Data Acquisition Techniques in
GIS
Datum: A single number or fact; a single entry in
the database.
Data: A collection of facts in the database,
multiple entries.
Dataset: Collection of related data.
Information: Meaning or knowledge of the data
• The processes of data acquisition are also variously referred to as data
capture, data automation, data conversion, data transfer, data translation,
and digitizing
• When acquiring data, one must bear in mind: – Purpose
– Accuracy
– Datum and Map Projection
– Scale
• A key success factor for any GIS is the acquisition of data appropriate for
the applications identified in the needs assessment stage
• Data acquisition traditionally is the most costly component of a GIS
project. (approx. 80%)
• It is important to determine exactly what data is required in terms of
accuracy, resolution, scale, completeness, and consistency
• Data availability and data quality requirements affect the time taken and
cost incurred in database development
Data Acquisition techniques
• Data are needed for mapping, analysis, and modeling in a
geographic information system (GIS).
• Where do we get the data we need? One solution is to
follow the mash-up idea, getting data from different
sources. We can first consider using data from existing data
sources and, if data we need are not available, we can then
consider creating new data.
• There are four main Data acquisition techniques
1. Existing GIS data
2. Conversion of GIS data
3. Metadata
4. Creation of new data
EXISTING GIS DATA
• Since the early 1990s, government agencies at
different levels in countries have set up
websites for sharing public data and for
directing users to the source of the desired
information.
• The Internet is also a medium for finding
existing data from nonprofit organizations and
private companies.
GIS Data from Other Sources
• More global GIS data have become available
in recent years. Table 5.2 lists some
downloadable data at the global scale from
UN organizations and NGOs. LiDAR data have
become the major data source for
high-resolution DEMs.
Metadata
• Metadata provide information about geospatial
data. They are, therefore, an integral part of GIS
data and are usually prepared and entered during
the data production process. Metadata are
important to anyone who plans to use public data
for a GIS project (Comber, Fisher, and Wadsworth
2005). First, metadata let us know if the data
meet our specific needs for area coverage, data
quality, and data currency. Second, metadata
show us how to transfer, process, and interpret
geospatial data. Third, metadata include the
contact for additional information.
• In 1998, the FGDC published the Content Standards for Digital Geospatial
Metadata (CSDGM) (http://www.fgdc.gov/metadata/geospatial
-metadata-standards). These standards cover the following information:
identification, data quality, spatial data organization, spatial reference,
entity and attribute, distribution, metadata reference, citation, time
period, and contact.
• In 2003, the International Organization of Standards (ISO) developed and
approved ISO 19115, “Geographic Information—Metadata.”
• The FGDC has since encouraged federal agencies to make the transition to
ISO metadata.
• To assist in entering metadata, many metadata tools have been developed
for different operating systems. Some tools are free, and some are
designed for specific GIS packages. For example, ArcGIS has a metadata
tool for creating and updating metadata, including CSDGM and ISO
metadata.
CONVERSION OF EXISTING DATA
• Public data are delivered in a variety of formats.
Unless the data format is compatible with the GIS
package in use, we must first convert the data.
Data conversion is defined here as a mechanism
for converting GIS data from one format to
another. Data conversion can be easy or difficult,
depending on the specificity of the data format.
• Proprietary data formats require special
translators for data conversion, whereas neutral
or public formats require a GIS package that has
translators to work with the formats
Direct Translation
• Direct translation uses a translator in a GIS package to
directly convert geospatial data from one format to another
(Figure 5.1).
• ArcToolbox in ArcGIS, for example, can translate
Microstation’s DGN files, AutoCAD’s DXF and DWG files, and
MapInfo files into shapefiles or geodatabases. Likewise,
QGIS, an open sourceGIS, can work with shapefile,
geodatabase, and other file formats.
Neutral Format
• A neutral format is a public or de facto format for data
exchange.
• Although a neutral format is typically used for public data
from government agencies, it can also be found with
“industry standards” in the private sector. A good example
is AutoCAD’s DXF. Another example is the ASCII format.
• An example is the Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS), a
neutral format designed to support all types of spatial data
(Figure 5.2)
CREATION OF NEW DATA
• Different data sources can be used for creating new geospatial data
Remotely Sensed Data
• Satellite images can be digitally processed to produce a wide variety of
thematic data for a GIS project. Land use/land cover data are typically
derived from satellite images. Other types of data include vegetation
types, crop health, eroded soils, geologic features, the composition and
depth of water bodies, and even snowpack.
• Satellite images provide timely data and, if collected at regular intervals,
they can also provide temporal data valuable for recording and monitoring
changes in the terrestrial and aquatic environments.
• DOQs are digitized aerial photographs that have been differentially
rectified to remove image displacements by camera tilt and terrain relief.
DOQs therefore combine the image characteristics of a photograph with
the geometric qualities of a map. DOQs can be effectively used as a
background for digitizing or updating of new roads, new subdivisions, and
timber harvested areas.
Aerial photography
Survey Data
• Survey data consist primarily of distances,
directions, and elevations.
• Distances can be measured in feet or meters using a tape or
an electronic distance measurement instrument.
• The direction of a line can be measured in azimuth or
bearing using a transit, theodolite, or total station. An
azimuth is an angle measured clockwise from the north end of a
meridian to the line. Azimuths range in magnitude from 0° to
360°. A bearing is an acute angle between the line and a
meridian. The bearing angle is always accompanied by letters
that locate the quadrant (i.e., NE, SE, SW, or NW) in which the
line falls
• An elevation difference between two points can be measured in feet or
meters using levels and rods
• In GIS, field survey typically provides data for
determining parcel boundaries. An angle and a
distance can define a parcel boundary between two
stations (points). For example, the description of N45°
30ʹW 500 feet means that the course (line) connecting
the two stations has a bearing angle of 45 degrees 30
minutes in the NW quadrant and a distance of 500
feet (Figure 5.4).
GPS Data
• Using satellites in space as reference points, a global positioning system
(GPS) receiver can determine its precise position on the Earth’s surface.
• GPS data include the horizontal location based on a geographic or
projected coordinate system and, if chosen, the height of the point
location
• A collection of GPS positions along a line can determine a line feature
(Figure 5.5), and a series of lines measured by GPS can determine an area
feature. This is why GPS has become a useful tool for collecting geospatial
data , for validating geospatial data such as road networks and for tracking
point objects such as vehicles and people GPS is also a device important to
OpenStreetMap’s contributors.
• The GPS receiver measures its distance (range) from a satellite
using the travel time and speed of signals it receives from the
satellite.
• With three sat
• ellites simultaneously available, the receiver can determine its
position in space (x, y, z) relative to the center of mass of the
Earth. But to correct timing errors, a fourth satellite is required to
get precise positioning (Figure 5.6).
• The receiver’s position in space can then be converted to latitude,
longitude, and height based on the WGS84 datum.
Text Files with x-, y-Coordinates
• Geospatial data can be generated from a text file that contains x-,
y-coordinates, either geographic (in decimal degrees) or
projected. Each pair of x-, y-coordinates creates a point.
Therefore, we can create spatial data from a file with recorded
locations of weather stations, epicenters, or a hurricane track
• A new data source for x-, y-coordinate data is geotagged photos or
georeferenced photos. Photos taken with GPS-enabled digital
cameras or GPS-integrated cell phones are georeferenced. Flickr,
the photo sharing and social networking website, provides a
geotagging tool. Geotagged photos can be used with a GIS to
analyze, for example, landmark preferences and movement
patterns of tourists
Digitizing Using a Digitizing Table
• Digitizing is the process of converting data
from analog to digital format. Tablet digitizing
uses a digitizing table
• Many GIS packages have a built-in digitizing
module for manual digitizing. The module is
likely to have tools that can help move or snap
a feature (i.e., a point or line) to a precise
location.
Scanning
• A digitizing method, scanning uses a scanner
(Figure 5.12) to convert an analog map into a
scanned file in raster format, which is then
converted back to vector format through tracing
• The simplest type of map to be scanned is a
black-and-white map: black lines represent map
features, and white areas represent the
background
• Color maps, including historical maps can also be
scanned by a scanner that can recognize colors.
On-Screen Digitizing
• On-screen digitizing, also called heads-up
digitizing, is manual digitizing on the computer
monitor using a data source such as Google Maps
or DOQ as the background. The method is useful
for editing or updating an existing layer such as
adding new trails or roads. Likewise, we can use
the method to update new clear-cuts or burned
areas in a vegetation layer. Compared to tablet
digitizing, on-screen digitizing is more comfortable
for the user.
Importance of Source Maps
• Despite the increased availability of
high-resolution remotely sensed data and GPS
data, maps are still an important source for
creating new GIS data. Digitizing, either
manual digitizing or scanning, converts an
analog map to its digital format. The accuracy
of the digitized map can be only as good or as
accurate as its source map.
