CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Alkali-activated concrete (AAC) mixes represent an innovative approach to sustainable

construction, offering an alternative to traditional Portland cement-based concrete. This
advanced construction material utilizes alkali-activated binders, which are derived from
industrial byproducts or natural materials, to create a durable and environmentally friendly
alternative to conventional concrete

The key to alkali-activated concrete lies in the activation of aluminosilicate precursors, such
as fly ash, slag, or metakaolin, with alkaline solutions. These precursors undergo a chemical
reaction when mixed with alkaline activators, typically sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sodium
silicate (water glass), resulting in the formation of a hardened binder matrix. This process,
known as alkali activation or geopolymerization, produces a cementitious material with
excellent mechanical properties, high durability, and resistance to chemical attack.
One of the primary advantages of alkali-activated concrete mixes is their reduced
environmental impact compared to Portland cement-based concrete. By utilizing industrial
byproducts like fly ash and slag, AAC contributes to the recycling and sustainable
management of waste materials, reducing the demand for natural resources and minimizing
carbon emissions associated with cement production. Additionally, alkali-activated concrete
offers improved performance characteristics, including higher compressive strength, lower
shrinkage, and enhanced resistance to alkali-silica reaction and sulfate attack..

Furthermore, alkali-activated concrete mixes can be tailored to meet specific project

requirements by adjusting the composition and proportions of precursors and activators. This
flexibility in formulation allows for the optimization of material properties and performance,
making AAC suitable for a wide range of structural and non-structural applications
.

1
 As the construction industry continues to prioritize sustainability and resilience, alkali-
activated concrete mixes offer a promising solution that aligns with these objectives. With
ongoing research and development efforts, AAC has the potential to revolutionize the way
we build, providing a durable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective alternative to traditional
cement-based materials.

1.2 OVERVIEW
The bond strength of GFRP rebars is significantly influenced by the surface morphology of
the bars. Ribbed GFRP bars exhibit higher bond strength compared to sand-coated or
helically wrapped bars . This is because the ribbed surface provides better mechanical
interlocking with the concrete.
The failure mode of GFRP rebars in AASC varies with the surface treatment. Ribbed GFRP
bars tend to fail due to concrete splitting, while sand-coated bars often fail due to bar slip.
Understanding these failure mechanisms is crucial for designing durable reinforced concrete
structures.
Studies indicate that the compressive strength of the concrete and the thickness of the
concrete cover have a limited impact on the bond strength of GFRP rebars. Instead, factors
like the embedment length and bar diameter are more influential .
GFRP rebars generally exhibit lower bond strengths compared to traditional steel rebars, with
bond strength approximately 42% less than that of steel. However, GFRP rebars offer
significant advantages such as corrosion resistance and higher tensile strength, making them
suitable for use in aggressive environments vii
AASC is made from industrial by-products and provides a sustainable alternative to
traditional Portland cement concrete. Studies have shown promising results for the bond
strength of GFRP rebars in AASC, though further optimization and characterization are
necessary
GFRP rebars are particularly advantageous in corrosive environments, such as coastal areas,
due to their non-corrosive nature. This makes them an excellent alternative to steel rebars in
structures exposed to harsh environmental conditions

2
1.3 RESEARCH GAPS
 Research may be limited regarding the specific combination of GFRP rebars with
alkali- activated slag concrete. There might be a gap in understanding how alkali
activation influences the bond strength of GFRP-reinforced concrete However there
are only few literature available on triple cement concrete with ferrochrome slag as
coarse aggregate.

 There might be a lack of comprehensive studies on the long-term durability of the

bond between GFRP rebars and alkali-activated slag concrete. Research could focus
on assessing performance over extended periods, including exposure to harsh
environmental conditions.

 There could be variations in testing conditions and methodologies across existing

studies, leading to difficulties in comparing results. A research gap may exist in terms
of standardizing testing protocols for bond strength assessments in this specific
context.

 Limited research might address the bond strength characteristics under dynamic
loading conditions. There could be a research gap in understanding how GFRP-
reinforced alkali-activated slag concrete performs under seismic or dynamic
loading scenarios.

3
1.4 OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT

 To develop and optimize the alkali activated mixes using taguchi method
 To evaluate the workability characteristics of Alkali activated slag concrete mix
incorporating recycled coarse and fine aggregate
 Evaluation of mechanical properties like compressive strength for alkali activated
slag concrete mix.
 Evaluate bond strength characteristics GFRP rebars and in alkali activated
slag concrete mixes.

4
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

1. A state-of- the-art review on the durability of geopolymer concrete for sustainable

structures and infrastructure
Author: Muhammad Wasim , Tuan Duc Ngo ,David Law
Outcomes: the influence of corrosion on the durability of GPC. GPC concrete mixes,
mostly fly ash and slag based, were subjected to varying levels of chlorides, acids,
sulfates
2. Flexural behavior of geopolymer- concrete beams longitudinally reinforced with GFRP
and steel hybrid reinforcement
Author: G.B. Maran an ,A.C. ManaloW. Karunas ena ,P. Mendis ,T.Q. Nguye n
Outcomes: The experimental results confirmed the effectiveness of GFRP–steel hybrid
reinforcement system in enhancing the overall structural performance related to
geopolymer-concrete beams reinforced solely with GFRP bars. Based on the
experimental and theoretical investigations, the following conclusions were drawn
The geopolymer-concrete beams with GFRP–steel hybrid reinforcement showed less
severe and more ductile failure with ample prior warning
3. Characteristics and microstructures of the GFRP waste powder/GGBS- based
geopolymer paste and concrete
Author: Chuji Zheng, Jun Wang Hengjuan Liu, Hota GangaRao, Ruifeng Liang
Outcomes: The initial and final setting times of fresh GFRP powder geopolymer paste
are in the range of 138–720 and 450–1,560 min, respectively.
The flowability of the GFRP powder geopolymer paste is in the range of 214–290 mm.
The early activity of the GFRP powder based geopolymers can be accelerated by the
incorporation of GGBS. Both the initial and final setting times of the GFRP
powder/GGBS- based geopolymer pastes were shorter than those of the geopolymer
pastes with GFRP powder alone. The flow value gradually increased with increasing
GFRP powder

5
4. Experimental and analytical study of bond between basalt FRP bars and geopolymer
concrete
Author: Giulia Trabacchin, Wendel Sebastian, Mingzhong Zhang
Outcome: In this paper, a series of pull-out tests were carried out to investigate the bond
behaviour of BFRP bars in GPC, considering the effects of bar diameter and embedment
length Afterwards, a bilinear bond-slip model was proposed to describe the bond-slip
behaviour of BFRP bars in GPC. According to the experimental results and the
theoretical analysis, the main conclusions can be drawn as follows
The bond of BFRP bars in GPC occurs mainly by the mechanical interlocking of the bar

5. Bond mechanism and bond strength of GFRP bars to concrete

Author: Fei Yan, Zhibin Lin, Mijia Yang
Outcomes: There are still no universal analytical models that can be applicable to general
bond-slip behavior of GFRP bar to concrete. BPE modified model and CMR model have
relatively simple form and reliable results that can be applied to investigate bond stress-
slip process. The fitting parameters, a, b and sr, specified in these two models are
generated based on the literature, and the suggested values are

6. Natural fibres and biopolymers in FRP composites for strengthening concrete structures
Author; Chinyere O. Nwankwo , Jeffrey Mah achi , David O. Olukann, Innocent M
usonda
Outcomes: A mixed-method of bibliometric and systematic literature review was done to
converge the current ideas in developing bio- based FRP for strengthening concrete
structures. A total of 87 documents retrieved from SCOPUS and Google scholar based on
specified search parameters were considered for this study. From the bibliometric
analysis, the trend of research output in this area was analysed

6
7. A state-of-the- art review: Shear performance of the concrete beams reinforced with FRP
bars
Author; Xiangzhou Liang , Juanzhao P eng , Ruobing R en
Outcomes: This paper presents a state-of- the-art review of the shear performance of
concrete beams reinforced with FRP bars. This review covers shear failure
characteristics, factors affecting the shear capacity, calculation of shear capacity, shear
durability and long-term prediction, and future research needs for concrete beams
reinforced with FRP bars

8. Bonding property between fiber and cementitious matrix: A critical review

Author :Chen Lin , Terje Kanst ad ,Stefan Jacobsen ,Guomin Ji
Outcomes: The bonding behavior and different bonding mechanisms are discussed
firstly, including the interdiffusion, electrostatic attraction bonding, chemical bonding,
and mechanical interlocking
Cracks would occur in almost all cement-based structures, while fiber reinforcement
provides us a good way to decrease the cracking
the contamination of environment, low efficiency, or huge cost

9. Review of research on Bond–Slip of reinforced concrete structures

Author; Yuanxun Z heng , Congcong Fan ,Junjie Ma Shaoqiang Wang
Outcomes: This work considered RC structures as the review object. The mechanism of
bond–slip failure, test methods, and various factors affecting the stick–slip properties of
RC structures were comprehensively reviewed. The typical constitutive, freeze–thaw
cycle, hightemperature prediction, and chloride-ion erosion models of RC were also
summarized. Further, the stick– slip monitoring technology, experimental methods,
mechanical properties, and influencing factors

7
10. Bond strength characteristics of high strength alkali activated slag concrete mixes
Author: R. Manjunath, MatturC.Nar asimhan Gundupalli B hanu Prakash M.
Saipuspharaj
Outcomes: Higher slump-flow values, greater than 650 mm, were observed for all the
HSAASC mixes proving a better suitability as a pumpable concrete for the current state
of RMC concrete technology
Higher compressive strength values in the range of 76 –90 MPa have been obtained for
all the HSAASC mixes at the age of 90 days as compared to control OPCC mix being 75
MPa at the same age. Again, 70–80% of total compressive strengths have been achieved
by the age of 3-days as observed in case of any AASC

11. A review of drivers for implementing geopolymers in construction: Codes

Author: Andrés Mar tínez , Sabbie A. Miller
Outcomes: An increase in the alkalineactivator liquid content, the water content, the
Na2SiO3/NaOH activation solution ratio, and the use of superplasticizers and spherical-
shaped aggregates enhance the workability of GPC. But increasing the molarity of the
alkaline activator solution, the aggregate to binder ratio, and the pigment content can lead
to a less workable GPC. These parameters and the viscosity of GPC relative to PC
concrete can also affect finishing and placement.

12. Compressive behaviour of FRP-confined rubberised alkali- activated concrete

Author: M.Elzeadani a,D.V. Bompa b ,A.Y.Elghazouli a
Outcomes: The observed volumetric response showed that the behaviour of the FRP
confined specimens shifts from that dominated by compactionexpansion to that fully
dominated by compaction as the number of FRP layers and rubber content increase
The compressive stress-strain response of sufficiently confined specimens can be
represented by an ascending bi-linear curve.

8
13. Factors affecting the structural performance of geopolymer concrete beam composites
Author; Saswat Dwi bedy, Saubhagya Kumar Pani grahi
Outcomes: he durability of any RC structure can be affected by several factors including
chemistry and characteristics of concrete matrix, environmental aspects, material aging,
workmanship, and design criteria adopted
Geopolymer concrete is now awell-recognized building material in the field of research
through fresh, mechanical, and durability aspects, whereas it was not able to gain
popularity in the applied sector. A primary constraint in this regard is the limited studies
on its structural application and the absence of critical reviews of different factors
affecting its structural performance.

14. Bond strength prediction of FRP bars to seawater sea sand concrete based on ensemble
learning models
Author: Pei-Fu Zhang , Mudassir Iq bal,Daxu Zhan g ,Xiao-Ling Zhao,Qi Zhao
Outcomes: RF and XGBoost models were developed for predicting the bond strength
between FRP bars and SWSSC, and then compared to the developed equation for pullout
failures based on the database of ACI 440.1 R-15. The predictions generated by the
developed models were found in better agreement with experimental data compared to
the predictions generated by the previously developed equation.

15. Research on the bonding performance of TRC composite embedded CFRP bars and the
flexural performance of reinforced
Author; Zirui Liu , Shiping Yin, Jiamiao Zheng
Outcomes: The effects of the CFRP bar diameter, slot size and bond length on the
bonding performance of TRC composite embedded CFRP bars and the effects of the
number of TRC layers and slot spacing on the flexural performance of composite
reinforced beams were experimentally investigated and analyzed in the damage pattern of
pullout specimens, bond-slip curves and the average ultimate pull-out load as well as the
beam ultimate load capacity

9
2.2. OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE

All of the AASC mixes had higher slump-flow values—more than 650 mm—which indicates
that they are more suitable as pumpable concrete given the status of RMC concrete
technology today. At 90 days, all of the HSAASC mixes had compressive strength values
between 76 and 90 MPa, which were higher than the 75 MPa of the control OPCC mix at the
same age. Once more, as shown in any AASC, 70–80% of the overall compressive strengths
had been reached by the age of three days...

Fresh GFRP powder geopolymer paste has first and ultimate setting times of 138–720 and
450–1,560 minutes, respectively. The GFRP powder geopolymer paste has a flowability
range of 214–290 mm. By adding GGBS, the early activity of the geopolymers based on
GFRP powder can be expedited. The GFRP powder/GGBS-based geopolymer pastes had
shorter beginning and final setting periods than the geopolymer pastes made solely of GFRP
powder. As the amount of GFRP powder increased, the flow value progressively increased...

As of yet, there are no all-encompassing analytical models that can be used to explain the
bond-slip behavior of GFRP bars to concrete in general. The bond stress-slip mechanism can
be studied using the reasonably straightforward form and trustworthy results of the CMR
model and the BPE modified model. If test data are not available, the suggested values are
categorized based on various surface treatments and bar diameters. The fitting parameters, a,
b, and sr, stated in these two models are developed based on the literature

10
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL CHARACTERISATION AND PROPORTION

3.1 GGBFS

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) is primarily composed of silica (SiO2), alumina
(Al2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), magnesium oxide (MgO), iron oxide (Fe2O3), sulfur trioxide
(SO3), and trace elements. Silica and alumina, originating from raw materials like limestone and
iron ore, constitute a significant portion, with silica typically comprising 30-40% and alumina 8-
20% of its composition. Calcium oxide, a flux added during iron-making, ranges from 35-45%.
Iron oxide, a byproduct of the iron-making process, contributes to color and properties, usually
making up 0.5-5%. GGBS may contain minor amounts of sulfur trioxide, manganese oxide,
potassium oxide, and sodium oxide, among other trace elements. This complex composition
influences its hydraulic activity, strength development, and durability, making it an effective
supplementary cementitious material in concrete production.

FIG 3.1; GGBFS

11
GGBFS MANUFACTURING PROCESS :

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) is manufactured through a series of carefully
controlled processes. Initially, during the iron-making process in blast furnaces, raw materials
such as iron ore, coke, and fluxes are melted to produce molten iron and slag. This slag,
primarily composed of silicates and alumino-silicates along with other elements, is separated
from the molten iron and rapidly cooled through granulation using water or air jets. The resulting
granulated slag is then finely ground in grinding mills to achieve the desired particle size
distribution, enhancing its reactivity and cementitious properties. Throughout the manufacturing
process, stringent quality control measures are implemented to monitor the chemical
composition, particle size distribution, and other properties of the GGBFS to meet industry
standards and specifications. Once processed and quality-tested, the GGBFS is packaged for
distribution to concrete producers and construction companies. This manufacturing process
transforms a byproduct of the iron-making industry into a valuable supplementary cementitious
material, contributing to the sustainability and efficiency of cement production while offering
performance benefits in concrete applications.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:

Chemical Properties

FeO 1.30%

CaO 38-43%

SiO2 32-37%

Al2O3 13-16%

MgO 5-8%

TiO2 1.50%

MnO 0.50%

TABLE 3.1 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF GGBFS

12
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

Physical Properties

Bulk Density 850 kg/m3

Glass content >85%

Angle of repose Approx 35

Chloride ion <0.025%

TABLE 3.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GGBFS

3.2 SODIUM SILICATE

Sodium silicate, also known as water glass, is a versatile chemical compound with various
industrial applications. It is produced by fusing sodium carbonate (soda ash) and silica sand at
high temperatures, resulting in a clear, viscous liquid or solid form, depending on its
concentration. Sodium silicate finds widespread use in industries such as detergents, textiles,
paper manufacturing, construction, and water treatment. In detergent production, it acts as a
builder, enhancing the cleaning effectiveness by binding to dirt and preventing its redeposition
on fabrics. In the textile industry, sodium silicate is used as a dye fixative and as a fire retardant
in treating fabrics. Its adhesive properties make it valuable in paper manufacturing as a binding
agent for cardboard and paperboard products. Additionally, sodium silicate is a key ingredient in
the formulation of silica-based coatings and sealants used in construction for waterproofing,
concrete repair, and as a protective barrier against chemicals and corrosion. Furthermore, it plays
a vital role in water treatment processes, where it is utilized for coagulation, flocculation, and pH
stabilization. Despite its versatility, careful handling and storage are necessary due to its alkaline
nature, which can cause skin and eye irritation. Overall, sodium silicate's diverse range of

13
applications underscores its significance in various industrial sectors, contributing to
advancements in materials science and environmental sustainability

FIG 3.2; SODIUM SILICATE

3.3 SODIUM HYDROXIDE [NaOH]

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), commonly known as caustic soda or lye, is a highly versatile and
essential chemical compound with widespread industrial applications. It is produced through the
electrolysis of brine (sodium chloride solution) in a process known as the chlor-alkali process.
Sodium hydroxide is a white, solid compound with a crystalline structure at room temperature,
but it is often transported and used in solution form due to its highly exothermic reaction with
water.

One of the primary uses of sodium hydroxide is in the manufacture of various chemicals,
including detergents, soaps, and bleach. It serves as a strong base in these applications, aiding in
the saponification process in soap making and the neutralization of acidic substances in
detergents and cleaners. Additionally, sodium hydroxide is extensively used in the pulp and
paper industry for pulping wood and de-inking recycled paper, as well as in aluminum
production, where it is employed to dissolve bauxite ore in the Bayer process.

14
In the realm of water treatment, sodium hydroxide plays a crucial role in adjusting pH levels and
neutralizing acidity in drinking water and wastewater treatment processes. It is also utilized in
the production of various chemicals and pharmaceuticals, including medicines, dyes, and
pharmaceutical intermediates.

Moreover, sodium hydroxide is an essential component in the manufacturing of textiles, where it

aids in the processing of fibers and the removal of impurities. It is also employed in food
processing, particularly in the production of soft drinks, chocolates, and various food additives.

However, it's important to note that sodium hydroxide is a highly corrosive substance and can
cause severe burns upon contact with skin and eyes. Therefore, proper safety precautions,
including the use of protective equipment and adherence to handling guidelines, are imperative
when working with this compound. Despite its caustic nature, sodium hydroxide's broad range of
applications underscores its indispensable role in numerous industrial processes, contributing to
advancements in manufacturing, water treatment, and various other sectors

FIG 3.3 SODIUM HYDROXIDE

15
3.4 RECYCLED COARSE AGGREGATE

Recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) plays a crucial role in sustainable construction practices,
providing a viable solution to reduce the demand for natural aggregates while managing
construction and demolition waste. RCA is typically obtained from crushing and processing
waste concrete or masonry debris, resulting in particles larger than 4.75 mm. Its composition
varies based on the source materials, often including crushed concrete, bricks, stones, and other
inert materials. Through proper processing techniques and quality control measures, RCA can
meet the required specifications for use in various construction applications, including concrete
production and road base layers. Incorporating RCA into construction projects offers numerous
environmental benefits, such as resource conservation, waste diversion from landfills, and
reduced energy consumption associated with the production of virgin aggregates. However,
challenges such as potential contaminants, variability in properties, and the need for proper
quality assurance procedures must be addressed to ensure the performance and durability of
structures incorporating RCA. Despite these challenges, the utilization of RCA aligns with the
principles of circular economy and contributes to the sustainability goals of the construction
industry

FIG 3.4; RECYCLED COARSE AGGREGATE

16
 PROPERTIES RESULTS
SPECFIC GRAVITY 2.43
WATER ABSORPTION 3.93
LOOSE BULK DENSITY 1242
COMPACTED BULK DENSITY 1373

TABLE 3.3 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Sieve size Weight of Percentage of Percentage of Percentage IS CODE

Retained Retained cumulative weight of passing 383
retain
40 0 0 0 0 100
20 0.06 2 2 98 85-100
10 2.90 96.66 98.66 1.34 0.20
4’75 0.02 0.07 98.72 1.27 0.5

TABLE 3.4 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Weight of the sample = 3kg

=199.38

Fineness Modulus = (199.38+ 500)/100

= 6.99 %

17
3.5 RECYCLED FINE AGGREGATE

Recycled fine aggregate (RFA) is an essential component in sustainable construction practices,

offering a viable alternative to traditional natural fine aggregates. It is typically produced by
crushing and processing waste concrete or masonry rubble, resulting in particles smaller than
4.75 mm. The composition of RFA varies depending on the source materials and processing
techniques but commonly includes crushed concrete, bricks, tiles, and ceramics. Through proper
processing and quality control measures, RFA can meet the required specifications for use in
concrete production. Incorporating RFA in concrete offers several benefits, including resource
conservation, waste reduction, and lower environmental impact compared to using virgin
materials. However, challenges such as potential contaminants, variability in properties, and the
need for proper quality control must be addressed to ensure its effective utilization in
construction projects. Despite these challenges, the use of RFA promotes circular economy
principles, contributing to the sustainable development of the construction industry

FIG 3.5 ; RECYCLED FINE AGGREGATE

18
 PROPERTIES RESULTS
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 2.24
WATER ABSORPTION 15.12
LOOSE BULK DENSITY 1339
COMPACTED BULK DENSITY 1527

TABLE 3.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FINE AGGREGATE

Sieve Size Weight of Percentage of Percentage of Percentage IS 383

Retained Retained Cumulative weight of passing
retain
4.75 0 0 0 100 90-100
2.36 0.008 0.8 0.80 99.20 75-100
1.18 0.319 31.90 32.70 67.30 55-90
600 0.307 30.70 63.40 36.30 35-90
MICRON
300 0.149 14.90 78.30 21.70 8-30
MICRON
150 0.121 12.10 90.40 9.60 0-10
MICRON
PAN 0.091 9.10 99.50 0.50 -

TABLE 3.6 SIEVE ANALYSIS OF FINE AGGREGATE

= 365.1

Fineness Modulus= 365.1/100

= 3.651

19
3.6 Water

Water fit for drinking is generally considered fit for making concrete. Water should be free from
acids, oils, alkalis vegetables or other organic Impurities water

3.7 Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP)

Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebars are gaining popularity in the construction
industry due to their unique properties and benefits. These rebars are manufactured by
embedding high-strength glass fibers in a polymer resin matrix, typically epoxy or vinyl ester.
GFRP rebars offer several advantages over traditional steel rebars. Firstly, they are highly
resistant to corrosion, making them ideal for use in harsh environments where steel rebars would
deteriorate rapidly, such as marine structures, bridges, and parking garages. Additionally, GFRP
rebars are significantly lighter than steel rebars, making them easier to handle and transport on
construction sites, thereby reducing labor costs and improving productivity. Despite their
lightweight, GFRP rebars exhibit high tensile strength and can withstand heavy loads, making
them suitable for a wide range of structural applications. Another advantage of GFRP rebars is
their non-magnetic and non-conductive nature, which eliminates the risk of electromagnetic
interference and makes them suitable for use in sensitive environments such as hospitals and
laboratories. Furthermore, GFRP rebars offer excellent thermal insulation properties and are
transparent to radio waves, making them suitable for applications where thermal and
electromagnetic considerations are important. Overall, GFRP rebars represent a durable,
lightweight, and corrosion-resistant alternative to traditional steel rebars, offering numerous
advantages in the construction of infrastructure and buildings. However, their higher initial cost
compared to steel rebars may be a consideration for some projects, but the long-term benefits in
terms of durability and maintenance savings often outweigh this initial investment. As research
and development in composite materials continue to advance, GFRP rebars are expected to
become even more widely used in the construction industry, contributing to the development of
more sustainable and resilient structures

20
Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebars have emerged as a promising alternative to
traditional steel rebars in the construction industry. Manufactured by embedding high-strength
glass fibers in a polymer resin matrix, GFRP rebars offer a unique combination of properties that
address various challenges faced by conventional steel reinforcement. One significant advantage
of GFRP rebars is their exceptional resistance to corrosion, a common issue that plagues steel
rebars, especially in aggressive environments like marine structures or areas with high humidity
and chemical exposure. This corrosion resistance not only prolongs the lifespan of structures but
also reduces maintenance costs and enhances overall durability. Additionally, GFRP rebars are
significantly lighter than their steel counterparts, making them easier to handle and transport on
construction sites. Despite their lightweight nature, GFRP rebars boast high tensile strength,
ensuring structural integrity and safety under heavy loads. Furthermore, their non-magnetic and
non-conductive properties make them ideal for use in sensitive environments such as hospitals,
laboratories, and electrical facilities, where electromagnetic interference must be minimized. As
the construction industry continues to prioritize sustainability and resilience, GFRP rebars offer a
compelling solution that aligns with these objectives, paving the way for the widespread
adoption of composite materials in infrastructure and building projects.

FIG 3.6; GFRP REBARS

21
 CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY

4.1 TAGUCHI METHOD

 The Taguchi method is a statistical optimization technique developed by Genichi

Taguchi.
 It aims to improve product and process quality by systematically optimizing factors and
levels in experimental designs.
 Using orthogonal arrays, it efficiently explores different factor combinations to identify
the most robust performance.
 The method employs the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (S/N Ratio) for evaluating and selecting
optimal factor levels.
Widely applied in engineering and manufacturing, it emphasizes creating robust, less
sensitive products and processes with fewer experiments

FIG4.1; TAGUCHI METHOD

22
4.2 INPUT PARAMETERS OF TAGUCHI METHOD

FACTORS LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3

BINDER CONTENT(kg/m3) 700 750 800

W/B ratio 0.4 0.42 0.44

Na2O 5 6 7

TABLE 4.2.1 INPUT PARAMETERS

FIG 4.2 MAIN EFFECTS PLOTS- 28 DAYS BOND STRENGTH CALIBARATION PHASE

23
4.3 METHODOLOGY

FIG 4.3 FLOW CHART OF METHODOLOGY

24
4.4 MIX DESIGN

25
 TABLE 4.3 MIX DESIGN

4.4 Mix-Parameters for the Mixes - Calibration phase

SI NO BINDER CONTENT W/B Na2O(%)

mix 1 700 0.4 5
mix 2 700 0.42 6
mix 3 700 0.44 7
mix 4 750 0.4 6
mix 5 750 0.42 7
mix 6 750 0.44 5
mix 7 800 0.4 7
mix 8 800 0.42 5
mix 9 800 0.44 6

TABLE 4.4; Mix-Parameters for the Mixes - Calibration phase.

4.5 Mix-Parameters for the Mixes - Verification phase

mix 10 700 0.42 7

mix 11 750 0.44 6
mix 12 800 0.4 5
mix 13 700 0.44 6
mix 14 750 0.4 5
mix 15 800 0.42 7

TABLE 4.5; Mix-Parameters for the Mixes - Verification phase

26
4.6 CALCULATIONS OF MATERIAL FOR MIXES

MIX BINDER W/B GGBFS CA FA WATER NaOH SODIUM

CONTENT ratio (kg) (kg) (kg) (L) (g) SILICATE (L)
(Kg/m^3)
1 700 0.4 10.77 9.29 7 3.44 0.383 1.641
2 700 0.42 10.77 9 6.79 3.66 0.383 1.641
3 700 0.44 10.77 8.71 6.57 3.87 0.383 1.641
4 750 0.4 11.54 8.52 6.42 3.75 0.383 1.641
5 750 0.42 11.54 8.21 6.19 3.98 0.383 1.641
6 750 0.44 11.54 7.9 5.95 4.21 0.383 1.641
7 800 0.4 12.31 7.75 5.84 4.06 0.383 1.641
8 800 0.42 12.31 7.42 5.59 4.3 0.383 1.641
9 800 0.44 12.31 7.08 5.34 4.55 0.383 1.641
10 700 0.42 10.77 9.03 6.79 3.66 0.383 1.641
11 750 0.44 11.54 7.9 5.95 4.21 0.383 1.641
12 800 0.4 12.38 7.75 5.84 4.06 0.383 1.641
13 700 0.44 10.77 8.71 6.57 3.876 0.383 1.641
14 750 0.4 11.53 8.52 6.42 3.75 0.383 1.641
15 800 0.42 12.3 7.42 5.59 4.3 0.383 1.641

TABLE 4.6 ;CALCULATIONS OF MATERIAL FOR MIXES

4.7 Workability

The workability of concrete refers to its ability to be easily mixed, placed, and compacted
without segregation or excessive bleeding. It’s important to note that ferrochrome slag
aggregates might have different workability characteristics compared to traditional natural
aggregates. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct laboratory tests and optimize themix design to
ensure the desired workability and performance of concrete when using ferrochrome slag
aggregates. Proper quality control during production and construction is also necessary to

27
maintain consistent workability and overall concrete quality. As per IS 456-2000 the mix deign
is designed.

4.8 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Compression test is the most commonly conducted test on hardened concrete, because itis a very
easy test to conduct, because most of the enviable characteristics properties of concrete are
qualitatively linked to its compressive strength. Compressive strengths were obtained by
conducting the compressive test on the cube specimens of size 100mm x 100mm x 100mm. Cube
was placed on the compression testing machine. Gradually applythe load till the concrete cubes
get failed. The compressive strength is defined as the ratio of crushing load to the area of the
specimen expressed in Mpa. Therefore the compressionstrength values of all the cubes are
obtained.

4.9 BOND STRENGTH

Bond strength is a critical aspect of construction materials, especially concerning reinforcement

bars like GFRP rebars. The bond strength between the rebars and the surrounding concrete
directly impacts the structural integrity and load-bearing capacity of reinforced concrete
elements. In the case of GFRP rebars, the bond strength is influenced by various factors,
including surface texture, rib geometry, resin composition, and installation procedures

The resin composition of GFRP rebars also affects bond strength. The type and quality of the
resin used in the manufacturing process can impact the adhesion between the rebar and the
concrete. Epoxy and vinyl ester resins are commonly used in GFRP rebars due to their excellent
bonding properties and chemical resistance.

The surface texture of GFRP rebars plays a crucial role in enhancing bond strength.
Manufacturers often apply surface treatments or coatings to the rebars to improve adhesion with
the concrete matrix. Additionally, the rib geometry of the rebars, including the height, spacing,
and profile of the ribs, influences the mechanical interlock between the rebar and the concrete.

28
Proper installation procedures are essential for achieving optimal bond strength between GFRP
rebars and concrete. This includes ensuring the correct placement, alignment, and embedment
depth of the rebars within the concrete matrix. Adequate concrete cover is also necessary to
protect the rebars from environmental factors and prevent premature degradation

Maintaining adequate bond strength is critical for the long-term performance and durability of
reinforced concrete structures. Poor bond strength can lead to premature deterioration, reduced
structural capacity, and ultimately, structural failure. Therefore, thorough quality control
measures and adherence to best practices during construction are essential to ensure reliable
bond strength between GFRP rebars and concrete, thus guaranteeing the structural integrity and
safety of the built environment

4.10 SPECIMEN DETAILS

FIG 4.4; SPECIMEN DETAILS

 A concrete cube with precise dimensions of 100 x 100 mm was carefully cast for testing
purposes. In this casting, a Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) rebar, measuring 700
mm in length and having a diameter of 10 mm, was embedded within the cube.

29
  To study the bond-slip behavior, a 10 mm thick thermacol sheet was strategically placed
at the bottom of the mold prior to pouring the concrete.
 This placement was intended to create a controlled slip interface, allowing for detailed
analysis of the bond characteristics between the GFRP rebar and the surrounding concrete
matrix.
 This setup ensures that the test conditions accurately reflect the intended parameters for
evaluating the bond performance and slip behavior of the rebar within the concrete cube.

4.11 SPECIMEN PREPARATION

Preparation of Test Specimen according to IS:2770( PART 1 )-1967 (REAFFIRMED IN

2007)

Bars- Loose scale and rust shall be thoroughly removed from the bars by wire brushing and bars
inspected to ensure that they are free from grease, paint, or other coatings which would affect
their bond. Suitable solutions may also be applied, if necessary, to clean the grease or oil. The
end of the reinforcing bars on which the stem of the dial gauge is to bear in the test, shall be
ground to a reasonably smooth surface normal to the axes of the bars.

Mixing Concrete - Except in those tests for which the method of mixing concrete is a controlled
variable, the concrete shall be mixed in accordance with the relevant requirements of the method
of making and curing concrete compression test specimens in the laboratory specified in IS :
516·1959*. The consistency of each batch of concrete shall be measured immediately after
mixing.

Moulding and Curing Specimens - Except in those tests for which the method of placing
concrete in moulds is a controlled variable, the specimens shall be moulded and cured in
accordance with the requirements of the method of making and curing concrete compression test
specimen in laboratory (compaction by hand) specified in IS : 516·1959. After the top layer has
been rodded, the surface shall be struck off with a trowel and covered with damp burlap to
prevent evaporation

30
Number of Specimen-At least three specimens of the deformed bar submitted for test and three
comparative specimens of plain bars of the same effective cross-sectional area as the deformed
bars under test, shall be prepared and tested

4.12 TEST PROCEDURE

 The test specimen shall be mounted in a suitable testing machine in such a manner that
the bar is pulled axially from the cube. The end of the bar at which the pull is applied
shall be that which projects from the top face of the cube as cast.
 In assembling the testing apparatus on the specimen the distance between the face of the
concrete and the point on the loaded end of the reinforcing bar at which the device for
measuring slip is .attached, shall be carefully measured so that the elongation of the bar
over this distance may be calculated and deducted from the measured slip.
 The load shall be applied to the reinforcing bar at a rate not greater than 2 250 kg/min, or
at no-load speed of the testing machine head of not greater than 1·25 mm/min, depending
on the type of testing machine used and the means provided for ascertaining or
controlling speeds.
 The movement between the reinforcing bar and the concrete cube, as indicated by the dial
micrometers shall be read at a sufficient number of intervals throughout the test to
provide at least 15 readings by the time 8 a slip of 0·25 mm has occurred at the loaded
end of the bar. The dial micrometers shall be read at the loaded and unloaded ends and
reading recorded to an estimated 0·1 of the least division of the dial

31
4.13 Slump Test:

 Procedure: The slump test measures the consistency and fluidity of the concrete mix. A
standard slump cone is filled with concrete, and the change in height after the cone is
lifted indicates the workability.
 Relevance: For AAS mixes with GFRP rebars, a moderate slump is often desired to
ensure sufficient flowability without segregation.

Factors Affecting Workability in AAS Concrete Mixes

1. Alkali Activators:

 Type and Concentration: Different alkali activators (e.g., sodium hydroxide,

sodium silicate) influence the viscosity and setting time, impacting workability.
Proper selection and dosage are crucial.

2. Aggregate Properties:

 Size and Grading: Well-graded aggregates improve workability by providing a

more cohesive mix. The shape and texture of aggregates also play a role.

3. Water-to-Binder Ratio:

 Optimal Balance: A higher water-to-binder ratio generally increases workability

but may reduce strength. Finding the optimal balance is key for maintaining both
workability and performance.

4. Admixtures:

 Superplasticizers: These can significantly enhance the workability of AAS

concrete without increasing water content, crucial for high-performance concrete.

 Viscosity Modifiers: Help control the viscosity, ensuring that the mix remains
cohesive and doesn’t segregate during placement.

5. Mixing and Handling:

 Consistency: Ensuring a consistent mix throughout the batching and mixing

process helps maintain uniform workability.

32
 Temperature: Both ambient and mix temperatures affect workability. Higher
temperatures can reduce workability by accelerating the setting process.

FIG 4.7; SLUMP TEST

33
 CHAPTER 5; RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 SLUMP TEST ANALAYSIS AND VALUES

FIG 5.1 ; SLUMP VALUES FOR THE MIXES

34
5.2 TESTING OF SPECIMEN USING UTM

FIG 5.2; TESTING FOR BOND STREGTH(1)

FIG5.3; TESTING FOR BOND STRENGTH(2)

35
FIG5.4; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH FOR ALKALI ACTIVATED MIXES FOR 3,7,28
DAYS

FIG 5.5; TESTING FOR COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

36
 5.3 BOND STRENGTH RESULTS FOR (3,7,28 DAYS )

BINDER
SI NO W/B Na2O(%) 3 DAYS 7 DAYS 28 DAYS
CONTENT
m1 700 0.4 5 2.26 3.36 12.75
m2 700 0.42 6 5.13 5.59 17.75
m3 700 0.44 7 3.54 2.65 11.25
m4 750 0.4 6 5.66 3.22 15.5
m5 750 0.42 7 5.66 4.27 16.5
m6 750 0.44 5 3.75 3.61 11
m7 800 0.4 7 4.27 5.24 22.75
m8 800 0.42 5 3.61 4.32 17.75
m9 800 0.44 6 3.22 6.30 17.5
m 10 700 0.42 7 4.25 7.22 22.75
m 11 750 0.44 6 3.75 3.33 13.25
m 12 800 0.4 5 4.39 5.10 13.75
Mi 13 700 0.44 6 3.89 6.37 24
mi14 750 0.4 5 3.49 5.52 23.75
Mi 15 800 0.42 7 3.29 4.78 14.25

TABLE 5.1 BOND STRENGTH RESULTS

FIG 5.6; SPECIMEN TESTING FOR BOND STRENGTH

37
 FIG 5.7;FAILURE OF SPECIMEN(1)

FIG 5.8 ; FAILURE OF SPECIMEN(2)

38
 FIG 5.9; BOND STRENGTH FOR ALKALI ACTIVATED MIXES

5.4 REGRESSION EQUATIONS FOR BOND AND COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Bond strength @- 3days(Mpa) =5.7+0.0006A – 14.0B+0.645C

Bond strength @-7 days (Mpa)=-9.8+0.0142A+6.2B+0.145C

Bond strength @-28 days(Mpa)=5.6+0.0542A-93.8B+1.50C

Compressive strength @-3 days(Mpa)=53.4+0.0133A-8.3B+0.333C

Compressive strength @-7 days(Mpa)=84.7+0.00A-41.7B+0.00C

Compressive strength @-28 days(Mpa)=100.6-0.0167A-16.7B+0.00

39
A-BINDER CONTENT

B-W/B RATIO

C-Na2O

BOND STRENGTH VALUES

3 DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

4.1 MPa 4.25 MPa
3.7 MPa 3.75 MPa
4.2 MPa 4.39 MPa
3.7 MPa 3.89 MPa
3.2 MPa 3.49 MPa
3.1 MPa 3.29 MPa
TABLE 5.2 ; BOND STRENGTH VALUES FOR 3 DAYS

7 DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

7 MPa 7.22 MPa
3.1 MPa 3.33 MPa
4.9 MPa 5.1 MPa
6 MPa 6.37 MPa
5.45 MPa 5.52 MPa
4.6 MPa 4.78 MPa
TABLE 5.3 ; BOND STRENGTH VALUES FOR 7 DAYS

40
28 DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

21.6 MPa 22.75 MPa
13.1 MPa 13.25 MPa
13.6 MPa 13.75 MPa
23.5 MPa 24 MPa
23.5 MPa 23.75 MPa
14 MPa 14.25 MPa
TABLE 5.4 ; BOND STRENGTH VALUES FOR 28 DAYS

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

3DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

61.55 MPa 60 MPa
61.72 MPa 61 MPa
62.38 MPa 60 MPa
61.05 MPa 60 MPa
61.72 MPa 59 MPa
62.885 MPa 63 MPa
TABLE 5.5 ; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VALUES FOR 3 DAYS

41
7 DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

67.18 MPa 65 MPa
66.35 MPa 66 MPa
68.02 MPa 65 MPa
66.35 MPa 64 MPa
68.02 MPa 62 MPa
67.18 MPa 68 MPa
TABLE 5.6 ; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VALUES FOR 7 DAYS

28 DAYS

PREDICTED VALUE EXPERIMENTAL VALUE

81.89 MPa 79 MPa
80.72 MPa 80 MPa
80.56 MPa 79 MPa
81.56 MPa 80 MPa
81.39 MPa 79 MPa
80.22 MPa 81 MPa
TABLE 5.7 ; COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH VALUES FOR 28 DAYS

42
 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES

6.1 CONCLUSIONS

 The AASC mixes and slump values of around 120 mm is seen for 0.40 w/b and around
126 mm for 0.42 w/b and around 128 mm for 0.44 w/b
 Higher compressive strength values in the range of 78-81 MPa have been obtained for all
the AASC mixes at the age of 28 days age. Again 70–80% of total compressive strengths
have been achieved by the age of 3-days as observed in case of any AASC mixes.
 Bond strength values in the range of 4– 8MPa along with good bond stress – slip
behaviour have been obtained for all the AASC mixes by the age of 28 days. Proportional
increases in the bond strength values have been observed with the increase in the
compressive strength values.
 The regression equations developed here in, at different ages, for the bond strength
values, in terms of mix-parameters, based on a statistical analysis under a Taguchi’s
Design of experiments (DOE) have been executed

6.2 REFERENCES

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59(1940) 191-202.
[2] T.F. Pacheco, G.J.Castro, S. Jalali, Alkali-activated binders: a review: Part
1.Historical background, terminology, reaction mechanisms and hydrationproducts,
Construct. Build: Mater. 22 (2008) 1305-1314.
[3] D. Kong, J. Zhang, T. Ni, Research progress on alkali-activated binders andconcrete,
J. Chinese Ceram. Soc. 37 (2009) 151-159.
[4] A. Palomo, P. Krivenko, M. Lodeiro, A review on alkaline activation: Newanalytical
perspectives, Materials de
Construction 64 (2014) 140-159.
[5] A. Palomo, A. Fernández-Jiménez, H.C. Lopez, Railway sleepers-made of
alkaliactivated fly ash concrete, Revista ingeniería de construcción 22 (2007) 75-80

43
[6] K. Yang, C. Yang, J. Zhang, Q Pan, L Yu, Y. Bai, First structural use of site-
castalkali-activated slag concrete in China, Struct. Build. 171 (10) (2018) 800-809
[7] J.S. Kim, J.H. Park, An experimental investigation of bond properties
of'einforcements embedded in geopolymer concrete, International Journal ofStructural
and Construction Engineering 9 (2) (2015) 92-95.
[8] M. Vinothini, G. Mallikarjun, T.D. Gunneswararao, R.D.Seshu, Bond
strengthbehaviour of geopolymer concrete, Malaysian J. Civ. Eng. 27 (3) (2015) 371-
[9] G. 381. behaviour:case Maranan, A of GFRP Manalo, bars K. in Karunasena
geopolymer B. concrete, Benmokrane, J. Mater. Bond Civ. Eng. stress-slip 27(1)(2014)
1-8
[10] R Manjunath, M.C. Narasimhan, K.M. Umesh, S. Kumar, U.K. Bala
Bharathi,Studies on developing of high performance, self-compacting alkali activated
slag concrete mixes using industrial wastes, Constr. Build. Mater. 198 (2019)133-147
[11] R. Manjunath, M.C. Narasimhan, Setting Behaviour of Alkali Activated
SlagConcrete mixes - Effect of chemical admixtures, Indian Concrete Journal 92
(9)(2018) 45-51.
[12] F. Jingchong, Z. Hongguang, S. Jing, L. Zonghui, Y. Sen, Influence of slag
contenton the bond strength, chloride penetration resistance, and interface phaseevolution
of concrete repaired with alkali activated slag/fly ash, Constr. Build,sMater. 263 (2020)
[12] Ding Y, Ning X, Zhang Y, Pacheco-Torgal F, Aguiar J. Fibres for enhancing ofthe
bond capacity between GFRP rebar and concrete. Constr Build Mater2014;51:303e12.
[13] Yang J-M, Min K-H, Shin H-O, Yoon Y-S. Effect of steel and synthetic fibers
onflexural behavior of high-
strength concrete beams reinforced with FRP bars.Compos Part B Eng
2012;43(3):1077e86.
[14] Fursa TV, Utsyn GE, Korzenok IN, Petrov MV. Using electric response to
mechanical impact for
evaluating the durability of the GFRP-concrete bond during the freeze-thaw process.
Compos Part B Eng 1 April 2016;90:392e8.

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[15] Won J-P, Lee S-J, Kim Y-J, Jang C-I, Lee S-W. The effect of exposure to alkaline
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