 Voting, freedom of movement and employment were restricted.
 Africans could not train as pilots or work in the navy.
 There was segregation in education, transport, residential areas in towns,
swimming pools, shops and restaurants.

Afrikaner nationalism and the consolidation of apartheid: 1948-1960

 In the 1920s and 1930s discriminatory laws were passed.

 Hertzog’s Labour-National or Pact Government intensified racial
discrimination by:

- Tribal control of Africans through the chiefs and headmen to limit their
movement and political activity.

- Controlling rural-urban migration by Africans.

- Forcing industries and municipalities to replace black labour with poor
whites.

- Poll tax of 1925 and restriction of Africans in reserves. This assured the mines
of cheap labour.

- The extension of the Native Land Act to the Cape by the United Party
Government of the 1930s. This reduced black voting rights.

 The extreme racist Nationalist Party opposed to the United Party broke
away under D.F. Malan and formed the ‘Purified’ Nationalist Party with a
fascist ideology.

Malan’s Nationalist Party

 During World War 2 South Africa supported the Allies but many Afrikaners
supported Germany.
 Malan’s Nationalist Party wanted an alliance with Germany and a republic
declared.
 During World War 2, segregation was relaxed, e.g. social services for
blacks were extended, pass laws were relaxed and some institutions were
made multiracial.
 These changes were made in order to recruit blacks for the war and to
prevent unrest during the war.
 After the war, Prime Minister Smuts intensified restrictions on the Asians
leading to the following developments:

- Asians resorted to passive resistance.

- India was about to gain independence and so it supported the Asians in South
Africa.

- International isolation increased to force Afrikaners to reverse racist

policies.

- Pressure to hand over Namibia back to theUnited Nations increased.

- Africans and Asians joined hands to fight white supremacy.

Milan’s Nationalist Party Government

 It strengthened the policy of apartheid, isolationism, pro-republicanism,

racial segregation, racial exploitation and rejection of
international interference.
 It intensified apartheid:

- Allowing each ethnic group to safeguard its own identity.

- Ethnic groups would develop their own self- governing units under their
traditional chiefs.

- The self-governing units would be under white control.

- These units would become ‘independent homelands’.

- The ‘independent homelands’ would supply cheap labour to the European-

controlled economy.

- This led to unequal development and the worst health records in Africa.

 It created separate Afrikaans and English speaking schools dominated by

Christian nationalism. The Dutch Reformed Church and parents dismissed
teachers who taught communism and anti- nationalism.
 It introduced Native Education that was based on the principles of
trusteeship, non-equality and segregation.
 It increased Nationalist control, enfranchised white Namibians,
disenfranchised recent immigrants and all non- whites and enfranchised
the 18 to 21 year olds to win votes in elections.
 It Afrikaansised South Africa and dismissed, from the civil service, all
who opposed the legal and religious basis of apartheid, e.g. Rev Beyers
Naude, a member of the Dutch Reformed Church, was harassed and
dismissed for creating an inter- racial Christian Institute.
Laws passed to strengthen apartheid

 Prime Ministers Strydom (1954-58) and Verwoerd (1958-66) passed the

following laws to strengthen apartheid:

- The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act (1949) made inter-racial marriages

illegal.

- The Suppression of Communism Act (1950) ended legal opposition to

apartheid.

- The Immorality Act (1950) made extra-marital sexual conduct between whites
and blacks punishable by up to seven years imprisonment.

- The Population Registration Act (1950) grouped people according to their

racial classification as whites, coloured or natives.

- The GroupAreasActs (1950 and 1957) ensured that only whites lived and
owned property and used entertainment facilities in most areas.

- The Abolition of Passes and Coordination of Documents Act (1952) forced

Africans over 16 years to carry ‘books of life’ including the employer’s name
and signature and tax receipts or risk being arrested.

- Bantu Education Act (1953) placed African Education under the

Native Affairs Department. The school buildings were poor. The exams were
inferior. Vernacular language was used. All this was done to stop Africans from
competing with whites for jobs.

- The Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953) provided for separate

public amenities for the different races.

- The Natives Resettlement Act (1954) allowed the destruction of African

townships near city centres.
- The Native Laws Amendment Act (1954) controlled the movement of
Africans into towns.

- The Native (Urban Areas) Amendment Act (1956) allowed local authorities to
move Africans away if a white person bought the area. A 1964 amendment to the
Act forbade African women and children from joining their working husbands in
urban areas.

- The Bantu Self-government Act (1959) allowed black people limited

political rights in their tribal homelands.

- The Extension of University Education Act (1959) closed white universities

to blacks.

Results of the apartheid system

 The police terrorised Africans. About half a million Africans were arrested
and imprisoned annually for minor offences like having no pass book,
reference book and breaking the Group Areas Act.
 Africans rejected the government.
 There was a total breakdown of law and order and a deteriorating security
situation.
 Economic leaders like Gavin Reilly (Head of Anglo-American in the 1980s)
said apartheid was economically inefficient. They complained that:

- Restricting skills for black labour meant shortages of essential labour.

- Forcing Whites to employ expensive white labour raised production costs. A

free market in labour was preferred.

 Restrictive laws created instability in the work force.

 Separating families promoted alcoholism and hence absenteeism.
 Growth of internal market was undermined by unpaid labour and low
wages for the blacks who made 75% of the workforce.
  Potential skills were lost as skilled blacks and whites opposed to the
system left the country.
 Lengthy military service for all white males reduced production.
 The policy of apartheid earned South Africa economic sanctions in the
1980s which undermined industrial growth.
 International economic sanctions forbade South African sports teams,
singers, actors and film makers from participating elsewhere. Many white
sportspersons hated this.
 South Africa began to attack its black neighbours in order:

- To stop the spread of communism.

- To stop the spread of ideas of racial equality.

- To stop the ANC and PAC guerrillas from reaching South Africa via them.

 South Africa spent billions of rands supporting Rhodesia, UNITA

(Angola), RENAMO (Mozambique) and fighting SWAPO guerrillas in
Namibia.
 Millions of rands were diverted from education, health, housing and
business development to finance expensive state-owned military industries
such as Amrscor.

Resistance to capitalism and apartheid

 African resistance developed slowly because:

- They did not share a common language and history.

- Some benefitted from the capitalist system as runners, suppliers of food

and wood, carriers and soldiers.

The formation of the African National Congress (ANC)

  The Africans had to work together to end segregation,
discrimination, marginalisation, exploitation and to gain political power.
 Educated Africans were inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s Indian Congress
Movement (ICM) based in Natal.
 In March 1912 Pixley Ka Isaka Seme and Rev L. Dube called for an all-party
conference. Religious groups also attended.
 At this conference, the South African Native Congress (SANC) was
formed.
 In 1923 the name was changed to African National Congress (ANC). Rev
Dube became the first President General; Pixley Ka Isaka Seme, the
Treasurer; and Solomon T. Plaatje, the Secretary General.
 Due to ICM influence, the ANC was pacifist in its approach.
 Its methods were persuasion and civil disobedience.
 It operated at national and international levels.
 It pressurised other governments to support it to achieve justice in South
Africa.
 It organised civil disobedience campaigns against carrying passes.
 It worked with black trade unions like Clemence Kadalie’s Industrial and
Commercial Workers’ Union (ICU) in the 1920s.

Government response

 It used the police, army and white civilians to break the protests.
 The protesters were beaten up and arrested.
 Kadalie successfully organised the 1919 dock strike and the 1920 miners’
strike that involved 70000 miners. The dockers and miners got limited pay
rises and improved conditions.

Lessons learnt by Africans

 If they worked together, they would achieve more.

  ANC, ICU and the Communist Party (CP) formed in 1921, worked together
to organise and support strikers, anti-pass protests, anti-tax protests, etc.
 ANC, ICU and CP supported the 1928 urban women’s protest againstthe
government’s plan to control the liquor trade (the urban women’s only
economic activity.) They organised boycotts of beer halls and non-payment
of taxes.

Problems faced by the ANC

 At first the ANC had no clear ideology.

 The leaders preferred moderation and patience in the fight for
democratisation.
 The people demanded mass civil disobedience.
 The missionary-educated leaders rejected methods that would lead to
violence. So, the ANC lost support.
 People were not happy with the 1927 Native Administration Act which
allowed authorities to ban meetings in tribal areas and dismiss chiefs
involved in radical politics.
 The ANC failed to create a unified opposition against falling wages,
dismissal of black workers and Hertzog’s Segregation Bills which
undermined Africans’ voting and land rights.
 The 1936 All- Africa Convention brought together ANC, Indian, Coloured
and African organisations and voted for representation in Parliament.

The ANC dilemma during World War 2

 If the ANC opposed Jan Smuts Government’s use of unarmed black labour
in the war, then it would undermine the government’s fight against fascism
and align itself with the pro-Germany racist Afrikaner groups.
 It encouraged blacks to enlist in the army.

Reasons for the ANC becoming more radical in the 1940s

  The new ANC President, Dr Alfred Bathini Xuma, was radical and
implemented a more democratic constitution.
 Membership of trade unions rose to 150 000 during war years.
 Black soldiers had witnessed racial equality on the battlefield and expected
improvements on their return.
 New ANC members were well educated, professionally trained, more
militant, more radical and politically conscious, e.g. Oliver Tambo, Nelson
Mandela and Walter Sisulu.
 They formed the ANC Youth League.
 In 1949 Youth League candidates, Dr Moroka and Sisulu won senior
positions and the Youth league dominated ANC.
 The Ghetto Act restricted the rights of the Indians; and the blacks joined
them to fight it.
 The ANC and Indians agreed in 1947 to work together to achieve
majority rule.
 This cooperation led to theANC’s Freedom Charter.
 Radical political activism was a reaction to the Nationalist Party’s victory in
1948.
 There were now regular riots against pass laws, liquor raids, police actions
and lack of housing and amenities in townships from 1949-1950.

Government response

 Passed the Suppression of Communism Act in 1950.

 Attacked nationalist and communist organisations and excluded white
Native Representative MPs from parliament.

Nationalists’ reaction

 Suspended non-violent methods and adopted more active resistance.

 Joint political action against all discriminatory legislation.
 The ANC and the Indian Congress Party elected a Franchise Action
Committee in 1951.
  In 1952 the ANC wrote to the Prime Minister threatening mass civil
disobedience if six unjust laws were not repealed. The six Acts were:

- The Pass Laws

- The Group Areas Act

- The Separate Representation of Voters Act

- The Suppression of Communism Act

- The Bantu Authorities Act

- The Stock Limitation Regulations

The Freedom Charter

 The ANC, Indian Congress, Coloured People’s Congress, Congress of

Democrats and an alliance of Trade Unions called for a meeting on 25-26
June, 1955.
 It was attended by 3 000 delegates who met at an open veld outside
Kliptown near Johannesburg.
 The police tried to disrupt it but failed.
 The Freedom Charter was drafted and adopted.
 Contents of the Freedom Charter:

- South Africa is for all – black and white; the people should govern.

- No government can claim authority unless it is based on the will of all the
people.

- All national groups shall have equal rights.

- The people shall share the country’s wealth.

- The land shall be shared among those who work it.

- All shall be equal before the law.

- All shall enjoy human rights.

- There shall be work and security.

- The doors of learning and culture shall be opened.

- There shall be houses, security and comfort.

- There shall be peace and friendship.

Militant resistance

 Continued when Chief Albert Luthuli became President of ANC.

 Some ANC members demanded for an African ideology and active
resistance.
 The militant members broke away in 1959 and formed The Pan African
Congress (PAC) under Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe.
 Sobukwe was against the multi-racial nature of the Freedom Charter – he
advocated for “Africa for Africans”.
 PAC was for gaining black power through exclusively black
organisations and violence.
 There were mass protests by women against carrying passes.
 Black women broke Pass Laws in order to feed, clothe and house families.
 Police brutality, arrests and banning of Albert Luthuli and other ANC
leaders silenced the ANC.

Events of the 1960s that brought hope to the nationalists

 ANC started economic campaigns:

- Mobilising international boycotts of South African products.

- Boycotting racist businesses.

  Many African states gained independence and began to support ANC and
PAC through the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).
 Harold MacMillan, British Prime Minister, visited South Africa talking about
the ‘winds of change’ and saying apartheid was unacceptable.
 67 civilians were killed and 180 were wounded at Sharpeville during a
peaceful PAC organised anti-Pass Law campaign. PAC and ANC called for a
day of mourning leading to more marches and riots. This became known as
The 1960 Sharpeville Massacre:

- It aroused international sympathy for Africans.

- Led to calls for an end to human rights violations.

- Some multinational companies pulled out of South Africa.

- South Africa was expelled from the Commonwealth.

- South Africa was banned from international sports

- The United Nations recommended economic and diplomatic sanctions on

South Africa.

Government reaction

 Declared a state of emergency.

 Banned PAC and ANC under the Suppression of Communism Act.
 Detained thousands of activists including Sobukwe.

The treason trials of March 1961

 28 PAC and ANC leaders were accused of treason but were acquitted.
 Nationalists called for an ‘All-in-Africa Conference’ in Pietmaritzburg in
March 1961.
 PAC boycotted it because it was moderate and multiracial.
  The ‘All-in-Africa Conference’ opposed Verwoerd’s move to turn
South Africa into an independent republic.
 It called for a free South Africa and world economic sanctions against South
Africa.

The Nationalist Action Council (NAC)

 Was created by Nelson Mandela.

 It organised a ‘stay at home’ strike in May 1961.
 Government passed the General Laws Amendment Act that gave the police
power to detain people for 12 days without charging them.
 Government disseminated propaganda information against NAC.
 ANC and PAC then turned to sabotage and armed struggle.

The armed struggle

 The ANC and PAC created their armies – Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) for ANC
and Poqo for PAC in the 1960s.
 Mandela led MK and aimed to sabotage installations.
 Poqo organised people in cells to commit violence and punish informers.
 Blacks left the country for military training and returned to sabotage the
economy and destabilise the country.

Government response

 Instituted strict censorship, strict security laws.

 Used the death sentence and torture by the police.
 There were many political assassinations.
 Adopted a system of house arrest, detention without charge for up to 180
days and re-detention at the end of political sentences.
 Mandela and the ANC High Command were arrested in July 1962 to stop
internal opposition.
  The international community protested against execution. So Mandela
and seven others were sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island.

Problems faced by South African liberation movements

 They had no outside bases before the independence of Angola and

Mozambique in 1975.
 Fighters had to pass through white states of Angola, Mozambique, Namibia
and Rhodesia and risk being captured.
 The border areas of South Africa are flat and thinly forested making
them unsuitable for guerilla warfare.
 Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe (hot
pursuit) were attacked for helping the ANC and PAC.
 Later, South Africa signed agreements with its neighbours to stop them
from assisting the ANC and PAC, e.g. the Nkomati Accord of 1984 with
Mozambique.
 South Africa’s security system under Vorster (1960- 1978) used many black
informers, and under Botha (1978-1989) South Africa was heavily
militarised.
 South Africa’s ‘divide and rule’ policy undermined black solidarity, e.g.
creation of ‘Bantu Homelands’ called Bantustans in the 1960s and 1970s.
 Africans became ‘citizens’ of non-existent states of Transkei, Ciskei,
Bophuthatswana and KwaZulu.
 Township youth organisations and trade union activities intensified
leading to the 1976 Soweto and 1984-87 uprisings.
 The explosions in Durban and killing of a police man by MK and Poqo were
ignored.
 MK and Poqo were marginalised.

The advantages of the ANC

  International moral, economic and political support shown by the
imposition of UN sanctions on South Africa in the 1980s leading to high
inflation, disinvestment by foreign companies and an outflow of foreign
capital.
 The imprisonment of Mandela and death of Steve Biko boosted its image.
 Massive black support that protected MK fighters and supplied recruits e.g.:

- In 1976 students revolted against the use of Afrikaans language in schools.

- The youths made townships (Soweto) ungovernable.

- They set up power structures at schools, local and township levels.

 Government used troops, guns, torture and detention to suppress

revolts.
 Many student leaders fled to join the ANC and PAC in Angola, Tanzania and
Zambia for military training, or to continue with education abroad.
 The ANC and PAC were thus strengthened.

The end of apartheid

 F.W. de Klerk replaced Botha as President and head of the Nationalist Party
in 1989.
 Botha was a military-political leader and ran the country through security
organisations.
 De Klerk was a party man.
 From 1989 South Africa began to repeal Apartheid laws like Mixed
Marriages Act, Suppression of

Communism Act, Emergency Laws and Group Areas Act.

Factors leading to the repealing of the Acts:

 The Revolt
 The United Democratic Front (UDF), an umbrella organisation for all pro-
ANC parties, was formed in 1983.
 In 1984 militant young fighters and adults took over control of the
townships.
 The revolt lasted three years.
 The revolt used strategies like school boycotts, consumer boycotts,
avoiding white-owned shops, rent boycotts, strikes, work stay-aways,
protest demonstrations, street confrontations, assassination of
collaborators, public and private negotiations and creation of liberated
zones.
 Townships were run by street and area committees dominated by
comrades.
 An alternative justice system, the people’s courts, was set up. For example,
one township had 12 people’s courts and an appeals court.
 The revolt was spontaneous; caught ANC, PAC and government by surprise.
 Was organised by UDF and was kept disciplined.
 The UDF was strong in Port Elizabeth townships.
 The UDF supplied safe passage for buses and food supplies which the police
were unable to do.
 The blacks used their township bases to boycott white businesses in 1985
to prove that white businesses depended on black consumers.
 The intended effect of boycotts was to force white businessmen to force
government to effect reforms, e.g. end state of emergency and repeal
apartheid laws.
 Government refused to negotiate and the revolt escalated.
 Street battles were fought with the army and police.
 The people used petrol bombs, tank traps and guns.
 People who bought items from white shops were forced to eat all their
purchases under guard, drink Omo, drink alcohol or had their perm shaved
as punishment.
 It spread to Bantustans. In Bophuthatswana a police officer was killed.
Results of the revolt

 A pro-ANC anti-Bantustan revolt prevented the creation of KwaNdebele

Bantustan.
 Police in military gear and armed with guns patrolled the townships
resulting in clashes with comrades.
 The security forces retook control of the townships in 1986.
 International pressure and economic hardships caused by sanctions
forced Botha to make some changes in August 1985. But the changes were
limited.
 The West was unhappy and withdrew its funding to South Africa.
 The rand crashed by 35% resulting in shortage of capital, lowering of white
living standards and lack of foreign currency.
 Shortage of foreign currency led to restrictions, high inflation and high
interest rates which made industrial growth impossible.
 The Commonwealth sent to South Africa the Eminent Persons Group
(EPG) in 1986.
 The EPG comprised of Malcolm Fraser (former Australian Prime Minister)
and General Olusegun Obasanjo (former Nigerian President) to examine
conditions in the country.
 Before the ANC and government came to a compromise the army began
to bomb ANC bases in Harare, Gaborone and Lusaka and crushed the revolt
in the townships.
 Sanctions were intensified on South Africa.
 The government adopted the Total Strategy, used by America in Vietnam,
to gain support from some blacks who would be government agents in the
townships.
 Total Strategy involved hitting the revolts hard, killing the activists,
destroying their organisations quickly and introducing campaigns to win
people’s support.
 The June 1986 emergency laws involved:

- Restricting press reporting.

- Detaining people.

- Banning organisations and meetings.

- Training unemployed youths to be policemen in six weeks and sending them

to their townships as ‘kits constables’ (instant police).

Vigilante groups

 Inkatha was armed to attack people, kill UDF activists and burn down
their houses and anti- aparthied groups like the Council of Churches.
 These attacks confused people and made people fight among themselves,
e.g. AZAPO against ANC; ANC against PAC; and everyone against Inkatha
(i.e. black-on-black violence).
 The Total Strategy approach was successful.
 The security forces targeted individual townships, drove out the activists,
created vigilante groups and left them there to stop UDF groups from re-
establishing themselves.
 In squatter camps, the vigilantes (called Witdoeke in Crossroads and
Rooidoeke in Natal due to the colour of their doekes) destroyed people’s
shelter and forced people to move to areas that they controlled.
 In 200 townships, sewers, housing and roads were improved through 1 800
urban projects.
 By 1987 the revolt had been crushed but the government failed to win
the people’s support.
 People engaged in work stoppages and boycotts called for by the UDF and
the two trade unions, COSATU and NACTU.
 The blacks and external pressure groups demanded for the release of all
political prisoners, the return of all exiles, legalising of all banned parties –
ANC and PAC, ending of the state of emergency, removal of all troops from
the townships and repealing of all apartheid laws.
The emergence of a non-racial South Africa

 Economic and political pressure forced South Africa to make political

changes.
 P.W. Botha, a hard core racist, was replaced by F.W.de Klerk.
 The people’s uprising could not be crushed by force.
 The government made limited reforms such as:

- Important political detainees like Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela (in
February 1990) were released.

- ANC, PAC and the Communist Party were unbanned.

- Many exiles were allowed to return home.

- Formal negotiations began, starting with the Conference for a Democratic

South Africa (CODESA).

- A declaration for a democratic, non-racial government was made in mid-

1990.

- Most apartheid laws were removed.

The 1994 transition

 All apartheid laws were repealed by 1992.

 The Government, ANC, PAC and Inkatha began constitutional talks for a
non-racial South Africa in 1993 (talks for a transitional government).
 The Conservative Party and hard core racists did not join the talks because
they wanted political power, monopoly and a separate Boer state.
 Talks nearly collapsed when Chris Hani, CP leader was assassinated in April
1993 by an Afrikaner Resistance Movement gunman.
 Non-racial elections were held in 1994 and Africans voted for the first time.
 The ANC won and Mandela became the first President of a non-racial
democratic South Africa in 1994.
Post-apartheid South Africa

 The ANC government came to power in 1994.

 Economic and political challenges faced by the ANC government:

- Massive black unemployment.

- Severe poverty.

 The ANC government adopted the Reconstruction and Development

Programme (RDP) put forward by COSATU. COSATU supported the ANC
during the struggle and elections.
 RDP aimed at reordering politics, economics and society to redress the
injustices and inequalities of the past.

The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)

 It involved reducing unemployment by creating 2.5 million new jobs in 10

years.
 Reducing homelessness and overcrowding by building one million low-
cost houses by 2000.
 Providing electricity to 2.5 million homes by 2000.
 Providing running water and sewage system to one million households.
 Providing 10 years of compulsory, free education.
 Establishing adult basic education and training programmes.
 Redistributing 30% of good farming land to small scale black farmers within
five years.
 Establishing equality in health services and a shift from curative services to
primary health care with free medical care for children less than six years
and pregnant women at all state facilities.
 Restructuring state institutions to reflect the racial, class and gender
composition of the South African society.
Achievements of the RDP

 The Housing Department built 40 000 houses by 1996 and 192 000 by 1997.
 Established a feeding scheme at 12 300 schools to fight malnutrition among
children.
 Put in place a free medical care system for pregnant women and children of
under six years.
 1.3 million homes were provided with electricity.
 One million new water connections were completed.

Challenges experienced during RDP

 Abuse and misuse of funds meant for building low- cost houses.
 RDP failed to attract financial support from the business community, the
World Bank and the Development Bank of South Africa.
 RDP was accused of emphasising social programmes that are non-
productive instead of productive projects.
 The ANC abandoned the interests of workers in favour of capitalist
employers and strained its relationship with COSATU and the CP.
 RDP was abandoned in June 1996 under pressure from the capitalists and
government adopted the Growth, Employment and
 Redistribution Programme (GEAR).
 The land reform was less successful:

- Only 15 00 land reclaims were resettled by The conservative whites resisted it.

- There were coordination, planning and logistical problems too.

Growth, Employment and Redistribution Programme

 Annual economic growth rate was to be 4.2%.

 GEAR was expected to create 1.35 million jobs by 2000.
 In the first quarter of 1997 economic growth rate fell by 0.8%.
  Figures from the Central Statistics Services showed that unemployment fell
by 1.3% in 1996 which is a net loss of 71 000 jobs.
 Unemployment and poverty worsened.
 Government tried to establish equality by abolishing discrimination based
on race, gender and religion.
 GEAR failed to meet its targets.
 Government appointed the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in
1996.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission

 Was headed by Bishop Desmond Tutu.

 Blacks and whites came to testify about their roles during the apartheid
era.
 White government officials including F.W. de Klerk, soldiers, policemen,
white companies and organisations like the Dutch Reformed Church (DRC)
apologised publicly for oppressing the blacks.
 The TRC was the best way of making people deal with their bad past and
ushering in reconciliation between the blacks and whites.

Has discrimination disappeared from South Africa?

Although apartheid is dead in South Africa:

 The country is still divided into racially-based economic groups.

 Most working class Africans are still poor.
 The whites still enjoy high quality life.
 Skilled Africans still do not get jobs in white-owned firms.
 Graduate unemployment amongst blacks is very high.
 The whites gave up political power but kept economic power.
 There is political democracy but not economic democracy.
 Race relations between black and white are still bad.
 Racial contact between white and black has remained at a minimal
level.
 Thabo Mbeki, Mandela’s successor as President, said South Africa has
remained a country of two nations: black and white.
 The blacks are excluded from white dominated sporting activities like
rugby and cricket.
 The whites, coloureds and Indians continue to vote for whites, support
white interests and white parties like the Nationalist Party and the
Democratic Party while the blacks vote for parties that represent African
interests like the ANC.
14. The Constitution of Zimbabwe
 A constitution is a system of laws and principles, usually written down,
according to which a country or organisation is governed. The initial
Constitution of Zimbabwe was developed from the Independence
Constitution.

Background to the Constitution

 It was drafted and signed in London at the Lancaster House Conference

held between September and December 1979.
 There were three delegations to the Conference:

- The British delegation led by Lord Carrington who was the chairman of the
Conference and the British Foreign Secretary.

- The Zimbabwe-Rhodesia delegation led by Bishop Muzorewa which

included Ian Smith and his team.

- The Patriotic Front delegation which was jointly led by Robert Mugabe and
Joshua Nkomo.

 Over the years this Constitution underwent a number of amendments.

 A new Constitution of Zimbabwe was later developed and came into
effect in 2013.
Purpose/Functions of the constitution

 The constitution is the supreme law of a nation.

 Stipulates how a nation must be run.
 Stipulates who qualifies to be a citizen and how one loses that citizenship.
 Gives guidelines on how to run the state.
 Outlines the powers of the different arms of government – the
Executive, Legislature and Judiciary.
 Defines the powers of security institutions – the army, police, prison
service.
 Protects citizens from abuse.
 Protects people’s fundamental freedoms and rights.
 Regulates political processes.
 Gives legitimacy to a government.

Sections of the Constitution of Zimbabwe

The supreme law

 The constitution is the supreme law / highest or most important law of

Zimbabwe.
 All laws must agree with it.
 Any other law that does not agree with it is null and void (invalid).
 Anything that agrees with the constitution is lawful and constitutional
and anything that does not agree with the constitution is unlawful and
unconstitutional.

Citizenship

 A citizen is a member of a country, state or nation.

  A citizen gives full loyalty, owes allegiance, pledges to defend the
country against enemies and to serve it at all times.
 A citizen expects to get protection, food, education and employment from
his/her country.
 A person’s citizenship is his/her nationality.
 Citizenship gives a person his/her duties, responsibilities, rights and
privileges.
 All citizens are equally entitled to:

- protection by the State;

- passports and other travel documents;

- birth certificates and other identity documents issued by the state.

 The Constitution spells out conditions:

- to be a Zimbabwean citizen with full rights;

- for one to lose citizenship.

 A Citizenship and Immigration Board must be established by Parliament

to deal with matters of citizenship and work permits.
 Zimbabwean citizenship is by birth, descent or registration.

(a) Citizenship by birth

Citizens by birth are persons:

- who are born in Zimbabwe by a mother or a father who was

Zimbabwean citizen or any of their grandparents was a Zimbabwean citizen by

birth or descent; or

- who if born outside Zimbabwe, either of their parents was a Zimbabwean

citizen and ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe but working outside the country for
the State or international organisation; or
- who, when found in Zimbabwe, are children under the age of 15 years and
their nationality and parents are known;

- who were born in Zimbabwe before coming into force of this Constitution and
one or both of their parents was a citizen of a country which is a member of the
Southern African Development Community and was ordinarily resident in
Zimbabwe.

 Dual citizenship is automatically permitted in respect of Zimbabweans

by birth. Only minors can have dual citizenship but must make a choice of
which citizenship to keep within one year of turning 18 years old.
 Citizenship by birth may be revoked if it was acquired by:

- fraud;

- false representation; or

- concealment of a material fact.

(b) Citizenship by descent

 A person born outside Zimbabwe can become a Zimbabwean citizen:

- if born of either a mother or father who was a Zimbabwean citizen by birth or

descent and their birth is registered in Zimbabwe; or

- any of their grandparents was a Zimbabwean citizen by birth or descent and

their birth is registered in Zimbabwe.

 A law may prohibit dual citizenship in respect of citizens by descent.

(c) Citizenship by registration

 Citizens by registration are persons who, on application, have been

granted Zimbabwean citizenship. Registration can be by:
- marriage: when a foreigner marries a Zimbabwean citizen;

- adoption: when a Zimbabwean citizen adopts a child;

- a person who has stayed in Zimbabwe continuously for five years.

 Citizenship by registration can be withdrawn if:

- it was acquired by fraud;

- it was acquired by false representation;

- it was acquired by concealment of material fact; or

- the person trades, communicates, assists or associates with a business that

assisted an enemy of Zimbabwe during a war.

 A law may prohibit dual citizenship in respect of citizens by registration.

 Citizenship may not be revoked if the person concerned would become
stateless.

Declaration of Rights

 Every person and the State are bound by the Declaration of Rights.
 Everyone in Zimbabwe is entitled to enjoy the fundamental rights and
freedoms of the individual whatever his/her race, tribe, sex, place of origin,
political opinions, colour of skin and creed (religious beliefs).
 Rights come with responsibilities.
 The individual must respect the rights and freedoms of others and
abide by the Constitution of Zimbabwe.The Constitution gives everyone
protection to these rights and freedoms.
 Rights are not absolute. They can be limited so that when you enjoy your
rights and freedoms you do not violate other people’s rights and freedoms.
 All democratic countries have Declaration of Rights in their constitutions.
 Most wars fought were based on violation of people’s rights.
Rights and Freedoms

 Every person has a right to life but:

- the law may permit the death penalty for murder in aggravating
circumstances;

- the death penalty may not be imposed on a person who was less than 21
years or more than 70 years when the offence was committed;

- the right of the unborn child is protected.

 Abortion is prohibited by law.

 Every person has a right to personal liberty and may not be detained
without trial.
 A person who has been arrested or detained must:

- be informed of the reason for the arrest or detention;

- be permitted to contact their relative or lawyer at the expense of the state;

- at their expense, consult in private with a lawyer and a doctor of their

choice;

- be treated humanely;

- Be brought before a court within 48 hours;

- have the right to remain silent;

- not be forced to make a confession or admission.

 A person who has been illegally arrested or detained is entitled to

compensation from the person responsible for the arrest or detention.
 Every person has inherent dignity and a right to have that dignity
respected.
 No person shall be subjected to slavery or servitude or to perform forced
labour;
 All persons have a right before the law.
  Every person has a right to privacy:

- their home, premises or property may not be entered or searched without

their permission;

- their property may not be seized;

- the privacy of their communication must not be infringed;

- their health condition must not be disclosed without their permission.

 Every person has a right to freedom of assembly and association.

 Every person has a right to freedom of expression.
 These are just some of the rights and freedoms contained in the
constitution. Make an effort to get a copy of the Constitution of Zimbabwe
for a full list of the rights and freedoms and other provisions of the
constitution, not only for examination preparation but for you to be
informed.

The Zimbabwe system of government

 It follows the separation of powers arrangement.

 It has three branches, namely:

(i) The executive branch headed by the Executive President and sees to it that
laws are carried out.

(ii) The legislative branch or the parliament or the assembly which makes
laws. It consists of Parliament and the President.

(iii) The judiciary branch or the system of courts which interprets the laws,
punishes law breakers, settles disputes and decides whether the laws or other
actions of the executive and legislative branch are in keeping with the
Constitution.

 Allows each branch to check and limit the powers of the others to prevent
one branch becoming too powerful.
  It is a system of checks and balances.

The President

 Is the Head of State and Government and Commander-in-Chief of

the Defence Forces.
 Is the first citizen and his/her family is the firstfamily.
 If the President is male his wife is the First Lady, or First Gentleman if the
President is female.The President must obey and uphold the
Constitution and all the other laws of the country.
 The President enjoys immunity from civil or criminal proceedings for
things done in his/her personal capacity until he or she has ceased to be
President. For official acts, good faith is a defence.
 A person who is a citizen of Zimbabwe by birth or descent, is a registered
voter, is 40 years old and ordinarily resident in Zimbabwe qualifies for
election as President or Vice-President.
 A Presidential candidate must nominate two running mates.
 The term of office of the President is two five year terms.
 The President or Vice-President may resign his or her office.
 The President or Vice-President may be removed from office for:

- serious misconduct;

- failure to obey, uphold or defend the Constitution;.

- wilful violation of the Constitution.

- inability to perform the functions of the office due to physical or mental

illness.

 The President has power to:

- appoint and receive diplomats;

- enter international conventions, treaties and agreements;

- declare or end martial laws or public emergencies;

- declare wars and make peace;

- appoint and remove from office, Vice

 Presidents, Ministers or Deputy Ministers;

- address parliament, sit and speak in Parliament;

Ministers, Deputy Ministers and Cabinet

 The President, guided by considerations of regional and gender balance,

appoints Ministers and Deputy Ministers from among members of
Parliament;
 Up to five may be appointed outside Parliament for their professional skills
and competence.
 Cabinet Ministers are responsible for:

- formulating Government policies, vision, mission statements, aims and

objectives of their ministry;

- giving directive on how the ministry must be run;

- answering questions raised in parliament on their ministry;

- preparing, initiating and implementing national legislation;

- advising the President.

Parliament

 Parliament is the Legislative Authority or Legislative Branch of

Government or Legislature.
 Parliament is elected for a term of five years and stands dissolved on the
day before polling starts in the next election
  Consists of the Senate and the National Assembly.
 This is called a bi-cameral Parliament.

Every Member of Parliament must take an oath before taking up office.

a) The Senate

 Consists of 80 Senators of whom:

- six are elected from each province;

- sixteen are chiefs;

- two are President and Deputy President of the National Council of Chiefs;

- two are elected to represent persons with disabilities.

 A Senator must be a registered voter and at least 40 years of age.

 The President of the Senate and the Deputy President of the Senate
preside over the Senate.

b) The National Assembly

 Consists of 210 members elected by secret ballot from the 210

constituencies.
 A member of the General Assembly must be a registered voter and at least
21 years of age.
 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker preside over the National Assembly.

Judiciary and the Courts

 Judiciary authority derives from the people and is vested in the courts: the
Constitutional Court; the Supreme Court; the High Court; the Labour Court;
 the Administrative Court; the magistrates’ courts; the customary courts;
and other courts established by or under an Act of Parliament.
 The Chief Justice, the Deputy Chief justice, other judges of the courts and
persons presiding over magistrates’ courts and customary courts constitute
the judiciary.

The Permanent Commissions of Government

 A commission is a group of people appointed by the President to do specific

work.
 Permanent Commissions are The Civil Service Commission, The
 Prisons and Correctional Service Commission, The Judicial Service
Commission, The Police Service Commission, The Defence Service
Commission and The Public Protector (Ombudsman.)

(a) The Civil Service Commission (CSC)

 Manages the Civil Service (public service).

 Members of the Civil Service are people employed by the government
excluding the police, defence forces, prison officers, members of the
judiciary and staff of parliament.
 Civil servants may not be office bearers of any political party.
 Members of the Civil Service Commission must have the ability, experience
or professional qualifications in administration.
 The CSC:

- appoints, assigns and promotes people to offices, posts and grades;

- fixes the conditions of service for the civil servants;

- exercises disciplinary powers on its members;

- fixes the number of offices, posts, grades, departments or divisions in Civil

Service;
- investigates grievances of civil servants;

- fixes salaries for civil servants.

(b) The Prisons and Correctional Service Commission

 It comprises the Commissioner of Prisons, who is its chairperson, plus

between two and seven members appointed by the President.
 Requirements are ability, experience or professional qualifications in
administration.
 It is headed by the Chief Justice. The first black Chief Justice was Justice
Enock Dumbutshena.
 The Judicial Service Commission:

- advises on legal matters;

- supervises the legal system;

- promotes independence and accountability of the judiciary;

- oversees the efficient and transparent administration of justice.

(d) The Police Service Commission

 Has between two and seven members who must have held senior ranks in
the Police Force such as secretary, deputy police commissioner or
superintendent.
 The Police Service Commission:

- fixes salaries of members of the Police Service;

- fosters harmony between the forces and citizenry;

- carries out inquiries or investigations into the practices of the Police Force;

- produces and submits an annual report to the Minister;

- trains police officers;

- maintains the police force in a high state of efficiency;

 At least one of the members must have held a post of Superintendent or

higher in the Prison Service for at least five years.

(e ) The Defence Forces Service Commission

 Manages the Defence Forces.

 The Prison Service Commission:

- protects the society from criminals through imprisonment, rehabilitation

and re-integration

- approves appointment , promotion and removal from office or reduction in rank

of officers.

- fixes salary of Service members.

 The defence force comprises of the Army and Airforce.

 The Defence Forces Commission:

- appoints and regulates conditions of service;

- acquires buildings, vehicles, land and military equipment for the force.

- fixes salaries of members of the Defence Forces.

(c) The Judicial Service Commission

 Manages the Judiciary.

 It is the court system: Primary Court (Headman’s Court, Village Court,
Community or Chief’s Court); Magistrate’s Court (Chief Magistrate); High
Court (Judge President); Supreme Court (Chief Justice).
  It comprises the Chief Justice, the Attorney General, and two to three
members appointed by the President. These members must have been
judges of the High Court or Supreme Court.
 It must be independent to do its work professionally.

- advises government on matters of the defence forces.

(f) The Public Protector/ Ombudsman

 He/she is an independent person.

 He/she investigates wrong doing and prosecutes government officials by
bringing them to trial on criminal charges or forces government to take
action.
 For one to qualify to be a Public Protector, one should have been a:

- judge in Zimbabwe;

- legal practitioner for at least seven years;

- regional magistrate;

- Secretary for Cabinet or Ministry.

 Anyone can make a complaint to the Public Protector against a force,

service, institution, authority or body, officer or employee.
 The complainant must be a Zimbabwean.
 The illiterate can be assisted to write down their complaints.

Independent commissions supporting democracy

 There are five:

(i). the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission;

(ii). the Zimbabwe Human Rights Commission;

(iii). the Zimbabwe Gender Commission;

(iv). the Zimbabwe Media Commission;

(v). the National Peace and Reconciliation Commission.

 Members of these commissions are appointed by the President with

Parliamentary and public participation in the process.
 They work to support democracy by:

- entrenching human rights and democracy;

- protecting the sovereignty and interests of citizens;

- promoting constitutionalism;

- promoting transparency and accountability in public institutions;

- securing the observance of democratic values and principles by all institutions;

- ensuring the remedying of injustices.

 These commissions:
- act independent of any control and without fear, favour, prejudice or
interference;

- are accountable to Parliament for efficient performance;

- are entitled to support from all government institutions for the

protection of their independence.

Constitutional amendments and referendum

 Parliament has power to amend sections of the Constitution. The whole

Constitution can only be changed after a referendum.
 Constitutions are always amended to keep them abreast of changes in the
society, new expectations and aspirations of the people.
 Many amendments were made to the 1980 Constitution.
  A Bill must be raised, tabled and discussed in Parliament before
amendments.
 A Bill is a draft for a proposed law.
 People vote for or against the draft.
 Two thirds of the MPs are needed to amend a constitution.
 Amendments lead to additions or subtractions or repeal of sections of the
Constitution.
 A referendum gives people a chance to air their views through voting.
 The first referendum was in 2000 after the Government had
prepared a draft constitution.
 Commissioners travelled country wide explaining it to people and getting
people’s views.
 The people rejected the draft constitution.
 In 2009 another constitution making process started,
spearheaded by the Constitutional Parliamentary Select Committee
(COPAC) and the participation of the people. A referendum on the draft
constitution was held on 16 March 2013.
 Tallies of the referendum released by the Zimbabwe Electoral Commission
(ZEC) showed that of the 3 316 082 people that voted, 3 079 966 voted
‘Yes’ (endorsed the draft constitution) while 179 489 voted ‘No’ (rejected
it).
 Since the majority were in favour of its adoption, the draft constitution was
duly declared to have been adopted by the people of Zimbabwe as the
Constitution of Zimbabwe.

Exercise ...

(a) Name six ways a person could lose his/her citizenship. [6]

(c) To what extent are these rights responsibilities exercised in

Zimbabwe? [8]
2.(a) Name six Commissions. [6]

(b) Explain a citizen’s rights and responsibilities.[11]

(b) Discuss the composition and functions of the Civil Service Commission and the
Judicial Service Commission. [11]

(c) To what extent have these commissions benefited the people of

Zimbabwe? [8]

15. Post-Independence Developments in Zimbabwe

Post-Independence Developments in Zimbabwe

Reasons for waging the liberation war

 To remove racism and bring about equality.

 To empower the disadvantaged black people.
 To redistribute land.
 To create a class of black commercial farmers and captains of industry.
 To build new schools, hospitals, roads, bridges, new industries and
service centres.
 To transform the economy from one that catered for a minority settler
population to one that catered for everyone, e.g. in the education and
health sectors.
 To enfranchise the majority black people.

Political developments: 1980

 The following were agreements by delegates to the Lancaster House

Conference:
- Full independence for Zimbabwe.

- Franchise for all.

- That the Constitution would not be changed in the first ten years.

- A bicameral Parliament with two houses – the Senate and a House of

Assembly.

- A Parliament of 100 members, 20 of them reserved for the whites only for
a period of 10 years.

- The Senate was to have an equal number of blacks and whites.

- The Senate would have limited powers like the House of Lords in England.

- There would be an executive Prime Minister and a non- executive President

(titular).

- In the first 10 years, land would be acquired on a willing- seller- willing- buyer
basis.

- There would be a cease fire.

- Guerrillas would be moved into 16 assembly points.

- Rhodesian forces would be moved into barracks.

- The Commonwealth would take control of the country during elections.

- There was to be two months of campaign under Commonwealth supervisors.

- A British Governor was appointed.

 ZANLAand ZIPRAguerrillas moved into assembly points in one week.

 The leaders and commanders of ZANU and ZAPU then came to Rhodesia.
 Elections were held in February 1980.

Independence
  18th April is Zimbabwe’s Independence Day.
 The British Flag, The Union Jack, was lowered and given to Prince Charles.
 The Zimbabwean Flag was hoisted at Rufaro Stadium in Harare.
 Rev Canaan Sodindo Banana became the first President of the Republic
of Zimbabwe with Robert Gabriel Mugabe as the Prime Minister.
 ZANU (PF) won the elections with a clear majority.
 But Mugabe formed a Government of National Unity with (PF) ZAPU and
the Rhodesia Front (RF).
 ZAPU and RF members were given ministerial posts due to the Policy of
National Reconciliation.
 The Rhodesian Minister of Finance, David Smith, and the President of the
Commercial Farmers’ Union were offered ministerial posts.
 General Peter Walls became the head of the new army.
 The police, army, prison service, judiciary and civil service remained
unchanged.
 ZANLA, ZIPRA forces and the Rhodesian Forces joined together to form a
new army. (Zimbabwe National Army/ZNA)
 The commercial sector, mining of gold and asbestos, processing of
tobacco and manufacturing of cigarettes, industrial equipment and car
assembly remained in white hands.
 Private companies remained in control of the commercial sector like
banking, wholesale and retail trade.
 The new Government inherited wealth in the form of:

- Two million hectares of state land.

- State buildings in towns.

- Rural service centres and state movable assets like heavy and light vehicles.

- Farm and office equipment.

- Companies listed as parastatals: The Land Bank (Agricultural and

Finance Corporation) now Agribank; Zimbabwe Banking Corporation now
 ZB Bank; Post Office Savings Bank; Commercial Bank of Zimbabwe;
Zimbabwe Development Bank; airlines (Air Zimbabwe and Affretair); Cold
Storage Commission; ARDA; ASTRA; CMED; Dairiboard Zimbabwe
Ltd; Delta Corporation; GMB; NOCZIM; Pig Industry Board; Olivine
Industries; Tobacco Research Board; PTC; ZESA; ZISCOSTEEL; ZUPCO and
Hwange Colliery.

The sabotage and dissident menace: 1980-1987

 The Selous Scouts, Special Air Services, Rhodesian High Infantry and
Muzorewa’s auxiliaries fled to South Africa at independence.
 Then they returned to destroy Zimbabwean armoury and equipment.
 $50 million worth of equipment and ammunition was destroyed in August
1981.
 ZANU (PF) headquarters was bombed in December 1981.
 7 people were killed and 124 others were injured; and 13 military planes at
Thornhill Air Base in Gweru were destroyed in July 1982.
 Acts of violence occurred around assembly points.
 ZIPRA and ZANLA guerrillas were then moved from rural assembly points to
Entumbane in Bulawayo.
 The two guerrilla forces fought each other in November 1980.

The National Army put down the fight.

 War between the two guerrilla forces began again in February 1981:
Second Entumbane War.
 300 people were killed.
 The Dumbutshena Commission of Inquiry was set up to find out the cause.
 The Third Entumbane War began in February 1982.
 After arms caches were discovered in Matabeleland, many senior ZIPRA
commanders were arrested and (PF) ZAPU leaders were expelled from
cabinet.
  Several ZIPRA guerrillas in the army and other government departments
left and joined the dissidents.
 Joshua Nkomo was arrested in March 1983.
 The 5th Brigade Army was trained by the Koreans in Nyanga to suppress
the dissident menace.

Some notable events during the dissident period

 Robert Mugabe’s residence in Highfields was attacked in June 1983 and a

curfew was declared.
 ZIPRA was held responsible, (PF) ZAPU leaders were detained and the army
searched homes for weapons.
 Six foreign tourists were kidnapped and killed in July 1982.
 Curfew was imposed in Matabeleland, more troops were deployed in
the region and detentions increased.
 The 5th Brigade completed training and was deployed in
Matabeleland from November- December 1982. Its activities against
dissidents became known as ‘Gukurahundi’.
 33 people were killed and Government allowed commercial farmers to re-
arm to protect themselves from dissidents in January 1983.
 Joshua Nkomo was put under house arrest in March 1983, but he escaped
to Botswana. Then Unity talks between (PF) ZAPU and ZANU PF began.
 About 20 000 people were killed and many became destitute. Those killed
were buried in shallow graves or thrown into mine shafts.
 Women were raped and there were many armed robberies.
 A Unity Accord between (PF) ZAPU and ZANU PF was signed in December
1987.
 By April 1988, 122 dissidents had surrendered.
 The State of Emergency, put in place by Smith, was lifted in 1990.

General elections after 1980

  1985 Elections: ZANU (PF) won 64 seats, (PF) ZAPU won 15 seats,
Ndabaningi Sithole’s ZANU (Mwenje) won one seat (Chipinge South), RF
(now called Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe –CAZ) won 15 of the 20
reserved white seats, the Independent Zimbabwe Group (IZG) won 4 seats,
one seat went to an independent and Muzorewa’s UANC got no seats.
 There were no more reserved seats for the whites from 1985.
 The posts of executive Prime Minister and non- executive President were
removed in 1987 and replaced with an executive President and the Senate
was abolished.
 The number of seats was increased to 150.
 120 Members of Parliament (MPs) of them were elected through universal
adult suffrage; 8 were Provincial Governors; 12 other people were
appointed by the President; 10 chiefs were selected by the Chiefs’ Council
and appointed by the President.
 Parliamentary life remained at 5 years.
 Presidential term of office was increased to 6 years.
 Initially it was limited to two terms but later became unlimited. MPs could
be re-elected.
 1990 Elections: The united ZANU (PF) and (PF) ZAPU contested as ZANU
(PF) and won 107 seats; Edgar Tekere’s Zimbabwe Unity Movement
(ZUM) won 2; ZANU (Mwenje) won Chipinge South; Mugabe defeated
Tekere in the presidential elections.
 1995 Elections: ZANU (PF)’s 66 seats were uncontested; 57 % of the
electorate voted; Ndabaningi Sithole’s ZANU (Mwenje) won Chipinge
South; Margaret Dongo formed the Zimbabwe Union of Democrats (ZUD)
and won the Harare South seat; Mugabe won the presidential election.

Formation of the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC)

 The socialist policy was abandoned in 1991.

 Then Government adopted ESAP in 1990 making urban workers unhappy.
  Zimbabwe sent soldiers to help Kabila in the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC) against Banyamulenge rebels in 1998. This war was very
expensive and resulted in donor fatigue.
 The Zimbabwe Congress of Trade Unions (ZCTU) led the voices of dissent
and its leaders, led by
 Morgan Tsvangirai and Gibson Sibanda, formed the Movement for
Democratic Change (MDC).
 Was encouraged by the economic hardships and the victory of the
Movement for Multi-party Democracy (MMD), a workers’ party in Zambia.
MMD defeated Kenneth Kaunda in 1991. Kaunda and his United
Independence Party (UNIP) had been in power for 26 years since
independence.
 The MDC was formed by ZCTU leaders.
 It was formed in order to take part in the constitution making process
being led by the National Constitutional Assembly (NCA) under Dr
Lovemore Madhuku.
 ZCTU leaders wanted to promote the interests of workers in the
constitution and government.
 Government rejected the NCA and MDC proposals.
 MDC and NCA also rejected the government Draft Constitution.
 52% of the electorate voted against the government Draft Constitution in
the February 2000 referendum.

The 2000 elections

 Were held under the Lancaster House Constitution.

 ZANU (PF) won 62 seats and MDC won 57 seats. Ndabaningi

Sithole’s ZANU (Mwenje) won Chipinge South.

 There was violence before, during and after these elections.

 MDC won most of the urban seats and those in Matabeleland North and
South Provinces. There was now a meaningful opposition in parliament.
  ZANU (PF) was reduced to a rural Shona-based party.

The March 2002 Presidential elections

 Were held under the Lancaster House Constitution.

 There was violence before, during and after these elections. 30 people
died.
 Mugabe won the elections.
 MDC President, Morgan Tsvangirai, said there were irregularities and
challenged the results in court.
 The High Court disqualified six ZANU (PF) seats.

Economic developments: 1980-2002

 The Zimbabwean economy had been battered by 15 years of economic

sanctions and years of war.
 The Ian Smith Government controlled major companies like electricity
(ESC now ZESA), dairy, beef and pork processing, airlines, railways and
urban transport, broadcasting, iron and steel, etc.
 Rhodesian economy was meant for 10% of the population – the whites
only.
 There were 600 white commercial farmers and the rest lived in towns.
 The whites enjoyed quality life while the Africans lived in squalor; without
clean water, proper sanitation, electricity, etc.
 The new government in 1980 adopted the socialist policy to reverse this
economic imbalance. Under socialism:

- The state controls the means of production, distribution and exchange.

- Wealth is in the hands of the workers, the proletariat.

- The proletariat is the ruling class.

- The proletariat take over the means of production such as the land,
banks, mines and factories.
- The state provides free education and health services.

 Socialism was to replace capitalism. Under capitalism wealth is

controlled by a few.
 Introduced minimum wage system, wage negotiation system and
workers’ committees.

What the new Government did under socialism

 Adopted a policy of ‘growth with equity’ in 1981.

 Expanded basic social services like education and health services.
 Built many schools and clinics under the Education for All by 2000 and
Health for All by 2000 programmes, respectively.
 Supported peasant agriculture through giving inputs and providing
extension services.
 Zimbabwe began to export maize to 12 countries.
 More land was acquired and more people were resettled and wages
increased for workers.
 Socialism was successful in the first years of independence because:

- Returning Zimbabweans brought in wealth and invested in the country.

- Sanctions were lifted and foreign investors came in.

- A donor conference of 1981 held in Harare called Zimbabwe

Conference on Reconstruction and Development (ZIMCORD) brought in $1,2
billion for the reconstruction of the economy.

- 1980-1981 was a very good agricultural season.

- The international finance institutions and western donor governments

supported the policy of reconciliation.

 Problems experienced in the later years were a result of:

- Socialism experiencing problems inter- nationally following the collapse
of the USSR.

- Western donors demanding that Zimbabwe abandon socialism or they

would withdraw their funds.

- High demand for free education and free health services.

- Shortage of schools, classrooms, teachers, books; and clinics, doctors,

nurses, drugs, etc.

- Socialism being misconstrued to mean that people would be provided with

everything. Socialism meant that people worked and shared equally the products
of their labour.

- 1982-1983 was a very bad agricultural season.

 Government spent its resources on drought relief instead of

development.

- Over-expenditure on defence due to wars in Mozambique and Matabeleland.

- Lack of capital to replace out-dated machinery in industry.

- Government subsidies to non-performing parastatals like ZESA, ZUPCO,

NRZ, etc.

- Destabilisation by South Africa.

The Government’s First Five-Year Development Plan: 1986-1990

 Focused on reviving the economy.

 The Government set a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 5.1% target and to
create 28 000 new jobs per year.
 Government provided 60% and foreign donors 40% of the funds.
  Foreign donors wanted Government to reduce its control on parastatals,
subsidies on food and services for the poor, introduce school fees and
medical fees and to abandon socialism.
 18 200 new jobs were created annually but the number of job seekers rose
from 30 000 in 1980 to 200 000 by 1990.
 By 1991, 900 000 people about 27% of the labour force were unemployed.
 By 1990 Zimbabwe had an external debt of about $3 000 million.

The Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP): 1990-1995

 Government launched the Second Five-Year Natio Development Plan

(1991-1995).
 Government abandoned socialism in 1990 and adopted a market-driven
economy.
 It introduced ESAP and abandoned socialism.
 ESAP was meant to bring about stability in the balance of payment,
Government budget and books of accounts, and adjust the economy to
enable Government to pay back its loans.
 The colonial economic system was difficult to change because:

- The UDI Government had many state- controlled companies which were
very difficult to turn into workers’ companies.

- The gap between the rich and the poor was very big and could not be closed in
a short time.

- About 50% and 25% of manufacturing companies were in Harare and

Bulawayo, respectively. Only Gweru and Kwekwe had ferro-chrome and steel
industries.

- 50% of Zimbabwe’s land was owned by 600 white farmers and 50% by 7 000
black farmers.

- The whites owned 15.6 million hectares of rich land and the blacks owned
16.2 million hectares of poor land.
- The economy depended on multinational corporations like Anglo-
American, Lonrho (London-Rhodesia) and Union Carbide.

Industrial performance in the ESAP years (1990-2002)

 Zimbabwe was the second highest industrialised country in Southern Africa

at independence after South Africa.
 The whites withdrew from industry during the years of socialism.
 Industrial decline was worsened by drought and ESAP.
 Contribution of the manufacturing sector to GDP:

- Was 25%: down to 18.8% in 1995: down to 9.5% in 2000 and 5% in 2001.

- Industries closed down and thousands of workers lost their jobs.

- By 1998 production of gold, nickel, chrome and iron decreased by 50%.

 Contribution of the agricultural sector to GDP:

- 70% of workers were in the agriculture sector.

- Agriculture declined by 7.5% between 1996 and 2000.

- By 1999 only 336 400 workers remained and about a million lost their jobs.

- Agriculture provided 60% of industrial raw materials.

- Exports declined by 14% between 2000 and 2001.

Contribution of Tourism to GDP:

- Was 7% of GDP with 2.1 million tourists visiting the country in 1999.

- 1.8 million tourists visited Zimbabwe in 2001

– a decline of 33%.

- 67 of the 1 379 tourist facilities registered with the Zimbabwe Tourism

Authority (ZTA) closed down between 2000 and 2001.
- 12% of the workers lost their jobs in 2000.

- Investment declined by 85% between 1999 and 2000.

- Ten airlines withdrew from Zimbabwe due to:

(i) Lack of business;

(ii) Shortage of foreign currency

; (iii) Shortage of fuel.

 Hotel capacity fell from 48% in 1999 to 25% in 2001.

 Some Zimbabwean leaders and captains of industry were placed on
individual sanctions called ‘smart sanctions’ by the Commonwealth,
European Union and the USA.
 The effects of the sanctions were negative as factories closed down.The
policy of indigenisation enabled Zimbabweans to venture into
manufacturing.
 In 2000 agricultural exports accounted for 42% of total export earnings.
Tobacco accounted for 26% of the 42%.

Government relaxation of control over domestic economy

 Removed price controls on basic commodities like bread, sugar and cooking
oil.
 Removed labour regulations like laws on minimum wages, working hours
and laws governing how, where and when to invest allowing multi-national
companies to invest anywhere.
 Government removed trade restrictions on exports and imports and
enabled the multi-national companies to compete with local industries.
 All imports were to come through the Open General Import licence (OGIL)
from 1995.
 Commercial farmers and industries then exported goods and retained part
of their foreign currency earnings.
 The Government reduced budget deficit by:
- Removing subsidies from parastatals. This made services and products
from ZESA, CSC, ZUPCO, railway transport, etc. more expensive.

- Reducing the size of the civil service.

- Improving debt collection methods and paying back its debts.

 Government revised its fiscal and monetary policies, to reduce the

rate of inflation through restricting money in circulation and devaluation
of the currency. For example, the dollar was devalued by 40% in 1991.
 The results of the five years of ESAP were:

- Massive unemployment.

- Lower wages for the workers.

- High inflation and decline in education and health services.

Zimbabwe Programme for Economic and Social Transformation (ZIMPREST)

 ZIMPREST was Launched in 1999 to replace ESAP.

 The objectives of ZIMPREST were the same as those of ESAP.
 ZIMPREST was introduced within the context of Vision 2020 and the
Millennium Economic Recovery Programme (MERP).
 The goals of MERP were to:

- restore stability in the nation’s economy;

- have an economy with low interest rates;

- create an economic environment that attracts investment;

- create stable real income;

- reduce poverty;

- improve the management of the performance of the budget;

- tackle budget deficit.

 However, the economy continued to decline from 1999 to 2003 due to:

- inflation that remained high;

- government fiscal deficit rising from 11.5 % in 1999 to about 23% in 2000;

- the macro-economic instability from 1997 to 2003 which increased the fiscal
deficit and put pressure on prices, interest rates and exchange rates;

- the land acquisition and resettlement programme which also brought

instability;

- the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) declining from 3.7% in 1997 to 2.5 in 1998;
to 0.2% in 1999; to -5.1% in 2000; and to -8.9% in 2001;

- Inflation rising from 19% in 1997 to 120% in 2002 to 198.5% in 2003;

- high inflation leading to an increase in interest repayment for government

debt, reduced private sector borrowing for investment and buying power of
consumers;

- trade which was now being done on the parallel/black market;

- basic commodities like sugar, cooking oil, salt, margarine and fuel being in
short supply and their prices went up. For example, the price of bread went up by
about 1 000%;

- lines of credit being withdrawn;

- government no longer able to meet its foreign financial obligations. By 2000

Zimbabwe’s foreign debt stood at $488 million.

Land redistribution

Reasons for land redistribution

 There was unequal distribution of land between blacks and whites.
 Zimbabwe’s total surface area is 39 million hectares.
 33 million hectares were reserved for agriculture.
 6.6 million hectares were reserved for national parks, forests and urban
development.
 By 1980, 6 000 white farmers owned 45% of all agricultural land in agro-
ecological regions 1, 2 and 3.
 Communal areas with 700 000 families held 50% of the agricultural land
and 8 500 black small scale farmers held 5% of the commercial agricultural
land.
 75% of land owned by the blacks was in regions 4 and 5 with poor soils,
low rainfall and high temperatures.
 The whites occupied the highveld where all the major cities, towns and
roads were built.
 The white areas and mines were well serviced and connected to the sea
through Beira and Durban with roads, railway lines, telephone lines, fuel
pipes, and electricity.
 The new government inherited two million hectares (about 15%) of the
total white land and farms of 500 to 5 000 hectares each.
 The land was sold or leased to black commercial farmers or used for co-
operative agricultural schemes like Cold Comfort Agricultural Schemes
(near Harare); Zimbabwe Foundation for Education with
Production (ZIMFEP) projects like Rusununguko (in Mashonaland
East), Chindunduma in Mashonaland Central and Mavhudzi in
Manicaland, and Agricultural Research and Development Authority (ARDA)
schemes.
 The willing-seller-willing-buyer scheme
 Whites sold very little land.
 In Phase 1, The Land Acquisition Act was passed in 1992.
 By 1992 government had acquired only 3 498 444 hectares of land and
resettled 71 000 families.
 The target was to resettle 162 000 families between 1980 and 1998.
 Phase 1 failed to reach its target because:
- The whites sold very little land.

- Land was sold in small parcels and scattered all over the veld making planning
and resettlement difficult and expensive.

- Government did not have the money to buy the farms.

- USA and Britain did not provide the money as they had promised at the
Lancaster House Conference.

- Government amended the constitution and acquired land compulsorily and

this was resisted by some farm owners.

The 1992 Land Acquisition Act

 Government listed 841 commercial farms for compulsory acquisition.

 White farmers challenged this in court.
 The1998 Donor Conference on Land Reform and
 Resettlement with western donors resulted in Phase 2 of the Land Reform.

The Donor Conference on Land Reform

 The international community agreed to support the Land Reform

Programme.
 White farmers and government agreed on land resettlement.
 Government would compensate the farmers with assistance from western
donors.

Reasons for Phase 2 failing to achieve its target

 White farmers did not give government the two million hectares needed.
 Western donors released the money slowly.
 Government was slow in setting up a technical team needed for the
resettlement programme.
The ‘Fast Track’ Resettlement Scheme

 It resulted from the failure of Phase 2.

 The communal lands were now overcrowded.
 The ‘Fast Track’ Resettlement Scheme began in February 2000.
 The objectives of the ‘Fast Track’ Resettlement Scheme:

- To identify five million hectares for compulsory acquisition.

- To plan and demarcate areas for resettlement.

- To resettle people on acquired farms.

- To provide basic infrastructure such as boreholes, dip tanks, roads and

farm-support services like tillage and crop packs.

 In March 2000 the constitution was amended to enable government to

acquire land.
 The Commercial Farmers’Union (CFU) challenged the amendment.
 Peasants and war veterans invaded commercial farms and looted them.
 Violence erupted, some farmers and workers lost their lives and property.
 At a Commonwealth Foreign Ministers Conference on Zimbabwe in Abuja,
Nigeria, on 7 September 2001, Foreign Ministers agreed on land reform.
 The Ministers asked for respect for human rights, rule of law, transparency,
freedom of expression and stopping of violence and intimidation.

Social developments

(a) Education

 Colonial education was academic, e.g. teaching to read and write (literacy).
 It gave blacks skills just necessary for black capitalist exploitation.
 It created employees but not job creators or entrepreneurs.
 There were many bottlenecks in education.
 Many black students did not proceed to secondary education.
  A few studied arts subjects at secondary and university levels.
 The colonial government spent 70 times more money on white students
than on black students.
 About 2% of black students trained to be teachers and nurses.
 Free primary education, adult literacy programmes, education for all
programmes, vocational and technical education were introduced at
independence.

Primary and secondary education programmes introduced at independence

 Hot sitting or double session was introduced.

 Turning boarding schools into day schools and their hostels into
classrooms.
 Upper Tops – secondary schools accommodated at primary schools.
 Open air classrooms – classes held under trees, in church buildings, halls,
offices and open ground.
 Temporary teachers – ‘O’ Level school leavers, some without full ‘O’ Level
certificates were employed as teachers.
 School expansion between 1980 and 1989:

- 1 300 primary schools were built bringing the total number to 4 500.

- Number of secondary schools rose from 125 to 1 500.

- Number of primary school pupils rose from 1.2million to 2.2 million. 50% of
these were girls.

- In tertiary education enrolment rose from 75 000 to 700 000.

Challenges experienced during this period

 Shortage of trained teachers, text books, classrooms, furniture,

offices, science equipment and laboratories.
  Very few ‘A’ Level schools. Only 7% of ‘O’ Level students went on to ‘A’
Level.

Tertiary education

 Many teachers’and technical training colleges were built, e.g. Zimbabwe

Integrated Teacher Education College (ZINTEC) in Harare, Mutare and
Gwanda.
 At ZINTEC, trainees received training while teaching in schools.
 ZINTEC was meant to be a temporary programme.
 Government supported it, and it was adopted by other countries and
became a permanent programme.
 Zimbabwean education was rated the highest in the world in 1990.
 Government spent 9.1% of GDP on education against a world average of
5.1%.

Educational developments: 1990-2002

 Primary school enrolments dropped between 1992 and 1994 due to severe
drought and negative effects of ESAP.
 Universal primary education was achieved by 2000 with a 92.5%.
 When ZUPCO, which ferried pupils to school, collapsed due to ESAP,
parents sent their children to rural areas.
 ZUPCO was replaced by a chaotic, individual and private commuter mini-
bus system.
 Group ‘A’ schools increased fees making it impossible for poor
parents to pay tuition fees and exam fees.
 Parents withdrew their children from school due to the resettlement
exercise, drought, increasing poverty and unemployment.
 Enrolment in tertiary education colleges and universities remained
high.
 Universities increased from one in 1980 to eight in 2001.
 In 2000 there were 66 621 students in tertiary colleges.
(b) Health

 Prior to independence:

- The best hospitals were for whites only.

- Hospitals were at mission stations and towns only.

- In rural areas there were clinics manned by nurses only.

‘Health for All by the year 2000’ Policy

 Was meant to reverse the imbalance above by:

- Increasing the number of hospitals, clinics and health centres; doctors,

nurses and health workers.

- Training medical and para-medical staff.

- Educating people on nutrition, primary health, preventable diseases and

immunisation.

- Abolishing medical fees for the unemployed and lowly paid workers.

Challenges in the health sector

 Shortage of health personnel.

 No temporary health workers like in education (temporary teachers).
 Expatriate doctors were engaged from Cuba but the doctors spoke Spanish
resulting in communication problems.
 Serious shortages of drugs and medical equipment in clinics and hospitals.
 Qualified doctors and nurses left the country (brain drain).
 Zimbabwe needed 1 400 more nurses and 2 500 more doctors.
 ESAP forced government to reduce its spending on health and so worsened
the situation.
  The Ministry of Health delayed in acknowledging and publicising the
prevalence of HIV/AIDS. By 2000, 70% of hospital beds were occupied by
HIV/ AIDS patients.
 Government was forced to reintroduce hospital fees.
 Hospital fees were lower in rural areas resulting in 37% of urban women
going to rural areas for primary health care and resorting to traditional
healers for medical care.
 Maternal mortality rate doubled between 1988 and 1995.

HIV/AIDS

 The first reported HIV case was in 1984.

 30% of the population was affected by 2000.
 The most affected were in the 20 to 39 year age group.
 Life expectancy dropped from 62 years in 1990 to 57.2 years in 2000.
 People were dying at the rate of 2 386 per week.
 It spread quickly due to poverty and unemployment.
 Population growth dropped from 2.2 % in 1992 to 0 % in 2001.
 Government and about 150 NGOs educated people on HIV/AIDS.
 Inter-ministerial committees on HIV/AIDS were set up to map out strategies
to:

- Mobilise resources to support HIV/AIDS programmes.

- Train teachers to teach pupils life skills.

- Support 543 000 orphans with the figure expected to reach 910 000 by
2005.

- Treat sexually-transmitted infections (STIs/ STDs). In 2000, 1.5 million

infections were treated.

- Increase voluntary counselling and testing (VCT) for HIV.

- Prevent mother-to-child transmission.

(c) Gender and Women’s Rights

 Gender differences existed among the Shona and Ndebele people,

traditional religions, churches and homes.
 In patriarchal families sons were preferred over daughters. This is still
common in some sections of society.
 There was clear division of labour based on gender.
 Women are viewed as housewives and mothers.
 Their role was productive and community management (home and
village) roles.
 They did most of the work at home and were in the low-wage jobs.
 They were poorly represented in decision-making and higher management
positions in both public and private sectors.
 The number of women in the technical and professional fields
decreased from 67% in 1990 to 40 % in 1997.
 In 1999, 19.7 % of ministers were women and in 2000 there were 15 female
MPs out of 150, which is 10%.
 Zimbabwe signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination (CEDAW); Southern African Development Community
(SADC) Gender and Development Declaration and the Beijing Declaration.

Legislations passed in parliament to empower women

 Equal Pay Regulations of 1990: Men and women got same pay for the same
job.
 Minimum Wages Act of 1982: Stipulated minimum pay for unskilled labour.
 The Legal Age of Majority Act of 1982: Anyone becomes an adult and needs
no guardian from the age of 18.
 The Matrimonial Causes Act of 1985: Allows for equitable sharing of
property between spouses in a registered marriage on divorce.
 The Labour Relations Act has sections that aim to eliminate discrimination
at the work place on the basis of gender.
 However, the Customary Laws do not protect women.
(d) Black empowerment in rural and urban areas: 1980-1990

 The socialist policy empowered people educationally and improved

access to health.
 Government gave people free land, farm equipment and inputs.
 Empowerment in the industrial sector lagged behind because the sector
remained in white control as most blacks had no resources, expertise, skills
and knowledge to manage companies.
 The Urban Councils Act of 1973 was amended to include the African
townships ending separate development.
 The rent-paying lodgers could now vote in council elections.
 Blacks could now buy houses in former white suburbs, now called low
Indigenous companies could now win tenders to construct public density
areas.
 Former African townships were renamed high density areas.
 buildings, maintain properties and improve sanitation.
 Large supermarkets, software and hardware shops were built in the high
density areas.
 Restrictions on shopping hours, banking and racial laws were removed.
 Most shops in high density areas were owned by blacks.
 Blacks bought shares in big industries, set up their own
companies,qbanks and took control of government banks like the Post
Office Savings Bank (now The People’s own Savings Bank), Zimbabwe
Development Bank and the Zimbabwe Banking Corporation.

Problems faced by empowerment programmes in rural areas

 There were three communities that had to be dismantled first – the

white commercial areas, the African Purchase Areas and African Reserves.
 The white areas were protected by the Lancaster House Agreement.
  The African Purchase Areas became Rural Councils which did not benefit
from government grants.
 The African reserves were renamed communal lands in 1984 and ran
parallel to the system of village heads, headman, sub-chiefs and chiefs.
 Political administrative organs like Village Development Committees
(VIDCO), Ward Development Committees (WADCO), District
Development Committees (DDC) and Provincial Development Committees
(PDC) were created.
 The DCCs were abolished in 2012.
 Eight rural provinces were created and run by a Provincial Council,
Provincial Administrator and a Provincial Governor who was a Resident
Minister.
 Bulawayo and Harare were urban provinces run by executive mayors (from
2004 Governors were appointed too).
 There were 6 000 VIDCOs, 57 rural districts (now 73) and 10 provinces.
 A provincial capital was chosen for each province and growth points were
created to encourage development.
 Growth points were to be commercial centres.

Zimbabwe’s foreign policy

 A member of the Southern Africa Development Committee (SADC).

 Had strong cooperation with SADC member states in the fight against
apartheid.
 Gave military support to the Mozambique government during the civil
war with RENAMO.
 Guarded the Beira corridor and oil pipeline.
 Resumed diplomatic relations with South Africa after the 1994 democratic
elections.
 Sent troops to the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) to support Joseph
Kabila’s government in the 1998 civil war.
 Zimbabwe left the Commonwealth due to sour relations with Britain and
Western countries over the land reform programme.
 After the souring of relations with Western countries, Zimbabwe
developed a “Look East” policy – the establishment of economic ties with
East Asian countries, in particular China.
 A member of the United Nations (UN).
 Has contributed troops to UN Peacekeeping missions, e.g. East Timor
and Somalia.
 A member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
 A member of the African Union (AU).
16. History - World War 1: 1914-1918
 World War I or the First World War, often abbreviated as WWI or WW1,
was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11
November 1918.

World War 1: 1914-1918

Causes of World War 1

A summary of the causes

 Naval race.
 Arms race.
 Nationalism.
 Alliance system.
 Colonial rivalry/imperialism.
 Franco-German hostility.
 Sarajevo assassination – the immediate cause of the war.

Rise of German imperialism

 Germany began to look for colonies after its unification in 1871.

 The search for colonies led to conflict with France over Morocco: First
Moroccan Crisis (1905) and Second Moroccan Crisis (1911).

The system of alliances

  Was started by Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany.
 He formed the Dreikaiserbund (the League of Three Emperors) in 1872.
 Members of the Dreikaiserbund were Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Russia.
 Its aim was defence against France.
 The Dual Alliance was signed between Germany and Austria- Hungary in
1879.
 The Triple Alliance was signed between Germany, Austria- Hungary and
Italy in 1882.
 The Reinsurance Treaty was signed between Germany and Russia in
1887.
 Britain abandoned her policy of splendid isolation to form alliances after
German challenged Britain on the seas from 1898.
 Britain and Japan signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902.
 Britain and France signed the Entente Cordiale (a friendship treaty)in 1904.
 Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907.
 Britain, Russia and France signed the Triple Entente in 1907.
 By 1914, the Triple Entente (France, Russia and Britain) and the Tripple
Alliance (Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary) were the two blocs of
alliances.
 An alliance was an agreement to assist each other when attacked.
 As such, if two powers from the two alliances got into conflict, nearly all
European powers would be at war.

Familiarise yourself with the terms of each alliance.

The naval and military races

 Between 1897 and 1914 Germany challenged Britain in building navies

(battleships) and dreadnoughts. This was a sign of war preparations.
 Germany, Russia and France competed in raising the biggest armies in
Europe.

Balkan nationalism
  Austria-Hungary, Russia and Turkey fought over the control of the Slav
States of Bosnia, Serbia, Albania, Herzegovina and Montenegro.
 Turkey had become weak resulting in Balkan States becoming independent
from its rule.
 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 from Turkey
angering Serbia which had the biggest number of Slavs. This led to the
Bosnian Crisis.
 Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria and Greece formed the Balkan League in 1909 to
regain lost territory.
 In 1912 there was conflict between Balkan nationalists and foreign
imperialists (Turkey) leading to the First Balkan War.
 Serbia emerged as the strongest power of the Balkan States. Turkey lost
almost all her territories in Europe.
 The Second Balkan War was fought in 1913 among the Balkan States that
resented Serbian control over their territories.
 Bulgaria was defeated in this war.
 These Balkan wars divided the European powers as Serbia’s wishes were
bitterly opposed by Austria- Hungary.
 Russia backed Serbia in order to weaken Austria- Hungary’s influence in the
region.
 The hostility between Serbia and Austria-Hungary led to the Sarajevo
Incident/ Assassination.
 You should be able to describe the Bosnian Crisis, First Balkan War, Second
Balkan War and The Sarajevo Assassination/Incident.

Franco-German hostility

 Was based on the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871. The

French remained aggrieved. Germany consolidated its occupation of
Alsace- Lorraine.
 When conflict arose between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Germany and
France were quick to settle their scores of 1871 in 1914.
The Sarajevo assassination of 28 June 1914

 It was the immediate cause of the First World War.

 Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austrian throne, together with his wife
Sofia, was shot dead by Gavril Princip in Bosnia.
 Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of the murder.
 Serbia rejected Austrian demands to enter Serbia for investigations.
 Then Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
 In accordance with their alliances, Russia supported Serbia and Germany
supported Austria-Hungary.
 Germany declared war on Russia, France and Belgium. Britain came in to
defend the Belgians.
 By 1914, nearly all the European states were at war; especially the Great
powers of Britain, France and Germany.
 Italy joined the War in 1915, while the USA joined in 1917.

Course of the First World War

 The two main war fronts were the Western Front and the Eastern Front.

On the Western Front: Germany fought Britain, France and later the USA.

The Eastern Front: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey fought against Russia
and Italy.

 So Germany fought on two fronts forcing it to split its troops into two. The
German Schlieffen Plan to fight on two fronts failed.
 War was fought in the air, in the seas and on the ground.
 The USA entered the war in1917 on the Allied side against the
Central/Continental powers.
 Germany surrendered on 11 November 1918.
 The Americans brought in fresh troops, food, advanced weapons,
medicines and loans to the Allied Powers against the weak Germans.
 You should be able to describe battles fought on the Western Front,
Eastern Front, and at sea.
Results of the War

(a) Political

 Empires collapsed during the war, e.g. Austria- Hungary, Russia and
Turkey.
 World War 1 planted seeds of nationalism in many colonised nations.
 The war led to the change in the balance of power amongst the
imperialists. Britain was replaced by the USA as the world’s strongest
power by 1918.
 The war resulted in the rise of a new political and economic system called
socialism which was born in the USSR (Russia).
 New countries were created; for example Yugoslavia.
 The Central powers were defeated.
 Peace treaties were signed.
 An international organisation, the League of Nations, was formed.

(b) Economic

 During the war, countries borrowed money resulting in huge debts at

the end.
 High unemployment as industries had been destroyed.
 General food crisis.
 High taxation as governments tried to get revenue.
 High inflation.
 War caused heavy destruction of property. France was the most devastated
country.
 War forced rapid advancement in technology, e.g. telephone, motor car,
radio and buses.

(c) Social
  Loss of human life: more than 8 million people (soldiers and civilians) died
and many were displaced and injured.
 Empowerment of women: Before the war, women could neither work nor
vote. After the war, they demanded these rights.
 Epidemics such as influenza broke out.

17. Post-War Peace Treaties and the League of Nations

 After the First World War, peace treaties were signed under the Paris
Peace Settlement. The USA dominated the Paris Peace Settlement. The USA
was behind the formation of the League of Nations.
Wilson’s 14 Points

 No more secret treaties.

 Freedom of navigation on the high seas.
 Free trade between countries.
 Reduction of armaments by all countries.
 To consider the interests of the local people when claims for colonies were
made.
 German troops to evacuate Russian territory.
 German troops to move out of Belgium.
 Alsace-Lorraine to be given back to France.
 Restoration of Italian frontiers along nationality lines.
 The people of Austria-Hungary to be given self- government.
 Restoration of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania; and Serbian access to the
sea.
 Subject peoples of Turkey to rule themselves.
 The creation of an independent Poland with access to the sea.
 An international organisation to be set up to protect the independence of
all states.

The Paris Peace Conference: January 1919

 At the Conference, the dominant powers were France, Britain, Italy and
the USA.
 The dominant leaders were Woodrow Wilson (USA), Georges
Clemenceau (France), Lloyd George (Britain) and Vittorio Orlando (Italy).
 The defeated powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria
had no voice.
 France wanted to revenge for the humiliation of 1870 and 1914. She
wanted Germany to be reduced and be the weakest nation in Europe so as
to avoid further attack.
 The USA wanted a generous treatment for Germany.
 The USA had suffered no infrastructural damage.
  The USA wanted to increase its trade in Europe.
 The USA feared that Germany would be too poor, and then turn communist
like Russia.

The peace treaties

A summary of peace treaties signed

 The Versailles Treaty with Germany: 28 June 1919.

 The Treaty of St German with Austria: August 1919.
 The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria: November 1919.
 The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary: June 1920.
 The Treaty of Sevres/Lausanne with Turkey: August 1920.

(a) The Treaty of Versailles: 28 June 1919

 Was signed between the Allies and Germany.

 Punishment imposed on Germany was severe and hurting.
 The Treaty was dictated to Germany. It was not negotiated.
 There were territorial and non-territorial terms.

Non-territorial terms of the Versailles Treaty

 A league of nations was to be formed

 That Germany accepted that she was to blame and was responsible for the
outbreak of the war (the war guilt clause).
 Germany was to pay reparations (compensation for repairing Allied
property and losses) amounting to 6,600 million pounds.
 Germany was to pay the Belgian war debt.
 Germany was to pay Belgium, France and Italy an annual tribute of coal for
ten years.
 France was to mine coal from the Saar Basin for 15 years.
  Germany was to surrender her navy and merchant vessels to the Allied
Powers.
 Germany was allowed a small navy (warships).
 Germany was not allowed to have submarines.
 German army was limited to 100 000 soldiers down from over 4 million.
 German navy was reduced to 15 000 men.
 Germany was to have no tanks or heavy artillery.
 Germany was not allowed to have military aircraft (air force).
 Compulsory military service (conscription) was banned in Germany.
 The German Kaisers were to be tried as war criminals.
 German railway engines and wagons were to be handed over to the Allied
Powers.
 Germany was to surrender a quarter of her fishing fleet.

Territorial terms (losses)

 Alsace-Lorraine to be given back to France.

 The Saar Basin was placed under the League of Nations for 15 years, after
which a referendum would decide its fate.
 Malmedy, Memel and Eupen were given to Belgium.
 Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark.
 The Rhineland was demilitarised.
 Upper Silesia, Posen and West Prussia were given to Poland.
 Danzig became a free city controlled by Poland.
 Former German colonies became mandates under
 The peace terms were harsh and ‘dictated’ to Germany. The German
nationalists complained. Later people outside Germany were convinced
that she was treated harshly.
 Germany resented the ‘war-guilt’ clause.
 The Germans claimed that the transfer of their colonies and turning
some as mandates was inconsistent with Wilson’s point 5.
 The Germans wanted to undo the injustices of the Versailles Treaty and this
threatened peace.
  However, the Germans had had an intention for war because they had a
plan for war: the Schlieffen Plan; started the arms and naval race; started
the alliance system; supported the aggressive Austria- Hungary.
 The Germans should not have expected a generous treatment after they
had dictated a harsh peace to Russia at the Brest-Litovsk Treaty in 1918.
 If Germany had won the war in 1918 she would have imposed a harsh
settlement on the Allies.

(b) The Treaty of St Germain, August 1919

 Signed between Austria and the Allied Powers.

 Austria lost Trieste, Istria, South Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, part of Silesia,
Bukovina, Bessarabia, Galicia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and
Transylvania.
 Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 from 3 million soldiers.
 She had to pay reparations.
 Austrian union with Germany was banned.
 Austria became separated and independent from Hungary.

(c) The Treaty of Neuilly, November 1919

 Signed with Bulgaria.

 Bulgaria was made to pay reparations.
 Her army was reduced to 20 000.
 She lost Western Thrace to Greece and her border areas to Yugoslavia.

The League of Nations.

 The Anschluss (union between Austria and Germany) was forbidden.

Comment on the Versailles Settlement

  The terms greatly humiliated Germany.
 Germany complained about the reparations imposed on her. These were
very heavy and unrealistic.

(d). The Treaty of Trianon, June 1920

 Signed with Hungary.

 Hungary’s army was reduced.
 Her armaments were reduced.
 Hungary lost Slovakia, Ruthenia and Transylvania.
 Hungary became a separate independent state.
 She was made to pay reparations.

(e) The Treaty of Sevres (Lausanne), August 1920

 Signed between Turkey and the victorious powers.

 Turkey lost Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Iraq, Armenia, the Straits,
Smyrna and Eastern Thrace.
 It was revised to become the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923; Italy regained
some of the territories she had lost under the Sevres Treaty.

The Structure of the League

 It had five permanent organs:

(a) The General Assembly

(b) The Council

(c) The Secretariat

(d) The Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

(e) The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

  It set up several special Commissions.
 To get full marks on territorial terms, be able to link a territory lost and its
recipient. The formation of the League of Nations was a clause in all the
treaties.

The League of Nations

 Was a union against war.

 Was formed in 1920
 It was the implementation of the 14th point of Woodrow Wilson – “the
formation of an international organisation”.
 Its headquarters was in Geneva, Switzerland.
 Its major task was to promote and preserve world peace by preventing
wars.
 It was headed by a Secretary General.

The aims of the League of Nation

 To create a brotherhood of nations dedicated to work together for the
good of all mankind.
 To outlaw war and encourage the settlement of disputes through peaceful
negotiations and not on battlefields.
 To reduce armaments.
 To settle disputes by arbitration.
 To guarantee national frontiers.
 If a nation went to war, the other League members would impose sanctions
on the aggressor (cutting off trade links and financial relations).
 The League would ask the other members to supply troops to restrain the
quarrelling countries.
 To stop drug trafficking.
 To stop the selling of girls into prostitution.
 To regulate labour
 To administer mandates.
 To repatriate refugees.
(a) The General Assembly

 Was the central body of the League

 Was the debating chamber where representatives of member nations met
once a year in Geneva, Switzerland.
 Each member had one vote.
 Discussed international issues.
 Voted on the annual budget of the League.
 Discussed and agreed on the admission of new member
 Elected non-permanent Council members.

(b) The Council

 Had four permanent members who were the great powers: Britain, France,
Italy and Japan.
 It initially had four non-permanent members elected every three
years, but by 1936 it had eleven non-permanent members.
 Met three times a year and could be called quickly for emergencies.
 It was an inner committee of major decisions – submitted
recommendations to the Assembly.
 Made the final decision on punitive action.
 Promoted disarmament issues that were overlooked during the Paris Peace
Settlement.

(c) The Secretariat

 Was based in Geneva

 Was drawn from all member states.
 Was headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the Assembly and the
Council.
 It carried out decisions of the Council.
 Did the day to day work of the League.
  Its duties included:

- keeping records;

- preparing reports;

- translating reports into various languages;

- preparing agendas for meetings;

- organising meetings;

- being in charge of the documents and offices of the League.

(d) The Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)

 Was set up at The Hague, the Netherlands in 1921.

 Had fifteen judges whose major task was to settle disputes such as
breaches of treaties, frontier conflicts between countries, etc.
 Member nations were supposed to bring their internationa disputes to
the court, (but only a few did.)
 Dealt only with cases referred to it and it was voluntary.
 Governments did not want judgements givenaga inst them, whether
right or wrong.
 Only twenty-two cases were handled in 22 years.

(e) The International Labour Organisation (ILO)

 Set up in 1919.
 Its major task was to promote the framing and applying of international
rules that governed conditions of labour.
 Was independent of the League but paid from League funds.
 It was established after the realisation that economic problems and social
injustice threatened world peace.
  Four representatives from each nation: two from the government, one
employer and one worker met to discuss the working conditions and wages
of workers to improve them.
 It dealt with issues of child labour, women labour, workers’ rights, etc.
 It only had persuasive powers but was very successful.
 It managed to bring about co-operation between workers and employers in
improving working conditions.
 In 1946, when the League was abolished, the ILO and the CIJ were
incorporated into the United Nations.

The Special Commissions (Committees) of the League

 The Mandates Commission

 The Minorities Commission
 The Disarmament Commission
 The Drugs Commission
 The Labour Commission
 The Military Affairs Commission
 The Slavery Commission
 The Undeveloped Countries Commission
 The Financial Organisation Commission
 The Women and Children Commission
 The Transport and Communication Commission
 The Health Commission
 Refugees Commission
 Drug Trafficking Commission

You should be able to describe the aims and work of these commissions.

International disputes dealt with by the League

 1921, dispute between Sweden and Finland over the Aaland Islands.
  1921, dispute between Albania and Yugoslavia.
 1922, dispute between Peru and Columbia over borders.
 1923, dispute between Poland and Lithuania over Vilna.
 1923, dispute between Italy and Greece over Corfu.
 1925, dispute between Greece and Bulgaria over a border.
 1926, dispute between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia.
 Dispute between Hungary and Czechoslovakia.
 1926, dispute between Turkey and Iraq over Mosul.
 1933, dispute between Bolivia and Paraguay over the Gran Chaco region.
 1931 and 1937, dispute between Japan and China over Manchuria.
 1935, dispute between Italy and Ethiopia.

You should be able to describe these disputes in detail and establish how the
League resolved them.

Successes of the League

 Set up a health service which did valuable work during the epidemics in the
post-war years.
 Provided famine relief.
 Helped with the resettlement of prisoners of war and refugees, e.g. for
white Russians, Greeks and Turks.
 Established international control over opium and other dangerous drugs.
 Worked to abolish all forms of slavery and forced labour.
 Managed to settle disputes between small states.

Weaknesses of the League

 The USA brought the idea of the league, but did not join it.
 At no given time did all the major powers of the League belong to it
together. Russia joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939. Germany joined
 in 1926 and left in 1933. Japan left in 1933, while Italy left in 1936, after
criticism over invasions of China and Ethiopa, respectively.
 Britain and France constantly quarrelled and were divided on major issues.
 Constitutional defects: Many nations were against the constitution which
gave one vote each to every state, big or small. It was very difficult to get a
unanimous vote.
 The League was dominated by Britain and France, making other states look
like second class members.
 The League had no police and army. It relied on the goodwill of its
members. Collective security did not work. So the League had no coercive
powers to make members comply.
 The League had no funds. It depended on voluntary contributions which
were also not forthcoming.
 It was associated with the Versailles Treaty, so each time the treaty was
condemned, the League was also condemned.
 The League failed to stop the outbreak of World

War II and was dissolved in 1946.

 The weaknesses of the League were both constitutional and non-

constitutional.

18. The Emergence of Dictatorships in Italy and

Germany: 1918-1939
 A dictatorship is defined as an autocratic form of government in which the
Government is ruled by an individual, a dictator. In this government the
power rests entirely on one person or group of people. A dictator is not
restricted by law, constitution or other social and political factors within the
state.
The Emergence of Dictatorships in Italy and Germany: 1918-1939

What is dictatorship?

 Dictators are rulers with complete power over their states.

 A dictatorship is a system of government where one person or one party
creates a totalitarian state controlling most aspects of people’s lives.
 Dictators do not allow opposition parties.
 They demand extreme forms of nationalism, such as forcing members to
wear uniforms.
 Dictators do not tolerate criticism, and they spy on both friends and
enemies.
 Dictators depend on the army and the party organs to enforce their ideas.
 Dictatorships are often very violent.

Reasons for the rise of dictators in Europe between 1919 and 1939

 Italy and Germany dictatorships arose out of opposition to the terms of

the 1919-1920 Peace Settlement, especially the Versailles Treaty – loss of
territories.
 The democracies created after the First World War were unable to form
stable governments. Coalitions formed could not last long, e.g. King Victor
Emmanuel of Italy was weak and failed to control various political groups
which tried to run the country.
 In Germany, after the Kaiser there were numerous parties that could not
make effective decisions.
 People feared the rise of communism after World War 1.
 Democracies allowed parties to have private armies and youth
movements who spread party propaganda.
 Dictators promised people stable governments and the removal of
communism.
 Dictators promised an end to violence and the revival of big, strong
armies which people wanted.
  The armies were not happy and were sympathetic to nationalistic, often
militant parties.

Fascism in Italy, 1918–1939

Reasons for the rise of Fascists to power in Italy

(a) Social and Economic

 Poverty: Italy was very poor.

 Unemployment was high.
 Strikes and demonstrations.
 Hunger and starvation (food shortages)
 War debts.
 High inflation.
 Crime.
 Low wages.

(b) Political

 Disappointment with the Peace Settlement: Italy was not given the
promised territories of Trentino, Trieste, Istria, and South Tyrol Dalmatia.
 Growing contempt of the parliament system.
 Mussolini and the Fascist Party offered attractive promises through
propaganda.
 Fear of communism.
 Use of violence, force, terror and intimidation.
 Too many political parties in Italy.
 A weak democracy/government.
 Mussolini was an orator (public speaker).
 Political instability.
 Brigandage.
  Banditry.
 Political parties in Italy by 1922: Communists (Red Guards), Socialists,
Nationalists (Blue Shirts), Reformists, Fascists (Black Shirts),
Liberal Democrats(Radicals), Christian Democrats (Popolari), Liberals (Grey
Shirts), The People’s Party.

Mussolini’s domestic policy

(a) Political policies

 Mussolini established Fascist dictatorship between 1923 and 1930.

 1923, he passed the Acerbo Law in parliament.
 1926, Mussolini (lL Duce) passed a law enabling him to govern by decree.
 All opposition parties were suppressed.
 He exiled or murdered opponents, e.g. Giacomo Matteotti and Giovanni
Amendola.
 Parliament met, but all crucial decisions were made by the fascist Grand
Council led by Mussolini.
 Mussolini was worshipped as a hero.
 Local governments run by elected mayors and town councils were
abolished.
 Fascists believed in extreme nationalism and totalitarianism.
 Propaganda was spread through radios, newspapers, schools and at party
meetings.
 Slogans were used, e.g. “Mussolini is always right”.
 Mussolini killed Fascist Party opponents.
 Signed the Lateran Treaty (1929) with the Catholic Pope – recognised the
Vatican City as a sovereign state.

(b) Social policies

 Women were proclaimed inferior to men.

 The Battle for Wheat improved food supplies in Italy.
  Established the corporate state to promote cooperation between
employers and workers.
 Strikes, demonstrations and lock-outs were forbidden.
 Trade unions were banned and the Fascists Union regulated wages,
conditions and hours of work.
 As compensation for lost freedom, workers got benefits as free Sundays
and holidays with pay.
 Propaganda was also used in the economic sector.
 Mussolini created military names for projects, e.g. ‘Battle for Wheat’,
‘Battle for Grain’, ‘Battle of Births’.
 Bachelors were taxed to encourage them to marry.

Mussolini’s foreign policy

Mussolini followed a very ambitious external policy. The aim was to make Italy
look like a great power:

 1923, Italy attacked Greece: the Corfu Incident.

 1924, Italy took over Fiume Island from Yugoslavia.
 1925, Italy signed the Locarno Pact with Britain, France, Germany and
Belgium.
 1928, signed the Kellog-Briand Pact (Pact of Paris)
 Signed the Non-Aggression Pact with Russia in1933.
 There was a strict press censorship.
 Radio, films and theatre were controlled.
 Schools and universities were closely supervised.
 Teachers wore uniforms, and new textbooks were re-written to glorify the
Fascist System.
 School children criticised teachers who were not supporters of the Fascist.
 Sports were brought under the strict control of Fascism.
 1934, Mussolini sent forces against German seizure of Austria (The
Brenner Pass Commission Incident).
  1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia to avenge the defeat of Italy at Adow in
1896.
 1936, Italy was involved in the Spanish Civil War to support General
Franco.
 1936, Italy withdrew from the League of Nations.
 1936, Italy signed the Rome-Berlin Axis, an aggressive treaty, with
Germany under Hitler.
 1936, Mussolini attended the Stressa Conference with Britain and France.

(c) Economic Policies

 Before 1935, Mussolini introduced public works later withdrew.

 1933, attended the disarmament conference but later withdrew
programmes to reduce unemployment: construction of roads, railways,
bridges, flats, stadiums, schools and new towns.
 Electrified main railways.
 Built ancient buildings to encourage tourism.
 Improved industries, e.g. by 1930 iron and steel production doubled.
 He reclaimed land by draining marshes.
 Started irrigation schemes and afforestation programmes.
 1937, Italy, Germany and Japan signed the Rome- Berlin-Tokyo Pact (the
Anti-Comintern Pact).
 1939, Italy annexed Albania.
 1939, Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel, a full alliance with Germany.
 1940, Italy invaded France, already defeated by Germany.
 1943, Italy was defeated and forced out of the Second World War.
 Signed trade agreements with Austria and Hungry.

Nazism in Germany 1918-1939

 Dictators rose from the ranks of weak democracies that had been created
at the Paris Peace Conference or came out of collapsing monarchs.
  Countries were keen to get strong governments which would guide them to
rebuild their economies.
 Initially, dictators were popular but lost popularity when they start abusing
people.
 Political Parties in Germany: Social Democrats, Conservatives (nationalists),
Catholic Centre Party, Bavarian People’s Party, National Socialist Party
(Nazi).

Reasons for the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany

(a) Social and Economic

 From 1922 there was high inflation which worsened in 1924.

 Wages failed to keep pace with inflation and workers suffered greatly.
 From 1929, there was the Great Depression.
 Banks and factories closed down.
 Unemployment rose sharply.
 Hitler and the Nazi offered attractive policies in face of the economic crisis.
 Promised to get rid of the Communists, the Jews and overthrow the
Versailles Settlement and unite all Germans.
 As the economic crisis worsened, the Nazi grew more popular. This crisis
created Hitler, the dictator.

(b) Political

 The collapse of the Weimar Republic (democratic government) which failed

to control violence.
 Because government could not keep law and order, and police were
powerless, people began to favour a return to some form of authoritarian
system of government.
  Germans did not appreciate democracy as a system of government. It was
foreign democracy.
 Most Germans felt the Weimar politicians had “stabbed them in the
back” by rushing to sign the treaty of Versailles. Hence the Weimar
Republic collapsed.
 The existence of too many political parties.
 The scheming tactics of Von Papen.
 Hitler created a Nazi private army (the SA-Storm Troopers.)
 He had extraordinary political ability and a gift of public speaking.
 He acted like a saviour for the Germans.
 Hitler eliminated opponents, created laws to give him total power and
prepared for an election.

Hitler’s steps to power

 1933, he prepared a military wing of the Nazi Party, the SS and the SA
(Storm Troopers).
 1933, before elections, the Reichstag building (Germany Parliament
building) was burnt down.
 The Nazi accused the Communists of having set the fire. The innocent
communists were arrested. The Nazi had set the fire to the Reichstag
building.
 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor by Hindenburg.
 1933, Hitler passed the Enabling Law, giving himself power to make laws
without the Reichstag’s approval.
 1933, he appointed Nazi leaders to top posts in government, e.g. Herman
Goering as head of the Gestapo (secret police) and Joseph Goebbels as
Minister of Propaganda.
 1933, he banned trade unions and other political parties.
 1933, he legalised one-party state through a law banning the formation of
new parties.
 1934, President Hindenberg died and Hitler combined the offices of
Chancellor and President as Furhrer.
Hitler’s domestic policy

(a) Political policies

 Hitler turned Germany into a dictatorship by use of force.

 Hitler used the secret police, Gestapo, to control many aspects of people’s
lives.
 Hitler’s government could not be opposed or criticised for fear of
persecution.
 In 1933 Germany became a one-party state.
 All other political parties were banned except his National Socialist German
Workers’ Party (NAZI)
 All elections were banned.
 Communism was totally banned.
 Hitler dominated all parliamentary affairs.
 Conscription was re-introduced in 1935 through the re-armament
programme:

- He started to re-arm Germany in 1934.

- He enlarged the army.

- Built the navy and air-force.

 Hitler organised mass rallies where he addressed millions of Germans.

(b) Social policies

 Jews were persecuted (anti-Semitism) and excluded from civil service.

 Marriage between Germans and Jews was prohibited.
 Education was closely monitored and children were indoctrinated with
Nazi propaganda.
 School textbooks were re-written to suit Nazi ideas.
  Hitler formed youth movements: Hitler Youth Movement for boys and
League of German Maidens for girls.
 Communication such as radio, television, newspapers, magazines,
books, theatre, films, music and art were controlled and supervised by the
Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels.
 Religion was put under state control. Signed the Concordat with the
Catholic Pope.

(c) Economic policies

 Industrialists were told what to produce and farmers, what to grow.

 Food prices and rents were controlled.
 Foreign exchange rates were manipulated to control inflation.
 Hitler introduced public works: land drainage, road construction, slum
clearing, to reduce unemployment.
 Workers were given subsidised holidays, cheap theatre, paid holidays
and insurance.
 Between 1933 and 1935, Hitler reduced unemployment greatly from
about six million to about two million and by 1939 had totally wiped out
unemployment.

Hitler’s foreign policy

(a) Aims

 To restore Germany to a great power status.

 Destroying the Versailles Treaty’s war-guilt clause, arms limitations and
reparations.
 Building a strong army.
 Recovering lost territories like the Saar and Polish Corridor.
 Annexation of Austria, Poland and Czechoslovakia to bring all Germans into
his empire.
(b) Policies

 1933, Hitler withdrew Germany from the world Disarmament Conference.

 1933, withdrew from the League of Nations.
 1934, he signed the Non-aggression Agreement with Poland.
 1934, Hitler announced rearmament.
 1935, he signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement with Britain and
so strengthened his army.
 1935, he re-militarised the Rhineland against the Versailles Treaty. Britain
did not object.
 1936, he supported General Franco in the Spanish Civil War, with the
support of Mussolini of Italy.
 1936, he signed the Rome-Berlin Axis (agreement)with M ussolini of Italy.
1936, he signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan and Italy joined it in
1937. 1937, he signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis with Italy and Japan.
1938, he annexed Austria, against the Versailles Treaty. 1938, he attended
the Munich Conference.
 Trade unions were abolished and their leaders were arrested.
 Trade unions were replaced by the German Labour Forum which controlled
all workers.
 Hitler controlled the country’s economy to reduce unemployment and
made Germany self-sufficient through increasing exports and reducing
imports.
 1938, he occupied the Sudetenland.
 1938, he attacked the rest of Czechoslovakia.
 1939, he signed the Pact of Steel with Italy.
 1939, he signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Russia and agreed to partition
Poland together.
 On 1 September1939, he invaded Poland. Britain and France came in to
support Poland and the Second World War broke out.
Boom, Depression and Recovery in the USA: 1918-1939
 Boom is a rapid increase in economic growth; or a period when demand for
goods is high, factories operate at full capacity, wages are high and
unemployment is low. Recovery refers to a period when the economy goes
 back to normal. New industries begin and the economy begins to
experience normal growth again.
 When Europe was at war, the USA was experiencing an economic boom in
1918.
 The USA supplied Europe with food, loans, and equipment.
 The boom ended in 1929 and the USA experienced the Great Depression.
 A depression/slump is a period of reduced business activity, high
unemployment and poverty; or a period when demand drops, production
in factories goes down, output is reduced, wages fall and unemployment
rises.
 During the depression there was loss of money; industrial collapse; a fall in
the share prices; wages fell; bank closures; unemployment increased as
bankruptcy rose in firms; insurance benefits and pensions vanished.
 This economic collapse also spread to Europe and the whole world.

The economic boom in the USA

Causes of the boom

 Between 1914 and 1918, American industries expanded to supply

European powers with war needs such as food.
 The USA benefited from huge loans and interests on money borrowed by
the European powers during the War.
 Influence of partnership/collaboration between business and the
Federal Government reduced taxes on the rich to increase wealth.
 Professional factory management and faster production methods
encouraged a growth in the USA economy.
 Banks made big profits by lending people money to buy expensive items on
credit (hire purchase system).
 The opening of the interior by the trans-continental railways improved the
economy and enabled cheap transportation of goods.
 Ship-building was improved which meant cheap transport charges.
 American scientific inventions, e.g. the automobile.
  The tariff system made foreign goods expensive encouragingAmericans to
buy local goods resulting in a growth in the local economy.

Features of the boom

 High economic output (high factory production).

 Employment and high wages.
 More telephones.
 Advanced transport.
 More radios (music from every house).
 Advanced construction, buildings, new industries and vast cities being built.
 Adequate food.

Causes of the Great Depression in the USA

 Wall Street Crash: In September 1929, speculation and gambling brought

about the crash at Wall Street in New York.
 Individuals and companies made quick profits by selling shares for more
than initially paid for.
 Over-reliance on credit/hire purchase.
 Overproduction of goods resulting in low prices on farm and industrial
products. The fall in prices reduced profits.
 Big business over-produced and did not pay their workers enough to buy
these products. So as Europe recovered, the American corporations went
into severe depression.
 Huge profits made by the industrialists were not shared evenly among the
workers.
 Under-consumption due to low incomes.
 Agriculture had not benefited from the boom as farm prices were generally
low so profits were low. Agriculture was the first to be hit by the
depression.
 Protectionism – high tariffs.
  Inflation also led to the Great Depression.

Effects/consequences of the depression

 The stock market crash ruined millions of investors as millions of people

had bought shares on credit with borrowed money.
 Thousands of banks closed down as millions of people rushed to withdraw
their savings. Debt and bankruptcy spread.
 Banks failed to pay back money and people failed to get money to repay
loans.
 Many workers lost their jobs (unemployment) as factories closed.
 People failed to pay their mortgages.
 Many became homeless leading to a rise in suicide rate.
 Drug abuse and prostitution increased.
 Demand for goods of all types fell.
 Prices collapsed and those who had bought shares were ruined.
 Prices of goods fell, business profits and shares sank.
 There was huge unemployment, starvation, begging, political and civil
unrest in many countries of the world.
 The USA and Britain devalued their currencies.
 Industrial production fell in 1933.
 Farmers lost property.
 Living standards fell as shown by bread queues, near-starvation for many
and charity soup kitchens.
 The depression was felt worldwide as the USA withdrew loans and
demanded repayment of short- term loans. Germany, Austria, Japan were
hard hit by the effects of the depression in the USA.

Recovery measures: the New Deal of Franklin Delano Roosevelt

  In 1933, the Republicans of President Hoover, lost to the Democrats of F.D
Roosevelt. F.D Roosevelt introduced a recovery plan called ‘The New Deal’
whose aims were:

- Relief.

- Recovery.

- Reform.

- To reduce poverty and bring confidence to the economy.

Roosevelt’s intervention measures

 The Emergency Banking Act (EBA): meant to enable banks to function

again. Government provided funds to guarantee people’s deposits and re-
control banks.
 The Agricultural Adjustment Act (1933): meant to increase agricultural
purchasing power. It solved the problem of overproduction.
 Government provided cheap credit facilities to farmers and raised the
prices of agricultural produce.
 Government established the Security Exchange Act of 1933 which
regulated the Stock Exchange to protect the public against unscrupulous
stock manipulators.
 In June 1933, Roosevelt passed the National Industrial Recovery Act
(NIRA) to enable him to embark on a scheme of public works to create
employment. This meant that the economy would become ensured and
also more balanced.
 The Social Security Act introduced pension and unemployment benefits.
 The Federal Relief Emergency Act (FERA) was passed to assist the
unemployed.
 An Economic Act of 1934, cut Federal pensions and salaries so as to balance
the budget; legalised the sale of beer and provided jobs for the
unemployed.
  The Farm Credit Administration Act of 1933 provided mortgages for
farmers who were in danger of losing ownership of their land.
 The home ownership loan corporation gave mortgages to home
owners.
 The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) brought about conservation projects.
 The Works Progress Administration (WPA) of 1935 financed projects
such as roads, schools and hospitals. These provided jobs for the
unemployed.
 The Wagner Act, 1935 encouraged trade unionism and workers to bargain
with management.
 The Federal Theatre Project provided jobs for artists.
 Roosevelt passed the Tennessee Valley Authority Act (TVA) which planned
to provide flood control of the Tennessee River, the reforestation and
proper use of marginal lands in the Tennessee Valley.
 There were plans to build dams to generate cheap electricity and organising
conservation, irrigation and afforestation to stop soil erosion.

World War II: 1939-1945

 World War II or the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from
1939 to 1945 which involved the vast majority of the world's countries—
including all the great powers—forming two opposing military alliances: the
Allies and the Axis powers.

Causes of World War II

Long term causes

(a) German rearmament (Failure of disarmament)

After the First World War:

- German army was reduced to 100 000 men, was to have no tanks and heavy
guns.

- Germany was to have a small navy with six battle-ships, thirty smaller
vessels and surrender the rest of her fleet to the allied forces.

- Germany was not to have any military aircraft.

 Germany showed its first defiance by destroying the vessels which were to
be handed over to the Allies.
 The Weimar Republic that was created by the Allied powers did not
seriously adhere to the terms of the Versailles Treaty. However, the
Weimar Republic was accepted as a member of the League of Nations in
1926.
 When Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933, he started a programme
of permanent rearmament.
 The League of Nations condemned it and Germany withdrew from the
League in October 1933.
 By May 1935 he re-introduced conscription and increased the size of the
army beyond the Treaty of Versailles limit. This was a serious breach of the
Versailles Treaty.
 At the Disarmament Conference of 1932-35 German wish of having an
equal status was rejected.
 Germany wanted to have prototype weapons possessed by other
powers.
 France rejected the formula for relative strengths suggested by Britain and
Italy.
 In April 1935 an attempt was made by Britain, France and Italy to oppose
the revival of German militarism but failed. The agreement, called the
Stressa Front, was not effective.
 In 1935 Britain decided to act alone by having the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement which stated that the German naval fleet was to be 35% of that
of Britain.
  It appeared a friendly understanding but was in fact an acknowledgement
of Germany’s rearmament after 1934.

(b) Acts of aggression by Germany, Italy and Japan

 Germany was encouraged by Italy and Japan who had expansionist ideas.
 Germany saw the invasion of Ethiopia by Italy between October 1935 and
May 1936. The League of Nations did nothing to stop the aggression.
 Hitler did not condemn the invasion of Ethiopia like other powers in
Europe.
 Japan occupied Manchuria in 1931. The League of Nations did nothing.
 Germany entered the Rhineland, ending the demilitarisation status of
the area and breaching the Versailles Treaty, directly challenging France
and Britain.
 This militarisation of the Rhineland earned Hitler prestige among Germans
all over Europe. Italy did not condemn it because Germany and Italy had
common ideologies.
 Germany and Italy backed General Franco in the Spanish Civil War of July
1936, thus aggravating tension in Europe.
 In October 1936 Germany and Italy signed the Rome-Berlin Axis marking
the beginning of cooperation between the two states.
 In November 1937 Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact
to oppose international communism. This brought the aggressors close
together.
 In 1937, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
 In May 1939 Germany and Italy signed the Pact of Steel. Italy agreed to give
Germany military support whenever Germany needed it and vice- versa.
 In 1939 Germany invaded Poland.

(c) Appeasement

 Britain and France never enforced the terms of the Versailles Treaty where
the terms were too harsh on Germany.
  The Anglo-French policy of non-enforcement became a weakness

of the Western powers on curbing Germany aggression.

 Britain still had fresh memories of the carnage of World War 1 to start
another war so fear resulted in appeasement.
 Western appeasement encouraged German aggression and caused the
war. Hitler saw that no one would resist his aggression.
 In the 1930s people believed that Germany was unjustly treated by the
Versailles Treaty.
 So the policy of appeasement was adopted with the hope that the use of
force would be avoided.
 In the 1930s the Western powers realised that the League of Nations was
powerless and appeasement became an alternative method of preserving
peace.
 Appeasement encouraged Hitler’s aggression as he became popular with
the Germans in and outside Germany.
 Germany was encouraged in the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935,
re-militarisation of the Rhineland of 1938, unification with Austria, and the
invasion of Czechoslovakia of 1939.

(d) The Anschluss (union) with Austria

 The Versailles Treaty terms did not allow the unification of Germany and
Austria although they had the same language and culture.
 The signatories to the treaty did not realise that union (Anschluss) would be
Hitler’s immediate objective.
 Hitler advanced the ideas in his book, Mein Kampf, to totally reject the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles which humiliated Germany.
 He advocated for the search of a living space (lebenstraum) to the east
of Germany.
 In 1938 Hitler invaded Austria and Czechoslovakia.
 In 1939 he invaded Poland triggering World War 2.
(e) The Problem of Czechoslovakia

 Czechoslovakia was created to give freedom to Czech and Slovak minorities

in Central Europe.
 But Czechoslovakia had no Constitution that guaranteed other minorities
their rights and interests. The Czechs and Slovaks had different cultures.
 Czechoslovakia became a problem child of the League of Nations from
its birth.
 When Hitler came to power as Chancellor he gave moral and financial
support to the Germans in Czechoslovakia.
 Hitler supported the German leader, Conrad Heinlein, who
wanted Sudetenland to be independent of Czechoslovakia.
 France and Czechoslovakia had an agreement to support each other in
the event of an attack. So Britain and France were concerned about the
political instability in Czechoslovakia.
 Hitler gave an ultimatum to Neville Chamberlain (British Prime Minister)
that if Sudetenland was not allowed self-government there would be war
and Germany would take over Sudetenland.
 The French and British agreed to let areas with a 50% German population
to be incorporated into Germany but Hitler wanted the whole of it to be
part of Germany.
 Britain and France showed that they were afraid of German power and
were not prepared for war. This led to the Munich Agreement of
September 30, 1938, reached by Germany, Great Britain, France, and Italy:

- Permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland in western

Czechoslovakia.

- Recognised the Polish and Hungarian claims against Czechoslovakia.

- Poland took Tuscan and Hungary took the Southern part of Czechoslovakia
and Ruthenia.

- Czechoslovakia lost valuable communication systems, defensive frontiers and

a major industrial area.
Immediate causes

 The Russo-Germany Non-Aggression Pact on 23 August 1939 gave Hitler the

courage to invade Poland, knowing that Russia would not intervene.
 The invasion of Poland by Germany on 1 September 1939 was the
immediate cause of the Second World War.
 France and Britain went to war with Germany because they had signed
an agreement to support Poland in the event of German aggression.

The main events of World War II

 The years of the “Lightning War” (Blitzkrieg) up to the defeat of the

Germans in Stalingrad (USSR) in 1942 to 1945:

- Blitz means lightning; Krieg means war.

- The Nazis’ method of attack was called blitzkrieg (lightning war).

- It was called blitzkrieg because it was an extremely fast knock-out war.

- Blitzkrieg meant the rapid advance of hundreds of tanks backed up by

fighter and bomber planes.

- Rapid long distance invasions were possible because of the improvements in

the tanks and warplanes used in the First World War.

- It started with the invasion of Poland in 1939.

 Britain had given security guarantees to Poland but both Britain and France
failed to save Poland which was attacked by two great powers, Germany
and Russia.
 The USSR attacked Poland from the east and Germany from the west.
 The Germans and the Russians used superior weapons.
 Poland was defeated in 17 days.
 Poland surrendered on 17 September 1939.
  It was divided between USSR and Germany.
 For the next six years Poland was non-existent.
 Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 but they
were not ready for war.
 The USSR took advantage of the war to regain control of Estonia, Latvia
and Lithuania which had been granted independence by the League of
Nations.
 In a 3 month war called the Winter War, USSR attacked and defeated
Finland. The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed in March 1940 giving Russia
access to the Baltic Sea through the Gulf of Finland.
 Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania became part of the USSR until the 1980s.
 The Soviet Union believed that Germany would attack it since the Nazi had
declared communism to be its worst enemy.
 Britain, the USSR and France feared Germany and did not want to be at war
with Germany.
 Stalin, the USSR President, signed a 10 year non- aggression pact with the
Germans on 23 August This was meant to prevent German invasion of the
USSR and vice-versa.
 The world was surprised by this agreement because the two countries were
worst enemies.
 Despite the agreement, Germany invaded the Soviet Union and Eastern
Poland on 17 September 1939.

Blitzkrieg in Western Europe

 Hitler offered peace to the Western powers in October 1939.

 The offer was turned down. Germany moved its forces to the western
front.
 The western offensive began on 10 May 1940.
 The Nazis overran Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Norway and
Luxemburg.
 Germany then moved towards France. Britain then began to prepare for
war.
  The Germans rolled over French defences and occupied the country.
 The blitzkrieg was successful in Western Europe.
 The Nazis put up a puppet regime in France, the Vichy Government led by
Marshal Petain.
 A large number of German troops and police occupied France.
 By conquering France, the Germans took control of the French Empire in
Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

The Battle of Britain (Operation Sea Lion)

 After defeating France, Germany turned onto Britain.

 They bombarded the British cities especially London.
 The British evacuated their major cities to protect their population.
 Most children in the urban areas were moved to the country side.
 Technological advances in air warfare made millions of civilians to be
ready targets.
 About 51 000 British people were killed in the attack on Southampton.
 But the Germans were unable to defeat the British in the air.
 The Germans had more planes than the British, but the British had the
advantage of the radar.
 This radar enabled the British to detect the movement of German
planes every time.
 The British could then shoot down many German bombers.
 The Nazis lost 1 733 planes by October 1940.
 The falling planes were a big problem because they carried bombs which
exploded on hitting the ground.
 By September 1940 the Germans were losing a lot of their fighter planes
making it hard to continue their air strikes on Britain.
 Then the air attacks were called off.

The war in Eastern Europe

  In April 1941 the Nazi attacked Yugoslavia.
 The Germans took a week to conquer it.
 The Germans then moved onto Greece which had been under attack by
Italy.
 Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria, in South Eastern Europe had already fallen
under fascist control.
 By mid-1941 the fascists controlled and occupied almost all of Europe.
 The German armies attacked the British and were about to conquer Cairo.
 Then Hitler called back all his troops because he wanted to attack the USSR.
 In June 1941 the German forces broke the Nazi- Soviet pact by attacking the
USSR in what was code-named Operation Barbarossa:

- According to the NAZI, the USSR political system was inspired by their two
greatest enemies, namely Jewry (Jews) and Communism.

- During Operation Barbarossa, the Soviet Army was forced to retreat.

- The Soviets took all machinery and factory equipment with them.

- The Germans were faced with the Soviet Union winter and the Nazi troops
were not ready for the Russian cold.

- The cold and the many Soviet troops halted the Germany army.

The war in Asia and the Pacific

 The Japanese joined Italy and Germany in their international fascist

alliance, the Rome-Berlin- Tokyo Axis in 1939.
 In 1941 Japan occupied French colonies in Southeast Asia, Vietnam
and Laos.
 Japan targeted Britain’s Asian territories for future expansion.
 The USA and Britain cut off Japan’s supply of oil.
 The Japanese air force attacked the US Naval base at Pearl Harbour in
Hawaii in December 1941.
  It was this attack that brought the USA into the war on the Anglo-Russian
side.
 In early 1942 Japan attacked the British colonies of Malaya and Singapore.
 British forces in Singapore surrendered to Japan.
 About 80 000 British soldiers became prisoners of war.

Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour

 The Japanese were tired of negotiations with the United States. They
wanted to continue their expansion within Asia but the United States had
placed an extremely restrictive embargo on Japan in the hopes of curbing
Japan’s aggression.
 Rather than giving in to the USA demands, the Japanese decided to launch
a surprise attack against the United States in an attempt to destroy the
United States’ naval power even before an official announcement of war
was given
 On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise air
attack on the USA Naval Base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
 After just two hours of bombing, more than 2,400 Americans were dead, 21
ships had either been sunk or damaged, and more than 188 aircraft
destroyed.
 The attack at Pearl Harbor so outraged Americans that the USA abandoned
its policy of isolationism and declared war on Japan the following day –
officially bringing the United States into World War II.

The military struggle against Fascism

 By early 1942 the major powers were embroiled in the war.

 World War II was a battle of ideologies and armed forces.
 Within the Western countries and the Soviet Union, the forces of
capitalism and socialism joined together to fight the authoritarian system of
Fascism.
 Those Europeans who supported Fascism were called collaborators.
  The German position was hopeless. Hitler did not want his troops to
surrender but they ignored him and 91 000 German soldiers surrendered to
the Soviets during Operation Barbarossa. By this time, about 194 000
Germans had already died.
 Hitler wanted to destroy the city of Leningrad but it was not easy.
 His troops surrounded Leningrad and blockaded the shipment of food
resulting in 600 000 Soviets dying of starvation and disease.
 In 1943 the British and Americans invaded Italy.
 In 1944 the Nazi were beaten back by the Soviets.
 On 6 June 1944, the D-Day, 150 000 Anglo- American forces and 11 000
aircraft opened up the “Western Front” invading the heart of occupied
France.
 From there they made a final push into Germany.
 By 1945 the Germans were under attack from both sides. The Allied armies
finally brought the Nazi war machine to its knees.
 On 7 May an armistice was signed.
 Hitler committed suicide because he could not face defeat.
 Mussolini was shot and his body hung upside down.
 25 million citizens of the USSR were left homeless.
 More than 1 700 towns and 70 000 villages were destroyed.

The resistance to Fascism by the ordinary people

 Passive resistance: If any German person entered a bar or restaurant

everyone would pay their bills and leave immediately.
 People were not violent but were simply uncooperative with the
Fascists.
 If anyone spoke in German language, people would profess ignorance and
went quietly on their way.
 People formed underground organisations to oppose the Nazi,
especially in France.
 They printed news, painted anti-Nazi slogans on the walls.
 Resistance groups called ‘partisans’ blew up Nazi military equipment.
  They assassinated German soldiers.
 They destroyed infrastructure like bridges and roads needed by the fascists
to maintain their supplies.
 In Yugoslavia, Josip Tito led a group that attacked the fascists. Josip Tito’s
partisan brigades of 250 000 women and men eventually became a
“Revolutionary of National Liberation” which set up a government in
Yugoslavia
 There were 6 200 partisan groups in the USSR.
 They derailed more than 21 000 trains. They destroyed 1 100 aircrafts,
wounded and killed one and a half million Nazi soldiers.
 Charles de Gaulle set up the Free France Movement in London.
 Captured partisans were killed as revenge. Keitel, a German General,
ordered that for every German soldier killed, 50-100 partisans had to be
sentenced to death.
 In one Yugoslav town 7 300 people including all school children and their
teachers were massacred to revenge the killing of a few Nazi soldiers.
 A serious resistance was staged in Warsaw, Poland’s capital, in 1944:

- 46 000 partisans, mainly Jews, led an uprising against the Nazis.

- They were poorly armed and fought the Nazis for 63 days.

- They received no aid from the USSR.

- At least 10 000 soldiers and 50 000 citizens in Warsaw died.

- 300 000 people were sent to concentration camps.

- The others in Warsaw were systematically destroyed.

 The standard of living was compromised because resources were directed

towards the war effort.
 Many people worked in munitions factories to keep the troops supplied.
 Women were mobilised to carry out new types of jobs which no one had
ever thought could be done by women.
Final days of the war in Asia

 Fascism was defeated in Europe early 1945 but World War II continued in
Asia and the Pacific.
 In Burma, British troops fought against the Japanese.
 The British enlisted 120 000 African soldiers to fight for Burma.
 The Japanese organised ‘Kamikaze’ pilots to crush the US navy. ‘Kamikaze’
pilots were instructed to commit suicide by flying their aeroplanes directly
into an enemy ship in order to make it explode.
 But ‘Kamikaze’ flights did not gain victory for Japan.
 In 1945 the US began massive bombing of Japanese cities.
 An attack on Tokyo in March 1945 caused 125 000 casualties and 267 000
buildings were destroyed.
 The first atomic bombs were dropped on Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in August 1945.
 The use of atomic weapons caused a lot of destruction and was a final
blow to Japan.
 On 2 September 1945 Japan surrendered.

Africa and World War II

 Many Africans were conscripted into the armies to fight Fascism in the
name of freedom.
 Britain recruited more than 500 000 Africans for both combat and non-
combat roles.
 Most of the fighting force came from West Africa.
 Some also came from South Africa and Zimbabwe in Southern Africa.
 Some were sent to Burma to fight the Japanese.

Atrocities against the Jews (Anti-Semitism)

 Hitler did not create the German hatred of Jews.

 He found it there but he perfected it.
  Hitler removed all Jews from the civil service, teaching, medicine, law,
sports and art.
 He ordered the isolation and punishment of Jewish shopkeepers and
business persons.
 Jews were forbidden entry into most universities and professions.
 Jews could not marry or be married to German citizens.
 On 9 November 1938, a campaign was started to destroy Jewish property:

- Jewish synagogues were burnt down.

- 7 000 Jewish businesses were destroyed.

- Thousands of Jews were beaten up.

- Government decreed that insurances would not pay for the damages. Jews
were moved into labour camps.

 The Germans built 30 major concentration camps, including

Auschwitz, Treblinka, Dachau, Ravensburg, Buchwald and Sachsenhause.
 Six million out of eight million Jews who lived in Central Europe in the early
1930s were killed.

Atrocities against Slavonic people, other minorities and the church

 The Slavonic people of Poland who occupied parts of the USSR were
subjected to severe ill-treatment.
 The S.S Action Team killed tens of thousands of Russians and Poles.
 Conditions in the prisoner-of-war camps were atrocious.
 The prisoners were herded into exposed barbed wire encampments.
 They suffered the Russian bitter winter weather.
 Previously Hitler worked well with the church but later appointed a former
army chaplain, Ludwig Muller, to supervise the protestant church.
 The church protested and Hitler arrested hundreds of the clergy and
confiscated their property.
  In 1937 Pope Pius X1 openly criticised Nazi rule and several catholic priests
were arrested.
 Then the church remained silent against all the evils committed during the
war.

Results of World War II

 There were huge changes to the political systems and boundaries of

European nations.
 USSR, Romania, Poland, Hungary, Albania, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria
became socialist countries.
 Germany was divided into two separate nations, namely the German
Democratic Republic (East Germany) and Federal Republic of Germany
(West Germany). This division was along the city of Berlin, hence the Berlin
Wall.
 East Germany became a communist country while West Germany became a
capitalist state.
 An increase in the number of socialist states led to a shift in the world
balance of power.
 World War II resulted in a permanent decline of Britain and France as world
political powers.
 The USSR became a super power on the socialist side.
 The USA became a super power on the capitalist side.
 The USA was economically stronger than all other capitalist states.
 The rise of super powers of differing ideologies and political systems
meant the beginning of an intensive rivalry between communism and
capitalism. It became very tense in the 1950s and was called the “Cold
War”.
 International political organisations to safeguard the peace of the world
were established, e.g. the United Nations Organisation (UN) in 1945.
 Africans and Asians began to demand their independence from the
colonial powers.
  The atrocities committed by the Nazis led to the emergence of human
rights as an area of great concern in international affairs.
 Jews got a new homeland, Israel.
 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was then drafted
in 1948.
 The results of World War II can be divided into social, political, economic
and technological.

Democracy
 Democracy has its origins from Greek political thought around the 5th
Century BC. Democracy was derived from 2 Greek words: ‘Demos’which
means people and ‘Kratos’(Kratein) which means rule. So democracy is a
government by the people for the people and of the people. It is a
 government in which the majority of the people are involved in decision
making and governance of their villages, towns, cities or countries.

Definition of Democracy

 Democracy has its origins from Greek political thought around the 5th
Century BC.
 Democracy was derived from 2 Greek words: ‘Demos’which means
people and ‘Kratos’(Kratein) which means rule. So democracy is a
government by the people for the people and of the people. It is a
government in which the majority of the people are involved in decision
making and governance of their villages, towns, cities or countries.
 In Greece governments were classified according to the number of citizens
involved in the process of governance.
 Participation in government of one’s country is a right in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR).
 In large and complex societies it is difficult, if not impossible, for every
citizen to participate directly.
 In Zimbabwe people participate through their elected representatives to
parliament.
 But all citizens sometimes can participate directly during the

Presidential and Parliamentary Elections.

Evolution of the concept of democracy

Development of democracy in Greece

 In the 5th Century BC Greece was made up of independent city states, e.g.
Athens and Sparta.
 They were ruled by Kings.
 Athens gave up her Monarchy and became a democratic nation.
 Every Athenian was expected to participate in the law making assembly.
  Both the poor and the rich had the right to be heard but women,
foreigners, slaves and children were not allowed to vote.
 The laws of Athens were written down in 625 BC bringing forth the rule of
law.

Development of democracy in Europe

 During the Medieval era (1000-1500AD) monarchs/ kings/queens ruled

most of Europe.
 People were not happy with the monarchs because the monarchs:

- Had absolute rule.

- Ruled without consultation.

- Ruled by decree.

- Considered themselves to be above the law.

- Held the office of the monarchy as hereditary rulers.

- Some of the kings and queens were cruel to their people.

- Some lied that they were appointed by God (divine right of kings /queens).

- The people demanded for representative parliaments and universal

suffrage.

 These problems led to democratic governments.

Development of democracy in England

 In 1215 King John was forced to sign the Great Charter called the Magna
Carta.
 It marked the beginning of democratic practices in England.
 Respectable people like barons and bishops forced him to sign it.
 The Magna Carta became the basis of the English democratic institutions.
  The English people enshrined the values of freedom of speech,
representative government, freedom of association and freedom to publish
one’s ideas in their constitution.
 The development of the English constitution resulted in diminishing
the kings’ abuses against individual rights.
 The constitution guaranteed the separation of powers of government so
that each of the three branches of government, namely the Executive, the
Judiciary and the Legislative were independent of each other.

Development of democracy in France

 The kings of France claimed to rule by divine right of kings saying they were
appointed by God.
 Between 1750 and 1850 many philosophers advocated for reform in
Government.
 Their writings changed people’s attitudes.
 Some of the philosophers contributed greatly to the development of
democracy. Some of these were:

(a) Montesquieu

- He criticised the principle of divine right.

- He advocated for the idea of checks and balances.

(b) Voltaire

- He advocated for religious tolerance by European governments.

- He attacked the despotism of the French Government and praised

England’s constitutional monarchy and civil liberties.

(c) Rousseau
- He spread the ideas of equality and of the rights to life, liberty and property.

- His ideas of the enlightenment together with several grievances led to the
French Revolution of 1789.

- A revolutionary constituent assembly announced a Declaration of

Rights of men and citizens from Rousseau’s ideas.

- It proclaimed that all men were born free and remained equal and free in
rights.

Development of democracy in Africa

 Africa suffered in its struggles for democracy which are still on today.
 It was ironic that after fighting for democracy, the European nations met
at the Berlin Conference in 1884-85 to agree to partition Africa and deny
Africa the same natural rights they had fought for.
 The position of Africa was a complete negation of all democratic principles
and ideas because (of):

- The partition of Africa was done without the consent of Africans.

- The establishment of colonial rule in Africa.

- The institution of racial discrimination by colonial regimes.

- The establishment of the executive, judiciary and legislative branches of

government that excluded Africans.

- The brutal suppression of struggles for democratic and natural rights by

Africans.

 Despite the above, Africans waged armed struggles to bring about

democracy.
 Africans were inspired by the same writings that had inspired their
colonial masters to fight for democracy in their own countries.
  Angola, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Zimbabwe and South Africa
launched bitter struggles for democracy.
 After colonial rule, attempts were made to introduce democracy.
 Some African countries have not yet fully enjoyed the fruits of their
sacrifices due to a number of political developments which include:

- Neo-colonialism, corruption and greed of some of the new African leaders.

- A civil war in Angola from 1975 to 2001.

- Mozambique: RENAMO led by Alfonso Dhlakama fought the FRELIMO

Government led by Samora Machel.

- Military coups in Uganda, Nigeria and Ghana.

- Dictatorships in Malawi under President Dr Hastings Banda, Democratic

Republic of Congo under Mobutu Sese Seko, Uganda under Idi Amin, and Kenya
under Daniel Arap Moi.

 These denied people their natural and democratic rights.

 After gaining independence, African countries established democratic
structures, e.g.:

- Regular elections.

- Enfranchising (right to vote) all citizens.

- Limiting the term of office for the presidency in some countries.

- Removing racial discrimination and segregation.

- Giving all citizens the freedom of worship, freedom of assembly, freedom of

association, freedom of speech and freedom of movement.

- Representative governments.

 The main flaws in African democracy are the tendencies by some

African leaders to:
- Replace colonial rule by dictatorship.

- Opt for life presidency.

- Adopt a one-party system and impose it on citizens.

- Revise the two-term office of the president to stay longer in power.

- Rig elections results or engage in vote buying.

- Deal unfairly with the opposition parties.

- Have the executive that controls both the judiciary and the legislature.

- Engage in slave trade: slavery and slave trade were condemned as crimes
against humanity.

The practice of democracy

 Can be practised directly or indirectly.

 Direct democracy refers to the participation in decision making by the
individual members of the community.
 Indirect democracy: citizens participate in government by electing
representatives who make decisions for them, e.g. electing Members of
Parliament (MPs). This is called representative government.
 The elected officials represent the voters’ views and interests in parliament.
 They are agents of the citizens who do what the people want.

Types of democracy

Multiparty democracy

 It is also called democratic pluralism.

 Several political parties are allowed to exist.
 They are allowed to hold rallies and campaign for votes.
 Citizens are allowed to join any political party of their choice.
  During parliamentary elections the party that wins the majority votes forms
a government.
 Citizens are free to elect representatives.
 Both women and men have the right to vote.
 Men and women’s votes count the same. This is called universal adult
suffrage.
 Universal adult suffrage is practised in many countries, e.g. Zimbabwe,
Mozambique, South Africa, USA, Britain, Zambia, India and Kenya.
 In Zimbabwe all persons from the age of 18 years have the right to vote.
 Some of the political parties that participated in the 1980 General Election
in Zimbabwe were: ZANU (PF) led by Robert Gabriel Mugabe; ZANU
(Mwenje) led by Rev Ndabaningi Sithole; (PF) ZAPU led by Joshua Nkomo;
UANC led by Bishop Abel Muzorewa; UNFP led by Ndiweni; ZUPO led by
Chief Jeremiah Chirau; NFZ led by Mandaza; NDU led by Chiota; ZDP led by
James Chikerema.
 Zimbabwe is a good example of a multiparty democracy. As of 2013, the
following were some of the main political parties in Zimbabwe: ZANU (PF)
led by Robert Mugabe; MDC-T led by Morgan Tsvangirai; MDC-M led by
Welshman Ncube; MDC 99 led by Job Sikhala; Mavambo/Kusile/ Dawn led
by Simba Makoni.

One party democracy

 Only one political party is allowed in the country in the constitution.

 Citizens are forced to accept that party and its ideology.
 The state controls the media.
 The media is not free to criticise the government.
 The state does not tolerate criticism of the government.
 Hero worshipping of the leaders.
 Dictatorship of the minority over the majority.
 Having strong youth wings that force the citizens to tow party lines.
 Approval or appointment of presidential, parliamentary and local
government candidates by the leadership.
 The majority do not choose their leaders.
  The party is supreme to the government. The distinction between the
government and the party is very thin.
 The principle of separation of powers is not observed, i.e. between the
executive, judiciary and legislature.

The characteristics or principles of a democracy

 Universal participation – all adults participate in the electoral process.

 Equality – all citizens are equal before the law.
 Multi-partyism – the constitution allows more than one political party to
operate.
 Leaders are chosen in elections.
 Regular, free and fair elections – the elections must be held regularly as set
in the constitution. They must be free and fair.
 Principle of separation of powers of the three branches of government
(executive, judiciary and legislative) is observed.
 The separation of powers works as checks and balances so that not one
branch will dominate the other.
 Responsiveness – The government bases its legitimacy on representing
the desires of its people.
 Respect for minority groups and the disadvantaged.
 Accountability – Public officials, i.e. those elected to public office must do
their duties properly and they must be responsible for their actions.
 Transparency – This means that the electorate must know what is
happening.
 Rule of law – It means that no one is above the law.
 The law must be applied the same to all citizens. Equality before the law.
 Basic freedoms of the citizens and political leaders

– The citizens, leaders of political parties, party officials and candidates must
enjoy the basic freedoms of speech, press, assembly, movement and worship.

 Respect for, and protection of human rights.

 Human Rights
 Democracy encourages and promotes such rights as freedom of speech,
press, religion, association and opinion. These are called human rights.

Human Rights

Definition of human rights

 Human Rights are universal claims or entitlements that individuals have

simply because they belong to the human race.
 It means people are born with these rights, whatever their skin colour,
race, creed, sex, language, national origin, class, religion or political beliefs.
 Some of the characteristics of human rights are as follows:

- Universal – human rights apply to everyone.

- Guaranteed – They are guaranteed by the international treaties e.g. the

covenants and conventions.

- Focus on dignity – They focus on the human being.

- Some are legally protected.

- They cannot be taken away from the individual.

- They are unalienable.

- Some of the human rights values are tolerance, unity, peace, respect for
others, justice, equality, freedom and liberty.
Examples of human rights are:

- The right to life.

- The right to food.

- The right to shelter.

- Freedom of movement and association.

- Freedom of speech/ the press.

- The right to liberty and security.

- The right to privacy.

- The right to a fair trial.

 All people must enjoy these rights and they are upheld on the basis that all
people are born free and equal.

The origins and development of the concept of Human Rights

 Human rights can be traced to Greece.

 In the 4th Century B.C. Aristotle, a Greek Philosopher, taught that
justice should be a guiding principle for both individuals and social conduct.
 They can be traced to the world’s religions, philosophies and traditions,
e.g. the belief that all people are equal before God.
 Most religions uphold the sacredness of life.
 Most religions do not condone the use of force and violence to settle
disputes.
 Although societies had the general awareness that human beings have
certain rights, history proves otherwise.
 Historical events are characterised by violations of human rights. The
following illustrate this statement:

- Europe, Africa and America were involved in slavery and slave trade (from
the 1480s to 1865).
- Exploitation in Britain during the Industrial Revolution brought suffering,
misery and death to workers (1760 – 1830).

- During the reigns of Joseph Stalin, Mussolini and Hitler, millions of people
were maimed, murdered and tortured (1920s to 1945).

- During apartheid (South Africa: 1948 – 1994) many discriminatory laws were
passed and many people including children were killed.

- In Rhodesia there was racism and blacks had no voting rights.

- In Rwanda the Hutu tried to exterminate the Tutsi in 1994.

Examples of injustices and inhuman practices or inhuman treatment are:

- Long hours of work, up to eighteen hours per day.

- Low wages.

- Inadequate housing and living in crowded conditions.

- Poor sanitation.

- Child labour in factories, mines and on farms.

- During slavery and slave trade human beings were reduced to commodities
that could be bought and sold.

Examples of modern slavery and slave trade:

- Child soldiers – young children in their early teens are trained as soldiers to
fight wars, e.g. Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola, Sierra Leone and Sudan.

- Forced marriages (pledging girls into marriages).

- Trafficking women and young females for the purpose of prostitution.

  Mass abuses, brutalities, genocide and violations of people’s rights. Nazi
Germany:

- Killed about six million Jews.

- Sent thousands of prisoners-of-war, Jews and non-Germans to labour camps,

gas chambers and concentration camps.

Internationalisation of Human Rights

 The United Nations Organisation (UN) was formed on 24 October 1945.

 China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK and the USA ratified, approved and
signed its charter – the United Nations Charter.
 It set out the rights of the UN member states.
 The UN was determined to promote and respect:

- The dignity and worth of human beings.

- The equality of human beings in their enjoyment of human rights.

- Elimination of discrimination based on gender.

- The practice of tolerance and living together in peace.

- The rise and development of the human rights concept.

 The rise and development of the human rights concept starts with the
UN Charter.
 Most democratic states have included a Bill of Rights in their
constitutions.
 After the UN Charter was ratified, the United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights (UDHR) was then written.
 The UDHR was written and the commission on human rights was formed.
 The UDHR was written to protest against the atrocities of the Second
World War.
  The Nazi policy of genocide shocked and horrified the world – killing
of six million Jews in concentration camps.
 The UDHR aimed to:

- Prevent such atrocities.

- Eliminate discrimination among people and all nations.

 The UDHR is a yardstick to see how individuals, countries and communities

respect Human Rights.
 Unfortunately, the UDHR is not a treaty or a binding legal document
but just a declaration.
 The UDHR is important because:

- It is used as a standard of behaviour.

- It is used as a basis of appeal calling on governments to observe human

rights.

- Many regional and international treaties have made the UDHR into a law.

- It has influenced the constitutions, laws and court decisions of many nations.

The Constitution of Zimbabwe: Bill of Rights

 Many countries have bills of rights in their constitutions. Zimbabwe has

a bill of rights.
 A bill of rights is adopted in a democratic country in order to guarantee
human rights and to protect citizens against abuse of power.
 A bill of rights is a list of freedoms and rights guaranteed to all people in a
country.
 The constitution of Zimbabwe has a list of freedoms and rights. Some of
these freedoms and rights are:

- The right to life.

- The right to personal liberty.

- Protection against slavery and forced labour.

- Protection from inhuman treatment.

- Protection from deprivation of property.

- Protection from arbitrary search or entry.

- Protection of the law.

- Protection of freedom of conscience.

- Freedom of expression.

- Freedom of assembly and association.

- Freedom of movement.

- Protection from discrimination on the grounds of race, sex, religion, creed,

colour, class or political affiliation.

These rights are not absolute. They can be limited.

(a) The right to life

 It states that noone may be killed intentionally or unlawfully. People still

debate whether to keep or abolish the death sentence. By 1995, 56
countries had already abolished the death penalty, one of them being
South Africa.
 In Zimbabwe the death penalty is still in force in aggravating circumstances.
 The right to life can be limited when a person is sentenced to death on very
serious crimes like treason and murder; someone is killed in self- defence
or in defence of private property; when someone is killed in the process of
a war.

(b) Right to personal liberty

  No person may be denied the right to his or her personal property and
freedom. Liberty refers to the state of being free from conditions that limit
one’s actions.
 The right to liberty can be limited when: a person is convicted of an offence
and sentenced to imprisonment by a court of law; an insane person is kept
at a mental asylum like Ingutsheni Hospital; a person is detained by the
police on suspicion of having committed a crime.

(c) Protection from slavery and forced labour

 No person should be made a slave, i.e. to be made someone’s property or

required to do forced labour.
 However, labour ordered by a court of law for prisoners, disciplinary work
for children and work required in public emergency is not forced labour.

(d) Protection from inhuman treatment

 From birth, everyone is born free and should be treated with dignity.
 Everyone has the right to reason and has a conscience.
 No one should be subject to torture, inhuman treatment or degrading
punishment.
 The following situations are not examples of inhuman, cruel or
degrading punishment:

- The moderate whipping or corporal punishment of juveniles or children below

18 years by their parents, teachers and prison officers as a sentence of a court.

- The hanging of a person who has been sentenced to death.

(e) Protection from deprivation of property

 No property should be taken away from any person against his/her will.
 But land can only be taken for the following reasons:
- The resettlement of people for agricultural and farming purposes.

- Land reorganisation or environmental conservation.

- For use for natural resources (e.g. mining) and wildlife.

(f) Protection from arbitrary search and entry

 No one should be searched on his/her body or home unless he/she has

agreed or a search warrant has been produced.
 A search warrant is a legal document authorising the police to search.
 People and homes can be searched in the interest of defence, public safety,
order, morality and health, to prevent crime and for the protection of
freedoms and rights of others.

(g) Protection of the law

 Every person must be protected by the law.

 If charged everyone has the right to a fair trial within a reasonable time and
by an independent and unbiased court.
 Every person who is charged for a criminal offence shall:

- Be treated as innocent until proved guilty.

- Be informed in a language he/she understands of the details of the offence

he/she is accused of.

- Be allowed to defend himself/herself personally or through a lawyer of his/her

choice at his or her own expense.

- Be allowed to cross examine all witnesses called to give evidence against

him/her and to call his/her witnesses in his/her defence.

 A person should not be:

- Tried for an offence of which he/she was previously convicted or
acquitted.

- Tried for an offence for which he/she was pardoned by the President.

- Forced to give evidence at his/her trial.

(h) Protection of freedom of conscience

 No person shall be denied the enjoyment of his/ her freedom of conscience

which includes freedom of thought, religion, worship and the freedom to
believe or not to believe.

(i) Freedom of expression

 It is one’s right to hold opinions, express own ideas and pass on the ideas
and information.
 It includes freedom from interference with correspondence or
communication.
 Freedom of expression can be limited by the following:

- Defamation: laws that protect the reputation of others.

- The Official Secrets Act which protects confidential information.

- Telephone and broadcasting laws.

- Laws may regulate schools in the interests of pupils.

(j) Freedom of assembly and association

 Everyone has the freedom to meet, associate or mix with any person of
his/her own choice; to form, join or to pull out of any political party or
trade union or any association.
 A person may not be forced to join or not to join any organisation.
 This right can be limited by:
- Parents: may control the right of association of their children.

- Laws: political parties or trade unions are required to seek police clearance
before holding meetings/rallies.

(k) Freedom of movement

 It includes the right to move freely in and around the country/stay in any
part of the country or enter and leave freely and not to be expelled.
 Freedom of movement can be limited when a person is sentenced to a
prison term; to avoid the spread of a disease when there is an epidemic.

(l) Protection from discrimination

 Discrimination means the unequal treatment of people on the basis of

race, gender, ethnicity, religion. Some people think they are superior to
others, e.g. when whites think that they are superior to Africans and vice-
versa.
 There is positive and negative discrimination:

- Positive discrimination: The discrimination on the basis of age in Zimbabwe –

a person cannot obtain a driver’s licence or national identity card until he/she is
16 years old. A person should be 18years old to register as a voter.

- Negative discrimination: Racism, segregation and apartheid.

Limits to human rights

 Human rights are not absolute.

 All rights can be limited in the interest of public safety and order, morality,
health, e.g.: to stop the spread of infectious diseases like cholera or
tuberculosis; economic and security interests of the state; defence and
protection of rights of others; freedoms and reputation of others; and
when being held in lawful detention.

Affirmative Action Programme (AAP)

  Was put in place to redress the imbalances of thepast colonial era, e.g. past
discrimination in education, work and promotion.
 Women or people from disadvantaged ethnic groups or those living with
disabilities were given equal opportunities in employment.
 It was used at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) and the Public Service in the
1980s and 1990s to increase the number of female students and female
employees in promotional posts, respectively.
 At the UZ, some female students were admitted with lower ‘A’Level pass
points than male students.
 In the Public Service preference was given to female applicants.

Categories of rights

 Civil and political rights – These are called first generation rights.
 Social and economic rights – These are called second generation rights.
 Environmental, cultural and developmental rights or group rights – These
are called third generation rights.

Civil and political rights

 These are concerned with people’s liberty. They are about the relationship
between the state and individual.
 They protect life and dignity of the individual against the state and
society.
 These rights are guaranteed.
 Legal action can be taken against the state or any culprit if the rights are
violated.
 Examples of these rights are:

- Right to life.

- Right to liberty and security.

- Freedom of opinion and speech.

- The right to vote for representation in government.

Social and economic rights

 These are related to the standard of living and security of people.

 They come second after civil and political rights.
 They force governments to fulfil basic needs of people: food, shelter and
health.
 Governments have a responsibility to provide people with food, shelter
and health care, e.g. during years of drought, floods and earthquake, or
disease epidemic.
 The government controls food prices.
 At times it subsidises the cost of food.
 The government of Zimbabwe has programmes to fulfil basic social and
economic rights like:

- Food for Work.

- Health for All by 2020.

- Education for All by 2020.

- Housing for All by 2020.

- Basic Commodities Supply Side Intervention (BACOSSI)

Environmental, cultural and developmental rights

 These are called group or solidarity rights because they recognise that
people have rights in the community with others.
 They are different from other human right s because the others belong to
people as individuals but not as members of a group.
 The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights includes the following:

- The right to self-determination.

- The right to peace and security.

- The right to development and the environment.

- The right of minority groups.

- The right to clean water and air.

Promotion and Protection of Human Rights

 Human rights are promoted and protected both locally and

internationally by:

- regional and international organisations, e.g. the UN;

- local non-governmental organisations (NGOs);

- national constitutions;

- the police;

- the courts of law;

- the ombudsman (the Public Protector).

Local Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO)

 In Zimbabwe all local NGOs are affiliated to the National Association of

Non-Governmental Organisations (NANGO).
 Examples of local NGOs are:

- Legal Resources Foundation;

- Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace (CCJP);

- Zimbabwe Human Rights Associations (ZimRights);

- The Women in Law and Development Foundation;

- Women’s Action Group;

- Childline.

 These organisations are involved in the following activities:

- Promoting human rights awareness.

- Promoting and protecting women’s and children’s rights.

- Protecting children from cruelty, neglect and suffering.

- Providing education and health care.

Revolution in China
 China has the largest population in the world. Throughout human history
China was more advanced than other races. The Chinese were the first to
make gun powder. They were the first to develop a form of paper. The
Chinese studied medicine, mathematics, engineering and astronomy
when primitive hunters roamed Britain. They sailed to Africa before the
Europeans.

Background to the revolution

 By 1900 China was a poor country due to.

- The feudal system.

- Imperialism.
The feudal system

 Feudalism is the same everywhere.

 China was ruled by the Man Zhou Dynasty from 1644.
 Power was in the hands of rich landlords.
 They exploited the peasants.
 Each peasant had to pay a landlord a part of his annual harvest.
 Emperors and landlords lived in luxury.
 Landlords kept grain and refused to share it with starving peasants.
 Landlords had strong armies.
 Peasants tried to overthrow the landlords but failed.

Imperialism

 China was never a colony of a European power.

 In China, Europeans were traders and missionaries.
 The Europeans were after economic gain only.
 The Europeans divided China into spheres of influence.
 Each European power received rights to do business in a particular area or
part of a city like Shanghai, e.g. France and Britain shared the province of
Yunnan.
 The Europeans created a system of privileges for themselves.
 The Chinese were not allowed into some posh areas, e.g. in Shanghai
the British put signs like ‘Dogs and Chinese not allowed.’
 Europeans made huge profits from trade with China.
 The Chinese did not like the Westerners, they called them foreign devils.
 The Chinese accused the Europeans of stealing their wealth.
 The Righteous and Harmonious Fists or Boxers Society, a secret society was
formed in 1900.
 The society organised a rebellion to chase the foreigners away.
 The Boxer Rebellion was crushed down.
 A Chinese Brotherhood Society was formed in 1905.
 It wanted to build a powerful China.
China becomes a Republic

 A Double Tenth Revolution began.

 Sun Zhongshan was chosen as president of China in 1912 while he was
fundraising abroad.
 He formed a political party, the Guomintang(GMT) or Nationalist Party.
 He put forward 3 principles:

(i) Nationalism – to unite the country and remove foreigners.

(ii) Democracy – to have elections and a parliament.

(iii) People’s livelihood – to improve the standard of living of the people through
the provision of land to the peasants.

Challenges faced by Sun Zhongshan:

- Had no strong army to defeat the warlords.

- Lacked money to fulfil the ideas.

- Failed to stop the civil strife among the warlords.

 Sun Zhongshan resigned as president.

 Yuan Shih-Kai became the second president of the Republic of China.
 Yuan Shih-Kai did not believe in the revolution.
 He did not believe in democracy.
 He believed that dictatorship was the key to China’s recovery.
 The army supported Yuan Shih-Kai, which is why Sun Zhongshan handed
over power to him.
 Yuan was not interested in improving the people’s lives. He wanted
personal power. He ignored the wishes of the majority.
 In 1913 Yuan forced the National Assembly to make him life president.
 In 1915 Yuan became the Emperor of China. He died in 1916.
  A civil war of 1915 weakened China and Japan took advantage of that
weakness.
 Japan presented the infamous 21 demands. The demands aimed to give
Japan control over China.
 China suffered untold misery and humiliation.
 China joined World War One in 1917 on the side of the Allies hoping to halt
Japanese influence.
 The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was formedin 19 21.
 Mao Zedong (Mao-tse Tung), a CCP member, formed the United Front
with the GMT to bring unity in China.
 Jiang Jieshi took over as GMT leader in 1925 after the death of Yuan Shih-
Kai.
 Jiang Jieshi was a nationalist and not a communist.
 He did not trust the Communists.
 The CCP organised workers in the cities to lead the revolution.
 In Shanghai the CCP gained control over trade unions. In 1925 they
organised more than 300 strikes.
 In 1926 Jiang Jieshi began his famous Northern Expedition. Just
 Jiang confronted the warlords and his troops werewel comed by peasants.
 In 1927 Jiang’s troops advanced towards Shanghai and 600 000 workers
went on strike to support them. By then Jiang no longer wanted help from
the CCP.
 Jiang was afraid that the CCP was becoming too powerful for his leadership.
He directed his army to kill CCP members.
 Thousands of CCP members were killed in Shanghai and other cities in
1927. This massacre marked the end of the CCP’s work in the cities.
 CCP members fled to the mountainous rural areas –far away from Jiang in
1927.

The struggle for poltical power by the CCP

 The Communists believed that China had many peasants who were the
most oppressed and were revolutionary.
  China had very few workers – less than 2 million out of a population of 400
million.
 The CCP needed majority support to overthrow feudalism and imperialism.
 The majority were the peasants.
 The CCP’s military strategy for the revolution was guerrilla warfare.
 Mao believed that the CCP could defeat Jiang by building a strong army
which had the support of the people.

Mao Zedong and the guerrilla war

 Mao said that a revolution is an act of violence by which one class

overthrows another.
 He believed in a war of liberation for China.
 He said the basic principle of guerrilla warfare was the support of the
people.
 Mao said that in guerrilla warfare the people are the sea (water) and the
guerrillas are the fish.
 Without the support of the masses, the guerrillas would die.
 Mao laid down rules for all Communist troops to observe in order to gain
the support of the masses.

The three main rules of discipline

(i) Obey orders in all actions.

(ii) Do not take a single needle or a piece of thread from the masses.

(iii) Turn in everything captured.

The eight points of attention

(i) Speak politely.

(ii) Pay fairly for what you buy.

(iii) Return everything you borrow.

(iv) Pay for anything you damage.

(v) Do not hit or swear at people.

(vi) Do not damage crops.

(vii) Do not take liberties with women.

(viii) Do not ill-treat prisoners.

Mao used these principles to get the support of the people.

 Usually the guerrillas were fewer than theirenemies.

 The guerrillas had poor weapons compared to their enemies.
 In order to survive, the guerrillas had to avoid face to face battles.
 Mao ordered them to :

- Fight when they were going to win.

- Run away if they were not going to win.

- Retreat when the enemy advanced.

- Harass the enemy when they were camped.

- Attack when the enemy was tired.

 The key to victory was the justness of the cause for which one was fighting.
 Those who fought for the freedom of their people were fighting a just war.
 The CCP managed to get huge support.
 Armed Communists forced the landlords to give land to peasants.
 In 1934, Jiang launched an offensive against the Communists.
 The CCP and its military wing the, Red Army, began the Long March to
avoid being massacred.
Long March

 In 1934 Jiang started a full scale assault on the Communists.

 Jiang bombed the Red Army using aeroplanes.
 He besieged Hunan and Mao and his followers were entrapped.
 100 000 soldiers, peasants, women, children and craftsmen started the
Long March on 16 October 1934.
 The aim of the Long March was to reach the backward and semi-
desert province of Shensi.
 It was a 10 000 kilometre march
 Many sympathised with the Communists.
 Of 100 000 only 20 000 survived the Long March.
 They faced many hardships like:

- Being bombed by Jiang’s aeroplanes.

- Crossing 24 rivers.

- Climbing 18 mountains.

- They passed through snow, rain and hail.

- Shortage of food – they ate dogs, tree bark, horses, belts and shoes.

 The Long March took the revolution closer to victory.

 The Long March helped to strengthen the Red Army.
 The Long March won the CCP many supporters in areas that they passed
through.
 In Yenan province they set up schools, clinics and cooperative farms.
 There was little interference from the government.

Japanese invasion

 In the North, the CCP were faced with Japanese invasion.

 They appealed to the GMT to combine efforts against the invaders but
the GMT refused.
  However, Jiang was tricked into combining by one of his generals who
staged the Sian Incident.
 Jiang then became part of the Second United Front.
 The United Front achieved little because the GMT did little fighting against
the Japanese.
 The GMT harassed the Communists more than the Japanese.
 When World War II ended in 1945, the CCP and GMT began a war of
mastery for China.
 The CCP had great advantage over the GMT.
 The guerrilla warfare, the Long March, the redistribution of land to
peasants and their strict discipline had won them a lot of support.
 The GMT was supported by the USA which wanted to stop the spread of
communism.
 On 1 October 1949 the CCP took control of the government.
 When the CCP came to power they:

- Took land from the landlords and redistributed it among the peasants.

- Abolished the custom of feet binding for young girls.

- Abolished child-marriage and slavery.

China from 1949-1980

China and Soviet style socialism
 The CCP was different from the Bolshevik Party in the Soviet Union in 1917.
 Bolsheviks were mostly workers in large industries in the cities whereas
most of the CCP members were peasants in rural areas.
 The CCP looked to the Soviet Union as a great example of how to build
socialism.
 The Chinese respected the Soviet Union so much that they copied their
style of organising the economy.
  The Chinese nationalised most of the major industries especially those
owned by foreigners.
 They adopted the Soviet Union five year plans.
 China’s first five year plan lasted 1953-57.
 Its main goal was to build heavy industries e.g. the production of steel, coal,
electricity and machinery.
 It was similar to what the Soviets had done under Stalin in the late 1920s.
 Its five year plan was successful.
 The table below shows some of the increases in production which occurred
during the years of this plan:

Product 1952 1957

Steel (tonnes) 1 350 000 4 000 000

Coal ( tonnes) 66 490 000 130 000 000

Electricity (kilowart hrs) 7;3 billion 19 billion

 The Chinese were happy about the success but also believed that there
could be an alternative to the Soviet model for development.
 Building heavy industries did not benefit themajority in the rural areas.
 The Chinese later abandoned the Soviet model andtargeted the countryside
for development.

Chinese agricultural policy

 Many Chinese people were in serious debt.

 They had to sell their children to pay the landlords.
 Those who failed to pay were killed or beaten by the landlords’ armies.
 The CCP opposed this oppression and the people supported them.
 The CCP kept its promise of giving land to the people.
  By 1951, some 300 million peasants had been given plots of land.
 Land was obtained in many ways:

- In some cases landlords were killed.

- In most cases the landlords ran away.

- Some landlords agreed to give up their land.

China in 1949

 The fighting destroyed communication lines, destroyed both industry

and agriculture and resulted in high inflation.
 China dealt with agriculture and communication first to save people from
hunger.
 Peasants used their traditional and primitive tools and transport to rebuild
roads, dykes and canals and to harvest crops.
 The benefits were limited because the plots were small and the people
used hand tools that were inefficient.
 There was not much food surplus left to sell to the urban people.
 By 1950 there were improvements in road, rail and canal links.
 Irrigation and drainage systems were improved.
 Peasants were happy to be given land, but some problems still remained:
many peasants lacked knowledge, draught power (oxen to pull ploughs),
ploughs and equipment to do farming productively.
 There were also problems of lack of education, absence of health care and
manufactured goods.

Collectivisation

 Government began collectivisation of agriculture in the 1950s.

 It aimed to transform the rural areas in two ways:

- To decrease the gap between the rich and poor peasants.

- To improve the standard of living of all people through allowing equal access
to the means of production.

 The change from private plots to collective organisation was rapid.

 Force was applied on the people to make them accept collectivisation.
 The CCP government organised the farmers step by step.
 The first step was to establish mutual aid teams where small households
shared the use of ploughs and other tools.
 Members of the teams worked on each other’s land to improve irrigation or
build roads.
 Then people were moved into cooperatives where all land and production
tasks were shared.
 Cooperatives had about 1000 households.
 In cooperatives people kept their family possessions and maintained
private gardens or fowl runs.
 By 1956 nearly all Chinese peasants had joined cooperatives.
 After one or two years in cooperatives, collectivisation moved to
the final stage, the formation of people’s communes
 People’s communes included several thousand households.
 The people’s communes were not only for agriculture but local
government.
 The people’s communes made decisions for their development.
 People in the rural areas had the responsibility to develop their
communities.
 They organised education, provided health care and developed local
industry.
 People’s communes aimed at total self-sufficiency of the people.
 It meant each people’s commune would produce all they needed, e.g.
textbooks, food etc.

The Hundred Flowers Policy

  The idea came from a Chinese classic, ‘Let a hundred flowers blossom
and let a hundred schools of thought be contend’.
 Mao was happy with the economic and political progress of his country.
 The policy was passed in 1957. People were asked to say what they thought
of the new regime.
 A lot of criticism was said and shocked the CCP.
 The CCP realised that freedom of speech was dangerous.
 The policy of a hundred flowers was ended.
 The right to freedom of speech was withdrawn.

The Great Leap Forward

 It was launched in 1958.

 Was the second Five-Year Plan.
 Was the final stage in the collectivisation of the peasantry.
 Aimed to make China industrially strong within 14 years.
 Three major goals of the Great Leap Forward:

- To reduce inequality between the countryside and the urban areas.

- To give more decision-making powers to people in the rural areas.

- To increase production by using human labour instead of heavy machines.

 The major tasks of this plan were:

- Promoting agricultural production.

- Developing heavy industry e.g. fuel and electric power.

- Promoting and improving people’s living standards, culture, education

and health.

 Government encouraged all people from peasants to professors to produce

steel in backyard furnaces, even in rural areas.
 Backyard steel production was designed to:
- Increase steel production.

- Produce eleven million tonnes of steel.

- Teach peasants the process of industrial production.

- Make millions of uneducated people familiar with modern methods of

production and technology.

 A lot of poor quality and useless steel was produced because the small
furnaces could not generate enough heat.
 Several factories were built with Russian aid.
 During the Great Leap Forward period (1959 to 1961), there were poor
harvests and severe drought in northern China and floods in Southern
China.
 Drought, floods and poor farming methods reduced agricultural output by a
third.
 Improved rail, road and canal systems were used to move grain to affected
areas easily.
 About 15 million tonnes of grain was brought in from Austria and Canada.
 There was strict food rationing.
 China’s foreign currency was depleted.
 China was humiliated as she hated to rely on the devils (capitalists).
 Oil for domestic use was produced during the Great Leap Forward. Some
was exported.
 Most Great Leap Forward goals were not achieved.
 The drought and floods made communist leaders realise how dependent
they were on agriculture.
 The emphasis then shifted from industry to agriculture.
 Cooperative farms were joined into communes of between 20 000 to 30
000 households to increase efficiency and output.
 The peasants resented communes.
 Huge machines could be used productively on bigger fields resulting in
irrigation schemes and reclaiming of wasteland.
 By 1958 more than 99% of the peasants were in People’s Communes.
  Some 40 000 people would work on a project such as building bridges,
roads and irrigation systems.
 Many Chinese people improved their life styles.

Problems of the Great Leap Forward

 Much planning was done by inexperienced people leading to bad decisions,

e.g. the backyard steel production project.
 People criticised the Great Leap Forward project and Mao Zedong, its main
organiser.
 Poor organisation and planning affected China in 1958 and 1960 adversely.
 Many people died of starvation.
 Emphasis was on heavy industry and other sectors were neglected.
 The Great Leap Forward was a shift from the Soviet style of socialism.
 China and the Soviet Union became enemies because of different
models of building socialism.
 In the Soviet Union, workers but not peasants were the main targets of
socialist policies.
 The Soviet Union withdrew all its financial aid, engineers, doctors and
technicians from China.
 Projects were left uncompleted.
 By the 1970s rice was still rationed in Beijing.
 There were no private cars.
 £20 was still the average monthly wage.

Chinese versus Russian model of building socialism

There were three major differences:

 The Soviet Union model was based on heavy industry and industrial
workers.
 The Chinese was based on the peasants.
  The Soviet Union forced people into state farms while the Chinese
persuaded people.
 In the Soviet Union, all planning of production was done by the central
government but in China it was done locally.

Disagreements between China and Russia

 There were accusations and counter-accusations between China and

Russia.
 The Soviet Union (Khrushchev) talked of two things:

- Peaceful co-existence between capitalism and communism.

- That there would be a devastating war in the face of nuclear power between
communist and capitalist countries.

 Mao Zedong declared that:

- Communist countries should not fear war.

- People under the imperialist and capitalist system should make a revolution
to free themselves.

- Contradictions between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat can be resolved

only with a proletariat revolution.

- People who are already on the socialist road need to carry their revolutions
forward to the end.

 Mao blamed the Russians for giving up the struggle to spread the influence
of communism.

Women and the Chinese Revolution

 Women were liberated by the Marriage Law of 1950.

 It made it illegal to kill or sell children.
  It also banned pre-arranged marriages. Before 1949 a grown up girl would
be pledged in marriage by her parents to an infant.
 When this law was passed many women applied for divorce.
 A marriage could only be contracted if the men had reached 20 years of age
and the girl 18 years.
 Husbands and wives were companions living together and would enjoy
equal status in the home.
 Both wife and husband were to have equal rights in the possession of
family property.
 Both wife and husband had a right to use his or her family name.
 Children born out of wedlock still enjoyed the same rights as children born
in wedlock.

The Birth Control Programme of 1970

 Improvements in agriculture and the provision of services led to a rise in

the standard of living and an increase in birth and low mortality rate.
 This eroded the advantages of increased production.
 As a result the government put in place a huge birth control programme in
1970 – the one-child policy.
 Numerous abortions were carried out as mostfa milies wanted one male
child.

Cultural Revolution

 It was a campaign against corruption, waste and elitism.

 It was launched in 1966.
 It nearly plunged China into a civil war but it is not clear as to what caused
it.
 By the mid 1960s some CCP leaders thought that China was facing serious
problems.
  Mao and the other leaders thought that Chinese progress towards
becoming a modern state was being slowed down by people who were
taking the ‘capitalist’ road
 Mao believed that it was CCP leaders who were guilty of following
capitalism instead of socialism.
 Mao believed that a revolution was a continuous process. About 200
million people had grown up in peace since 1949. These people knew
nothing about the hardships of a revolution.
 The traditional non-communist attitudes were beginning to re-emerge.
 University education meant gaining the best jobs, government posts and
membership of the CCP.
 Mao feared that the ideals of the revolution could be overshadowed if
China would be administered by civil servants with little experience of the
political struggle.
 In short, Mao seemed to have considered that a new class of party officials
which saw itself as superior was growing.
 So if that was allowed to develop China would lose the path to
communism.
 The cultural revolution was, therefore, designed to purify the

bureaucracy that had grown up in China since 1949 and prevent the Chinese
people from adopting soft western capitalist styles and ideals

 During the height of the revolution (1966 -1969) no one in power was safe
from criticism.

Criticism was very public.

 Mao put a big character poster in which he called upon the people to
‘bombard’the party headquarters.
 Students, the army and workers responded to Mao’s call:

- They marched to offices or homes of the supposedly corrupt officials.

- Officials were forced to confess to their crimes.

- Some officials were beaten and others were demoted.

- Some officials were sent to the rural areas which were taken as
rehabilitation areas.

- Others were imprisoned and were re-educated through manual labour.

- They also attended political education meetings.

 During the revolution much of China came to a standstill:

- Most universities closed down.

- Students went to the rural areas to assist the peasants in production and
development. Their slogan was ‘Serve the People’.

- Their bible was the Red Book by Mao.

- Mao became a god of some kind.

- Huge posters of Mao appeared everywhere.

- People on the streets and buses could be seen reading the Red Book.

- To follow Mao’s way was to serve the people and to serve the peasantry in
particular.

- 70% of the Chinese lived in the rural areas.

- An important event in the Cultural Revolution was the ‘January Power Seizure’
where workers took over the running of the railways.

- They claimed that the railways were being run corruptly and inefficiently.

- The cultural movement was spearheaded by the Red Guards.

- Mao encouraged the students and young people to form revolutionary

bands.
- These Red Guards moved about demonstrating against teachers and people in
authority; denouncing the enemies of Mao; attacking and replacing mayors,
governors and officials whom they thought were not pure communists.

 The Red Guards demanded that admission to the university was not
supposed to depend on examination results but on the person’s value to
the state.
 It was supposed to be based on the number of hours a person had worked
in agriculture or served in the Red Army or industry
 Mao then disbanded the Red Guards for they were a danger if they got out
of control.
 Young urban Red Guards were sent to the rural areas to learn the true
revolutionary attitude.
 By 1970 the Cultural Revolution was winding down
 The revolution had moved China closer to equality.
 Corrupt and proud officials had been displaced.
 Urban people with no respect for the rural folk had been re-educated.
 Production and education had been disrupted by political campaigns.
 Some innocent officials were attacked for taking a ‘capitalist’ road.
 The Chinese government did not officially declare the end of the Cultural
Revolution until the death of Mao Zedong in 1976.
 Mao was succeeded by Deng Ziaoping (Xiaoping) who dismantled the
communist system.
 He allowed foreign business to operate in China and also allowed private
property.
 Deng made changes because agriculture was inefficient, power
supplies were inadequate and the oil industry was using out dated
equipment.
The United Nations
 The United Nations (UN) is an international organisation. It was created
after World War II following the collapse of the League of Nations. It was
established on 24 October 1945. 24 October is celebrated as the UN Day.
There were 51 original member states. The UN ensures world peace and
security.

Formation of the UN

 After the Second World War, and the ineffectiveness of the League of
Nations, there was need to maintain world peace.
 Nations tried to maintain peace by using the balance of power among the
states of Europe.
 Weapons of mass destruction like atomic bombs were used in the Second
World War.
 This made the need for a more efficient way of ensuring world peace
urgent.
 The Atlantic Charter of 1941 became the first step towards the formation of
the UN.
 The term UN was coined by Roosevelt in 1942
  Twenty six nations signed the declaration of the UN in Washington but
these nations were more concerned with winning the war against Nazism.
 Fifty countries met in San Francisco in 1945 and came up with a final draft
of the UN.
 The UN Charter was ratified by China, France, the UK, the USA, and USSR.
 The six official languages of the UN are Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian and Spanish.
 The UN headquarters are in New York City.
 The land and buildings where the UN is based are international property.
 The UN has its own flag, post office and postage stamps.

The aims of the UN

 The UN Charter/constitution is the supreme law of the UN.

 It sets out rights and obligations of the member states.
 It established its organs and procedures.
 The UN aims to:

- maintain peace and security;

- deal with aggression in conformity with principles of international law

and justice;

- develop friendly relations on the principle of equal rights and self-

determination;

- achieve international cooperation by encouraging respect for human

rights and freedoms;

- be the centre for harmonising the actions.

The Principles of the UN

 All member states have sovereign equality.

 All members must obey the Charter.
  Countries must settle their differences through peaceful means.
 Countries must avoid force nor threaten to use force.
 The UN may not interfere in domestic affairs of any country.
 Countries should try to assist the UN.

The UN membership

 At first it was confined to those states that had declared war on Germany
but its membership is now open to all peace-loving nations.

The structure of the UN

The Charter established six major organs, namely:

 General Assembly.
 Security Council.
 Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
 Trusteeship Council.
 International Court of Justice.
 Secretariat.

General assembly

 It is the main organ of the UN.

 It is like a “world” parliament.
 It was established during the League of Nations period.
 The assembly is composed of all member states
 It is a debating chamber.
 It is headed by a president.
 The presidency rotates annually among the five groups of states, namely
African region, Asian region, Eastern Europe region, Western Europe
region and Americas region.
 This is meant to promote equitable geographical representation.
 Each member state has one vote no matter how big or small, rich or poor.
  Decisions are reached by a simple majority.
 But decisions on important issues like peace and security, admission of new
members and the budget require a two-thirds majority.
 Decisions of the General Assembly are recommendations and
cannot be enforced but they carry weight because they represent the
opinion of the world community.
 It meets once a year from September to mid- December. It can hold
emergency or special sessions when there is urgent business to be done.
 Each country is represented by a senior diplomat or a foreign minister or
heads of state.
 The General Assembly is there to:

- Discuss any question relating to international peace and security.

- Make recommendations for peaceful settlement on any situation

threatening friendly relations.

- Receiving and considering reports from the Security Council and other UN
organs.

- Considering and approving the UN budget.

- Electing non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of

the Economic and Social Council and of the Trusteeship Council.

- Electing jointly the Security Council, the judges of the International Court of
Justice and the Secretary-General.

 The General Assembly has the power to take action if the Security Council
fails.

The Security Council

 It was called the League Council but it is now called the Security Council.
 It is the most powerful UN organ.
 It is like a cabinet.
  It is made up of five permanent members of the UN namely Britain, China,
France, the USA and the Russian Republic.
 These are added to the 10 temporary members who are chosen by the
General Assembly for a term of two years.
 Each council member has one vote.
 The permanent members have the right of veto.
 A Security Council decision is binding on the General Assembly.
 This means there is no majority rule in the UN but dictatorship by the
minority.
 The Council can be summoned at any time.
 The function and powers of the Security Council are:

- Maintaining peace and security.

- Investigating any dispute which might lead to international conflict.

- Stopping wars which have started.

- Deploying military observers as a peace- keeping force to areas of conflict.

- Recommending methods or terms of settlement over disputes.

- Taking military action against an aggressor.

- Recommending the admission of new members.

- Electing judges of the International Court of Justice.

- Prosecuting someone guilty of violating international law.

- Observing elections.

- Recommending to the General Assembly the appointment of a Secretary

General.

The Secretariat of the UN

  It is headed by the Secretary-General.
 The Secretary-General and the Secretariat staff are international civil
servants.
 They report to the UN only.
 The Secretary-General serves for a period of five years but can be re-
elected for another five years.
 The functions of the Secretariat include:

- Administering peacekeeping operations, programmes and policies.

- Mediating in international disputes.

- Organising international conferences.

- Interpreting speeches and translating documents into the UN’s official

languages.

- Preparing UN reports and publications.

- Carrying out the recommendations of the Security Council.

 The Secretariat decides which country is to provide troops to a troubled

spot.
 It organises their transport, supplies, equipment and appoints
commanders.

UN Secretary- Generals include:

- Mr Kofi Annan of Ghana (1997-2007).

- Boutros Boutros- Ghali of Egypt (1992-1996).

- Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru (1982-1991).

- Kurt Waldheim of Austria (1972-1981).

- U Thant of Burma or Myanmar (1961-1971).

- Dag Hammarskfold of Sweden (1953-1961).

- Trygue Lie of Norway (1946-1952).

- Ban Ki Moon of South Korea (2008-).

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

 It is made up of fifty-four members who serve for a period of three years.

 Voting is by simple majority. Each member has one vote.
 It aims to get international cooperation of educational, economic,
financial, cultural, health, labour, agricultural as well as humanitarian work.
 Its functions are:

- Serving as a central forum for the discussion in international economic and

social issues of global nature.

- Initiating studies and reporting on economic, social, cultural and health

matters.

- Promoting respect and observance of human rights and basic freedoms.

- Coordinating the activities of the specialised agencies and programmes.

The ECOSOC is helped by other bodies to do its work e.g.:

 Population Commission
 Commission on Human Rights
 Committee on Non-Governmental Organisations
 Committee on Negotiation with Inter-governmental Agencies

International Court of Justice

 It was formed in 1946. It is commonly known as the World Court.

  It is in the Hague in the Netherlands (Holland.)
 It is open to all members.
 It has fifteen judges who are elected by the General- Assembly.
 Judges are chosen on the basis of merit and not nationality.
 Care is taken to ensure that the chief legal systems of the world like English
Law, Roman-Dutch Law and American Law are represented.
 The Court’s function is to settle legal disputes and give legal advice.
 Settling legal disputes between member states e.g.:

- economic rights

- mineral rights

- fishing rights

- ownership of uninhabited islands

- land boundaries

 Giving legal advice to the UN specialised agencies.

The Trusteeship Council

 It was established by the Charter in 1945.

 It has five permanent members of the Security Council. The functions of
the organ are:

- Looking after the rights and interests of the territories which have not become
independent.

- Help the trust territories to become independent.

The UN in action

 The UN was involved in settling disputes in Africa, the Americas, Asia and
Europe from the 1950s to the 1990s.
  There were inter-state (between states) conflicts and intra-state conflicts
(conflicts within states) in the 1990s.

Angola

 In 1975 a civil war broke out between Government forces (MPLA) and
UNITA, the opposition forces led by Jonas Savimbi.
 The UN mediated between the warring parties.
 It imposed arms and oil embargo on UNITA.
 It established the following peace keeping missions:

- 1989 – a mission to monitor the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola.

- 1991 – a mission to monitor the ceasefire and observing the 1992 elections.

- 1995 mission to monitor the integration of UNITA into government.

- the UN observer mission, MONYA, to help restore peace.

 However, a war broke out again in 1993.

 Peace returned to Angola after the death of Savimbi in 2002.

Burundi

 There were ethnic wars between the Hutu and Tutsi since 1963.
 President Habiyarimana (a Hutu) and six ministers were killed in a coup in
1993.
 A civil war followed and about 150 000 were people killed in three
years.
 An agreement between the warring parties led to peace and a new
government.
 A Tutsi-led military coup deposed the President and new government in
1996.
 The Security Council condemned the coups and called for peace.
 Fighting continued resulting in internal displacement of people.
  In 1996 Julius Nyerere began mediation efforts.
 Nelson Mandela continued with mediation after Nyerere’s death.
 Then the Peace and Reconciliation Agreement was signed in Arusha in
Tanzania in August 2000.

Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)

 In 1996 Zairean Tutsi led by Laurent Kabila clashed with the pro-Hutu army
of President Mobutu Sese Seko.
 Kabila’s Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (ADFL),
helped by Rwanda and Uganda, took Kinshasa in 1997
 450 000 people became refugees and many others were displaced
internally.
 In 1998 a rebellion against Kabila started in Kivu Province.
 Kabila was helped by Angola, Namibia and Zimbabwe.
 The UN deployed 90 UN military officers.
 In 1999 the UN Security Council established the UN Mission in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC).

UN specialised agencies

 Specialised agencies are part of the UN system.

 They are separate and autonomous inter- governmental
organisations.
 Each agent has a specific work to do.
 They depend on funds contributed by member states to achieve their
goals.
 Examples of specialised agencies are: United Nations International
Children’s Fund (UNICEF); International Labour Organisation (ILO); Food
and Agricultural Organisation (FAO); UNESCO; World Health Organisation
(WHO) and International Monetary Fud (IMF).
United Nations International Children’s Fund (UNICEF)

UNICEF is mandated by the United Nations General

Assembly to:

 Advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet their basic
needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential
 Establish children’s rights as enduring ethical principles and international
standards of behaviour towards children.
 Mobilise political will and material resources to help countries,

particularly developing countries, ensure a ‘first call for children’ and to build
their capacity to form appropriate policies and deliver services for children and
their families

 .Ensurespecialprotectionforthemostdisadvantaged children – victims of

war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation and
those with disabilities.
 Respond in emergencies to protect the rights of children. In everything it
does, the most disadvantaged children and the countries in greatest need
have priority.
 Promote the equal rights of women and girls and to support their full
participation in the political, social, and economic development of their
communities.

International Labour Organisation (ILO)

 It was established in 1919 by the League of Nations.

 It seeks to promote social justice as well as human and labour rights
 To improve working and living conditions of workers and to create
international labour standards.
 It also engages in training, education and research.
 It is involved in the fight against HIV/AIDS and child labour.
Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO)

 It was founded on 16 October 1945.

 16 October is observed yearly as World Food Day.
 It is responsible for rural development.
 It aims to alleviate poverty and hunger by promoting agricultural
development.
 It works to improve nutrition and food security.
 Food security refers to the access of all people at all times to the food they
need for an active and healthy life.
 FAO helps member states in seed production, soil protection, conservation,
animal disease control and land reform.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

 Created in 1946.
 It aims to build lasting peace and to promote a culture of peace.
 It works in the area of education, natural sciences, social and human
sciences, culture and communication.

World Health Organisation (WHO)

 It aims to improve health and quality of life for all.

 Its work involves disease control and to eradicate diseases, e.g. cholera,
malaria and tuberculosis.
 It also strives to reduce death rates and create a healthy environment.

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

 Established at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944.

 It provides temporary funds to member states that have balance of
payment problems and debts.
 IMF funds are given conditionally.
The strengths and weaknesses of the UN

Strengths

 The UN has managed to maintain peace and stability in the world.

 Has managed to raise several peace-keeping forces.
 Its successes are based on the fact that it carries the weight of the world
opinion.
 It also uses various methods to maintain peace, e.g. mediation, economic
sanctions, arms and trade embargoes and military action.
 The UN’s impartiality allows it to deal with any crisis.

Weaknesses

 Duplication: Many of its specialised agencies deal with HIV/AIDS, disease

control, sanitation, etc. This is a waste of resources.
 The UN needs to coordinate the work of its agencies in order to avoid
duplication.
 Standing army: It does not have its own standing army. It depends on
military personnel and equipment contributions from member states
during emergencies.
 This arrangement delays the UN’s response to emergencies.
 It makes the UN face difficulties to deal with a war between super powers.
 Veto power: The idea of veto power and permanent members makes it
undemocratic and contradicts UN CharterArticle 2 which says, “The
Organisation is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all
members”.
 Therefore, there is need to reform the UN so that all members, big or small,
rich or poor, are equal.
 The present arrangements make the UN vulnerable to the dictates of the
superpowers.
  It allows rich members to manipulate the UN or ignore it altogether like
what the USA and UK did in Iraq in 2003; and also what NATO did in
Yugoslavia which led to the division in the Security Council.
 It depends on voluntary contributions to its budget.
 This makes the UN fail to raise adequate funds for its operations.

The Organisation of African Unity (OAU)/ African

Union (AU)
 There was need to decolonise Africa. This could only be done if Africa was
united under an organisation that could spearhead the fight against
colonialism. The OAU was formed to fight colonialism and to promote unity
and solidarity among African states. The OAU was born on 25 May 1963 in
Addis Ababa in Ethiopia.
 The OAU is commended for decolonising Africa.
  But Africa still has to fight poverty, famine, illiteracy and disease. Faced
with such challenges, the OAU changed its name to the African Union (AU)
on 10 July 2002 in Durban, South Africa.
 The AU has the same objectives as the OAU.

The origins of the OAU

 Pan Africanism resulted from a common experience of oppression,

discrimination and exploitation of the people of Africa.
 Pan-Africanism refers to a desire to bring together all black peoples of the
world in a common struggle for freedom, equality, self-confidence and self-
determination.
 Pan-Africanists claimed that:

- Africa is a single unit which must unite.

- The people of Africa are similar.

- The people of Africa were once taken as slaves and colonised.

- There is a deep cultural unity among all the people of Africa.

Formation of the OAU

 Ghana became independent in 1957 under Kwame Nkrumah who

declared, “Ghana’s independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with
the total liberation of Africa.”
 His sentiments were shared by Sekou Toure of Guinea resulting in the
Ghana-Guinea Union. Modibo Keita of Mali joined in.
 In April 1958 Nkrumah called for the first Accra Conference of Independent
African States.
 Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Libya, Morocco, Sudan and Tunisia
attended.
 These leaders agreed to form an African Common Market and Heads of
Independent African States and would meet once in two years.
  The leaders formed the Pan-African Freedom
MovementforEastandCentralAfrica(PAFMECA).
 In December 1958, Nkrumah called for the All - Africa People’s conference
(AAPC).
 Delegates came from all of Africa including Holden Roberto (Angola),
Patrice Lumumba (Congo) and Tom Mboya (Kenya).
 They agreed to form a United States of Africa.
 Efforts to unite Africa were hampered by political, economic and linguistic
differences.
 The idea of African unity divided the delegates.
 ButTwo main groups emerged:

(i) The Casablanca group

- Group met in Casablanca in Morocco.

- The members were Ghana, Guinea, Mali, Morocco, Libya, Egypt and
Algeria.

- They wanted the United States of Africa immediately.

- They also wanted a strong federation ofAfrican states, a joint military

command, an African common market and a socialist development of Africa.

(ii) The Monrovia group

- Group met in Monrovia in Liberia in May 1961.

- The members were Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Liberia,
Madagascar, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Togo,
Tunisia and Upper Volta.

- In January 1962 they adopted a draft charter for an organisation of inter-

African and Malagasy states.
- They wanted a gradual move to African unity beginning with coordination of
efforts in foreign affairs, health, economic development and education.

 In May 1961, 20 countries met in Monrovia to resolve the differences

between the Casablanca and Monrovia Groups.
 Emperor Haile Selassie (Ethiopia) worked on resolving the differences
between the two groups.
 A meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs from 30 countries met in Addis
Ababa in May 1963.
 They prepared an agenda for a conference of Africa Heads of State and
Government.
 The Heads of State conference was held in Addis Ababa from 23 May 1963.
 Emperor Haile Salassie chaired the conference.
 The Charter to establish the OAU was approved.
 30 Heads of State and Government signed it on 25 May 1963 (Africa Day
today).
 Its headquarters was in Addis Ababa.
 Its official languages were Arabic, English and French.

The founding fathers of the OAU were:

- Kwame Nkrumah – Ghana

- Modibo Keita – Mali

- Sekou Toure – Guinea

- Ben Bella – Algeria

- Nasser – Egypt

- Azikiwe – Nigeria

Emperor Haile Selassie –Ethiopia Aims of the OAU

  To promote the unity and solidarity of the African States.
 To coordinate the efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa.
 To defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence.
 To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa.
 To promote international cooperation.
 To achieve these goals, member states pledged themselves to harmonise
their policies in the following fields:

- political and diplomatic cooperation;

- economic cooperation, including transport and communication;

- educational and cultural cooperation;

- health, sanitation, and nutritional cooperation;

- scientific and technical cooperation; and

- cooperation for defence and security.

OAU guiding principles

 The sovereign equality of all member states.

 Non-interference in the internal affairs of states.
 Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and for its
inalienable right to independent existence.
 Peaceful settlement of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation
or arbitration.
 Unreserved condemnation in all its forms, of political assassination as
well as of subversive activities on the part of neighbouring states or any
other states.
 Absolute dedication to the total emancipation of the African territories
which are still dependent.
 Affirmation of a policy of non-alignment with regard to all blocs.
Membership

It is open to all independent African states.

Organs of the OAU

 General Assembly
 Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs
 General Secretariat
 OAU Coordinating Committee for the Liberation of Africa
 Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration

General Assembly/ Assembly of Heads of State and Government

 It is the supreme organ and policy making body of the OAU.

 It coordinates all activities of the OAU.
 It is made up of the heads of state and government.
 It has power to review the structure, functions and activities of all organs.
 It makes decisions and adopts resolutions.
 Each member state has one vote.
 Unlike the UN, no member state has a power of veto.
 Decisions are determined by a two-thirds majority.
 It deals with applications for membership
 Directs the process of conflict resolution.
 It has overseas specialised agencies.
 It meets once a year.

Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs

 It is made up of ministers of foreign affairs.

 It approves the budget and prepares conferences.
 It is responsible to the Assembly.
 It sets the agenda for the General Assembly.
  It implements the decisions of the General Assembly.
 Each member has one vote.
 It meets twice a year.

General Secretariat

 It is the central and permanent organ of the OAU.

 It is appointed by the General Assembly.
 It is made up of full time civil officials who run the day-to-day business of
the OAU.
 It draws up agendas for Assembly and Council meetings.
 It can carry out resolutions and decisions of the OAU.
 It prepares reports on the activities of the OAU.
 It keeps all documents and files of the organs.
 It prepares the programme and budget of the OAU for each year.
 It is headed by a Secretary General appointed by the General Assembly.
 The Secretary General reports to the OAU and does not receive any
instruction from any government or individual.

The Coordinating Committee for the Liberation of Africa (OAU Liberation

Committee)

 The most successful was the Coordinating Committee for the

Liberation of Africa (OAU Liberation Committee).
 It was set up in 1963 to help liberation movements with weapons, military
equipment, travel documents and money.
 ZANU, FRELIMO, ANC, SWAPO and MPLA benefited from it.
 At a UN meeting, the OAU Liberation Committee called on Western powers
to impose economic sanctions on apartheid South Africa.
 The OAU faced problems because some countries did not break diplomatic
and trade ties with South Africa, e.g. Malawi.
 Zaire continued to trade with Israel and did not cut diplomatic and trade
ties with Israel in support of Palestine.
  There have been many civil wars, ethnic violence, coups and border
disputes.
 Examples of coups: Jerry Rawlings staged a coup in Ghana, Idi Amin in
Uganda and several coups in Nigeria
 Ethnic clashes in Rwanda and Burundi between the Hutu and Tutsi in 1994
and 1995, respectively.
 Civil wars inAngola (1975 – 2002), in Mozambique (1975 -1999), in Liberia
(1989 -1997)
 Border disputes: Ethiopia and Eritrea; Sudan and South Sudan; Nigeria and
Cameroon.
 Africa has also faced the following problems:

- The principle of non-interference

- Colonial history

- One party states

- Religions

- Multi-party democracy

- Different types of governments.

Weaknesses of the OAU

 The OAU has no power to reprimand, suspend, expel or impose sanctions

against misbehaving states.
 The “no interference in other states’internal affairs” position is a
constitutional weakness of the African Charter.
 It allows some states to get away with murder.
 Idi Amin, a dictator, became OAU chairman.
 The OAU has limited resources and funds.

African Union (AU)

 The transition from OAU to AU was clearly intended to transform the
institutional framework for realising the pan-African vision and mission
from what some critics regarded as a mere ‘talking shop’ to an action-
oriented forum.
The Commonwealth of Nations
 The Commonwealth is a successor to the British Empire. It is made up of
former British colonies which are now independent states. Britain formed it
in order to keep control over the independent states.

The origins of the Commonwealth of Nations

 The British colonies of North America were thefirst to request for self-
government.
 Britain feared to lose markets and sources of raw materials and so refused
to give them independence.
 America fought the British and became independent on 4 July 1776 as the
United States of America (USA).
 Australia, Canada, Irish Free State, New Zealand and South Africa achieved
dominion status between 1867 and 1921; they broke away from the British
Empire.
 They formed, together with the UK, the British Commonwealth of Nations.
 At independence, India, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) and Pakistan joined the
Commonwealth of Nations.
 The independent countries became republics and did not recognise the
British Monarch as head of state.
 Britain once boasted that, “The sun does not set in the British Empire.”
Now it was setting and setting forever.
 The emergence of republics caused a constitutional crisis and in April 1949,
8 Commonwealth Prime Ministers met in London to discuss the problem.
 The eight countries were: Australia; Britain; Canada; New Zealand; Sri
Lanka; Pakistan; India; South Africa
  They discussed India’s application to join the Commonwealth upon
becoming a republic in July 1949.
 The Nehru Formula of 1949 forbade the British Monarch from being the
Head of State of Commonwealth countries but only the Head of the
Commonwealth.
 Commonwealth states would not swear an oath of allegiance to the British
Monarch.
 The Nehru Formula changed the British Commonwealth of Nations
from a relic of the British Empire to a cooperative association of free and
sovereign nations which were united not only by their colonial past.
 So it became the Commonwealth of Nations rather than the British
Commonwealth of Nations.
 The Nehru Formula resulted in the expansion in the membership for it
allowed non-British colonies to become members.
 Most of the members have a shared past of having been once subjects of
the British Empire, share common heritage in language (English), culture,
law and education.
 The Commonwealth is a voluntary organisation.
 It has no Charter and its membership is entirely voluntary.
 Only independent countries can be members of the Commonwealth.
 Dependent countries that are linked to member countries are eligible
for assistance.
 Members contribute to the Commonwealth’s development funds.
 Heads of governments, ministers responsible for health, law, finance,
science, women affairs and youths meet regularly to consult.

The work of the Commonwealth is done through cooperation at three levels:

- Working together in international forums to advance causes of particular

concern to the association.

- Learning from each other through their regular meetings.

- Sharing skills and training facilities.

Aims of the Commonwealth

 To fight to end racism, racial and social domination, and monitoring the
rule of law.
 To promote sustainable economic and social development through
technical cooperation.
 To campaign for democracy.
 To observe general elections and to give legal and technical help to those
holding elections.
 To remove poverty, ignorance, disease and raising the standards of living.
 To foster human equality and dignity
 To promote tolerance, combat injustice.
 To promote international cooperation in order to remove the causes

of war.

Commonwealth membership

 Commonwealth states differ in race, colour, creed and political ideology.

 Some nations are industrialised and others are poor and agricultural
 Some nations are democracies and others are dictatorships.
 Some are capitalist and others socialist.
 The Commonwealth members include: India, Canada, Pakistan,
Namibia, Singapore, Malaysia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Bangladesh,
Britain, Lesotho, Swaziland, Sri Lanka and Ghana
 Zimbabwe withdrew from the Commonwealth due to differences over the
land reform programme.

Criteria for Commonwealth membership

 Compliance with Commonwealth values, principles and priorities.

  Acceptance of Commonwealth norms and conventions, e.g. the use of
English as a common language at meetings.
 Having a constitutional association with an existing Commonwealth
member.

The Head of the Commonwealth

 Sixteen independent states (e.g. Australia, Bahamas, Barbados,

Canada, Fiji Islands, Grenada, Jamaica, Mauritius, New Zealand,

Papua New Guinea, Trinidad and Tobago etc.) recognise the British Monarch as
their head of state.

 The queen/King has the following roles as Head of the Commonwealth:

- To hold discussions with Commonwealth leaders in the national capital

centres.

- To visit the host countries during each summit and meeting the leaders.

- Making state visits to all commonwealth states.

- Delivering Commonwealth Day Broadcast.

- Being present at other Commonwealth Day events.

Organs of the Commonwealth

The most important organs are:

 Commonwealth Secretariat
 Fund for Technical Co-operation
 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
 Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group
The Commonwealth Secretariat

 Established in 1965.
 Before its establishment, the affairs and meetings of its Heads of State were
administered by the British Government through the Commonwealth
relations office in the Whitehall.
 It is headed by a Secretary General chosen by heads of government and
state.
 It has over 300 staff members.
 Its headquarters is in London.
 The work of the Secretariat includes:

- Promoting consultation and cooperation among the member states.

- Organising special training programmes.

- Promoting the use of science and technology.

- Advising member states on economic and legal matters.

- Producing programmes to build capacity in health and education.

- Helping member states to reform their public sectors.

- Playing a role in preventive diplomacy and conflict resolution.

The Human Rights Unit

 The Human Rights Unit reports directly to the Deputy Secretary-

General.
 Its work is to:

- Integrate human rights activities across all divisions of the Secretariat.

- Develop programmes aimed at supporting the Commonwealth’s

commitment to the promotion of human rights.
- Publish literature on human rights.

- Cooperate with other non-Commonwealth governments, NGOs and UN

human rights systems.

The Commonwealth of Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM)

 Attended by Commonwealth Heads of Government i.e. Presidents/Prime

Ministers.
 Meets once in two years
 Zimbabwe hosted CHOGM in 1991.
 The Head of State of the host country chairs the meeting.
 During meetings, the leaders:

- Review Commonwealth and global developments.

- Decide on new policies and programmes.

Work of the Commonwealth

Political work

 The Commonwealth strives to promote democracy and human rights.

 It supports member states whose territorial integrity is threatened.
 It fights against racism, e.g. in Zimbabwe during the colonial era and South
Africa during the apartheid era.
 CHOGM was instrumental in imposing economic sanctions on South Africa
during the apartheid era.
 Facilitated the Lancaster House Conference which ended the Second
Chimurenga in Zimbabwe.
 It can suspend member states that violate its principles
 It observes general elections so that votes are not rigged.
 In the 2000 general elections it sent observers to Zimbabwe.
 Members cooperate on defence issues.
Economic work

 It helps member states to reduce rural poverty, to improve food security

and advance rural development.
 It sends economic experts to advise governments on economic policies
 It carries out research on agriculture and makes its findings public.
 It sends humanitarian aid like food to member states.
 It fosters trade links.
 Provides technical assistance.

Social work

 It strives to promote education and health e.g. it offers scholarships for

studies at tertiary and university levels
 It organises Commonwealth Games, every four years.
 The games help to develop a culture of tolerance, acceptance, and
respect of one another, and understanding of people from different
backgrounds.
 The Commonwealth in the new millennium: Challenges
 Major challenges for the Commonwealth in the new millennium:

- Managing problems that may come with diversity.

- Managing the globalisation of the international economy.

 Globalisation refers to the idea of bringing all the countries of the world
close together through improved and better means of communication.
 Diversity is pluralism and is often taken as a positive phenomenon:

- Ethnic, cultural and religious differences can be exploited and cause violence
or division.
- Between 1989 and 1992, 79 of the 82 conflicts were intra-state in nature and
linked to ethnic or religious differences. Examples of these are Kosovo, Sri Lanka,
Bosnia and Rwanda.

 The Commonwealth’s commitment to the pursuit of unity in diversity

makes it a world example in the management of diversity:

- Globalisation has generated new opportunities for creating wealth.

- Globalisation has totally marginalised developing countries.

 The challenge is to find ways of empowering the less privileged countries so

that they benefit from the globalisation process.
 The other challenges are poverty alleviation, reduction of the debt
burden, disease eradication and environmental management.
 Apartheid in South Africa from 1948 was opposed by the six coloured
members of the Commonwealth: India, Pakistan, Malaysia, Nigeria, Ghana
and Sri Lanka. They wanted South Africa to be expelled but the other five
white dominions wanted it in.
 The six coloured members threatened to leave if South Africa was

allowed to stay on. South Africa then resigned.

 When Ian Smith declared UDI in 1965, Rhodesia was not expelled from the
Commonwealth. Some countries wanted Britain to use military force
against Ian Smith but Britain refused.
 Britain lost its military mastery. It cannot defend its dominions like Australia
and New Zealand which are far away.
 Australia and New Zealand formed a mutual defence treaty with the
USA.
 Other members have formed alliances with non- commonwealth members,
e.g. Canada has closer trade ties with the USA. Australia has closer ties with
Japan than Britain. India has closer trade links with Russia than Britain.

The Commonwealth – an assessment

Failures

 It cannot deal with cases of human rights violations and dictatorships, e.g.
Malawi under Banda, Uganda under Idi Amin.
 The Commonwealth has no means to deal with a country that violates its
principles. It can only suspend the country and wait for the country to stop
its violations. A country can decide to leave the association, e.g. South
Africa in 1960, Nigeria and Zimbabwe.
 Its major weakness is its reliance on voluntary contributions from
member states; its operations can be paralysed when members default in
their payments.
 There are divisions along racial lines – it has failed to eradicate racism.

Successes

 Politically, the Commonwealth succeeded in contributing towards

ending colonialism (but racism is still a challenge.)
 It promotes democracy.
 Provides a platform for the discussion on political, social, economic and
technical issues.
 It sends observers during parliamentary and presidential elections in
member states. This helps in reducing vote rigging and bringing credibility
to the elections.
 Under the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation, the
Commonwealth has mounted hundreds of workshops, seminars, and
trained thousands of people.
 Commonwealth Games have been very popularThe Games have also
helped to enhance cooperation among member states.
 Has availed scholarships to deserving students.