FRICTION VOl.

12
WEAR
LUBRICATION
 FRI 1
2
Vol.

LUBRICA
Tribology
Handbook
Edited by Prof. I. V. KRAGELSKY
D. Sc. (Eng.)
V. V. AUSIN
Cando Sc. (Eng.)
Institute for Machine Sciences, Moscow

Translated from
the Russian
by
Felix Palkln
and Valerian Palkln

Mir Publishers
Moscow

Pergamon Press
Oxford· New York· Toronto. Sydney. Paris·
Frankfurt
 1981
Fits: published 1976
Revised from the 1973
1978 Russian edition

The Russian Alphabet and Transliteration

a RR R Xx kh.
b JIJI I [In ts
v MI in ‘11 ch
3 H]! n mm sh
' 00 0 film; shch
e [In p '5 "
é Pp r n y
211 Cc s b '
z T! t 39 e
i Yy u 10-!) yt
y did) i fix ya

The Greek Alphabet

Alpha It Iota Pp Rho
Beta Kn Kap Ea Sigma
Gamma M . Lam ‘ T1: Tau
Delta Mp. Mu 1’0 Upsilon
Epsilon Nv. Nu 0!]; Phi
Zeta BE. Xi Xx Chi
Eta 00 Omicron ‘Fip- Psi
Theta 11:! Pi Os). Omega

. H a annulus”: saute

Издательство «MamnHOCTpoeHMe»,
© ManaTeaTBo «Машиностроение», 1978

©
© English translation, Mir
Mir Publishers, 1981
 CONTENTS

Chapter 11. Frlcllon and Wear in Aggressive Media [6. E. Lazerev, Coed.
Sc. (Eng): G. A. Prels. D. Sc. (Eng.)]

11.1. Wear Resistance 01 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

11.2. Materials {or Tribologicalloints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.2.1. Steels and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.2.2. Carbon-Base Antilriction Materials . . . . . . . . . . :12
11.2.3. Hard Non-Metal Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-7
11.2.4. Polymer Materials . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.1.2.5. Silica-Base Coatings (Enamels) . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
11.3. Hydroabrasive and Erosive Wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

References...... . . . . . . . .

Chapter 12. Abrasive Wear (Prof. V. N. Kashcheev, D. 5:. (Phys. '0: Molh-la
6, Ya. Yampolsky. Cand. Sc. (Eng-)1

. . . . . . . . . . . : g?
12.1. Factors litigating nae, “true of Wear v o e . . . . . O
fas ivc en . e 0 '. o o o " e“
12.. ' l’
. . . . . . . 43
12%. mfimné‘the Wear Resistance of Machine Parts
45
References . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 3 6 . I. Tro-
(Eng)
uum [K. D. Danilov. Cand. Sc.
Chem" 13. Friction in Vac
iaaovskeya, Cand. 5:. (Eng.))
. . . . 4-7
' a t i o n . . . . . . . _.....::j ..... 51
3315'
13.3. !- 3313:5333!" Rubbing
Static Friction '01 c°““’-°“°f"f‘
Triboloéiafli : : '. .Static
:IoinISAVi‘h. . . Friction
; .. . .- 5923
13.3.1- gargggfis "13 .. . . . .131610a
Compo[Emma
coemdmt-OI Static . . . . 62
13mg; Wim- Behaviour o ebbing . . . . . . . . . . _ _
im. 93
Operation in. the Static Friction Hash
13-4. Sliding Frictioa - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5. Rolling Fraction - 73
o o o o o o
. ' . o o o
. .
“ o ‘ e r u n c e a
 w
Cha ter 14. Friction at Low Tem
peratures [Prol. A. M. Arkharov, D. Sc.
(Eng.)]
,(Engp.); L. D. Kharitonova, Cand. Sc.
0-!

Use at Low Temperatures

14.1. Tribological Unit s and Mat eri als for . . . . . .
l.)

14.2. Experimental Techniques . . . . peratures . 82

14.3. Coefficients of Fric tion at Low Tem in Axia l Seals . . . .
14.4. Anal ytica l Stud y of Tempera ture Fie ld
91
References

ber of the Ukrainian

Chapter 15. Fretting [H. L. Golego, Associate Mem
Academy of Sciences; Prof. A .Ya. Alyab'ev, D. Sc. (Eng.)]

15.1. Basic Information

unseen

15.2.Fr ettingT ests

15.3. Factors Influen cing the Development of Frettin g . . . . . .
15.4. Mechanism of Fretting . . . . . . . .
15.5. Quantita tive Estimatio n of Fretting . . . . . . . . . .
15.6. Protection from Fretting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Referenc es
g
i

achapter 16. Friction and Oscillations [Prof. V. A. Kudlnov. D. Sc. (Eng):

Prof. D. M. Tolstoy, D. Sc. (Phys. 6': Math.)]
m

16.1. Normally Directed Oscillations Generated by Friction 0i

ill
a

Surfaces without Lubrica tion or with Boundar y Lubricat ion . . - -

16.2. The Effect of Forced Oscillations on Friction Force . - - - - -
16.3. Frictional Self-Excited Oscillations . . . . . . . . . _ . .. - _°
m

16.4. The Role of Tangential Self-Excite d Frictional Oscriiattoflb

and the Provision of Motion Uniformity . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a

16.5. The Effect of Oscillations on Wear of Rubbing Surfaces

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t
«

'iehapter 17. Selective Transfer

17.1. Physico-Cbemical Mechanism of Selective Transfer [AJ‘ PO’ :28

lyakov, Cand. Sc. (Eng.)] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
17.1.1. Main Terms and Definitions . . . . . . . - - - ' fer 132
17.1.2. Preparatory Physico-Chemical Processes of Selective Tm"?
17.1.3. Physico-Chemical Essentials of the Wear and Fi‘lCl'on 135
89‘1“?n SyStems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ['
L 1 7 2 . Ut’l‘zmg SOIGCUVG Transfer in Tribolog ical Joints [Pro. 143
i‘i- Garkunov.
2-D- 11.2.1.
1‘
D. So. (Eng-)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High-Load Pin Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
in
1.15
. Automotive Running Gear . . . . . . . . . . . :47
Leadscrew-and-Nu t Assembly . . . . . . . . . . v.5
Metal-Plating Lubricants in Production qlifNPO"l ' ' M9
Wear-Resistant Materials for Submersible Pump sea 5 ‘ ' :5"
. A Wear-Resistant Material for Oil Pump Seal ° ' ' If”
- A Glass-Metal Sliding Pair . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 "II...
". llyIII‘IIIIaIIIIIII lIIIIII‘MIIIuIIlIrIII A. II”. IIyIIclIv 1) 8‘0. (III
2111
"”0 '1' .1 1‘IIIIIIIIIII‘IIIIIIII, I'III'III I'lrrIII‘II. IIIIII Operating 0011111111)"n . 2111
-1.I ’. IIIIIIIIIII III 'l‘lII‘IIIII IIIIIII'IIIIIII IIII MIIIIIIIIIIII IIIIII‘II‘IIIII I‘IIIII
I.IIIIII-CIIrrIIIIu Lupmrlly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BM
'..'1).'"I.IIIIIIIIIII III .IIIIII‘IIIII “OIII‘IIIH‘I . . . . . .
M I J
2211
'-’1).'..'./I. SIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII on IIIIIII‘IIIII IIIwIIIII . . . . . . 232
IIIII'III‘IIIICIIII . . . . . . . . . 233

CIIapIor 21. Trommlulons [ProI. YII. N. Drozdov, D. Sc. (Eng.)]

21.1. (IIIIIIII‘III11IIIIIIIIIIII‘II1IIIIIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
" I 2. l.IIIII‘II‘IIIII II‘IIIII HIIIII'IIIIIIIIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11.1.IIIIIII('IIIII1 III SIIIIIIIII l"“-Il111011 . . .
21.4.1.01III-CmryIIIg CIIIIIIIIII' III SIIIIII IIIIII‘IIIIIIII COIIIIIIga .
' I‘II‘IIIIII‘III l‘I‘IIIpIII-I 01 \\ 0111‘ CIIII‘IIIIIIIIIII . . .
2 1..I.
21.1I. l‘llllflllu I’IIIIIIII III SIII‘IIIcoeI III CIIIIIIIcI . . . .
2| ..7 TOIlI‘l‘flllll‘o LIIIIII‘IOII 01 KCIIIIIIIg . . . . .
21. 8. IIIIIgIIOIIII-I' UWIIOI‘ LIIIII'IIIIIIIIII
21.." 'lI‘IIIIIIIIII‘ I.IIIII‘II‘III.IOII . . . . . . . . . .
21. III. ‘IIII‘IIIIIIIIIII III 'l‘rIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I-.IIIc-Imoncy . . . . . . . . -
2711
111110l‘011C1‘8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
NOIIIHOII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
270
IIII_III.\'
 Chapter 11 |
[

FRICTION AND WEAR IN

AGGRESSIVEMEDIA

The wear of rubbing parts whose material develops chemical

interaction with the ambient medium is defined by the USSR State-
Standard as mechano-corrosive wear. In effect, this is the destruction
of the rubbing surfaces caused by the two processes running at once:
corrosion and mechanical wear. The latter can be produced both by
the sliding friction of the mating surfaces and by the flow of the
medium with or without hard particles therein under condition»
that may or may not give rise to cavitation. Corrosion can be caused
by either chemical or electrochemical interaction between the ma­
terial and the medium.
The contact of metal with dry gases (particularly at elevated tem­
peratures) and with non-conductive liquids results in chemical cor­
rosion, that is, a direct reaction of the metal with the medium which
generates no electric current.
The contact of metal with electrolytes (the aqueous solutions of
acids, salts, and alkalis; brines, etc.) gives rise to electrochemical
corrosion, in which the interaction between the metal and the me­
dium involves two distinct but interconnected processes—anodic
and cathodic ones, that is, oxidation (the dissolving of the metal in
one region) and reduction (the reduction of oxygen and other oxi-
dizers in another region). In this case the dissolving of the metal pro­
duces electric current. The anodic process is a direct transfer of me­
tal atoms in the form of ions into the solution. The cathodic process-
is the assimilation of redundant electrons by atoms, molecules or
ions of the solution.
The films that emerge on the rubbing surfaces differ in properties
from those formed in static conditions, due to the fact that friction
of metals in conducting media is influenced considerably by elec­
trochemical processes. The protective properties and frictional be-
9»
lhaviour of the films can be partly characterized by changes in their
electrode potentials, i.e. an electrode potential φ/Γ of the surfaces
in friction and an electrode potential cpre?m of the surfaces with re­
moved films [3]. The convergence of φ/Γ and φΓβ7η signifies that the
film is removed during friction and seizure is possible; the growing
difference between φ/Γ and φΓβ7η indicates the presence of protective
films reducing the rate of wear. The value of eprem is variable depend­
ing on the medium and the material of the part.
The following parts of machines and apparatus are subject to
mechano-corrosive wear under different operating conditions:
(a) in sliding friction—face seals in reactors, centrifuges, and
separators; sliding bearings in reactors and sealed pumps; glands in
stuffing boxes; pistons in pumps, etc.;
(b) hydroabrasive wear—diffuser discs in centrifugal driers;
mixers and impellers in reactors; centrifugal pump components;
.screws, blades and screens in centrifuges, etc.;
(c) gas-and-abrasive wear—-blast blower components in boiler
plants; chimneys; air-pressure mill components, etc.;
(d) wear by cavitation—mixers and impellers in reactors; pro­
pellers in marine vessels, etc.;
(e) wear by oxidation—dry friction bearings, vanes and cylind­
ers in centrifugal blast blowers;
(f) in fretting—threaded assemblies, etc.
Investigations into mechano-corrosive wear have indicated that
processes running at the sliding interface are complex and interde­
pendent, and they require careful study [3, 11, 15, 26].

11.1. WEAR RESISTANCE OF

MATERIALS
Materials for rubbing parts are selected in accordance with the
operating conditions and considerations of cost. The principal re­
quirement is a wear resistance that ensures the specified service
life. Wear resistance is determined by the mechanical and physical
properties of the materials and by the electrochemical (chemical)
properties of the metal-electrolyte (metal-medium) system.
The corrosion resistance of materials has to be high enough; ac­
cording to [14] it must not be worse than the fourth grade specified
by the Standard, and the material must not be susceptible to inter-
crystalline corrosion, to corrosive cracking and to spot corrosion,
etc.
It should be borne in mind that the corrosion resistance values
specified by the Standard and determined in laboratory or in­
dustrial tests may sometimes significantly differ from the values
observed in actual operating conditions. In other words, data ob­
tained in testing must be regarded as approximate.
. The materials of rubbing parts should have no tendency to seizure
and scuffing during operation. The proper choice of material and
10
working conditions that exclude plastic deformations of rubbing
surfaces helps to meet this requirement. The presence of passivating
protective layers on the rubbing surfaces often facilitates friction
involving elastic or plastic deformation and improves their resist­
ance to wear, hindering the development of microcutting condi­
tions. On the contrary, an active state of the rubbing surfaces is ac­
companied by the loosening of their surface layers and leads to a
higher wear rate. Such surface layers are subject to fatigue wear and
microcutting because the subsurface layers undergo elastic or plastic
predeformation and even cutting.
The rate of wear of materials rubbing in aggressive media is de­
termined by the rate of formation of surface films and their destruc­
tion in friction and also by the rate of mechanical wear.
Therefore, the choice of wear-resistant materials for a given ap­
plication should be made through a simulation of actual working
conditions and the rate of corrosion at the rubbing interface.
Increased wear life can be achieved either by the formation of
passivating protective films on the rubbing surfaces through the
addition of corrosion inhibitors to the aggressive medium or by
selection of materials with maximum wear resistance.
Since temperature considerably accelerates the process of corro­
sion, measures should be taken to reduce the temperature in the
friction zone [5].
Load on the sliding pair tangibly affects its wear life. Stresses at
the spots of real contact grow with the load, which may result in
the plastic deformation of asperities and even in seizure and micro-
cutting. Increased loading also results in sharply elevated tempera­
tures at the sliding interface. To avoid such effects, the minimum
possible loads and hard materials should be used in tribological
joints.
Increased sliding speed results in greater wear of rubbing mater­
ials, but this increase in wear rate is generally due to rising tempe­
rature at the friction zone, a longer path of friction and a, longer
time of exposure of the materials to the aggressive medium [4, 10].
Abrasive particles on the rubbing surfaces and in the flow of the
ambient medium also sharply increase the wear. Under such condi­
tions the protective measures are:
—to remove abrasive particles, especially those of high hardness,
from the working medium;
—to reduce the corrosive action of the medium by introducing
corrosion inhibitors and by lowering the temperature;
—to use hard corrosion-resistant materials, and, wherever possible,
non-metals;
—to reduce loads in the joint and the forces exerted upon the rubb­
ing surfaces by abrasive particles in the flow of^ the aggressive med­
ium. This can be done by reducing the flow velocity, the angle of
incidence of the flow (under 10°) and the size of the abrasive particles.

11
11.2. MATERIALS FOR
TRIBOLOGICAL JOINTS

11.2.1. Steels and Alloys

When selecting metallic materials, priority should be given ta
those with the maximum possible corrosion resistance. The most
commonly used materials and the corresponding aggressive media
are given in Table 11.1.
When considering materials for face seals and sliding bearings,
it must be taken into account that high-alloy stainless steels have
low hardness. Such steels should be paired only with soft' antifric­
tion materials, for example, graphitized carbon-based, polymeric,
etc.
In high-velocity flows of aggressive liquids carrying abrasive par­
ticles, use must be made of high-alloy stainless steels in combination
with protective elements made of materials ΕΟΓ-60, CT-T or C-2.
Rubbing parts in highly aggressive media operating at high tem­
peratures are made of high-alloy corrosion-resistant nickel-molyb­
denum and nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys (XH65MB, etc.).
Rolling bearings used in aggressive media are made of stainless-
steel 95X18 with a high chromium content.
Three grades of standardized low-alloy corrosion-resistant alloys·
(HHXT, ΜΗΙΧΜβ and HHlMffl) are used, mainly for service in
aggressive gases at elevated temperatures. Their applications are
outlined in Table 11.2.
Alloys 15X28JI and 15X34JI with a high chromium content ex­
hibit good wear resistance in various aggressive media, especially
with abrasives.
All the metals are heat treated for increased hardness and corro­
sion resistance.
The tendency to seizure in many stainless steel grades can be
weakened by nitriding. The wear resistance of machine parts made
of low-alloy and some stainless steels (30X13, etc.) can be substant­
ially increased by borating. In some cases diffusion chromium plat­
ing proves to be more effective as it increases hardness, wear resist­
ance, erosion resistance, resistance to seizure, and resistance to cor­
rosion in some media [12]. Carburized steel subjected to diffusion
chrome plating has a high resistance to abrasive wear in numerous
media.

11.2.2. Carbon-Base
Antifriction Materials
Carbon-based antifriction materials are used when other anti­
friction materials (bronze, babbitts, metal-ceramic, etc.) are unac­
ceptable, because the rubbing parts work in direct contact with an
aggressive medium. Carbon antifriction materials exhibit high
12
 Table 11.1
Steels and alloys used in corrosive media
GOST
Grade (State Stan­ Medium
dard)

12X13, 40X13, 95X18, Water, steam, salt solutions at room

14X17H2, 10Χ14Π4Η4Τ, temperature, food media at room
20Χ13Η4Γ9 temperature

15X25T, 09X15H8K), 5632-72 Salt solutions varying in concent­

07X16H6, 08X22H6T, ration and temperature, solutions
12X18H10T of nitric acid and some organic acids

08X21H6M2T, Solutions of organic acids

10X17H13M3T,
08X17H15M3T

06ΧΗ28ΜΛΤ Solutions of sulphuric, phosphoric,

silicofluoric, and some other acids

XH65MB Acids at elevated temperatures

BK3, BK6, BK8 3882-74 Water, weak solutions of salts, acids

and alkalis

Hard facing with stel- TH-60-68 Water, weak solutions of salts,

lite B3K TH-145-65 acids and alkalis
H12

Table 11.2
Application of corrosion-resistant cast irons [13]

Grade Application

HHXT Rubbing components in piston-type internal combustion en­

gines, gas-engine compressors, and paper-making machinery
subject to wear in gaseous aggressive media and aqueous
solutions

HlXMß Rubbing components in piston-type machines, internal com­

bustion engines, and compressors subject to wear and corro­
sion in gaseous media (fuel combustion products, industrial-
grade oxygen, etc.)

^ΙΗΙΜΠΙ The same as HHXT and ΗΗΙΧΜβ, but with improved me­
chanical properties and thermal stability for operation at
up to 500°C

13
 Table 11.3

13
Physico-mechanical properties of carbon antifriction materials

Ultimate strength*!,
kgf/cm2 Compression Thermal I
Density, modulus Shore conductivity
Grade g/cm3 E-10-5, hardness coefficient
kgf/cm* at 20°C
tensile bending kcal/(m-h.°C)

Roasted
AO-600, TY 48-20-4—72 1.60-1.65 1100-1500 500-700 1 1.4 55-60 20 5
AO-1500, TY 48-20-4 — 72 1.70-1.80 1500-1800 600-800 1.6 60-65
AO-600-C05, T y 48-20-3—72 2.8-3.1 2500-2700 900-1100 6-7
AO-600-E83, T y 48-20-3-72 2.7-3.0 2400-2600 800-900 1.7 70-75 30 6.5
AO-1500-C05, T y 48-20-3-72 2.7-3.0 2600-2800 1000-1200 6-7
AO-1500-E83, T y 48-20-3-72 2.6-2.9 2500-2700 900-1000 1.7 30 6.5
2Π-1000Φ*2, T y 16-538-252-75 1.65 1600-1700 600-750 1.4 70-75 70 6.0
Himanit-T, T y 48-0120-17-74 1.85-1.89 1300-1700 320-380 80 10
ΑΓ-600, T y 48-20-4-72 1.65-1.75 600-800 350-400 1.0 43-45 50 5
ΑΓ-1500, T y 48-20-4-72 1.70-1.80 800-1000 400-500 1.3 45-50
ΑΓ-600-Ο05, T y 48-20-3—72 2.6-3.1 1400-1500 550-700 1.35 65-70 6-8
ΑΓ-600-Ε83, T y 48-20-3-72 2.5-2.8 1300-1400 450-550 1.35 70-72 6.5
ΑΓ-1500-COö, T y 48-20-3-72 2.5-3.1 1500-1600 600-750 1.35 65-70 70 6-8
ΑΓ-1500-Ε83, T y 48-20-3-72 2.4-2.8 1400-1500 500-600 1.35 70-72 6.5
AlirC, T y 48-20-20-72 2.4-2.7 1400-1500 600-700 1.1-1.2 85-95
ΑΠΓ-Ε83, T y 48-20-20-72 2.3-2.6 1450-1650 650-750 1.1-1.2 90-100 7-8

*i The ultimate strength values are statistical, being i.5-2 times greater than specified by Ty.
*2 Impregnated with phenol formaldehyde resin by the user.
Note: Mean impact strength is 2 to 4 kgf -cra/cm'-î.
chemical stability and are employed for seal rings, sliding bearings r
vanes in rotor-type blast blowers, etc.
High compressive strength allows such materials to be used in
high-load applications. Carbon-base materials resist thermocrack-
ing at sharp temperature changes (typical of machine start-up and
shut-down). The impact strength of these materials is low, which
disqualifies them for applications involving impact loading and
vibrations. They are capable of elastic deformation only and, when
deformed in excess of 1 to 2 percent, they break down; bending loads
also cause destruction to these materials.
All carbon-base materials have lower linear expansion coefficients
than metals, and this should be allowed for when fastening the com­
ponents. The carbon materials are porous to 12-20 percent, and their
impermeability is improved by impregnating with metals and res­
ins.
Commercially available antifriction carbon materials and their
physical and mechanical properties and applications are given in
Tables 11.3 and 11.4.
Roasted materials (AO) feature increased hardness and strength
but reduced heat conduction against graphitized materials (ΑΓ).
Table 11.4
Suitability of non-metal materials for aggressive media
Material
ce co
e O
V
00
W
O
U
00
w
1
1
Medium 0
0
0
0 0
1
0
1
1
0 m 0 0 0 0 co
• ò
in 0 a co
Ó ύ IO
1 ■a 1
U
1
1

G
Osi < < < < a
Sea water + + + + + + + + + + + +
NaC10 4 (0.5%, 20°C) + + + + + +
KMnO 4 (0.5%,20°C) + + + + + + + + + + + +
KMnO 4 (0.5%,100°C) + + + + + +
HN0 3 (65%, 50°C) + + + + + +
HNO 3 (70%, 110°C) ± ± + +
H2S04«48%,
— 120°C)
+ + + + + + + +
H 2 SO 4 (>96%,-20°C) + + + + + +
HC1(36%, 20°C) + + + + + + + +
HC1(34%, 100°C)
+ + + + + + + +
HF (40%) + + +
HF (70%) + +
NaOH(20%, 20°C) + + + + + + +
NaOH(30%, 80°C) + + + ± ± ±
CH 3 COOH(10%,80°C) + + + + + + + +
H3PO4 + + + + + + +
Designations: + suitable; —not suitable; ± limited use.

15
The AO and ΑΓ type materials are produced either porous or im­
pregnated with babbitt or lead containing 5 percent tin. The Hi­
manit-T material is impregnated with furfuryl alcohol and heat-
treated at 300°C, which makes it highly impermeable.
The maximum permissible temperatures are given in Table 11.5,
and the maximum safe loads for carbon materials pairing various
Table 11.5
Maximum permissible temperatures for antifriction and hard non-metal
materials

Temperature
oQ ^, . . ,
Material Temperature Temperature
Material °G Material °C

2Π-1000-Φ 140 ΑΓ-1500-Ε83 200 cr-T 400

AO-1500-C05 300 Himanit-T 300 cr-n 400
AO-1500-E83 200 Φ4Γ21Μ7 120 C-2 400
A1M500-C05 300 Φ4-Κ20 120 qM-332 200

Table 11.6
2
Maximum permissible specific loads (kgf/cm ) in single and double axial
seals without sealed-liquid pressure

Metal hard to Hard non-metal materials

Material
HB 150 Over HRC 40 cr-T, cr-n C-2, U.M-332

2Π-1000-Φ 10 35 20
AO-1500-C05 — 5 20 10
AO-1500-E83 — 5 15 7
Ar-1500-C05 5 10 15 10
ΑΓ-1500-Ε83 5 10 10 7
Himanit-T 10 10 60 60
Φ4Γ21Μ7 5 5 5 5
Φ4Κ20 5 5 5 5
cr-T
<Τ-Π
—
—
—
—
30
30
—
—
C-2 — — — —
LJM-332 — — — —

types of materials, in Table 11.6. The carbon materials are easily

machined, and the rubbing surfaces of carbon seal rings used in face
seals are lapped to a surface finish of 0.08-0.16 μπι Ra and a flatness
within 0.0009 mm [8].
The dimensions of blanks of commercially available carbon ma­
terials are given in Table 11.7.
Recommendations for design of components made of carbon-base
materials are given in [23].
16
 Table 11.7
Dimensions (mm) of blanks of antifriction carbon materials

Grade Specifications
(TV) Outside diameter Inside diameter Height

AO-1500-C05 48-20-3-72 57, 120,140,170 — <200

AO-1500-E83
Ar-1500-C05
ΑΓ-1500-Ε83

2Π-1000 16-538-252—75 90 55
100 55
140 55
154 70 100
230 100 38
245 100 38

205x145x38

Himanit-T 48-0120-17—74 <290 <250 <200

11.2.3. Hard Non-Metal Materials

Superhard non-metal materials, such as siliconized graphites
Cr-M, Cr-n, Cr-T and boron-siliconized graphite ECT-60, silicon-
carbide C-2, ceramic ÜJM-332, find ever-growing application in
tribological joints of equipment used in the chemical industry.
The properties of such materials are given in Table 11.8.
The principal advantage of graphite-silicon-carbide composi­
tions is high wear resistance as compared with that of other metals
or non-metals. Siliconized graphite in face seals or sliding bear­
ings can be paired with any polymers or carbon-base materials, pro­
viding a wear life 10 to 100 times that of other materials.
In movable joints with adequate lubrication, even by an aggres­
sive medium, use is made of sliding pairs ΟΓ-Π against CT-Π. An
instance is the sliding bearings of sealed pumps and submersible
high-pressure pumps [20]. Siliconized graphite can be employed in
movable joints operating in contact with any aggressive media ex­
cept fluorine, bromine, and iodine compounds, concentrated alka­
line solutions, and strong oxidizers.
Machine components of siliconized graphite are obtained by
machining from graphites (grades ΠΓ-50, ΠΡΟΓ-2400, or pressed
blanks) and subsequently impregnating with liquid silicon. The
interaction between the silicon and the graphite results in silicon
carbide.
2-01156 17
 Table 11.8

13
Physico-mechanical properties of hard non-metal materials

Ultimate strength, kgf/mm2 Linear

Elasticity
Density, Impact modulus
Thermal 1 expansion
Material lg/cm», strength, E-10-5, Hardness conductivity
at 20°C, coefficient
no less ten­ compressive ben­ kgf · cm/cm2 kgf/cm2 kcal/(m-h.°C) at 20-100°Cf
sile (no less) ding a -10-6 1/°G

cr-T 2.5 4-5 30-32 9-11 2.8 9.50 HRC 70 85-100 4.6

cr-n 2.4 5-6 42-45 10-12 4.0 12.7 HRC IS 130-150 4.2

Cr-M 2.25 2-3 12-15 6-7 2.8 — HRC $0 120 4.6

C-2 2.9 3-4 18-32 9-11 — — HRC 60 — 4.5

BrC-60 2.7 3-4 50 — 3.7 8.9 HRC 80 50 6.0

U.M-332 2.9 13-15 40-50 32-45 1.4-5.0 38.0 H RAW 15 8.5

1
 Owing to the structural features of porous graphite, part of the
silicon and the graphite remains unbonded. Therefore, siliconized
graphite is a monolyte of silicone carbide with inclusions of silicon
and graphite. Components made of this material, after impregna­
tion, can be processed only by diamond grinding.

Fig. 11.1. Lower bearing unit of a vertical pump with the sliding compo­
nents made of ceramic material ϋ,Μ-332
I—sleeve; 2—bushing (TJM-332); 3—ring (steel 12X18H9T); 4—pin; 5—spacer (12X18H9T);
β—bushing (IJM-332); 7—ring (12X18H9T); «—pressure disc (IJM-332); 9—bearing disa
(IJM-332)

The C-2 silicon carbide contains free silicon, which renders it

unfit for use in alkalis. Although it provides high gas impermeabil­
ity and wear resistance, the material suffers from a substantial
disadvantage as compared to siliconized graphite: components from
this material are obtained by pressing in moulds, which incurs high
production costs where a variety of products are involved.
A distinguishing feature of the BGT-60 boron-siliconized graphite
is that the impregnation of graphite is done with molten silicon and
boron, and that provides its increased hardness and wear resistance
in liquids with abrasives. These qualities allow the ΒΟΓ-60 graphite
2* 1»
 to be used as protection against abrasive wear in dryers, separators,
centrifuges, etc.
When designing tribological joints with the ΟΓ-Μ, CIMI, CT-T,
ECr-60 and C-2 materials, it must be taken into account that their
linear expansion coefficients are much lower than those of steels and
alloys. Parts made of these materials (bushings, rings, etc.) rigidly
mounted on metal shafts are liable to breakdown due to the heat
generated in friction. Such parts should be
fixed (press-fitted, adhesive-bonded) on the
outside diameter only.
The IÎM-332 (sintered A1203) material
provides high chemical stability in acid
solutions. It is used for bearing bushings
and for seal faces working in contact with
various antifriction materials. Unlike the
carbides, the IJM-332 is prone to cracking
from thermal shocks (250-20°C).
In a sliding pair IJM-332 against metal
the latter wears at a fairly high rate. A much
better performance is provided by IJM-332
rubbing against IJM-332; this arrangement
has found industrial use. The lower bearing
of a vertical sealed pump, model HIJ-A5-16,
handling a 60 percent solution of HNO s
at 84-99°C, is shown in Fig. 11.1; its
bushings are made of IJM-332.
Fig. 11.2. Bearing unit
The C-8 Grade ceramic material based on
of a sealed centrifugal boron carbide and silicon carbide resists
pump with the sliding abrasive wear, does not react to acids (hy­
components made of cera­ drofluoric, nitric, etc.); it is harder, less
mic alloy Grade C-8 brittle and less responsive to impact loads
2—shaft; 2—conical cupj
* ^-insert; 4—insert casing than the LJM-332 Grade. A bearing assembly
using C-8 Grade is shown in Fig. 11.2.
The ceramics are brittle and apt to cracking at sharp temperature
changes; for this reason ceramic bushings should be mounted into
metal casings and should not be used in applications involving
impacts and vibration.
Parts of superhard non-metal materials are ground on conventional
grinding machines with diamond grinding wheels, the use of cool­
ant (water or other cooling agents) being indispensable. Since such
parts sustain internal stresses, they should undergo natural ageing
{about 15 days) prior to finishing, i.e. lapping (as in the case of seal
rings for face seals). Seal rings for face seals are lapped after they
have been machined to size and mounted in the casings. The lapping
is done with the use of diamond pastes and cast iron laps.
In some applications (e.g. paper making), bearing bushes and liners
for beaters, defibrators, and acid pumps are manufactured from
'wood laminated plastics.
20
 11.2.4. Polymer Materials
These are used for sliding bearings in pumps, reactors and other
equipment; for seal rings in axial seals; for vacuum-filter components,
etc.
Antifriction materials based on fluoroplastics have found appli­
cation in the last few years because of high chemical stability. The
introduction of graphite, coke, molybdenum disulphide, boron ni­
tride, etc., into fluoroplastic-4 improves the strength of resulting ma­
terials while retaining the high chemical stability in aggressive
media.
Materials based on fluoroplastic-4 are produced in the form of
blanks of the following grades (Table 11.9):
Table 11.&
Physico-mechanical properties of commercial antifriction materials based
on fluoroplastic-4
Ultimate

conductivity,
kcal/m-h-°G
Compression
kgf · cm/cm2
strength,
kgf/mm2 CO MO "*
strength,

CO

modulus

Thermal
E-10-5,
kgf/cm2
a>
Impact

Material £eo G
ten­ comp­ OJ eo c o °

Qbc
sile ressive edCQ
KÜ5
•Sgg?

Φ4Γ21Μ7 2.1 1.1 l # 7*i 0.115 5.0 0.92

40 70
Φ4Κ20 2.2 1.3 2*2 5.0 1.0
7B-2A 2.0 3.5-6.0 0.09-0.12 38-40*3 8-10 18-25
ΑΦΓΜ 2.2 0.8-1.6 — 0.07-0.1 30-35*3 1.0-1.5 40-70

*i Deformation 2%.
*2 Deformation 5%.
*3 Shore hardness.

Φ4Γ21Μ7 (ΦΚΗ-7)—a composition of fluoroplastic-4 with graphite·

and molybdenum, used in contact with all kinds of materials;
Φ4Κ20—a composition of fluoroplastic-4 with coke, used for
heavier loads than Φ4Γ21Μ7;
ΑΦΓΜ—a composite material containing graphite and molybden­
um disulphide with fluoroplastic-4 used as a binder. The small content
of fluoroplastic limits its use in certain aggressive media.
It is advantageous to line rubbing metal bushings with fluoroplas­
tic. The hydrostatic bearing of a pump for handling nitric acid is
shown in Fig. 11.3 [6]. A bushing 1 lined with fluoroplastic is press-
fitted on the shaft journal. Nitric acid is delivered through chambers
3 in bushing 2,
All fluoroplastic-base compositions are operable at temperatures
of up to 120°C. Above this limit intensive wear of fluoroplastic is
observed [4].
21
 The use of fluoroplastic-base materials is justified only in situa­
tions where other materials, including carbon-base ones, cannot be
used because of their inadequate corrosion resistance.

Fig. 11.3. Hydrostatic bearing unit with the sliding pair made of stainless
steel and fluoroplastic-4

11.2.5. Silica-Base Coatings

(Enamels)
Enameled parts combine the strength of metals and the abrasion
resistance of silica-based materials. Only few metals (Pt, Au, Ta)
and some nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys can compete with
silicate enamels in resistance to corrosion in aggressive media.
The enameled surface has a small surface roughness (0.1 to
0.2 μπι Ra) and non-uniform waviness having an amplitude of 100
to 200 μπι and a spacing of 1 to 5 mm. Hence, the enameled parts
have significant dimensional and geometrical form deviation and
cannot be used in accurate assemblies without additional process­
ing.
To provide the required dimensional and geometrical accuracy,
enameled parts can be ground with synthetic-diamond grinding
wheels and subjected to special heat treatment [281.
22
11.3. HYDROABRASIVE AND
EROSIVE WEAR
Hydroabrasive destruction is a mechano-corrosive process which
is largely determined by the chemical composition of the ambient
medium, its properties and temperature.

J
100 ΓΊ 100

ri
80 &80
50°cf E
Ì60 /
§60 (
.

IÜ "Ψ
W
uo
Ò
20 1—
A
20
2ö°C/ 4 60 :
Testing time,
2 *+ 6 (a) (b)
Testing time, h
Fig. 11.4. Effect of water temperature Fig. 11.5. Hydroerosion of steel
on hydroerosion of steel 45 Grade 45 (a) and steel 12X18H10T (b)
in an acid solution with pH 6.5 (1)
and tap water (2)

The physical properties of a liquid determine the dynamic charac­

teristics of cavitation bubbles, while its chemical properties, the
process of corrosion in hydroabrasive
wear. The temperature (Fig. 11.4) and WO

1 '
acidity (Fig. 11.5) of the medium have
a substantial effect on hydroabrasive 160
wear. Even a slight reduction in a E
hydrogen-ion concentration to pH 6.5 Sf/20
leads to a significantly increased rate
\\n\i\
\4\\ H
of erosion. The heat treatment of ^ 80
carbon steels and cast irons gives no
tangible improvement in resistance to

\AA\M
4ß
abrasive wear in acidic media [18].
Thermodiffusion chrome plating can
produce a marked effect. In alkaline 2 h 6 2 U 6
Testing time, h
media, carbon steels exhibit longer, (a) * '(b)'
and stainless steels shorter incuba­
tion periods and higher rates of ero­ Fig. Grade
11.6. Hydroerosion of steel,
45 (a) and steel
sion (Fig. 11.6). With a concentration of 12X18H10T (b) in water (dash
sodium hydrate in a solution increased lines) and aqueous solution of
from pH 8 to pH 13, the rate of hydro­ sodium hydroxide with pH 11
(solid lines)
abrasive erosion goes up [19].
Steel parts subject to hydroabrasive action should be produced
from steels which comply with the following requirements.
23
 (1) High corrosion resistance. For fresh water as an ambient med­
ium, it is ensured with a chromium content of over 12 percent;
for more aggressive media stainless steels of more complex composi­
tion need to be used.
(2) The ability to withstand both fatigue and corrosion under
microimpact effects. The maximum resistance to abrasive action is
provided by stainless steels with martensitic structure, and the
minimum resistance, by those with ferritic structure, whose wear
resistance hardly differs from that of steels with a stable austenitic
800 f
3
/
^600'
j2

I400

§200
- j
£— §\
0
2 ^
6 8 10 12 J4
Testing time, h
Fig. 11.7. Cavitation resistance of stainless steels
i—Grade 12X18H8; 2—10Χ18Η3Γ3Ε2; 3—10X12HJUI; 4—10Χ14ΑΠ0; 5— 10Χ14ΑΠ2Μ;
6—30Χ10Π0

structure; steels with unstable austenite, which through plastic

deformation decomposes forming martensite, resist erosion.
(3) Good producibility.
Steels with unstable austenite based on an iron-manganese (Table
11.10, Fig. 11.7) are promising. Under a strong cavitation in
Table 11.10
Cavitation resistance of cast steels

Steel grade Loss of mass for 6 h test,

Hardness, HB mg

30JI 135 1456

20X13JI 180 870
12X18H9JÏ 180 890
3ΟΧ10Π0 200 15

fresh water, the best results are provided by steel 30Χ10Π0, and
in sea water, by steels 10Χ14ΑΠ2 or 10Χ14ΑΠ2Μ [2].
Of grey cast irons, those with large-plates graphite are the least
stable, and with globular graphite, the most stable. A high-chromium
alloy 130X16M [25] is very stable in aggressive media.
24
 The erosion resistance of parts used in aggressive media can be-
substantially increased by hard-facing with stainless steels having
a martensitic, austenitic-martensitic, or purely austenitic structura
with unstable austenite which is obtained with 12 to 16 percent Cr
and 4 to 8 percent Ni [16].
When testing for resistance to hydroabrasive wear, use is normally
made of water as a carrier of abrasive particles; the process of ero­
sion of the material is considered as a result of the mechanical action
of the abrasive particles and the liquid flow. When abrasive particles
are carried by aggressive media, the rate of erosion proves to be
completely different. Table 11.11 presents the results of tests of
Table 11.11
Relative wear resistance of some materials in hydroabrasive wear
Medium
Material and heat treatment Acidic, Alkaline,
Aqueous pH5 pH 12.6

Steels:
20 0.74 0.90 0.55
45, normalizing 1.0 1.0 1.0
45, hardening and tempering at 200°C — — 1.62
Y8A 1.36 1.06 —
12X18H10T 1.64 11.50 0.91
20X13 1.30 10.70 —
40X13 1.54 12.90 0.99
40X13, hardening — — 1.54
110ri3JI 0.55 0.65 1.36
Cast iron:
CH 12-28 0.30 0.85 0.31
GH 18-36 0.36 0.93 0.55
BH 40-10 0.35 0.90 0.68
Alloy 130X16M 1.81 19.50 1.15
Titanium BT1 1.23 11.00 0.63
Bronze EpAJK9-4 0.96 14.15 0.43
Duralumin fll 0.19 2.89 —

some materials in various media containing 3 percent of abrasives

(quartz sand with a grain size of 0.1 to 0.2 mm) [24]. In acidic media,
corrosion processes run at a high rate on the surface of the tested
metals, especially iron-carbon alloys. These processes are accompa­
nied with a mechanical action accelerating the rate of the metal ero­
sion. A chemically active medium also produces effect on corrosion-
resistant alloys, increasing the wear rate. The hardening of carbon
and stainless steels by heat treatment does not improve their wear
resistance. High wear resistance in such media is typical of stain­
less steels, alloy 130X16M, titanium, copper, and aluminium alloys.
In an alkaline abrasive carrier (sodium hydrate solutions, lime
water), the wear rate is much slower, because thin passive films of
corrosion products and absorbed OH-ions emerge on the metal sur-
25
face [24]. The influence of corrosion in alkaline media carrying ab­
rasives is proved by the fact that with the temperature of the medium
rising from 15 to 70°C the wear rate grows by approximately 70 per­
cent.

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26
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25. TnxaHOBHH B . H., ΚΗΡΗΘΒΟΚΗΗ B . A. ΗΟΒΗΘ ΛΗΤΗΘ MaTepnajiH ΠΟΒΕΙΙΠΘΗ-
HOH H3HOCOCTOHKOCTH B yCJIOBHHX ΤρθΗΗΗ CKOJIbHKeHHH H 3ρθ3ΗΟΗΗΟΓΟ p a 3 p y m e -
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HOH oêpaôoTKH fleTajieô πρηβοροΒ H MamnH. M., MBTy HM. BayMaHa, 1973,
c. 117-121.

27
 Chapter 12

ABRASIVE WEAR

12.1. FACTORS AFFECTING

THE RATE OF WEAR
Abrasive wear is a major kind of wear for many components of
mining, drilling, construction, transport, agricultural and other
types of machinery that handle materials containing abrasive part­
icles. Typically, the rate of wear is high (from 0.1 to 100 μπι per
hour).
This kind of wear is usually caused by hard mineral particles with
non-metal interatomic bonds which produce no significant adhesion
and seizure phenomena [4, 11]. For this reason the physical processes
resulting in wear are relatively simple. On the other hand, a great
variety of shapes and mechanical properties of abrasive particles
and diverse loading conditions give rise to variable stresses at the
contact [11, 15, 22, 24, 27]. Wear debris are separated from the main
metal as a result of a single or, generally, multiple action of the ab­
rasive agent, i.e. either microcutting (different in character for
tough and for brittle materials) or fatigue (low-cycle in the plastic
region and multiple-cycle in the elastic region) takes place. This
diversity of wear processes and conditions results in various com­
binations of the elementary processes involving disintegration and
loosening of the surface layers.
The behaviour of the surface layers of materials which are subject­
ed to microscratching is revealed by rubbing their specimens against
fixed abrasive particles on a testing machine X4-B [24]. For this kind
of wear, the relative wear resistance erei (expressed as the ratio between
the wear of a reference sample and that of the specimen under test)
of commercially pure and annealed metals and steels is connected
with the Vickers hardness number (HV) by the expression erei = kHV,
where A: is a constant (Fig. 12.1a).
For structural steels and tool steels, grades 40, Y8, y i 2 and X12,
hardened and tempered at different temperatures, erei = zTei +
+ k' (HV — .ffT0), where trei and HV0 are, respectively, the
relative wear resistance and hardness in the annealed state, and
k! is a constant for a given steel (Fig. 12.1ft). The relative wear resi­
stance Erei for work-hardened metals and steels, which develop no
phase changes during work hardening, does not depend on the ha*d-

28
ness obtained after processing or may slightly decrease with its in­
crease (Fig. 12.1c).
The relative wear resistance of annealed metals is related to the
modulus of elasticity E by the expression ere/ = kE1-3, which holds
for commercially pure metals, some alloys, and non-metals. This
expression, however, is not valid for heat-treated steels, i.e. the
main structural materials used for components subject to abrasion,
because their elasticity modulus does not change with the structural
changes due to heat treatment.
In testing by this method, the relative wear resistance may depend
on the hardness of the abrasive particles. If this hardness is much

(a) lb) (c)

Fig. 12.1. Relative wear resistance εΓβΖ in the rubbing of various metals
against fixed abrasive particles, depending on metal hardness (measured before
testing) [24]
(a) commercially pure metals and carbon steels In annealed condition; (b) steels 40, y 8 ,
y 12 and X12 hardened and tempered at various temperatures; (c) materials with varying
degree of work hardening by plastic deformation: commercially pure metals (Al, Cu, Ni);
1—brass (20% Zn); 2—annealed and work-hardened aluminium-base bronze (5% Al);
3—heat-treated and work-hardened beri Ilium bronze (2% Be); 4—work-hardened austenitic
eteel (0.2% C; 18% Cr; 9% Ni); δ—hardened and tempered steel 40; β—steel 40 with
different degrees of work-hardening after annealing; 7—steel 40 with different degrees
of work-hardening after normal hardening and tempering at 600°C; «—the same, tem­
pering at 450°C; 9—the same, tempering at 300°C; 10—the same, tempering at 150°G

higher than that of the steel being tested, the rate of wear will not
depend on the difference in hardness between the steel and the abras­
ive. If, however, the steel is close in hardness to the abrasive grits,
a decrease in the hardness difference leads to a reduced wear rate.
If the steel is harder than the abrasive grits, the wear rate will be
small, and it is smaller with greater difference in the hardness val­
ues. The grit size has an effect on the wear rate up to a certain point,
beyond which the rate of wear remains constant, with all other things
being equal.
The method of testing for wear by rubbing against emery paper
provides a high repeatability and accuracy of results (variation
29
within 2 to 3 percent) under strictly defined conditionsj (low pres­
sures and sliding speeds, abrasive grits of high strength and hardness,
protection against temperature and environmental effects, preven­
tion of abrasive grits from movement and breakage). These test con­
ditions, however, are often inadequate to simulate diverse operating
conditions found in engineering practice.
When it slides over a hard stationary abrasive particle, a metal
surface develops a scratch. Any mineral particle has rounded edges
[11]; these are characterized by the edge angle as well as the rounding
radius r. When the ratio of the depth of penetration of the abrasive
particle h to its radius r (h/r) reaches a definite critical value, the
scratching produces chips (microcutting).
The critical value of h/r depends on the ratio of the shear stress
(x) at the friction contact to the yield point σ^, i.e. a changeover to
microcutting occurs when
]L-±(i
r 2V1
_Jl\
o ) y

This relationship determines the "external friction threshold" [15].

Abrasive wear reaches its maximum rate when the ratio between
the removed metal and the total scratch volume is greatest [11, 21,
15]; otherwise, no chips are formed, only bulges are left on the scratch
edges. The latter are easily destroyed by new abrasive particles com­
ing into action.
The formation of chips in abrasive wear by an abrasive mass
having weakly bonded particles seems unlikely. Here [15, 26], the
surface layer is subjected to elastic and plastic deformation, or even
overdeformation, regular and low-cycle fatigue, and also destruction,
which may be intensified by chemical processes brought about by
the ambient media.
The destructive action of abrasive particles crushed in clearances
between machine components is reduced to making so-called vibra-
tional impact scratches on the metal surfaces. The effect is similar
to that observed in a grinding mill. The destructive action is determ­
ined mainly by the strength of the particles being crushed. The
mating metal surfaces separated by a layer of abrasive particles
wear at a rate which is also determined by stresses in the surface
layers. Thus, for instance, a very hard mineral may wear more in­
tensively than a much softer steel mating it when hard abrasive partic­
les are present in the clearance between the two. The ratio between the
volumes of wear debris of the mating materials depends on the kind
of abrasive grits [11, 12].
Wear by the impact of abrasive particles usually involves for­
mation of peculiar chips and elongated lentil-shaped nicks on the
metal surface [11] and also fatigue effects due to repeated impacts.
The mechanism of wear is complicated by the chemical action of a
liquid or gaseous ambient medium, and especially by elevated tem­
peratures. On impacts against monolithic abrasives, dynamic ef-
30:
fects are likely to take place, especially at low test temperatures.
In all cases, the penetration of minute abrasive particles into the
metal surface may occur, with the resulting change in the running
of the wear process.
The most common abrasive is quartz sand, which is a component
of various grounds, soils, and dust. It is the main agent that causes
wear to machine parts. Because quartz sand grains have a relatively
rounded shape and relatively low hardness and strength, their wear
action typically involves repeated deformations of the surface-layer
microvolumes for separating wear debris [11, 15, 22, 27]. Hence,
the need arises to make distinction between several kinds of abras­
ive wear [24]. These kinds, considered below, are classified accord­
ing to the intensity of abrasive action, the level of the stresses pro­
duced thereby, and the purpose of the components subjected to ab­
rasive wear [9, 22, 28, 29].
Methods of laboratory tests for these kinds of abrasive wear are
treated in detail in references [14, 20, 24].

12.2. KINDS OF ABRASIVE WEAR

Wear in an abrasive mass. The main factors determining the rate
of wear are abrasive properties of grounds, soils, and moving particles;
loads and sliding speeds; and physico-mechanical properties of the
materials subjected to wear.
The abrading ability of soils and grounds grows with the increased
content, smaller rounding radii, larger size and greater immobility
of abrasive particles (mainly quartz ones). Abrasive particles are
more immobile in grounds of greater density which, in turn, de­
pends on their dampness and the extent of their freezing-up. Various
types of ground have different values of the abrading ability: 1.0
for clays; 1.5 for sands; 1.9 for sandy loam; and 2.3 for sandy soil
[3]. To some extent, the rate of wear can be influenced by the chemic­
al activity of the soils and grounds. Wear increases in direct pro­
portion to the load (in the case of earthmoving and agricultural
machines, with increased pressure on the flanks of the cutting
blades).
The wear life of commercially pure metals and carbon steels as
found by testing in an abrasive mass with the use of a testing device
ΠΒ-7 [22] is illustrated in Fig. 12.2. The upper part of the chart (I)
is obtained by wearing in rounded quartz-sand grits, and the lower
part (77), in sharp hard corundum grits. The lower part (//) mainly
gives results of testing on an emery paper with sharp hard grits (see
Fig. 12.1), where the dominant wear process is microscratching.
Here, the relationships ε = f (H) are linear (Fig. 12.2, II). However,
they become non-linear in the quartz-sand tests, where Hmat/Habr >
> 0.5 to 0.7 (Hmat and Habr are the microhardnesses of the material
and the abrasive, respectively), and where the increasing hardness
of the metals produces a steeper rise in wear resistance. A higher
^1
content of carbon and carbides in steels of equal hardness increases
their wear resistance [19, 24].
The use of isothermal treatment, which results in much lower
hardness, makes it possible to achieve the same resistance to abra­
sive wear as is achieved by means of conventional hardening [19].
The relative values of resistance to wear in an abrasive mass (as
referred to a hardened steel, grade ri3JI) for steels with various al­
loying elements and different microstructures obtained by conven­
ç^mln/mm3
tional and isothermal heat treat­
1i 1 ment are given in Tables 12.1
I j vizi
and 12.2. The variants of the
heat treatment are disclosed in
Table 12.3.
JO'
**Ύ7— The wear resistance of plastics
Λ
ΙΛ' in an abrasive mass tends to de­
-^&& Steel Ab crease as their modulus of elasti­
V$P city rises. It is different with
2
metals, where the inverse rela­
10*
^Steel J tion takes place. Data on wear
Fpp?— resistance of some plastics as
obtained by tests in an abrasive
mass or by other testing methods
fCu are given in Table 12.4 (the
W reference material is polymethyl
Ytz\
no1
M methacrylate).
1 ^ oy
—.,- — For synthetic mineral mate­
Steel 45 — Y7 rials, wear resistance rises with
<T<Ftppj 7
Cu/Fe - microhardness. Silicon carbide
materials exhibit exceptionally
\}Cd J high wear resistance when sub­
WL jected to impactless abrasive
200 U00 600 hV action. Data on wear resistance
of hard-facing materials are
Fig. 12.2. Wear resistance eabr of pure reported in [9, 16].
metals and carbon steels in abrasive
mass [22] (/—quartz, //--corundum) Wear of rubbing components
with abrasive particles in the con-
tact. Despite the continued improvement of protective means (air
and oil filters, seals, etc.), it is difficult to prevent completely
abrasive particles from getting into clearances between rubbing
components. In addition, many machines have mechanisms without
enclosures. In some cases, abrasive action is caused by wear debris.
The wear of rubbing parts grows with the amount and size of
abrasive particles at the sliding interface. Here, the mechanical
strength of the abrasive particles has a key role to play, because
they are subject to crushing in the process of wear of heavy-duty
joints [8, 11, 27]. The stronger an abrasive particle, the deeper it
is pressed into the surface before it is broken, and the heavier is the
resulting wear. The mechanical strength, defined by stress, σ, is de-

32
 Table 12.1
Relative wear resistance, ereh in abrasive mass for steels heat treated
to different hardness values [19]
Variants of heat treatment
Steel grades I II III IV v 1 VI
e B
HB rel HB | *rel HB | *rel HB rel HB | *rel \ HB | *rel

yio 614 11.78 534 1.61 429 1.43 375 1.28

yi2 — 1— 614 1.95 550 1.75 429 1.6 388 1.49 — —
65 182 0.85 578 1.66 477 1.32 450 1.28 369 1.04 264 0.76
65Π.5 187 0.99 578 1.39 504 1.27 477 1.21 401 1.12 — —
65Γ2 192 1.12 601 1.31 534 1.26 495 1.17 429 1.16 293 1.07
20X1.5 131 0.40 415 1.08 388 0.99 362 0.97 302 0.811 229 0.62
20X2.5 137 0.42 444 1.42 415 1.31 375 1.15 269 0.88 255 0.85
20X3.5 140 0.44 435 1.77 415 1.71 366 1.57 295 1.23 266 1.14
20X5 137 0.47 444 2.12 420 2.00 392 1.83 301 1.52 275 1.36
20X6 143 0.51 444 2.35 426 2.28 383 2.08 1302 1.69 269 1.48
35 149 0.49 444 1.08 388 0.94 321 0.75 241 0.59 212 0.50
35X1.5 174 0.52 514 1.65 1477 1.52 429 1.37 363 1.21 262 0.85
35X2.5 174 0.53 504 1.94 469 1.85 436 1.70 388 1.57 277 1.19
35X3.5 179 0.56 495 2.45 464 2.29 444 2.20 415 2.08 285 1.40
35X5 170 0.59 507 3.22 477 2.90 444 2.65 415 2.42 269 1.64
35X6 179 0.61 514 3.33 477 3.11 444 2.88 401 2.60 269 1 1.88
55 170 0.69 601 1.55 477 1.32 363 1.04 321 0.89 255 0.74
55X1.5 187 0.73 601 2.18 534 1.99 514 1.89 363 1.70 293 1.06
55X2.5 197 0.75 601 2.62 524 2.26 507 2.23 363 1.58 255 1.42
55X3 187 0.77 589 2.85 567 2.71 477 2.44 388 2.08 285 1.66
55X4.5 187 0.80 589 3.20 477 2.76 444 2.58 415 2.46 285 2.04
55X5.5 192 0.84 578 3.68 477 3.19 444 3.05 415 2.86 261 2.13
75 207 1.12 601 1.76 578 1.74 477 1.52 311 1.08 285 0.98
75X1.5 207 1.15 601 2.42 555 2.23 415 1.78 388 1.63 341 1.42
75X2.5 201 1.14 601 2.96 578 2.80 514 2.52 415 2.13 321 1.77
75X3.5 207 1.17 601 3.42 567 3.25 524 3.07 401 2.46 331 2.20
75X4.5 201 1.18 601 3.88 555 3.65 514 3.44 401 2.94 341 2.68
75X5 207 1.21 601 4.17 555 3.93 477 3.75 415 3.60 341 2.94
20Χ3Γ 121 0.46 444 1.68 415 1.60 375 1.50 261 1.19 255 1.16
35Χ3Γ 170 0.61 495 2.36 477 2.22 461 2.18 429 2.07 293 1.53
55Χ3Γ 179 0.92 578 2.72 567 2.68 477 2.41 401 2.15 311 1.89
75Χ3Γ 207 1.25 601 3.35 578 3.26 444 2.75 363 2.43 321 2.31
35Χ3Γ2 187 0.72 555 2.45 495 2.28 461 2.13 401 1.95 288 1.56
55Χ3Γ2 241 1.09 601 2.72 555 2.61 514 2.49 477 2.39 363 2.11
75Χ3Γ2 241 1.33 627 3.33 601 3.28 578 3.16 444 2.80 341 2.52
40ΧΓΟ 170 0.64 505 1.58 429 1.35 375 1.25 302 1.14 262 1.03
60XrC 269 0.81 578 2.70 544 2.54 505 2.45 421 2.31 302 1.63
xrc 269 1.03 590 3.91 578 3.30 566 3.78 444 3.33 388 3.03
55C2 262 0.75 578 1.10 461 1.00 444 0.97 321 0.90 277 0.84
55H2 201 0.77 578 1.47 477 1.32 450 1.24 352 1.08 264 0.92

termined as σ = 4/ν/πώ 2 , where N is the load producing destruction

of a single abrasive grain and d is i t s diameter. T h e value of σ rises
w i t h reduction in d (because of t h e scale effect) and in the hardness
of the rubbing surfaces (Fig. 12.3). I n the contact between steel and
plastic, the breaking of the abrasive particles is n o t observed since

3-01156 33
 [Table 12.2
Relative wear resistance, e re j, in abrasive mass for steels undergoing
isothermal treatment to different hardness values [19]
Variants of isothermal treatment
Steel grades VII VIII IX X
z e e e
HB rel HB rel HB rel HB rel

yio 415 1.65 415 1.63 388 1.60

yi2 415 2.31 415 2.31 401 2.30 388 2.29
65Π.5 555 1.81 429 1.72 341 1.66 — —
65Γ2 578 1.98 444 1.92 352 1.81 — —
35X3.5 — — — — 444 2.78 388 2.67
35X5 — — — — 461 3.41 444 3.36
35X6 — — 477 3.71 444 3.64 — —
55X1.5 — — 514 2.53 477 2.37 429 2.15
55X2.5 — — 514 2.82 477 2.66 401 2.36
55X3 — — 514 3.14 477 2.87 429 2.63
55X4.5 514 3.63 477 3.44 461 3.27 444 3.25
55X5.5 524 4.17 495 4.07 477 4.02 461 3.95
75X1.5 578 3.12 514 2.82 477 2.65 461 2.60
75X2.5 555 3.46 514 3.22 495 3.13 461 2.96
75X3.5 601 4.44 545 4.09 477 3.72 461 3.65
75X4.5 555 4.57 514 4.32 477 4.12 461 4.01
75X5 555 4.90 514 4.62 477 4.37 461 4.28
55Χ3Γ 514 3.26 495 3.15 477 2.94 429 2.91
75Χ3Γ 601 4.55 545 4.26 477 3.91 461 3.84
55Χ3Γ2 555 3.48 514 3.32 477 3.18 429 3.06
75Χ3Γ2 601 4.64 555 4.47 514 4.25 477 4.12
40XrC 444 2.00 388 1.90 331 1.75 — —
60ΧΓΟ 505 2.88 429 2.66 388 2.51 352 2.45
xrc 555 4.50 495 4.22 444 4.01 388 3.82

Table 12.3
The variants of heat treatment referred to in Tables 12.1 and 12.2 [19]
Variants of
heat treat­ Heat treatment conditions
ment

I Normal annealing. Heating to 50°C above point Ac3 or Acly hold­

ing for 30 min and cooling with the furnace
II Hardening at temperature exceeding points Ac3 or Ac1 by 50°C
and tempering at 170°C
III Hardening and tempering at 300°C
IV 400°G
V 500°G
VI 600°C
VII Isothermal quenching from temperature higher than points Acl9
or Ac3 by 70°C in a bath heated to 230-240°G
VIII Isothermal quenching in a bath heated to 270-280°C
IX 310-320°G
X 380-400°G

34
 Table 12.4
Relative wear resistance, e re j, of plastics
(according to M. M. Tenenbaum)
Relative iwear resistance as determined in testing
on ΠΒ-7 apparatus
Material on emery
paper with corun­ with quartz on grid
dum grits grits

Polymethyl methacryl- 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00

ate
Fluoroplastic-4 1.09 0.97 3.1-4.9 2.17
Polyethylene UdBJl 3.57 1.40 1.86-2.15 1.43
Polyethylene UdH^ 2.33 3.04 3.86-8.05 1.85
Capron 10.00 2.36 9.3-12.6 33.3
Polyamide Π-68 2.5-6.25 2.42 7.9-9.9 3.0-83.0
Polystyrene 1.96 0.98 0.69 0.024
Vinylplast 1.41 1.12 1.7-2.8 0.72
Vulcolan 12.50 27.30 84.00 100
Ebonite 1.37 — 2.55 50
Steel 3 25.00 9.70 31.50 —

they almost fully penetrate into the plastic reducing the wear as
is the case with rubbing components as dust seals or sliding bearings«
lined with plastics and rubber [22].
7,kgf/mm2.

0.1 0.2 0.3 0A 0.5 0.6 0.1 0.8 0.9 d,mm

Fig. 12.3. Relation between stress σ and size d of quartz grains compressed
between plates of different hardness (according to M. M. Tenenbaum)
I—both plates of cemented carbide BK-2; $—one plate of carbide and the other of
glass-filled plastic ΑΓ-4Β; 3—both plates of steel 45 hard to 210 kgf/mm«

The intensive crushing of abrasive particles in gear transmissions,

antifriction bearings and heavy-duty universal joints brings about
the situation in which wear scarcely depends (and sometimes does
not depend at all) on external load, since the contact stresses are
determined by the mechanical strength of the particles [5, 27, 28, 29].
For low contact pressures and also in steel-plastic combinations
35
 wear grows substantially with external loads. With such rolling-
contact elements as gears and antifriction bearings, the rate of wear
varies in direct proportion to slippage. The wear rate is only slightly
dependent on the rotational speed of universal joints, antifriction
bearings, low-speed and medium-speed gearings [27]. What is im­
portant is the hardness of the mating parts: the harder the surface
layers, the lower is their wear.
Abrasive wear phenomena in a jet of liquid or that of gas carrying
hard particles have much in common. The wear rate depends on the
velocity of the particles and the angle at which its vector meets the
surface (the angle of incidence ain). In addition, wear is dependent
on the concentration of abrasive particles, on their shape, hardness,
dynamic strength and also on the physical and mechanical properties
of the materials subject to wear.
The loss of mass of the material for 1 kg of the abrasive that strikes
it is connected with the speed of the particles by the relationship
Ig = kvm, where k is a factor determined by the properties of the
abrasive and the material and by the angle of incidence. The expo­
nent m has stable values for v<C 100 m/s; for higher speeds these val­
ues vary within wider limits. The values of m come to 2.3 for steel,
Grade 3; 2.5 for hardened steel, Grade 45; 2.8 for white iron; 2.9 for
basalt [10, 14, 22, 31]. Relation between the wear and the incidence
angle is generally expressed by a curve with the minimum correspond­
ing to the critical angle of incidence (ain%cr)\ its value for brittle
non-metallic materials approaches 90°, for metal alloys it decreases
with increase in their plasticity and amounts to 30 to 40° for soft
steels and 50 to 70° for hardened steels [10, 14, 31]. The values of
m and k vary for different operating conditions [14, 22, 32].
An increase in the concentration of the abrasive jet may lead to
a reduced wear rate due to a screening effect produced by the par­
ticles bouncing from the surface [11]. The exception is rubber, which,
with high abrasive concentration, gets heated and wears heavier
[14]. The rate of wear in an air jet grows uniformly with the abras­
ive grain size. However, this relationship holds for abrasive grains
measuring up to 150 μπι; with larger grains, a variety of relation­
ships can be observed [14].
The presence of moisture intensifies abrasive wear, sharply at the
outset (with a moisture content of up to 1 to 1.5 percent) and then
slower. In air at + 2 0 to +400°G the rate of wear changes slightly,
and in a neutral medium it does not change at all. At temperatures
in excess of 400 to 500°G, the rate of wear goes up steeply [11, 14].
For metal alloys, the rate of wear at rising temperatures depends
heavily on the chemical activity of the medium.
The described wear behaviour is observed only with small angles
of incidence. With greater angles (ain > 45 to 55°), the wear patterns
change. If, for instance, with small incident angles a hardened steel
is normally more wear-resistant than a softer steel, with ain > 45°
the opposite is often the case.
36
 Figure 12.4 illustrates the hydroabrasive wear resistance of ma­
terials with small angles of incidence (ain = 10°), as obtained on a
ΠΒ-12 testing device [22] at v = 37 m/s. Data on hydroabrasive
wear for various materials are given in Tables 12.5 through 12.8.
2
°abp mln/mm ·
BK3
C-8
4 IHF
BK8\
M
1/ ì
\lBK1S
Fig. 12.4. Resistance ε ^ of ma­
terials to hydroabrasive wear, 2*5*1
with incidence [angle of am
=10° [221 w W0*7/
- * \UM332
□—cemented carbides; Δ—mineral Γ6-7
materials; #—metals; X—non-ferrous
alloys; O—plastics; 1 --polyethylene
Π3ΒΑ; 2—polyethylene Π8ΗΑ; 5—po­
lypropylene; 4—capron; 5—polyamide AÏS CK
jèCHH
Π-68; 6—viniplast: 7—caprolon;
8—CHU; 9—polymetnyl metacrylate;
10—polyformaldehyde; U—polysty­
rene; 12—glass-filled plastic ΑΓ-4Β;
10°
~zhK 26 L
13—silumin AJI9B; lé—brass JI62;
15—brass JIHMn5KA60-l-2-l-l; 16—
brass JIMn;)K55-3-l; J 7—bronze A)K9-4;
18—grey cast iron; 19—steel 45 r
oll
20—steel y i 2 ; 21—steel X12; ««—white /
iron; 23—alloyed cast iron HHX12M; Pb/
24—hard-facing: relite -f Sonni te- i;
25- hard-facing OH-8M; 26—china;
27—silicate glass; ««—glass ceramic; 100 1000 HV
29—basalt; 30—slag-glass ceramic m
The use of very hard metal alloys and hard facing can bring a
substantial effect at Hmat > Habr. Some increase in wear resistance
can also be achieved where the hardness of abrasives is only slightly
Table 12.5
Relative wear (by volume) of some alloys and heat-treated steels in a jet
of dry quartz sand with a grain size of 0.6 to 1.5 mm, at v = 8 2 m/s
(according to I. R. Kleis)

Wear at a°a
Material HB
15 45 90

Steel:
Steel 3 (reference material) 130 1.0 1.0 1.0
25Χ2ΜΦΑ 505 1.4 1.1 0.9
30XMA 630 1.5 1.4 0.7
45 717 1.6 1.5 0.7
50ΧΦΑ 765 1.6 1.4 0.7
60C2A 960 2.1 1.8 0.8
ye 980 2.3 1.9 0.9
Sormi te-1 630 1.9 1.3 0.9
White hypoeutectic iron 515 1.6 1.2 0.6

37
 Table 12.6
Relative wear (by volume) of some steels and white irons in a jet of
abrasive particles of different hardness 0.3-0.4 mm in size at t? = 100 m/s
(according to I. R. Kleis and T. A. Pappel)
Quartz Glass Lime
~ uoo fry ~ 500 HV ~ 160 HV
Material HV with a°a with a°a with a®
30 90 30 | 90 30 90

Steel:
45 (reference material) 175 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
ΙΠΧ15 224 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.5
ΠΙΧ15 463 1.2 0.9 1.7 1.9 3.3 2.3
ΠΙΧ15 604 1.2 0.8 2.8 2.4 3.8
ΙΠΧ15 770 1.3 0.6 13.6 5.6 3.0
White hypoeutectic iron 510 0.9 0.5 21.5 9.4 4.6 3.0
White alloyed iron 15-3
(2.8% C; 0.8% Si; 0.8% Mn;
15% Cr; 2.8% Mo) 620 1.0 0.6 41.7 14.7 6.3 3.8
Steel Y8 860 1.0 0.7 10.3 6.7 3.4 3.0

Note: Abrading power determined on steel 45 amounts to 1520, 2180 and 6 mg/kg
with α α = 30° and 1003, 1324, and 2.5 mg/kg with aa =- 90° for quartz, glass and lime,
respectively.

Table 12.7
Relative wear (by weight) of steels and cast irons in a jet of various
abrasives at v = 1 0 0 m/s
(according to I. R. Kleis and T. A. Pappel)
Quartz sand, Lime powder, Mixed 90%
grit size 0.6- grit size 0.3- quartz +10%
Material HV 0.8 mm with a° 1.3 mm with a* lime dust with a°a
30 90 30 90 30 90

Steel
45 (reference mate­
rial) 177 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
08X18H10T 195 1.0 0.7 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.8
10Χ14Π4Η4Τ
(3H711) 224 1.1 0.7 1.0 0.8 1.1 0.8
ΙΠΧ15 224 1.3 1.1 1.6 1.5 1.3 1.1
15X25T 242 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.0 0.9
08X17H5M3 346 1.1 0.7 1.3 1.1 1.1
White hypoeutectic 0.7
iron 526 1.4 0.7 4.6 3.0 1.4
White iron 15-3 0.8
(15% Cr, 3% Mo) 614 1.8 0.9 6.3 3.8 2.0
Steel Y8 864 1.5 0.8 3.4 3.0 1.5
1.2
1.0
Note: The rate of wear of the reference material in a Jet of quartz sand was
820 mg/kg ( α α = 30°) and 720 mg/kg (« a = 90°); in a Jet of lime powder, 9.3
and 3.0 mg/kg; and in a Jet of the abrasives in mixture, 790 and 800 mg/kg,
respectively.

38
 Table 12.8
Relative wear (by weight) of sintered cemented carbides of the BK type
at an impact speed of 165 m/s (abrasive grit size 0.4-1.0 mm)
(according to I. R. Kleis)
Electrocorundum
G-lass with a° Quartz with a° with a°
Alloy fly
1 45 90 45 90 45 90

BK3 1610 420 204 78 47 6.6 6.9

BK6 1480 465 178 91 62 4.7 5.0
BK9 1350 238 143 51 44 3.3 2.4
BK15 1185 193 132 27 19 2.1 1.3
BK25 920 136 51 5.8 4.0 1.4 0.8
Steel 3 (reference
material) 130 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Note: The rate of wear of the reference material in a Jet of glass grits was 278,
quartz grits 116, and electrocorundum 256 mm3/kg with α α = 45°. and 155,
84, and 112, respectively, with α α = 90°.

higher than that of the material (Habr/Hmat < 1.6); here, the struc­
ture of the material is of great significance.
The use of rubbers becomes more effective with decreasing impact
speeds and abrasive concentrations of the jet and with greater in­
cidence angles [14].
Brittle non-metal materials resist wear fairly well with a small
ain, low speeds and fine abrasive grains [11]. They are particularly
wear-resistant in chemically active media [14].
A special case is hydroabrasive wear accompanied with cavita-
tion, when the material is subject to a combined action of liquid
streams, abrasive particles and cavitational hydraulic impacts. This
case is described in [13].
Wear by impacts against a monolithic or loose abrasive material.
Data on this type of wear are scarce. The rate of abrasive wear es­
sentially depends on the impact energy: at first the wear rate rises
directly withjthe energy, and then it slows down [6, 20, 24]. Data
on relative wear resistance [24] for impact and friction against elec­
trocorundum abrasive paper 4A3 with a grain size of 180, as obtain­
ed on testing machines YAM and X4-B, are given in Table 12.9.
The reference material was steel 3 hard to HV 150.
For friction at small speeds and loads on rigidly fixed strong hard
abrasive [24]
Nsd
TJ —h *

where U9 = bulk wear, s = sliding distance, N = load, HV0 =

= initial Vickers pyramid hardness of the metal; d = abrasive
39
 Table 12.9
Relative wear, 8rej, of materials by impact (YAM testing machine)
and rubbing (X4-B testing machine) against fixed abrasive particles [24]
e Jf testing
Material Heat treatment HV machine
YAM X4-B

Copper] 075 0.51 0.51

Nickel — 130 0.85 0.85
Molybdenum — 282 1.84 1.85
Tungsten — 425 2.83 2.82
St. Grade 3 (0.16% C) 150 1.00 1.00
Annealed 169 1.13 1.12
Normalized 212 1.20 1.22
Steel Grade 45 Hardened, tempered at 150°C 620 1.79 1.79
(0.45% C) Hardened, tempered at 335°C 453 1.51 1.54
Hardened, tempered at 450°C 370 1.43 1.42
Annealed 186 1.25 1.24
Steel Grade Y8 Hardened, tempered at 150°C 795 2.11 2.14
(0.83% C) Hardened, tempered at 300°C 615 1.91 1.86
Steel Grade Y12 Annealed 210 1.37 1.39
(1.1 %C)
The same Hardened, tempered at 150°C 840 2.48 2.45
Normalized at 1050°C 192 1.94 1.26
Steel CH2 Normalized at 1050°C, pressed 540 1.90 1.19
72.2%
Steel Grade, 20X18H9 Hardened from 1100°C 220 2.27 1.41
Steel Grade JIH3 Hardened from 1080°C 256 2.56 1.68
Steel Grade Χ12Φ1 Oil hardened from 1050°C 865 2.14 2.85
Oil hardened from 1200°C 456 3.80 3.01
Brine hardened (550°C) 468 3.80 3.08
Cast iron Grade — 348 1.08 1.17
CH21-40
White iron (3.2% C; — 354 1.74 2.14
1.07% Si)
Basalt-diabase — 840 0.11 0.48
Flint* 1 — 934 0.63 0.87
Glass ceramic* 2 — 845 0.30 1.33

*i The Izyum deposits.

*2 White.

grain size; k = coefficient determined by the properties of the ab­

rasive surface, by testing conditions, and by the method of specimen
holding.
Analysis and evaluation of wear rate (μπι/h) for heavy-duty
rubbing components (gears, friction transmissions, antifriction
bearings) can be done [27] from abrading action conditions A, physico-
mechanical properties of materials Af1(2), geometrical and kinematic
characteristics of a joint K1(^2):
C/i(„ = 4 x l 0 2 - (12.1)
M 1(2)
40
where A = qy3R°'5G2-0 ^ = concentration of abrasive particles
in air or lubricant, percent; R = average radius of the particles, mm;
σ = ultimate strength, kgf/mm2); M 1(2) = δ(*>2) ΗΒι1{^ HB2(1)
(δ1(2) = plasticity of the surface layer characterized by the relative
elongation at rupture, percent; t = coefficient of frictional contact
fatigue); KlW = K p 5 " ^ "1(2), where p* = ^ = effect-
ive radius of curvature of the rubbing surfaces, mm; vl9 v2 = sliding
speeds of the rubbing surfaces, m/s; wX(2) = the number of loading
cycles per minute. In these expressions the subscript 1 designates the
surface being tested for wear resistance, and the subscript 2 designates
the mating surface. By transforming K1(2) so that it corresponds to
the characteristics of a given sliding pair, it is possible to obtain
formulas for estimating the wear rate of its components. Values of
K for pinions of gear transmissions [27] are given in Table 12.10.
The designations in Table 12.10 are:
Table 12.10
Values of K for toothed gearings

Gearing K

Involute:
spur gears [2m (z! + z2) sinaw]0·5 ywn ll2)

Γ 2m(zi + 2 2 )sina ~]0.5

helical gears
L SoTß J *»""■>
Γ2ι» (1+1)10.5
Novikov's gears n
L /isina J htiubnli2)

m = module, mm; zx and z2 = teeth numbers for pinion and wheel;

a and aw = pressure angles; β = tooth helix angle; kn = profile coeffic­
ient for the Novikov gears, which is the ratio of the tooth profile
radius to the module; yw = geometric factor of wear, which reflects the
distribution of wear along the line of action; fg and fiUb = gearing-
type factor and lubricant-supply factor for the Novikov gears.
For the pitch-point region, the average value of yw is found as

y*i TT-A— xi ) ++ yw2\

2^2 ()
%2
(12.2)
3(χ 2 —χι)
The values of Χχ and χ2 which determine the points of the beginn­
ing and the end of the line of action are found by formulas
Yd2 —dl Vd2 —dl
α u
v — 4 V at b2 . _ V αι bt A( 9 o\
Xl
""X 2a u ,sina l ü ' χ 2
~ 2œwsmaw » ^1Ze0;
41
where dal and da2 = addendum circle diameters; dbl and db2 = bdise
circle diameters; aw = centre distance. The values of ywl and yw2 are
determined by substituting χ! and χ2 into formulas:
for enclosed transmissions
yw = Vx(l-%)%-(i-%)i (12.4)
for open transmissions

For Novikov's gears

/^-1+ K r ' 7
^5"'1+i?1sina±r
where i?i = radius of the pinion pitch circle.
In the formulas for the Novikov gears, the upper signs (plus or
minus) apply to the variety where the pinion's tooth flanks are
convex and the gear's are concave, the lower signs apply to the va­
riety where the pinion's tooth flanks are concave and the gear's
are convex.
To assess the rate of wear by the formulas given above, the values
of qa and R are found by checking samples of the lubricant for ab­
rasives, or ambient air for dust. Some data on qa and R for gear re­
ducers in various machines can be found in [3, 22, 27], Data on
mechanical strength a of abrasive particles are given in Fig. 12.3,
in literature [8, 11], and can also be determined on a testing device
developed by the IMASH R&D Institute. The pertinent geometric
parameters and teeth hardness values can be found on the gearing
drawings. Data on values of δ and t are given in the literature on
the mechanical and frictional properties of materials [1, 15, 23].
The values of δ can also be determined by the non-destructive method
described in [25].
Example 10. Find the rate of wear of an involute teeth gearing which has
z1 = z2 = 18; m = 6 mm; ctw =■ 20°; dal = da2 = 120 mm; dbl = db2 =
= 101.5 mm; aw = 108 mm. The lubricant contains abrasive particles (qa = 1
percent) of quartz with R = 0.03 mm and σ = 25 kgf/mm2. Material: Steel
40X; HBX = HB2 = 300—320; δχ = ô 2 = 12%, t = 1.5. The frequency of
rotation of the gears is 300 rpm.
Solution: First, we determine the tooth geometric characteristics pertaining
to wear resistance, i.e. we calculate χΧ and χ 2 from the formula (12.3), ywl and
yw2 from the formula (12.4), and yw (for the pitch-point region) from the for­
mula (12.2).
|/1202-101.52_,
χ ι α
~ ~ 2X108X0.342 - υ · 1 4 Ζ
2 2
_/120 -101.5 _ Α
χ2
~ 2X108X0.342 - ü ' b i ) ö
y„1 = /0.142(l-0.142) 0.142^0.142) 1 = 0 8

42
 , „ - / o ^ s d - o - s s s ) 0 · 8 5 80.858
- ^ - 0 · 8 5 8 ^ ^ 26
1 78
- ' ( Ϊ ^ - ° ' 1 4 2 ) + 0 ' 2 6 ( ° · 8 5 8 - " Τ Τ Γ ) _ Λ ,Λ
Vw ü d4
3(0.858-0.142) *
Then, using formula (12.1), we^find the rate of abrasive wear for the pinion U1
by substituting the abrasive action characteristics (qa, i?, σ) into the expression
for A, and the physico-mechanical characteristics of the materials (ό\, i, HBU
HB2) into the expression for Mt; the value of Κχ for spur gears we determine
from the formula given in the Table 12.10 using the values of m, zly z2, aw,
ywl = yw2 (for the pitch-point region), and n1#
And now
i2/30 O q0.5ot:2.5
ff1==4xl0* \ o l 15 5, , A 1,5
l f [2χ6(18+18)0.342] 0 · 5
12 * 320 320
X0.34X300 = 3.66 μιη/h

12.3. IMPROVING
THE WEAR RESISTANCE OF
MACHINE PARTS
Resistance to abrasive wear is improved by design measures [22,
27], by reducing abrasive action [22], by selecting suitable materials
and methods for their strengthening [1, 11, 20, 22, 26]. To reduce
wear due to impactless abrasive action, it is necessary in most cases
to provide high strength while retaining an adequate plasticity level
[2, 15, 22, 24, 26, 27]. The plasticity of surface layers can be determ­
ined by the non-destructive method [25].
Steels are strengthened by hardening with a low-temperature
tempering. A greater wear resistance, as compared with convention­
al hardening is achieved by the use of isothermal treatment [19].
Thermochemical treatment (borating, carburizing, etc.) substantial­
ly lowers abrasive wear, but here the depth of the case must be taken
into account. The conventional hardening of steel significantly re­
duces its plasticity. The same hardness with a markedly less pro­
nounced change in plasticity is achieved with the aid of high-tempe­
rature thermomechanical treatment, and that results in improved
wear resistance as compared with conventional hardening [1, 26, 27].
The high-temperature thermomechanical treatment can be applied
to various grades of structural and tool steels. The optimum degree
of deformation for such steels amounts to 25-40 percent [1, 26]. Of
interest is a high-temperature thermomechanical treatment method
that involves the heating of the surface layer up to the decalescence
point, its deformation, and immediate hardening.
The improvement in wear resistance provided by high-tempera­
ture thermomechanical treatment is particularly pronounced in
components operating under light loading conditions (friction against
the ground, movable joints, etc.). In the heavier conditions (abra-
43
 si ve wear in gases] of liquids) this effect is hardly felt at all [1,
22, 26].
The structure of a material has a considerable effect on its resist­
ance to abrasive wear. The role of each alloy constituent can be
roughly estimated with the aid of the structural diagram (Fig. 12.5)
obtained in wear tests of materials used for press-moulds in produc­
tion of refractory components [17]. The moulds operate at high contact
pressures. The coefficient of structural stability k8, which indicates
how responsive is the structure to the martensitic transformation
in the process of wear, and the cementite equivalent R (Fe3C), which
indicates the amount and
energy capacity of the carbide
phase, can be determined as
m F
°\ ' ' ' ' ' kc *= 240 C + 45 Mn + 35 Cr
+ 30 V + 25 Mo + 10 W;
R (Fe8C) = Fe3C
+0.13 Cr23Ce + 0.7 Cr7C8
+0.79 Mn8C + 1.3 WC
+1.9 TiC + 2.0 NbC + 1.8 VC
In these equations the che­
mical symbols designate the
percentage of the chemical
elements.
According to the diagram
of Fig. 12.5, abrasive wear is
reduced by those alloy con­
stituents that form carbides of
high energy capacity and aid
50 Fe3C,# in obtaining an unstable aus-
tenitic structure, which turns
into a martensitic one during
Fig. 12.5. Alloys wear-resistance struc­ the process of wear. The best
tural diagram 17]. Wear resistance
regions wear resistance is exhib­
I—high; II—medium; III—low ited by unstable austenite-
carbide and austenite-marten-
site alloys [2, 17, 22].
Abrasive compositions and stone mouldings (diabase, basalt)
provide high resistance to wear in operation without impacts. The
costly metal ceramic alloys T5K10, T15K6, T30K4, BK6, BK3 are
used under extremely severe operating conditions, where other
methods for increasing wear resistance produce no tangible effect.
The literature discloses methods for reducing abrasive wear by hard
facing [9, 16], electroplating [18], electrical discharge machining
and other strengthening techniques [7].

44
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45
 26. K)>KaKOB H. B . , HaßTOHHeB A. E . , ΑΗ,π,ρββΒ Κ). A. TepMOMexamraecKoe
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 Chapter 1 3

FRICTION IN VACUUM

13.1. BASIC INFORMATION

In vacuum, operating conditions for rubbing components are
mainly characterized by a low rate of regeneration of oxide and
adsorption films on their surfaces, and also by a retarded removal
of heat from the joint. Depending on the degree of vacuum, these
processes run with different intensity. The degree of vacuum or con­
dition of a rarefied gas are distinguished depending on the ratio
—, where λ is the average distance that a gas molecule travels freely
between two collisions with other molecules, and d is the molecule
size.
Table 13.1
Degrees of vacuum (pressure ranges) [9]
Low Medium High
Vacuum λ ν Λ Ultra-high

Pressure Pa >100 100-10-1 10-1-10-5 <io-5

range
mm Hg (appro­
ximately) >1 I-IO"3 IQ-MO- 7 <io- 7

Table 13.1 gives four degrees of vacuum relative to j - , each

being characterized by a particular pressure range. The lower the
pressure, the harder it is to achieve the respective degree of vacuum,
and the stricter are the requirements on rubbing components for
these conditions.
Various processes in vacuum are considerably influenced by the
hydrocarbon compounds, and for this reason there is a tendency to
distinguish between "oil" vacuum and "oilless" vacuum. The former is
mainly characterized by the presence of the residual gases of hydro­
carbon compounds, and the latter, by their absence.
47
 Table 13.2
Main specifications of vacuum pumps
Pressure. Pa
Type of pump Pump1/s
speed
full residual

Steam 100-665 (-10-50) 0.1-300

Oil-sealed
pumps*·
one-stage 2-6.6 (1.5.10- a -5.10-2) 0.27-0.66(2.10-3-5.10-3) 0.5-500
two-stage 0.66-2 (5-10-3-1.5.10-2) 10-3.6.6-10-2 (Μ0- 5 -5·10- 4 ) 0.2-50
Double-rotor
pumpsi
one-stage 0.66 (5-10-3) 6.6.10-2(5.10-4) 15-4.104
two-stage 10-3-10-2 (~ 10"5-10-4) 10-4-10-3 ( _ 10-M0-5) 5-50
Diffusion
pumps, oil-filled:
high-vacuum 6.6-10-* ( ~ 5 · 1 0 - β ) 6.6.10-δ(~5·10-') 5-2-105
ultra-high
vacuum 6.6.10-7 ( ~ 5.10-β) 10-9 ( ~ 10-11) 100-2.105
Turbomolecular
pumps — 10-7-10-9 ( ~ 10-Ö-10-11) 50-10*
Sorption
pumps:
adsorption
type — 10-1-10-3 ( ~ 10-3.10-5) 1-10
evaporation
type — 10-MO-ii ( ~ lO^-lO-") 2-2-10*
getter pumps:
ion-getter
type — ~ 10-7-10-11 (10-M0-13) 2-5-10*
magnetic
discharge
type — 10-M0-» ( ~ 10- 9 -10-n) 2-10*
Cryogenic
pumps:
condensation
type — 10-7.10-9 ( _ 10-9-10-11) 50-10*
cryosorption
type —· IO-IMO-" (~ 10-12-10-16) 500-10»

Notes: 1. Omission in the table signifies that this parameter is not specified.
2. With the elements of sorption and cryogenic type pumps placed on the
walls of the vessel being exhausted, the pump speed may reach millions of
litres per second.
3. Given in parentheses are pressure values in mm Hg.

The degrees of vacuum defined in Table 13.1 can be obtained

using vacuum pumps specified in Fig. 13.1. The main specifications
of vacuum pumps suitable for use in friction studies are given in
Table 13.2.
In oil-sealed pumps, double-rotor pumps, turbomolecular pumps
and diffusion oil-filling pumps extensive use is made of vacuum oils.
An oil for use in vacuum must comply with definite requirements
48
 Table 13.
Some specifications of vacuum oils produced in USSR [9]
Kinematic
Mole­ Vapour pressure at Residual pressure of viscosity Heat of
Oil type Application cular Density, sttam,
mass kg/m 3 20°G, Pa steam pump, Pa at 50°C, J/K mol

3-01156
IO-« m 2 /s |

Mineral oils:
BM-1 Diffusion pumps 450 870 5.3· 10-6-2.66-IO"7 2.7·IO" 4 65-69 1.15-10»
(4-10-8-2 -10-9) (2-10-6)
BM-2 The same 450 870 5.3-10-6-2.66-IO"7 < 4.6-IO" 4 65-69 1.15-IO5
(4-10-8-2-IO"9) < 3.5-IO"6
BM-3 Booster pumps — 850 1.3-10-M.3-10-· 3 7-10 1.13.10*
(1 - 10-M - IO-5)
BM-4 Mechanical pumps — — 6.6-10-M.3-10- 3 — 47-57 —
(5-10-6-1. IO"5) 7
BM-5 Diffusion pumps 450 870 1.3-10-6-1.3-IO" 1.3-10-6 — —
(1-10-8-1-IO"9) (1-10-8)
BM-6 Mechanical pumps — — 1.3 -10-6-4- IO-75 — 30-40 —
(1-10-8-3-IO" )
4 6
BM-7 Diffusion pumps — — < 4-IO- 6 « 3 - I O "4 8 ) < 1.3-IO" « M O - ) 80-95 —
Γ Booster pumps 350 850 6.6-10-3-1.3-IO- — 12.5-15.3 MO5
(5-IO-M-IO- 6 )
TM-1 Turbomolecular — -~ 8.8-10-3 (6.6-IO' 5 ) — 6-9 —
pumps
Esters:
grade ΟΦ Diffusion pumps 390 980 1.3-10- 5 (1-10- 7 ) ^ 1 . 3 - I O " 4 « MO- 6 ) —
grade OC The same 426 910 < 2.7-10-6 « 2 - 1 0 - 8 ) < 1 . 3 - I O " 4 « 1-10-6) 8.5 —
5Φ43 The same 446 1200 1.3-IO"9 (IO-11) <9.3-10-7«7-10-9) 130 —
Organosilicon oils:
II3C-B-1 The same 700 970 < 6.6-IO"6 « 5 - I O " 8 ) 2.7-IO" 4 (2-10-6) 16-33 1.19-105
(BKÎK-94A)
4
II3C-B-2 The same 700 970 1.3· 10-6-1.3-IO" 4-10-M.3-10-3 16-33
(BKHÎ-94E) (1-10-8-1-IO"6) (3-10-6-1-IO"5)
llOMC-l Booster pumps 700 1000 1.3-10-3-9-10-3 — 3.6-4.6 1.13· IO5
(Μ0- 5 -7·10- 5 )
n<I>MC-2/5ji Diffusion pumps 700 1050-1070 6.6-10- 7 -9·10- 5 2.7-IO- 4 (2-10-6) 8-13 1.24 IO5
ΦΜ-1 he same 546.9 1096 (5·10- 9 -7·10- 7 ) 1.3· 10~7-1.0-10-6 35-37 —

50
1 1.3-IO"8 (IO"10) | ((1-8). IO"9)
Note: Given in parentheses are pressure values in mm Hg.
(the specified kinematic viscosity, evaporation heat, etc.), the prin­
cipal one being a low vapour pressure. The main specifications of
vacuum oils are given in Table 13.3. These oils can be used for lu­
brication of mechanisms operating under specific vacuum condi­
tions.
The drawback to most of the pumps mentioned above is that oil
vapours may get into the vacuum chamber.
Among sorption pumps, the most promising for obtaining ultra-
high vacuum, are magnetic-discharge pumps. These are convenient
to use for studies of friction in joints with low gassing. Pumps of

Low vacuum Medium uacuum High vacuum Ultra-high vacuum

f.OJ-10" W
4
10J\
w 10 1.0 10 W2 w3 io-* 10'5 10' IO'7 10'9

m\
7
{760) &0)\
(*/) NI Ι*ιοΑ
s
hlO )\ \W )B
K )|\(*10~ )\
8 ϊκΐθ'10)fcW-njfàO'12Ì
-n—I

Booster
pumps
Diffusion
pumps

Mechanical
double-rotor pumps
ΓΓ Getter pumps

Magnetic-
discharge pumps
Mechanical
oil-sealed pumps
C Turbomolecular
pumps
M Sorption pumps

Cryogenic pumps [—

Fig. 1 3 . 1 . Degrees of v a c u u m a n d respective types of v a c u u m p u m p s . Given

in parentheses are pressures in m m H g , o t h e r v a l u e s , i n P a

this type are simple and dependable, provide quiet operation, a long
service life (~ 104 hours) and a high starting pressure (10"2 mm Hg),
which allows them to be used in combination with adsorption
pumps.
Research into the frictional behavior of tribological joints with
high gassing in ultra-high vacuum is expedient to carry out using
cryogenic pumps.
The main advantage of cryogenic pumps is the speed of evacuation.
That makes it possible to achieve ultra-high vacuum without warm­
ing-up of the pumping installation and to use rubber seals in se­
parable joints.
50
13.2. REQUIREMENTS FOR
RUBBING COMPONENTS
Distinction should be made between requirements placed on the
rubbing components functioning in the vacuum of outer space and
those placed on such components functioning in the vacuum created
by vacuum pumps in the sealed chambers of vacuum equipment.
This distinction primarily stems from the fact, that the outer
space can be regarded as an "ideal pump" with unlimited speed of
evacuation, whereas this speed in vacuum pumps is limited. In ad­
dition, requirements for space applications are determined by specif­
ic operating conditions, such as various radiations, ultra-low or
ultra-high temperatures, etc.
Requirements for the rubbing components of vacuum equipment
are formulated with regard to the fact that it is difficult to obtain
and keep vacuum, especially high and ultra-high, and that the vac­
uum pumps and control equipment are very costly.
These requirements can be classified into those on the materials,
construction, and operational conditions.
Materials. Materials used in tribological joints of vacuum equip­
ment should have the minimal gassing and porosity, low vapour pres­
sure, high thermal stability and resistance to corrosion.
Gassing. In vacuum, materials and workparts release considerable
amounts of gases and vapours present on their surfaces and inside.
The amount and composition of the gases depend on the past of the
materials. Gases can be absorbed by the material during its process­
ing and contact with the environment. In order to assess the
overall flow of outgoing gases it is necessary to know the specific gass­
ing rate for a given material. This is the amount of gas liberated
from a unit surface area or mass per unit time. The specific gassing
rate is usually expressed in 1 mm Hg/cm 2 -s. Values of this rate for
various materials are given in Table 13.4 [9].
It should be noted that for the same material different sources may
cite widely differing values of the specific gassing rate because of
different methods of its measurement.
The overall flow Q of gases from the walls of a joint can
be determined by the formula Q = qA, where q = specific out-
gassing rate; A = surface area exposed to vacuum.
If a sliding pair is made of different materials, the overall flow
comprises the flows from each material. Account must also be taken
of increased gassing from the walls of a joint periodically expos­
ed to the air and of the influence of preliminary treatment of the
surface (etching, electrical polishing, degassing, etc.). On the basis
of specific gassing rates, it is possible to evaluate the range of pres­
sure in which a given material is expedient to use for a tribological
unit of vacuum equipment, and the cost of evacuation. As an exam­
ple, Table 13.5 presents the rate of evacuation provided by a vacuum
pump to ensure pressure p i n a sealed vacuum chamber where various

4* 51
 Table 13.4
Rate of specific gassing from metal surfaces at room temperature
Specific gassing rate
Preliminary Time of evacua­
Material treatment 1 · mm Hg tion before
m3.pa/(m2-s) measurement, h
(cm2-s)

Low-carbon — 4.1-10-* 3.09-IO"7 1

steel 7.3- UT 5 5.5·IO" 8 6
Annealed in 1.2·10-8-4-10-8 9·10- 1 2-3·10- 13 Practically
vacuum at 420°C constant

Stainless — 2.4-10-* 1.8-IO"7 1

steel 4.1-IO" 5 3.09-10- 8 6
Untreated 1.7-10-* 1.27-IO"7 1
2.0·IO- 5 1.48-IO"8 5

Annealed in 1.2-10-8-4-10-10 9·10- 1 2 -3·10- 1 3 Practically

vacuum at 400°C constant

Copper Untreated 1.97-10-* 1.48-IO"7 1

6.45-IO"5 4.85-IO"8 5

Annealed in 9.3-10-9 7·10- 1 2-8·10- 1 * Practically

vacuum at 400°C 1.07-IO"10 constant

Brass Etched, cleaned 1.97-IO-5 1.48-10-8 1

in benzol and 1.54-10-6 1.16-10-9 5
acetone
Cleaned in ben­ 2.24-IO"*5 1.69-IO"7 1
zol and acetone 9.0.IO" 6.75-IO"8 5

Untreated 3.38-IO"* 2.54-IO"7 1

1.21-10-* 9.1-10-8 5
5
Duralumin Etched, clean­ 4.77-IO" 3.59-10-8 1
ed in benzol 3.92-10-6 2.95-10-9 5
and acetone

Cleaned in 2.82-IO"* 2.12.IO- 7 1

benzol and 1.41-10-* 1.06-IO"7 5
acetone
Untreated 5.64-IO"* 4.24-IO- 7 1
1.92-10-* 1.44-IO"7 5
Aluminium (4-9). IO"6 (3-7)-IO-99
Nickel (7-8)· 10-6 (5-6)-IO"
Molybde­ (4.5-8.5). 10-6 (3.5-6.5)-IO"9 2
num
Tantalum 6.0-10-6 4.5-10-9
Tungsten 1.3-10-6 MO" 9

02
materials, with a total surface area of 1 cm2 are placed. The gassing
rate for plexiglass, Teflon*, stainless steel, and stainless steel an­
nealed at 400°C in vacuum was taken to be 4 X 10~4; 3 X IO""7;
2 X 10~7; and 9-10"12 1-mrn Hg/(cm2-s), respectively. As seen from
Table 13.5
Pump speed required for exhausting various materials with total surface
area of 1 cm 2 to pressure p
Pump speed, 1/s, for materials
Pressure in
vacuum chamber stainless steel heated
mm Hg plexiglass Teflon stainless steel in vacuum at 400°C

IO" 6 4-102 3-10-1 2-10-1 9-10-6

IO" 7 4-103 3 2 9-10-5
IO"« 4-104 3-10 2-10 9-10-*
IO"» 4-10 5 3-102 2-102 9-10-3

Table 13.5, with a plexiglass specimen having a surface area of

1 cm2, a pump speed of 4001/s is required for evacuation to a pressure
of 10~6 mm Hg. To provide this speed, it would take two high-vacuum
"oil"-type pumping installations BA-05-4. With the"oilless"method,
two turbomolecular pumps TMH-200 or two magnetic-discharge
pumps NORD-250 would have to be used, the cost of each of these
units being four to six times that of the BA-05-4.
Gas emission from solid lubricants. The principal characteristics
of solid lubricants to be used in vacuum are the rate of specific gass­
ing and the chemical composition. Oil and grease are disqualified for
use in most vacuum applications for their chemical composition
and relatively high rate of gassing.
A low gassing rate typical of solid lubricants allows them to be
used in high and ultra-high vacuum at high temperatures.
Under these conditions the rubbing surfaces are gradually cleaned
of films through gassing and friction, and that facilitates inte­
raction between the juvenile metal surface and vapours released by
the solid lubricant. Such an interaction is provided by sulphur, se­
lenium, and hydrogen. In some cases this effect reduces friction and
wear, in others it may lead to embrittlement of the surface layer
and increased wear.
Figure 13.2 shows gas-emission curves for some solid lubricants and
self-lubricating materials [14]. Tungsten and niobium diselenides
not only give off the smallest amounts of gases but also provide the
best thermal stability among the other solid lubricants.
Gas emission in friction. Various kinds of mechanical interaction
between solids in vacuum, including friction, increase gassing
and, consequently, pressure, and change the composition of the
* Trade name.—TV.

53
residual gaseous medium in the vacuum chamber. The charts in
Fig. 13.3 indicate that gassing during friction is unstable [14].
Three stages can be distinguished on the charts: the initial, where
gassing gradually mounts; the transitional, where gassing
shows sharp variations; and the
cm5/g steady-gassing stage.
§).00\
1 ■&/v
The friction force chart is
$// similar in character to the gas­
Ì
1 1/ sing chart, i.e. it also has three

1 ψ
"go./o
stages: the initial, where the
friction force shows a gradual
10.01
**/ rise; the transitional, where the
friction force has sharp varia­
tions; and the stable-friction
stage. The wear of the rubbing
250 400 550 700 850 °C
Tetnoeratura surfaces increases as the process
Fig. 13.2. Gag-emission characteristics proceeds to the third stage. Com­
of 6 lubricants in a vacuum of parison of the actual wear observ­
10" mm Hg ed on the rubbing surfaces with
the character of the charts allows
the conclusion that the initial stage involves gradual wear of pro­
tective oxide films on the metal surface. The wear and destruction
of the films lead to an increase in the rate of gas flow from the
metal and in the friction force and wear.

360 t,°C
Fig. 13.3. [Gassing in friction of steel Grade 45 (sliding speed 0.24 m/s,
vacuum 10" 7 mm Hg)
1—variation of hydrogen mass-spectrum peak height in time; 2—variation of fric­
tion force

Gassing from molybdenum disulphide as varied with fric-

tional temperature can be observed in metal-ceramic materials hav­
ing a layer of this solid lubricant. The latter (MoS2) is contained by
the metal-ceramic base in "pure" form, i.e. without any binder (be-
54
cause the materials used as binders usually give off great amounts of
gas and have a complex spectrum).
Figure 13.4 depicts the effect of temperature on the average resi­
dual pressure p (θ), the coefficient of friction in high vacuum, and
the partial pressure measured when the rubbing elements are in
relative motion or at rest. Temperatures near the sliding interface
are plotted on the axis of abscissas; along the axis of ordinates are
plotted: on the right—the friction coefficient, on the left—the mean
residual pressure and the height
of the mass-spectrum peak (A), ulooting v
which characterizes the partial i,mmHg *
it r- 600
pressure of individual compo­
nents of the residual gases. 2h
-6L
As seen from the graphs of m 500
Fig. 13.4, friction is accompanied 6

pM
M
with gas emission. The spectrum MO
2
of the gases is defined by mas­
70-7
ses 2, 18, 28, and 44, correspon­ fil
ding to H 2 , H 2 0 , N 2 + CO, and 300\
C 0 2 . These gases are absorbed
within the bulk and on the sur­ J Ve
face of the specimens while they
are held in air. As the frictional
1 ï
temperature rises on the surface
of the specimen, it gives off more
gases, generally through water
evaporation. The spectrum also 50 100 i>, °C
shows mass 64, which represents Fig. 13.4. Variation of friction coeffi­
sulphurous-acid anhydride S 0 2 . cient, gas flow and gas composition
As is known, MoS 2 readily and with temperature in friction of
metal-ceramic materials with a layer
quickly oxidizes in air in the of MoS2
presence of water vapours.
In the course of friction the previously formed sulphur oxide is
liberated. It has been found that during the initial stage of heating
of a non-degassed material, the peak of mass 64 rises to the point
corresponding to 300°C. As heating continues, the peak of mass 64
drops to the initial value, but at 800°C it quickly rises again. Here,
however, the peak goes up because MoS 2 begins dissociating into
sulphur and molybdenum.
A study into the combined effect of friction and ultra-high vacuum
on gas emission from Teflon filled with 25 percent black soot was
reported in [26]. Here, the vapours were analyzed for chemical com­
position (Table 13.6) and for the kinetics of their adsorption and
condensation, with pressure changes recorded during the process.
All molecular masses observed during the friction of Teflon can
be ascribed to the fragments of Teflon molecules; it was found that
mass 69 (CF3) lasted longer by an order of magnitude than the other
masses. Calculation of the speed and the time of formation of a
55
 Table 13.6
Composition of gases emitted in friction of Teflon

Molecular Emission peak Molecular Emission peak

mass height in rela­ Composition mass height in rela­ Composition
tive units tive units

31 6.0 CF 69 2.5 CF3

50 1.5 GF2 81 0.2 C2F3
51 0.5 HCF2 100 0.3 C2F4
62 0.7 C2F2

monolayer of gas molecules indicates that such a layer forms in

one hour at a distance of 10 cm from a Teflon bearing during friction
at a sliding speed of 60 cm/s. Contaminant films with a thickness
smaller than that of a single monolayer can bring about considerable
changes in the physical properties of the surface of a solid. For this
reason Teflon, despite its excellent lubricity, cannot be used in high
vacuum in the proximity of cooled surfaces sensitive to contamina­
tion.
The mass-spectrometry of gases emitted by solid lubricant coat­
ings indicates that in friction the latter give off specific decomposi­
tion products which result from thermomechanical destruction of the
coating material.
Porosity. Porous materials are not recommended for use in vacuum.
They readily absorb liquids used for cleaning the rubbing components
to be placed into a vacuum chamber. These liquids may contain
various impurities dissolved in the process of this indispensable
operation. The impurities stay in the pores and comprise a source
of gas emission. In addition, porous materials adsorb gases at at­
mospheric pressure and then gradually liberate them during evacua­
tion. As a rule, porous materials can be used in low and medium
vacuum, but not in high vacuum.
Vapour pressure. A principal characteristic of materials that de­
termines the possibility of their use in vacuum is the pressure of
vapours at the maximum temperature occurring during their service
or heating for degassing. According to reference [1] this pressure must
be lower by two to three orders of magnitude than the residual pres­
sure within the vacuum installation. The vapour pressure determines
the rate of evaporation of a material, which can be found from the
formula [5]
W = 5.833xl0-2/>]/~-
where W = rate of evaporation, g/cm2«s; p — vapour pressure,
mm Hg; M = molecular mass, g/mol; θ = temperature, K.
The evaporation of the material and its condensing on the walls
of the components of vacuum equipment may damage the electrical
insulators, observation windows and reflectors. It must be borne in
56
mind that the firmly bound constituents of alloys evaporate in
vacuum as well as pure metals.
Thus, for instance, zinc can be almost fully vaporized from brass
by prolonged heating in high vacuum. Such metals as Cd, Zn, Mgt
Bi, Sb, featuring high-pressure evaporation at the heating tempera­
tures typical of high-vacuum installations, are not recommended
for tribological units in vacuum applications. Vapour pressures for
various metals at different temperatures are given in Table 13.7.
Table 13.T
Metal vapours pressure (mm Hg) at different temperatures (°C)
Pressure, m m Her
Melting
Metal tempera-
ture, °C 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 lO-i 10°

Bi 271 (350) (400) 474 536 609 698 802 934

Cd 321 (95) (120) 148 180 220 264 321 —
P (195) (220) (270>.
Pb 328 (360) (420) 483 548 625 718 832 975
Sn 232 (640) (730) 823 922 1042 1189 1373 1609
In 157 (520) (590) 667 746 840 952 1088 1260
Sb 630 (340) (395) 466 525 595 678 779 904
Zn 419 (140) (175) 211 248 292 343 405 —
B 2027 — 1687 1827 1977 2157 2377 2657
Ti 1800 — — 1321 1431 1558 1703 1877 2083
V 1857 — — 1432 1551 1687 1847 2037 2287
Cr 1903 — — 1062 1162 1267 1392 1557 1737
Co 1495 — — 1162 1262 1377 1517 1697 1907
Ni 1452 — — 1142 1247 1357 1497 , 1667 1887
Cu 1084 — — 942 1032 1142 1272 1427 1622:
Ga 37 — — 757 842 937 1057 1197 1372
Mo 2577 — — 1987 2167 2377 2627 2927 3297
Ag 961 — — 757 832 922 1032 1167 1337

Note. Figures in parentheses are obtained by extrapolation.

Thermal stability. Materials for the rubbing components to be

used in high-vacuum applications should possess thermal stability,
i.e. the ability to stand repeated heating to high temperatures.
Vacuum installations are heated at a pressure from 10 ~3 to 10 ~6 mm
Hg to reduce the emission of gases from the materials. The heating
temperature may be as high as 450°G, the duration of heating beings
up to 50 hours. To obtain ultra-high vacuum, the heating is done
after each exposure of the vacuum chamber to the air at atmospheric
pressure.
Corrosion resistance« Rubbing components for use in high vacuum
and, particularly, in ultra-high vacuum are expedient to manufacture
from materials with improved corrosion resistance, because such
materials feature low gas emission.
57
 When materials are intended for use in space applications, they
must also be resistant to the action of factors typical of the space
environment (various kinds of radiation, meteoric particles, etc.).
In recent years, solid lubricants, self-lubricating materials, and
metals with a low shear strength have found extensive application in
mechanical engineering and instrument making. This is a new class
of materials which provide low friction and wear without fluid
lubricants and greases (see Chapter 9).
Design requirements for tribological units. The design of a tri-
bological unit intended for use in vacuum should meet the following
requirements:
—the unit should be easy to mount and dismantle, its elements
should be easily accessible for cleaning;
—it should preferably have no hard-to-exhaust chambers connected
with the main vacuum volume, since these involve a significant in­
crease in the time required to obtain a specified degree of vacuum,
and sometimes make this vacuum impossible to achieve;
—it should give off the minimum flow of gases in operation as
well as in its stationary condition;
—it should provide high reliability, since its failure may not only
result in the irreparable damage to the workpiece or material but
also involve downtime of costly vacuum equipment;
—its gases should comply in composition with the residual gases
permissible for vacuum installations.
The latter requirement is particularly important in some manu­
facturing processes and scientific experiments. For instance, the
ingress of hydrocarbons into electrovacuum instruments in the pro­
cess of evacuation results in unstable functioning of the cathodes,
in shorter life and in reduced reliability of the instrument. Hydro­
carbons are also impermissible in experimental studies of nuclear
reactions and various physical phenomena occurring on the surface
of solids.
The main requirements placed on vacuum processing conditions
are as follows [3].
(1) The rooms where vacuum tribological units are manufactured
must be free of suspended particles (dust, soot, etc.) or vapours of
oils, acids, alcalis or other chemicals and volatile fluids in the air.
(2) All machined or otherwise processed components must be
carefully cleaned of impurities (chips, oil, paint, oxide films,
etc.).
(3) Before final assembly, all the components must be degreased.
The degreasing procedure to be used is as follows:
(a) rinsing in benzine E-70 at least twice, each time changing
it, until the used benzine contains no impurities. Its cleanness can
be checked by applying a drop on a piece of filter paper. Clean ben­
zine should leave no greasy spots on the paper;
(b) drying at 80 to 100°C in a drying chamber or by blasting
with hot cleaned air until the smell of benzine has vanished.

•58
 (4) Assembly should be carried out in gloves made of napless
fabrics.
(5) Assembled units must be mounted into vacuum equipment as
soon as possible. When prolonged storage is required, the units are
advisable to place into special vacuum containers.

13.3. STATIC FRICTION

13.3.1. Advantages of
Tribological Joints with
Static Friction
Owing to small displacements in joints with static friction,
their heat generation, wear, and, what is particularly important,
gas emission are negligible.
Units of this type for operation in the static friction regime
in vacuum without lubrication were initially used in mechanisms
for transmitting intermittent
motion from the atmosphere into
vacuum [4]. The static friction \W I I I l
regime is effected as the ele­ I I L__l ;
7
Θ
1\
ments of the tribological unit ΠζΠ V 1
move along a closed path and /
~i—1
interact in a definite sequence. = - ^
The motion diagram for such a
unit is shown in Fig 13.5. A dri­
ving element 1 (a grip) moves
a
it y
from the initial position / into I IF |
position 77 where it clamps the I I
driven element 2 (a rack) and Fig. 13.5. Principle of an intermittent
moves with it into position 77/, motion mechanism
thereby providing feed motion. I—driving element (clamp); 2—driven
In the positions 77 and 77/ the element (rack)
elements form a tribological unit
where static friction takes place. The driving element 1 is then
retracted into an intermediate position IV and brought back to the
initial position / , and after that the cycle is repeated.
This mode of operation provides high reliability without lubrica­
tion in an ultra-high vacuum (up to 5·10~12 mm Hg) and heating
up to 500°C for degassing.

13.3.2. Determining
the Coefficient of Static Friction
The installation whose general layout is shown in Fig. 13.6 allows
investigation into static friction in a vacuum created by the "oil"
(up to 5-10"7 mm Hg) or "oilless" (up to 5·10~10 mm Hg) methods of
evacuation, at atmospheric or higher (up to 5 atm) pressure in inert
59
or some other gases with controlled chemical composition, and also
at elevated temperatures (up to 450°G). The specimens can be made·
of materials with different physical and mechanical properties and
can have different shapes (sphere against flat surface, cylinder

Fig. 13.6. Schematic diagram of a high-vacuum apparatus for studying

static friction
j—tangential displacement sensor; 2—indentation sensor; 3—measuring rod; 4—vacuum
chamber; 5, 7—specimens under test; 6—pivoting member; 8—normal-load application
mechanism; 9—dynamometer; 10—weight; 11—dynamometer; 12—tangential-load appli­
cation mechanism

against cylinder, cylinder against flat surface). A specimen 5 is at one

end connected to the tangential loading mechanism, which applies
a load of 1,000 kgf, and at the other to the measuring rod 3, which
contacts the measuring tips of a tangential displacement sensor 1
and an indentation sensor 2.
60
 Table 13.8

Values of friction parameters τ 0 and β for steel grade 12X18H10T

i n combination with other steels in vacuum

Pressure, Evacuation Temperature, τ0,

Steel grade mm Hg method °C kgf/mm2 ß

P9 6.43 0.232
ΥΊ 5-10- 6 2.54 0.32
40X13 Oil type 3.95 0.26
IUX15 5-10-3 20 5.75 0.156
P9 5-10-9 Oilless type 9.65 0.575
P9 3-10-7 200 9.65 0.545

To obtain the values of the friction parameters τ 0 and ß in the for­

mula for calculating / (cf. Chapter 2), each shape combination of

60 80 100 120 1^0 160 180H,kgf 60 80 100 120 no 160 180H,kgf

(a) (b)

Fig. 13.7. Relation between static friction coefficient (/) and normal load
<JV) for a stainless steel 12X18H10T/steel P9 combination in "oilless" vacuum
a t different temperatures:
<a) ult^a-high vacuum (5· 10-· mm Hg) at normal temperature (20°C); (b) high vacuum
<3-10-7 mm Hg) at 200°C

f
0.7

0.6 0 c^4—o ° o

SO 10 90 Ì10 130 150 170 °C

Pig. 13.8. Relation between static friction coefficient (/) and temperature (°C)
for a stainless steel 12X18H10T/steel P9 combination at normal load of
80 kgf in high vacuum (10 "MO - 7 mm Hg) achieved by "oilless" evacuation

specimens should be tested at different mean pressures pr. With

an elastic contact between the specimens, the deformation component
can be neglected. Then the friction parameter τ 0 can be determined
61
from the formula
(/l — Î2)PriPr2
τ0 =
Pr2-Prt
where / x and / 2 = coefficients of static friction corresponding to
Prx and pr2.
With the value of τ 0 being thus found, the parameter β can be
determined from the equation for the friction coefficient. The values
of τ 0 and β calculated in this way from experimental data are given
in Table 13.8.

x — —"
-H
ί
I y
*

Λ
Ά 20 L*0 SO 80
Displacement, n,
I
100

Fig. 13.9. Displacement (μιη) as function of tangential load (friction force)for

a steel 12X18H10T/steel 40X13 combination at normal load of 80 kgf in high
vacuum (5·10 - 5 mm Hg)

The effect of normal loads and temperatures on the static friction

coefficient is illustrated in Figs. 13.7 and 13.8.
Figure 13.9 shows a typical relationship between the tangential
load and axial displacement in vacuum.

13.3.3. Wear Behaviour of

Rubbing Components
in Prolonged Operation in
the Static Friction Regime

This is an important aspect of the studies of tribological joints in

vacuum. The results of wear tests for rubbing components made of
various materials are given in Table 13.9.
Figure 13.106 is a micrograph of a rubbing surface after 250 hours
of continuous operation in high vacuum under a load of 15 kgf.
Initially, the surface had a finish of 0.63-0.32 μπι Ra. The micro­
graph shows a considerable improvement in surface finish as a re­
sult of the run. Comparison with a surface roughness specimen
(Fig. 10a) having a finish of 0.04-0.02 μπι Ra indicates, that the sur­
face under test has a roughness smaller than that of the specimen.
What is also noteworthy is that after a 250-hour run the micro-
hardness of the surface has increased three times.
62
 Table 13.9
Wear (by mass) of the clamp of the intermittent motion device under
different operating conditions
Sliding pair: steel 12X1810T on steel ΧΒΓ

Test Operating Number of working Rack's length of Clamp wear,

stage time, h cycles path, m g

High vacuum (ρ = 2·10~ 7 mm Hg) obtained by means of an oil-filled

diffusion pump

Tangential load 0.1 kgf, mass of clamp before tests 13.9342 g

1 146 318158 2228 0

2 100 150956 1057 0.0001
3 100 154492 1061 0
4 100 146484 1025 0.0001
5 100 149552 1047 0

Total 546 919642 6418 0.0002

Tangential load 15 kgf, mass of clamp before tests 11,2844 g

1 50 78208 547 0
2 50 78000 546 0
3 50 87650 589 0.0001
4 50 89100 599 0.0001

Total 200 332958 2281 0.0002

Ultra-high vacuum (ρ=5·10~ 1 1 mm Hg), "oilless" evacuation

Tangential load 0.1 kgf, mass of clamp before tests 13,9869 g

1 50 81848 573 0
2 50 78988 553 0
3 50 70064 560 0
4 47 75946 548 0

Total 197 306846 2234 o

Note: 1. For operation in ultra-high vacuum, steel 12X1810T clamp was sulphidized.
2. Normal load ~ 20 kgf.
3. Contact area ~ 1.5 mm2.

63
 Shown in Fig. 10c is a micrograph of a rubbing surface tested in
liigh vacuum under the same load but in the sliding friction regime.
In a short time (about 30 min) the surface develops deep furrows and
other kinds of surface damage typical of severe wear.

Fig. 13.10. Surface micrographs (X115)

(a) surface roughness specimen of the 12th Class according to standard; (b) rubbing surface
of clamp after 250 h (4 · IO5 cycles) of operation under static friction conditions at 15
kgf load in high vacuum (4-10- 7 mm Hg); (c) rubbing surface of clamp after 30 min
operation under sliding friction conditions at 15 kgf load in high vacuum (2-10- 7 mm Hg)
obtained through «oil» evacuation

13.4. SLIDING FRICTION

Sliding friction in vacuum without lubrication is characterized
with high values of the friction coefficient and seizure of the rubbing
surfaces, heavy wear, and often by the jamming of the joint.
Tests of a stainless steel specimen in rubbing against a counter-
face of the same material at different levels of vacuum revealed the
following coefficients of friction [21]:
Pressure in vacuum
chamber (mm Hg) 760 760 4-10" 7 1.4-10-* 8.10-9
Coefficient of friction . . . . 0.47 0.82 1.22 2.74 2.94

The coefficients of friction in the air, at the beginning and after

two hours of the test run (the first two values) are given for compar­
ison. The tested specimen was a semi-spherical slider rubbing against
a flat surface at a low sliding speed (0.076 m/s) and a small load
(N = 20 g).
Bushings of steel 20X13 (HRC 32-35) were tested in combination
with shafts of metal-ceramic bronze in a vacuum of 10~7 mm Hg at
pa = 2 kgf/cm2 and a sliding speed of 0.8 m/s. After 20 minutes
from the beginning of the run the coefficient of friction began to
increase, which was accompanied by a rise in temperature, vibra­
tions of the unit and seizure of the rubbing surfaces. The coefficient
>64
of friction reached 0.8, two times the value obtained during similar
tests in air.
The results of tests [17] in air and in vacuum (3·10~β mm Hg)
of rubbing components made of different materials are given in
Table 13.10.
Table 13.10
Coefficients of friction o! metals in air and in vacuum
Coefficient of friction
Sliding pair Load, in air in vacuum
kgf
Start 10 min 60 min Start 110 min 60 min

Aluminium-aluminium 3.1 0.50 0.78 0.78 1.10 1.57 1.57

6.3 0.57 0.59 0.59 1 0.61 0.75 0.59
Berillium bronze-berillium 3.3 0.46 0.57 0.58 0.71 ' 0.87 1.10
bronze 6.5 0.44 0.89 0.70 — — —
Brass-brass 3.3 0.31 0.31 — 0.43 0.50 0.70
6.5 0.37 0.39 — 0.40 0.55 0.60
Copper-copper 3.3 0.26 1.04 1.04 0.32 1.22 2.0
Stainless steel-stainless steel 0.29 0.47 0.51 0.32 0.62 0.93
Steel IIIX15-copper 6.5 0.13 0.66 0.70 0.25 0.41 0.45
Stainless steel-aluminium 3.3 0.29 0.39 0.40 0.38 0.39 0.34
Stainless steel-brass 0.21 0.32 0.39 0.32 0.67 0.84
Berillium bronze-brass 0.28 0.34 0.38 0.49 0.62 0.90
Brass-berillium bronze 6.5 0.26 0.28 0.36 | 0.50 0,77 0.89
Copper-steel ΠΙΧ15 0.32 0.38 0.55 0.77 0.97 0.96
Steel IIIX15-copper — — — 0.58 0.79 0.85
Cadmium-cadmium (coating) 1 0.26 0.44 0.39 0.43 0.43 0.31
Nickel-nickel (coating) 3.3 0.33 0.33 0.30
Silver-silver (plating) 6.5 — — — 0.28 0.41 0.39
— 0.26 0.28 0.36 0.50 0.77 0.89

When parts of the same metal slide on each other in vacuum, the
coefficient of friction depends on their hardness. The diagram in
Fig. 13.11 indicates that the coefficient of friction of pure metals
in vacuum decreases as their hardness increases. The difference in
the friction coefficients for specimens of the same metal can be ex­
plained mainly by different degrees of surface cleaning. Careful
degassing leads to increased coefficients of friction, as is illustrated
by the upper curve in Fig. 13.11.
Values of the friction coefficient for single-run tests in air and in
vacuum (10 ~5 mm Hg) of specimens made of various pure metals are
given in Table 13.11 [2].
Frictional characteristics of rubbing components are improved
by the use of self-lubricating materials, solid lamellar lubricants and
thin metal coatings. Plain bearings made from self-lubricating ma­
terials reduce the weight of equipment while retaining its strength
and, often, dimensions.
5-01156 65
 Table 13.11
Friction coefficients for pure metals in a single-stroke sliding in air
and in a vacuum of 10~5 mm Hg
Friction coefficient Friction coefficient
Sliding pair in vacuum Sliding pair in vacuum
in air after outgas- in air after outgas­
sing sing

Cu-Ni 0.45 1.50 Cu-Fe 0.51 0.75

Ta-Ni 0.23 0.90 Ta-Cu 0.44 0.43
W-Ni 0.21 1.36 W-Cu 0.34 0.41

Self-lubricating materials can be exemplified by the AMAH family

(cf. Ch. 11).
The stability and low coefficients of friction of materials AMAH-2
and AMAH-4 in vacuum allow them to be used for sliding bearings
operating at average loads of 2 to 10 kgf/cm2 and sliding speeds of up

°)Q 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
HB, kgf/mmz

Fig. 13.11. Effect on hardness on friction coefficient for sliding pairs of the
same materials
1—vacuum 10~2mm Hg with outgassing; 2—vacuum|3*10-eimrn Hg without outgassing

to 4 m/s in high-vacuum applications. With sliding speeds reduced

to 1 m/s, the loads can be increased from 50 to 150 kgf/cm2. Sliding
bearings made of AMAH are used in combination with shafts made
of steel 20X13 hardened to HRC 35 and finished to 0.16-0.32 μπι
Ra. The AMAH bearings should be finished to 1.25-2.5 μιη Ra. The
radial clearance used should take 0.6-0.8 percent of the shaft dia­
meter. Fig. 13.12 shows relationships between the coefficient of
friction and frictional temperature for AMAH-2 in air and in
high vacuum. As is seen, the coefficient of friction in air is
twice that in vacuum. The tests were run at a specific load of
2 kgf/cm2 and a sliding speed of v = 4 m/s [14].
New grades of the ΑΟΠ-type plastics, namely TECAH and
3CTEPAH, developed in the USSR, have a low coefficient of
friction which is stable over a wide range of temperatures (Fig. 13.13).
The wear resistance of some of these materials, e.g. 9CTEPAH,
is lower by an order of magnitude than that of AMAH [16]. The
results of studies on frictional behaviour of a large group of seJf-
66
 lubricating materials used for sliding bearings in a vacuum of
10~5-10~6 mm Hg at temperatures of up to 500°C are reported in [13].
Pause for 17 tir s
f °c

r
OMO no uû , . O O 80
y<X" ; " WU " <
f
^ -^
1± 80 rS
f
0.30] 0.3
4

0.20Ì MO 0.2

iV ^^^- -—-"
3
0.10 * 6~ ) Oo

..I . .1. _ 1
20
0.1
p
Ss=- 1^
50
-r H
T"
W0 15 20 25 Û C
0 / 2 3 0 / 2 3 4 5 6 7 fi 9 ,Οί,Α,,* " ° ° ° '°
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.12. Friction coefficient of AMAH-2 Fig. 13.13. Friction coefficient
as function of testing t i m e as function of t e m p e r a t u r e for
(a) in air; (b) in high vacuum diverse m a t e r i a l s
1—TECAH, 2—3CTEPAH; 3—
AMAH; 4—fluoroplastic-4; 5—cloth
laminate with antifriction fillers

Figure 13.14 shows comparative data on the working temperature

Φ, wear life T, and pv for sliding bearings of different self-lubricating
materials. These materials are divided into two groups. One group

kgf m/cm2 s
l h
2.0

■
500

'tool 7.5

l<
300
1.Q
200\
0β
100

0
ΦΗ-202 AMAH-24 Graphite- Fluoroplas-BAMK-1 Composition UM-33Z
filled tic filled of Armco
plastic u)ithMoS2 iron, graphite,
and calcium
fluoride
Fig. 13.14. Characteristics of self-lubricating m a t e r i a l s as found b y testing
of sliding bearings

(I) includes materials recommended for use in vacuum as low-loaded

self-aligning inserts and as solid-lubricant inserts in bearings with
transfer lubrication. Group II includes materials for high tempera-

67
tures, loads and speeds. These materials provide long wear life (ex­
cept metal-ceramic material LJM-332). Metal-fluoroplastic band with
MoS2 and material BAMK-1 do not wear the shaft, but the former is
subject to intensive wear itself. The materials based on Armco with
graphite and calcium fluoride and metal-ceramic material IJM-332
wear little but inflict wear on the shaft [14].
Solid-lubricant coatings can be effected by means of suspensions
BHHH ΗΠ-209, BHHH ΗΠ-212, BHHH ΗΠ-213, and BHHH

f II
1
0., \
I

ψ.
I
0.08 \\ \ 1
/
/ /
/
0.0S

ΚΊ
L I
oou
— - 2 - i
—ps /I
/
0.02 K
y
z
k 6 8 t,hrs

Fig. 13.15. Friction coefficient (/) of Fig. 13.16. Bearing with solid-lubri­
solid lubricant coatings as function cant inserts in the shafty
of testing time (t) in air (dash lines)
and in high vacuum (solid \ines)
I—BHHH HII-213; 2—BHHH ΗΠ-212,
3—BHHH ΗΠ-230

ΗΠ-230 (cf. Chapter710). Fig. 13.15 illustrates the frictional beha­

viour of various solid-lubricant coatings in air and in ultra-
hioli vacuum (2·10~8 to 5-10"9 mm Hg). The longest wear life is
exhibited by BHHH ΗΠ-212 and BHHH ΗΠ-230.
The wear life of tribological units in vacuum can be effectively
increased by using the so-called transfer method, in which the ap­
plied lubricant is transferred from the lubricating element to the
rubbing surfaces. This method has found use in vacuum engineering
and in many general engineering applications.
A sliding bearing (Fig. 13.16) comprises an inner sleeve 3 secured to
shaft 4, an outer sleeve ί , and three lubricating inserts 2 arranged at
120° to' each other. The inserts can freely move radially in slots of
the shaft that coincide with openings in the inner sleeve. As the
shaft rotates, the inserts are pressed against the surface of the sleeve
1 under the action of the centrifugal force, thereby providing lubrica­
tion of the rubbing surface. The pressing is aided by leaden pads plac­
ed under the inserts. Some designs with solid-lubricant inserts are
shown in Fig. 13.17 [10].

68
 Fig. 13.17. Sliding bearings with trans- Fig. 13.18. Ball sock-
fer lubrication by inserts et with transfer lub-
(a) pressed Into the bearing bushing; (b) mould- rication
ed into an elastic annular frame

0 40 60 80 WO 120 &, °C

Fig. 13.19. Effect of vacuum and friction temperature on frictional charac­

teristics of the diseleni des of refractory metals
(a) niobium diselenide; (b) tungsten diselenide; (c) tantalum diselenide; J—load 1000 gf;
2—load 500 gf; 3—load 2000 gf; 4—load 200 gf; in vacuum 5-10- 7 ; in air

69
 Figure 13.18 shows a spherical thrust bearing [12], the spherical
end of the shaft 1 being in contact with a lubricating insert 2 pressed
to it by a spring 3 arranged in the housing 4. For such an arrangement
used in vacuum, the spring is made of berillium bronze BpB2, the
shaft is made of steel IIIX-15, and the housing is made of the same
or softer steel. That makes it possible to widen the range of working
temperatures, which can be from —150 to +400°C depending on the
grade of self-lubricating materials; with the use of molibdenum di-
selenides and high-temperature metals, the upper limit can be in­
creased to 800°C.
The reliable functioning of tribological units in high vacuum can
also be secured by the use of thin solid-lubricant and soft-metal
coatings deposited on the rubbing surfaces (cf. Chapters 9 and 10).
The effect of vacuum, load and temperature on the friction coefficient
of diselenides is shown in Fig. 13.19 [14].

13.5. ROLLING FRICTION

Much effort has been made in recent years to develop new and
improve current designs of rolling bearings for operation in high
vacuum [6, 8, 10]. Normal operation of high-speed bearings without
fluid lubricants can be achieved by the use of retainers made of
polymeric and metal-ceramic materials which provide adequate
strength, high wear resistance and thermal stability, and low fric­
tion and thermal expansion coefficients.
Rolling bearings with retainers made of AMAH-24 proved to
have the best service properties in vacuum at elevated temperatures
(up to 300°C).
In rolling bearings use can also be made of some other self-lubri­
cating materials (fluorine-containing ΦΗ-202, Φ Η - 3 , ΑΦΓ-80Βϋ,
Fluoroplastic-4, epoxy resin compounds, ACII-plastics, etc.). Lubri­
cation in such bearings is effected through the transfer of the retainer
material to the balls and the raceways.
A ball bearing with a retainer made of an AMAH-type material
[7] is shown in Fig. 13.20. The reinforced retainer provides increased
strength and thermal stability for use at elevated temperatures.
Data on operation of rolling bearings with retainers from self-
lubricating materials in vacuum are given in Table 13.12 [2].
In some cases the raceways of bearings are coated with molybden­
um disulphide.
The diselenides of refractory metals (WSe 2 , NbSe 2 , TaSe 2 , MoSe2)
and some soft metals (Au, Ag, In), which are used as thin coatings on
the rubbing surfaces, provide the minimal evaporation. The results
of comparative tests of rolling bearings coated for lubrication with
thin films of soft metals are given in Tables 13.13 and 13.14.
In tribological units of vacuum equipment (the bearings of wire
feeders in titanium sorption pumps, bearings in intermittent motion
drives, etc.) operating without lubrication in ultra-high vacuum at
70
 Table 13.12
Operation in vacuum of rolling bearings with ratainers made of self-
lubricating polymeric materials and stainless-steel races

Bearing Axial
inner dia­ n, Vacuum pressure Operation
Retainer material meter, rpm load, #, °G mm Hg time, h
mm kgf

Teflon, glass 70-85*1 4-10-6-6-10-8 3810

fibre 70-90*1 3-10-7-3-IO" 8 3300* 2
80-90*i 9-10-7-2-10-8 3883

Duroid 5813 4.7 8000 0.100 R o o m 90*i 1.10-3-4.10-6 62

(Teflon-based) 80-95*i 3-10-7-3-10-8 5110
Room-95*i 760-4-10-7 90

Teflon, glass
fibre, MoS 2 10-6-10-7 50
Epoxy resin,
MoS 2 20 1800 0.225 Room 10-7 9000

*i Outer race temperature.

*2 Still operative after tMs run.

low speeds and loads, use is often made of some standard types of
rolling bearings. Such, for instance, are single-row ball bearings

Fig. 13.20. Angular-contact ball bearing Fig. 13.21. Bearing unit for
with retainer made of self-lubricating mate- intermittent motion drive
rial AMAH 1—ball bearing; 2—casing; 3—
(a) plain retainer; (ò) reinforced retainer shaft; 4—retaining ring

made of stainless steel (GOST 8338-75) and trust ball bearings

made of high-temperature steel (GOST 831-75).
An example of use of such bearings is shown in Fig. 13.21. This
is a bearing unit for an intermittent motion drive [4] with angular-
71
 Table 13.13

Wear life of rolling bearings with solid-lubricant coatings [23]

Wear
Coating life, h Bearing condition

Gold 140 Bearing failure

Silvex 405 Test stopped because of increas­
Silver-molybdenum disulphide 360 ed friction moment
Silver-sulphide film 360
Lead 1000 Bearing failure
Lead-base bismuth 1650
Bismuti: Test stopped after 1240 h of
run, with bearing in good con­
dition

Table 13.14

Comparative tests of rolling bearings in vacuum (10~9 mm Hg) [25]

Friction moment, gf*m

n,
rpm before test­ Coating Note
ing after testing

5 1.72 No coating Scuffing, high friction mo­

93 1.36 11.5 ment
280 1.41 Seizure
3350 1.41

5 0.64 No tangible rise in friction

moment
25 0.61 Gold plating
93 1.41 —

280 1.72 At 120 rpm slight noise

600 1.36 with no effect on perform­
1200 1.36 ance

Note. Tested bearings of size 4.6 mm ID and 12.5 mm OD. Bearings without coating
radially loaded to 6.75 gf, and with gold plating to 19 gf.

72
 Table 13.15
Fractional characteristics of rolling bearings in starting
Pressure, Friction Friction Effective
mm Hg force, kgf moment, coefficient Preparatory treatment
kgf «cm of friction

760 0.04 0.05 0.011

MC-2 0.04 0.05 0.011 No heating
5.IO-5 0.035 0.04 0.01
2-10-7 0.03 0.04 0.01

MO" 8 0.03 0.04 0.01 Heating in vacuum to-

3.IO- 9 0.04 0.04 0.01 250°C for 15 h

5.IO-9 0.05 0.06 0.014 Heating in vacuum t o

5.IO- 10 0.05 0.06 0.014 400°C for 15 h

contact ball bearings. The bearings have solid stainless-steel reta­

iners and the races are made of high-speed steel P18. Such bearing
units show reliable operation without any lubricant in a vacuum
of 10"10 to 10~12 mm Hg during 1000 hours with periodical heating
to 450°C for degassing. The working load and speed were within
10 kgf and 1 m/min, respectively.
The bearing unit was tested by the inclined plane method under
different conditions after 1000 hours of operation in ultra-high
vacuum. The results are given in Table 13.15.

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H. B. KparejibCKHH, H. M. JIioôapcKHH H AP·
15. TpoHHOBCKan Γ. H. ΠρπΜβΗβΗΉβ caMOCMaswBaiomHXCH MaTepnajiOB
npn poTanpHHTHOH CMa3Ke.— «BecTHHK ManiHHOCTpoeHHH», 1974, N° 4, c. 51-54.
16. IIIeMOejib H. JI., CarajiaeB Γ. B. CpaBHHTejibHHe AaHHMe o CBOHCTBax
τραφΜΤθππαοτα ATM-2.— B c6.: Φρηκιι;Η0ΗΗΗβ H aHTHφpHK^HOHHHe njiacT-
MaccH. MaTepnajiH ceMHHapa. M., Μ^ΤΠ HM. Φ. 9. flsepjKiracKoro, 1975,
c. 50-57.
17. Beller W. Friction research grinds to halt (in space environment) —
"Missiles and Rockets", 1960, vol. 7, No. 9, p. 23-25.
18. Boes D. I. Long term operation and practical limitations of dry self-
lubricated bearings from 1.10-6 torr to atmospheric. "Lubricat. Eng.", 1963,
vol. 19, No. 4, p. 137-142.
19. Bowden F. P., Tabor D. The Friction and Lubrication of Solids. Ox­
ford (a. o.), University Press, 1950, pp. 90-121.
20. Brown R. D., Burton R. A., Ku P. M. Long duration lubrication studies
in simulated space vacuum.— "ASLE Transact", 1964, vol. 7, No. 3, p. 236-248.
21. Bruescke E. E., Eckman B. Device for the measurement of friction at
ultrahigh vacuum.— "Rev. Scient. Instruments", 1963, vol. 34, No. 9,
p. 978-980.
22. Evans E. H., Flatley W. T. Bearing for vacuum operation—retainer
material and design.— "Transact. ASME", 1963, vol. 85, ser. B. No. 2,
p. 129-134.
23. Lubricant evaluation for bearing systems operating spatial environ­
ments. "ASLE Transact", 1963, v. 6, No. 1, p. 67-77. Auth.: P. Lewis, S. F. Mur­
ray, M. B., Peterson, H. Esten.
24. Lubrication and wear in space system. In Transactions of the tenth
National Vacuum Symposium of the American Vacuum Society, 1963, p. 3-13.
Auth: R. W. Parcel, F. I. Clause, C. F. O'Hara, W. G. Joung.
25. Westmoreland R., Reed I. D. Vacuum testing bearings without con­
tamination.— "Space/Aeronautics", 1962, vol. 37, No. 6, p. 175-183.
26. Wilkens W., Kranz O. The formation of gases due to the sliding friction
of Teflon on steel in ultrahigh vacuum. "Wear", Vol. 15, No. 3, 1970. p. 215-227
 Chapter 14

FRICTION AT
LOW TEMPERATURES

14.1. TRIBOLOGICAL UNITS AND

MATERIALS FOR
USE AT LOW TEMPERATURES
Low temperatures constitute an extensive range from 0 K to
273.15 K. Temperatures under 120 K are called cryogenic, and those
under 0.3 K are called super-low temperatures.
The general trend in cryogenic engineering is towards placing
tribological units beyond the low-temperature areas to increase
reliability and reduce losses of cooling efficiency. Such an arrange­
ment, however, can be cumbersome, and in some cases impossible.
With the rapid advance in cryogenic engineering and, particularly,
in electrical machines with superconductive windings cooled with
liquified gases, the number of low-temperature tribological units
is steadily growing.
Units of this type can work with lubrication, e.g., in a cryogenic
fluid or with the use of a special fluid lubricant, or without any lub­
ricant at all. In the latter case use is made of self-lubricating mate­
rials.
The field of application. The following kinds of tribological units
are used at low temperatures:
—axial and radial shaft seals in cryogenic pumps, rotary regenera­
tors, rectifiers, expansion turbines, and electric generators with
superconductive rotors;
—piston seals in cryogenic pumps, helium refrigerators, piston-type
low-temperature air-driven engines;
—radial rolling bearings in mechanisms and machines working
in various media and in vacuum at low temperatures.
Low-temperature axial seals can be exemplified by the double-
side bellows-type metal-graphite seal unit of a submersible liquid-
oxygen pump used in spacecraft [8]. The unit is mounted on the
shaft of the drive motor, which is placed in a sealed container filled
with helium compressed to 5.5 kgf/cm 2 . The motor, which is sepa­
rated from the liquid oxygen by the seal, rotates at a speed of
11,000 rpm. The stationary graphite ring is made of graphite P5N
and the rotating ring, of stainless steel 440C chromium-plated after
lapping, the plating thickness being over 25 μπι.

75
 Structural materials. Metals. A number of carbon steels and me­
tals with body-centred cubic lattices (Fe, Cr, Mo, Ta, W) are sub­
ject to brittleness at low temperatures, and therefore they cannot be
recommended for use over a wide range of temperatures. In low-
temperature units and machines use should be made of metals with
face-centred cubic lattices (Al, Ni, Pb, Cu, Ag) or with hexagonal
close-packed lattices (Ti, Zn, Mg, Co), steels with fine-grained struc­
tures (used at up to —45°C), hardened and tempered low-alloy fer-
ritic steels with fine-grained martensitic structures (used up to
—100°C), stainless steels with austenitic structures (up to — 200°C),
and nickel steels with ageing martensite (up to —240°C). Most wide­
ly used in low-temperature applications are copper, nickel, magne­
sium, titanium, and aluminium alloys.
In tribological joints where one of the rubbing components is
made of metal, the metal generally used is stainless steel. In combi­
nation with graphite, annealed stainless steel 440C (made in USA)
with hard chromium plating gives good results. Use is also made of
steels 40X, T13J1, 38XMIOA, y 8 , 12X18H9T, 45 (heat treated),
etc.
When one of the rubbing parts is made of steel 40X, improved
wear resistance can be achieved by gas cyaniding at 860°C with
quenching in oil. The surface hardness obtained can be as high as
HRC 61. However, the influence of heat treatment on wear resist­
ance is complex and far from being direct [16]. The results of research
into wear resistance of materials under the action of abrasives at
low temperatures are reported in [10].
Non-metals. Graphite is a common material used in graphite-graphite
and graphite-steel combinations at low temperatures. It is also used
as an addition to various plastics, e.g., for making compositions
(such as 15 percent graphite + 8 5 percent fluoroplastic-4, or 5 per­
cent graphite + 9 5 percent nylon) used in liquid nitrogen and liquid
hydrogen (according to some foreign sources). Graphite can be used
for retainers of ball bearings operating at very low temperatures.
However, it is fluoroplastics and their derivatives that have found
the widest application as antifriction materials for low-temperature
rubbing components.
Unlike many plastics, fluoroplastics retain their elasticity at low
temperatures. They are used straight and in composition with other
plastics, metals, and solid lubricants (MoS2, Pb, etc.). The addition
of 30 to 50 percent bronze by volume to fluoroplastic-4 reduces the
linear expansion coefficient by a factor of 2, increases the thermal
conductivity three times, and sharply reduces the rate of wear (accord­
ing to some foreign sources).
The wear resistance, mechanical strength, and thermal conductivity
of fluoroplastic-4 can also be improved by filling it with fine-grain
powders of solid lubricants.
The following fluoroplastic-base materials have found use in
cryogenic machines: ΦΗ-202, which is fluoroplastic-4 filled with
76
10 percent nickel and 3 percent molybdenum disulphide; AMHII-15M,
fluoroplastic-4 filled with 15 percent glass ceramic and 3 percent
molybdenum disulphide; Φ4ΪΚ-20 (filled fluoroplastic); composi­
tions ΦΚβ-5Ε; OC£-5E; Φ4Κ20; OCfl5; ΦΚ#5.
In the USA, the retainers of ball bearings operating in liquid
nitrogen are manufactured from Teflon (fluoroplastic-4) filled with
glass fibres; retainers made from a composition comprising fluoro­
plastic-4, glass fibres, and WSe 2 have been found to wear only slight­
ly in a vacuum of 10"8 mm Hg at temperatures of from —185 to
+235°C.
Good antifriction properties and wear resistance in a vacuum of
up to 10 ~9 mm Hg at temperatures ranging from —195 to +230°C
have been exhibited by the following fluoroplastic-base compositions
tested in the USA: 70 percent Ag + 20 percent Teflon + 1 0 percent
WSe2, and 60 percent Cu + 30 percent Teflon +10 percent WSe2.
Efficient operation in liquid-oxygen and liquid-nitrogen pumps
has been shown by sliding bearings having three layers: a steel
backing, a layer of porous bronze impregnated with a mixture of
20 percent lead and 80 percent of fluoroplastic-4, and a layer of
fluoroplastic-4 25 μπι thick. Satisfactory results have been obtained
with bearings made of tin bronze having a layer of fluoroplas­
tic-4 mixed with lead within the temperature range from —200 to
+200°C.
Sliding bearings for operation at low temperatures are also made
of polymeric materials, such as cloth laminate ΠΤ; polyamides
11-68, ΑΚ80-20, capron; glass-filled capron, glass-filled polyamide
Table 14.1
Properties of fluoric polyethers

Characteristics E-l E-2 E-3 E-4

Degree of polymerization 1 2 3 4
Molecular mass 286.03 452.08 618.12 784.15
Boiling point, °G 39 101 153 193
Compressibility at 25°G and
500 kgf/cm 2 , percent 8.20 6.48 5.64 5.18
Vapour heat in boiling, kJ/kg 960 730 610 520
Setting point, approximately (v =
= 0.2 m 2 /s), °C —154 —123 —107 -94
Density at 25°G, kg/m 3 1580 1660 1710 1760
Specific heat, c„, kJ/(kg-°C) 1.025 1.02 1.015 1.0
Coefficient of thermal conductivity,
W/(m.°C) 0.086 0.086 0.086 0.086
Volumetric expansion coefficient,
m 3 /(kg.°C) 1.12-IO" 0.96.10- 0.73·10- 0.67·IO"6
6 6 6

Absolute vapour pressure at 52°C,

kgf/cm 2 1.64 0.14 0.016 0.006
Kinematic viscosity coefficient at
25°C, m 2 /s 0.3-lir 6
0.6.IO" 6
1.3-10-6 2.3-IO" 6

78
Π-68 and their compositions with molybdenum disulphide. Poly-
amides of Π-68 and AK80-20 types develop cold brittleness at —30
to — 70°C. Glass-filled polyamides can be used at much lower tem­
peratures.
Low-temperature lubricants. The wear life of tribological units
working at low temperatures can sometimes be improved by the use
of special fluid lubricants. The main requirements placed on such
lubricants are a low solidification
κ^ point (which must be considerably
1000000

w\
100000
10000 lower than the working tempera­
moo
wo V ■£-*

\ε-3
ture), a high boiling point, low eva­
poration at maximum possible work­
ing temperatures, chemical neutral­
\
ity, low moisture adsorption, and
1 good heat-transfer properties. Lub­

I
1.0
Οβ
E-l\
v \
\
\ \
ricants of this kind can be exem­
plified by organo-silicone oil No. 3,
grease
No.
IJHATHM-221 (based on oil
3), and hydrocarbon grease
0.6 \ \ IJHATHM-205. Experiments have
\
\ shown that fluid lubricants are good
OM.
117 172 22b 283 359 K
'imp 'rature of liquid
for use up to a definite tempera­
ture, which is dependent on the
Fig. 14.1. Kinematic viscosity of solidification point, under which
fluoropolyethers as function of the coefficient of friction is higher
temperature [6]
than that in sliding without the
lubricant. For rubber CKMC-10
sliding on metal, these temperatures came to 100°C with oil No. 3
and IJHATHM-221 and to 50°C with U.HATHM-205.
A much wider range of working temperatures is typical of fluo­
ropolyethers, which are distinguished by the degree of polymeriza­
tion:
F(CFGF20)n.CHFGF3
I
GF3
where n = 1, 2, 3 or 4. The liquids that correspond to the different
indices n are designated as E-l, E-2, E-3 and E-4. They differ in
viscosity, which grows with n. The properties of fluoropolyethers
are given in Table 14.1 [6].
Relationship between the kinematic viscosity of fluoropolyethers
and temperature is shown in Fig. 14.1.
Studies on fluoropolyethers have shown that they can form hydro-
dynamic films at low temperatures, and within a range of from —45
to —185°C their lubricating efficiency is comparable to that of mine­
ral oils at 40 to 150°C.

78
14.2. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
The coefficients of friction and the wear of various combinations
of materials, as measured in experiments, differ considerably from
those observed in low-temperature service conditions. This can be
explained on the one hand by widely varying operating conditions
(temperature pressure, sliding speed, working medium, type of mo­
tion, etc.), and on the other, by a great diversity of investigations
and experimental procedures. The available test data are insuffi­
cient for clear understanding of the frictional behaviour of materials
at low temperatures, because such studies have been done on a rela­
tively small scale, which fact is partly explained by the technical
difficulties involved in conducting low-temperature tests with a
fair degree of confidence.
Keeping the specimen surface clean during testing.
During low-temperature friction tests, the specimen is cooled,
and the vapours of water, carbon dioxide, oil and other substances
present in the ambient medium may condense, freeze out, or get
adsorbed on the carefully prepared specimen surfaces. Even the
traces of condensate on the rubbing surfaces sharply change the coef­
ficient of friction, because the process of friction is greatly dependent
on the cleanness of the surfaces. One method for keeping them clean
during tests is a preliminary blasting with a dry gas that will not
condense at the test temperature. In specimens immersed into liquid
nitrogen directly from the surrounding air, a hard film of adsorbed
moisture formed on their surfaces [25]. To prevent this, the
measuring chamber of the testing device was blasted with dry helium
for 15 min. The blasting reduced the wear of graphite specimens sli­
ding on stainless steel 304 (USA) by a factor of ten thousand. Some
investigators [20] recommend that the test chamber should be blas­
ted with gas twenty times and evacuated prior to testing. Another
effective method for keeping the specimen surfaces clean is conduc­
ting the tests in vacuum [4]. In some cases it has proved expedient
to combine the evacuation of the measuring chamber to 10 ~5 mm
Hg with a simultaneous heating of the specimens to 300°C before
testing [22]. The best means for preventing the contamination of the
specimen surface is believed to be an ultra-high vacuum of 10 " 9 to
10~10 mm Hg [4]. It is well to provide for after-test warming of the
specimens to the ambient temperature while it is inside the appara­
tus [25] so that no condensate appears on their surfaces on opening
the vacuum chamber.
Strict control of the medium where friction tests are carried out,
the absence of substances that can condense on the specimen sur­
faces (water, carbon dioxide, lubricants, etc.) and the prevention of
condensate from forming on the specimen after testing—these are
indispensable conditions for securing accurate experimental results.
These conditions can be met only with the use of an apparatus which
is completely sealed.

79
 Stabilizing the temperature of specimens. In studies of the effect
of low temperature on friction and wear, there is always the need of
maintaining a constant temperature of the specimens during the
tests. Otherwise, due to friction the temperature of the rubbing sur­
faces may become much higher than the initial temperature.
The simplest solution seems to be the running of tests at tempera­
tures corresponding to the boiling or sublimation points of some
substances. For instance the tests may be run at — 196°C (77 K) in
liquid or gaseous nitrogen [19], at —183°C (90 K) in liquid oxygen,
and also at temperatures of —78°G (195 K) and 0°C (273 K).
In frictional tests with very low sliding speeds, e.g., with transla­
tion at 2 to 3 mm/s or even at 2· 10~6 mm/s, it is not difficult to main­
tain the specimen temperature. With high sliding speeds, however,
it is much more difficult to stabilize the temperature, because the
cooling system of the test apparatus has to deal with frictional heat
whose intensity varies in the course of the test (it is equal to zero at
the beginning). A strong dependence of the friction coefficient on
temperature [7, 22] and sliding speed [21] necessitates, for a more
adequate and detailed picture of the process, such a cooling system
for the apparatus that will allow the tests to be run at different tem­
perature steps, with the specimen temperature reliably stabi­
lized.
Maintaining the stability of friction-force sensors. At low tem­
peratures strain-gauge sensors and the elastic elements on which the
sensors are placed change their characteristics. Hence they need to be
calibrated over the whole range of test temperatures. Strain gauges
are normally located outside the apparatus for ease of handling [25].
The transmission lever is usually sealed with the aid of a bellows.
In low-temperature friction-test apparatus [25], the maximum defle­
ction of the transmission lever in measuring the friction force does
not exceed 0.075 mm, and therefore the error due to the bellows resi­
lience is negligible.
The absense of lubricant in movable joints inside the measu­
ring chamber. The study of dry friction, e.g., in rotary motion, pre­
sents difficulties for two reasons: first, the drive-shaft bearings must
be capable of functioning without any lubricant, and second, the
apparatus must be completely sealed.
The first problem can be solved by the use of bearings with gas
lubrication or ball bearings with fluoroplastic retainers [19]. Ball
bearings with retainers made of fluoroplastic-3 can normally fun­
ction at —196°C for a long time (up to 200 hours). The balls and ra­
ces for such bearings should be made of stainless steel 9X18.
The problem of complete sealing can be solved in a number of
ways, e.g., by the use of shaft seals of the bellows type, which are
widely employed in vacuum technology at low and high pressures.
The drawback to such designs is the need for planetary gears
and a considerable number of bearings, which require lubrica­
tion.
80
5-01156
Fig. 14.2. Tribometer for studying friction Fig. 14.3. Tribometer for studying friction in fluid Fig. 14.4. Tribometer for
in cryogenic liquids [9] low-temperature lubricants [6] studying friction in gas­
-gear transmission; 2—Dewar flask; 3—electric (a) general layout; (b) five-ball test assembly device; l— eous media [20]
motor; 4—lever; 5—recorder; 6—bar; 7—indenter; foamed plastic; 2—vacuum Jacket; 3—liquid nitrogen cham­ J—wear pin; 2—bushing;

65
8—ring ber; 4—body; 5—test chamber; 6—drive shaft; 7, *— 3—vessel; 4—housing; 5—
thermocouples; 9—cage; Jö—lower ball; JJ—race; 12— worm gearing; 6—tube; 7—
upper ball pivot; 8—shaft
 Cryogenic tribometers. An apparatus for experimental^studies of
dry friction at low temperatures must provide strict control of the
environment, clean surfaces of the specimens, stable temperature of

Fig. 14.5. Cryotribometer KT-1 for studying friction in gases and in

vacuum [2]
1—electric drive; 2—specimen; 3—rotary counterface; 4, 8—observation windows;
5—fitting; 6—chamber; 7—insulation; 9—bellows; 10—pivot; 11—lever; 12—mirror;
13—elastic member; 14—roller; 15—strain gauges; 16—string; 17—screw; 18, 22—load;
19—tube; 20—optical system; 21—slide; 23—screen

the specimens, complete sealing, and stability of the strain-gauge

sensors. Such tribometers are described in references [2, 4, 5, 6, 9r
19, 20] and illustrated in Figures 14.2 to 14.5.

14.3. COEFFICIENTS OF
FRICTION
AT LOW TEMPERATURES
The coefficient of friction can be determined by the analytical
and experimental method described in Chapter 2. Experimental data
are given below.
Friction in cryogenic liquid?. Values of the coefficient of friction
in cryogenic liquids (liquefied nitrogen and hy^ i) for various
combinations of materials are given in Tables 14.2 and 14.3.
In liquid nitrogen and, particularly, hydrogen the retention of
oxide films on rubbing surfaces is impossible. As a result, the rub­
bing surfaces of metals cleaned of oxide films in the course of friction
show a tendency to seizure and intensive wear. In liquid oxygen the

82
 Table 14.2
Coefficients of friction in cryogenic fluids for materials sliding
on stainless steel
Liquid medium
Material
nitrogen hydrogen

Graphite + fluoric metal 0.18 0.22

Graphite + phenol 0.04 0.06
Graphite (15%) + fluoroplastic-4 (85%) 0.09 0.16
Graphite (5%) + n y l o n (95%) : 0.06 0.15

Table 14.3
Coefficients of friction in liquid nitrogen

Sliding pair
/ Source (reference
number)
I 11

Steel 304 Steel 304 0.4

Steel 440G Steel 440C 0.34 —
Steel 52100 Steel 52100 0.34

Al Steel 30XMIOA 0.853

Ti 0.734
Nb Nitrided 1.016
GOST 4543-61
Mo 0.879
W 1.068
Fe 1.023
Co 0.537
Ni 1.037
30XMKDA 0.897
[121

Al Al 0.718
Ti Ti 0.692
Nb Nb 0.990
Mo Mo 0.831
W W 1.006
Fe Fe 0.841
Co Co 0.512
Ni Ni 0.879

Polystyrene 0.33-0.35
Rigid PVC Steel 45 0.20-0.22
Cloth laminate Heat-treated 0.31-0.34
Fluoroplastic-4 0.09-0.10 [9]
Wood (beech) 0.32-0.38
Ebonite 0.30-0.48
Graphite 0.68-0.72

6* 83
friction of metals involves vigorous formation of oxide films and
severe corrosion of the surfaces. Another feature of friction in cryogen­
ic liquids is their low viscosity, which leads to scoring and consid­
erable heat generation. There is also a possibility of formation of
the gaseous phase, which leads to the cavitation and destruction of
the rubbing surfaces.
Although cryogenic liquids have poor lubricity, their presence in
the friction zone sometimes makes it possible to increase the wear
life of tribological components over the life of these components in
vapours of the same liquids at the same temperatures. In liquid ni­
trogen the process of friction and wear is stabilized and the coeffi­
cient of friction is to some extent reduced for combinations of hard
metallic surfaces or that of a hard metallic surface with a non-me­
tallic one [9].
The data of Table 14.3 indicate that in liquid nitrogen metals
with different electronic and crystalline structures behave different­
ly: the couples of metals with cubic crystal lattices wear intensively
and have a higher coefficient of friction than that in the couples
of metals with hexagonal lattices [12].
Friction in gaseous media. Values of the coefficient of friction in
gaseous media at low temperatures for various materials combinations
are given in Tables 14.4to 14.7. Table 14.4 gives friction coefficients
for pure metals, determined by means of a cryotribometer; the
coefficients of kinetic friction are measured at a sliding speed of
0.25 mm/s and normal load of 2 gf.
Table 14.4
Static fst and sliding fst coefficients of friction in gaseous helium [20]
Temperature, K
Material of sliding pairs 300 80 20

fst hl ht 1 hl ht Ui

Fe(99.9%) Fe (99.99%) 1.09 0.92 1.04 0.90

Al (99%) Al (99%) 1.62 1.43 1.60 1.41
Cu (99.95%) Cu (99.95%) 1.76 1.56 1.70 1.45 1.66 1.42
Au (99.98%) Au (99.98%) 1.88 1.60 1.77 1.60 2.03 1.79
Pt (99.98) Pt (99.98%) 1.92 1.70 1.93 1.68
Ni (99.95%) Ni (99.95%) 2.11 1.78 2.00 1.68 2.02 1.68
Au (99.98%) Al (99%) 1.42 1.22 1.50 1.16
Fe(99.9%) Cu (99.95%) 1.99 1.80 2.03 1.80
Ni (99.95%) Cu (99.95%) 2.34 2.13 2.35 2.12
Cu (99.95%) Fe(99.9%) 0.43 0.43 0.40 0.40
Cu (99.95%) Ni (99.95%) 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85

An interesting fact is low coefficients of friction for sliding pairs

where the pin (stationary specimen) is made of soft metal (Fe, Ni);
in pairs with both specimens of the same material the coefficient of
friction is approximately twice as high. It can be seen from
84
 Table 14.5
Coefficient of friction in gases
Sliding pair
Tempera­
Medium ture, K / Source
I II

12X18H9T ATM-1 0.16 (0.125) After A. P.

Fluoroplastic-4 Air 233 0.075 (0.06) Nesterova
Steel Y12 Plastic-133 0.12 (0.1)
ΑΓ-4 Steel 45 (293) 0.2 (0.2)
ΑΓ-4 Brass JIC-59-1 0.19 (0.18)

Steel 45 heat- Polystyrene 0.35-0.37

treated Rigid PVC 0.21-0.24
Cloth laminate Nitrogen 0.32 [9]
Fluoroplastic-4 vapours 77 0.11-0.14
Wood (beech) 0.40

Table 14.6
Coefficients of friction for fluoroplastic-stainless steel combinations
in gaseous helium [3]
/for sliding pairs
Temperature,
K Φ-3 ΦΗ-202 ΑΜΗΠ-15Μ O4JK-20' Φ-3
12X18H9T 12X18H9T 12X18H9T 12X18H9T Φ-3

110 0.255 0.135 0.20 0.26

130 0.27 0.130 0.32 0.18 0.26
150 0.26 0.120 0.22 , 0.19 . 0.26
170 0.27 0.115 0.27 0.21 0.26
190 0.29 0.120 0.345 0.32 0.275
210 0.32 0.160 0.2 0.25 0.28
230 0.33 0.22 0.19 0.22 0.30
250 0.38 0.25 0.21 0.215 0.325
270 0.425. 0.26 0.25 0.225 0.36

Table 14.4 that generally the coefficient of friction for pure metals is
practically constant over a temperature range from 20 to 300 K.
Additional information on the coefficient of friction of pure me­
tals in gaseous media can be found in [15].
A ring 70 mm in diameter, made of steel 40X was hardened at
850°G and tempered at 200°C; a pin, 10 mm in diameter, made of
steel ri3JI, after hardening by heating to 1050°C and quenching in
water, had an austenitic structure. The test conditions were as follows:
sliding speed 0.11 m/s, normal load 5.2 kgf, and surface roughness
0.32-0.16 μπι Ra. The coefficients of friction in air at 83 and 293 K
proved to be 0.56.
85
 Table 14.7
Values of coefficients a and b in Formula (14.1)

Sliding-pair materials
Temperature «•103
I II
range, K b

Φ-3 93-173 0 0.25

173-273 1.5 0.005

ΦΗ-202 Steel 12X18H9T 103-193 0 0.125

193-273 2.19 —0.297

Φ4ΗΪ-20 93-168 0 0.19

169-188 6.75 —0.662
188-223 —3.2 0.928
223-273 0 0.213

ΑΜΗΠ-15Μ 123-168 3.45 —0.945

168-196 6.25 —0.849
196-213 —11.4 2.6
213-263 0.9 —0.011

ΑΜΗΠ-15Μ Steel 12X18H9T chro­ 20-100 0.74 0.04

mium-plated

Φ-3 Φ-3 90-173 0 0.255

173-273 1.25 0.039

Values of the coefficient of friction in gaseous media at low tem­

peratures for some non-metals are presented in Tables 14.5 and 14.6.
Relationship between the coefficient of friction and temperature
for the materials given in Table 14.6 can be described by an equation
/ = aT + b (14.1)
where T = absolute temperature of a rubbing surface; a and b =
= constants given in Table 14.7.
Friction in vacuum. Tables 14.8 and 14.9 provide values of the
coefficient of friction in vacuum at low temperatures for various
combinations of materials.
For some plastic materials a monotone change in the friction
coefficient is observed with decreasing temperature. It is noteworthy
that with polyethylene, as the temperature goes down from 233 to
213 K, the coefficient of friction rises against its general trend obser­
ved within the temperature range of from 293 to 193 K. A monotone
character of change of the friction coefficient with temperature is
also disturbed in helium for the combinations Φ4ΗΪ-20-12Χ18Η9Τ
at 168 to 223 K and ΑΜΗΠ-15Μ - 12X18H9T at 168 to 213 K (see
Table 14.7).
86
 Table 14.8
Coefficients of friction for metals in vacuum at low temperatures

Sliding-pair materials Temper­ Source

Pressure,
mm Hg atures, / (reference
I II K number)

10-io 5 2.2-2.4
Al Al io~8 2.5-2.8
77

Cu Cu 10-io 5 >5 [17]

Cu* 1 Cu*1 io- 8 77-300 ^5

5Ί0-10 73 3
273 4 [4]
10-io 5 >6
Pb Pb IO8 >6
77-300

Fé Fé 10-io 5 1.1-1.2 [17]

77 1.1-1.3
io- 8 300 1.5-1.8

Zn Zn IO-™
0.25-0.36
5
77 0.35-0.40
300 0.5-0.55
io- 8
Steel 40X * 2 Steel 40X * 2 5.IO- 7 83 0.4-0.5 [16]
7
Steel 110ri3Jl Steel 40X 5.IO- 293 0.6-0.7 [15]
83 0.95

*i — Copper electrolytic.
*2 - Steel 4 OX cyanided.

Table 14.9
Coefficients of friction for non-metals in vacuum
of IO-5 mm Hg [22]

Sliding-pair materials Temperature, K

I II 193 213 233 253 273

Polyethylene Polyethylene 0.33 0.4 0.38 0.42 0.53

Fluoroplastic-4 Fluoroplastic-4 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.11 0.1
Fluoroplastic-3 Fluoroplastic-3 0.3 0.31 0.35 0.41 0.48
Polymethyl metha- Polymethyl metha-
crylate crylate 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.48 0.54

87
14.4. ANALYTICAL STUDY OF
TEMPERATURE FIELD
IN AXIAL SEALS
Generation of heat in tribological joints located near the main
low-temperature units of a machine can affect its characteristics,
such as the cooling rate, the efficiency, the maximum attainable
temperature level, and the duration of the start-up stage. The tribo­
logical components of cryogenic machines are usually made of
materials with low thermal conductivity, and, therefore, the emerg­
ing temperature field greatly determines their performance, reli­
ability, wear resistance, and frictional losses. In axial seals of cryo­
genic machines where the coefficient of mutual overlapping is actual­
ly equal to 1, the frictional heat, temperature, and temperature gra­
dient are important factors that have an effect on the performance.
The problem of an unstable temperature field which develops in
rotary axial seals has been treated in references [18, 23] with al­
lowance for variation of the friction coefficient with temperature. For
the initial stage of operation characterized by a temperature field
of maximum intensity, the axial seal may be regarded as a system of
two like cylindrical rods of annular cross-section, whose end faces
are pressed against each other. When one of the rods rotates round
the common axis, frictional heat is generated at the contact. The
amount of heat depends on the sliding speed, the normal force
creating the pressure, and the coefficient of friction. The latter itself
generally depends on the temperature at the sliding interface, which
changes in time. The problem is formulated on the following assump­
tions: it is one-dimensional, the frictional heat isjgenerated uniform­
ly over the whole contact area, there is no heat transfer to the
ambient atmosphere, the thermal resistance at the contact is small
and can be neglected, the coefficient of friction is a known function
of the temperature at the sliding interface, and the thermal proper­
ties of the materials do not depend on temperature. The mathemati­
cal model of the process is expressed by a system of two differential
equations
a i
dt - dx\

where i = 1, 2; t > 0; 0 < xt < oo.

The initial conditions are t = 0; ϋ^ (xly 0) = θ 0 , ft2(x2i 0) = ^o·
The boundary conditions on the rubbing surface (with xx = x2 =
= 0):
Oi (0, t) = Φ2 (0, t) = * (t); q (θ (*))· = qi (θ (t)) + q2 (* (f)),
where

88
 At an infinitely remote distance from the rubbing surface, where
X = X =
ì 2 °0

M o o , t) = # 0 ; # 2 (oo, t) = fl0
With a linear relation between the coefficient of friction and tem­
perature [cf. Formula (14.1) and Table 14.7], the temperature in the
i-th member of the sliding couple (i = 1; 2) can be calculated by the
formula

*ι(*ι.ί) = *ο + 4 Λ Γ ι / « · (14·2)
here
2 ^Fo*

X [l+-2=- j exp(-g2)dg]dT (14.3)

Fot = o,i/«î, ÄTi = ßdx i /V'a i , i = l; 2 (14.4)

In these formulas t = time; # = distance from the rubbing sur­

face in the i-th member of the sliding couple; θ 0 = initial tempera­
ture of the sliding couple; a* = thermal diffusivity of the material
of the i-th member; kt = thermal conduction coefficient of the mate­
rial of the i-th member; n = rotational frequency; N = normal
load; rx and r2 = radii of the outer and inner circles defining the
seal rings; a and b = coefficients from Formula (14.1).
To facilitate calculations, the coefficient / , depending on two di-
mensionless sets of quantities K and Fo, has been determined with
the aid of a computer for a wide range of parameters; some of the
data are given in Table 14.10.
With a linear relationship between the coefficient of friction and
temperature, the temperature at the sliding interface in the initial
unstable regime can be found by the formula
*(0, *) = * 0 + A $dlin (14.6)
where
it rp ßd
pa Vï^ï
yi-ς
dl
* in — - M e x p [ ß ^ (ί-Ι)] l + - £ = - \ βχρ(-τ2)ίίτ
Yl
(14.7)
89
 Table 14.10
Coefficient I as function of K at some values of Fo

Iin at Fo
K
1 5 10 15 20 25

0.002 0.3998 1.654 2.671 3.465 4.140 4.738

0.004 0.4004 1.660 2.685 3.488 4.172 4.779
0.006 0.4010 1.666 2.699 3.510 4.203 4.820
0.008 0.4015 1.672 2.713 3.533 4.236 4.861
0.010 0.4021 1.678 2.727 3.557 4.268 4.904
0.012 0.4026 1.684 2.742 3.580 4.301 4.946
0.014 0.4032 1.690 2.757 3.604 4.335 4.990
0.016 0.4038 1.696 2.771 3.628 4.369 5.035
0.018 0.4043 1.702 2.786 3.653 4.404 5.080
0.020 0.4049 1.709 2.801 3.678 4.439 5.125
0.040 0.4107 1.773 2.960 3.941 4.816 5.623
0.060 0.4167 1.842 3.134 4.238 5.250 6.207
0.080 0.4228 1.915 3.326 4.575 5.753 6.897
0.100 0.4291 1.994 3.539 4.957 6.339 7.720

Table 14.11
Coefficient Iin as function of time

lp at ßd
Time, s
0.0 0.0001 0.001 0.01

60 8.740 8.746 8.800 9.377

120 12.361 12.373 12.482 13.677
180 15.139 15.157 15.320 17.138
240 17.481 17.505 17.723 20.192
300 19.544 19.574 19.848 22.985
360 21.409 21.446 21.774 25.596
420 23.125 23.167 23.551 28.073
480 24.722 24.770 25.209 30.445
540 26.221 26.275 26.770 32.734
600 27.639 27.700 28.250 34.956
660 28.988 29.055 29.661 37.121
720 30.277 30.350 31.012 39.239
780 31.518 31.592 32.310 41.317
840 32.703 32.788 32.562 43.361
900 33.851 33.942 34.772 45.375
960 34.961 35.058 35.944 47.363
1,020 36.037 36.140 37.082 49.329
1,080 37.082 37.191 38.189 51.276
1,140 38.099 38.213 39.267 53.206
1,200 39.088 39.208 40.320 55.120
1,260 40.054 40.180 41.347 57.022
1,320 40.996 41.128 42.352 58.912

90
φ (0, t) = temperature at the sliding interface depending on time;
ft^= γαχα2αηΝ (rg — r?)
P
( λ ι / ζ + λ , /i)-45(i-rf)·
The values of 7l7l depending on integration limits and on the set of
quantities ßd have been determined for a wide range of parameters
using a computer; some of the data are given in Table 14.11.
Example 1. Find the temperature at the interface of an axial seal after
10 min of run from the start. The rubbing materials are fluoroplastic-4 and stain­
less steel 12X18H9T.
Given: n = 5,000 rpm, N = 0.6 kgf, a = LIO- 3 K-1, b = 0.027, rt =
= 0.02 m, r2 = 0.03m,O
3
0 = 273 K, λχ = 15.6 W/(m-K), (7Χ= 0.462 kJ/(kg-K) f
Pi = 8,130 kg/m 3
, λ2 = 0.279 W/(m-K), C2 = 0.973 kJ/(kg.K), p 2 =
= 2,150 kg/m (subscript 1 pertains to the stainless steel).
Solution:
e 2
Thermal diffusivity coefficients
4
α1 = 4.15·10" β m 2 /s; a2 = 0.133 x
X 10- m /s; coefficient ß = 1.19 ·10" [formula (14.5)]: coefficient d = 8.46
formula (14.5)]; the value of ßd = 0.001; the value of Iin = 28.25 (Table 14.11);
the value of / 0 = 0.3 [formula (5)]; the interface temperature ft = 281.5 K
(formula (6)].
Example 2. Find the temperature of the rubbing components of Example 1
at a distance of 8 mm from the sliding interface after 7 min of run from the
start.
Given: The data of Example 1.
Solution: Coefficient ß = 1.19-IO"4 [formula (14.5)]; coefficient d = 8.46
(formula (14.5)]; the values of Kx = 3.95-10- 3 ; K* = 21.9-10- 3 [formula (14.4)];
the values of Fox = 27.2, Fo 2 = 0.87 [formula (14.4)]; the values of Ix = 4.9,
j 2 = 0.4 (Table 14.10); the temperature inside the stainless steel member ^ =
= 278.8 K; the temperature inside the fluoroplastic-4 member ft2 = 275.6 K,
the temperature at the interface ft = 280 K.

REFERENCES
1. AjieKceee B. H., KoBajibHemco M. C. Ηβκοτορυθ 3aKOHOMepHOCTn H3Ha-
IUHBaHHH MOTaJIJIOB H MeTaJIJIOnOflOÔHHX KapÔHflOB B BaKyyMe n p H HH3KHX
TeMnepaTypax.— «On3HKO-XHMHHecKaH MexaHHKa MaTepnajiOB», 1971, «N2 3,
c. 38-42.
2. ApxapoB A. M., BopoHHH Γ. H., XapnroHOBa JI. fl. Πρηβορ fljiH nccjie-
^OBaHHH cyxoro τρβΗΗΗ πρπ HH3KHX TeMnepaTypax.— «ΠρπβορΕΐ H TexHHKa
aKcnepHMeHTa», 1971, JNTs 4, c. 235-236.
3. ApxapoB A. M., XapnTOHOBa JI. fl. BKcnepnMeHTajibHoe nccjieaoBaHHe
αΗΤπφρΗΚΗ,ΗΟΗΗΗΧ CBOHCTB MaTOpnajlOB Ha OCHOB6 φτθρθΠΠαθΤβ n p H HH3KHX
TeMnepaTypax.— «Η3ΒΘΟΤΉΗ By30B. MamHHOCTpoeHHe», 1973, N° 7, c. 122-126.
4. EpayH H EapTOH. ΠρποΌρ fljin Η3ΜΘΡΘΗΗΗ τρβΗΗΗ H aflre3HH B ceepx-
BHcoKOM BaKyyMe.— «ΠρπβορΗ fljin HayHHtix nccjieflOBaHHH», 1966, N° 12,
c 61-63.
5. Βριοιπκθ H BKMaH. Πρπβορ fljia Η3ΜΘΡΘΗΗΗ τρβΗΠΗ B CBepxBHCOKOM BaKyy­
Me.— «ΠρπβορΜ fljiH Hay^HHx HCCJieAOBaHHH», 1963, «N2 9, c. 17.
6. flHTpnx, TayHceHA, 3apen,KHH. ycTajiocTb TOJI Kanemm πρπ ΗΗ3ΚΗΧ
TOMnepaTypaX H CMa3Ke φτορΗΟΤΗΜΗ ΠΟΛΗθφΗρβΜΗ.— «ΠρθΟΛΘΜΗ ΤρβΗΗΗ
H CMa3KH», 1971, JSÎ2 3, c. 50-58.
1 7. KaparycoB H. X. ΒΛΗΗΗΗΘ TeMnepaTypu Ha affn^pHKu.HOHHbie cBoücTBa
nopmHOBoro MaHJKeTHoro ynjiOTHeHHH H3 ΦΗ-202.— «Kncjiopo^Hoe H aBTO-
ΓΘΗΗΟΘ MamHHOCTpoeHHe», 1965, ΒΒΙΠ. 1, c. 10-11.
8. KHCJIHK B. 5K. ΠρΗΜθΗθΗΗβ rejineBoro TopmoBoro ynjiOTHeHHH B Hacoce
AJiH HCHAKoro Kncjiopo^a. Ilep. c aHrn.— «ΠροβΛβΜΒΐ τρβΗππ n CMa3KH», 1969,
JSfc 4, c. 75-81.

91
 9. Kyjieôa B . H., JIio6apcKHH H. M. HcdieflOBamie npon;ecca τρβΗΗΗ H H 3 -
HaniHBaHHH MaTepnajiOB B cpejje ΪΚΗ^ΚΟΓΟ a30Ta.— «ΠροΟΛβΜΜ τρβΗΗΗ H H 3 -
HamHBaHHH», 1976, N° 9, c. 71-75.
10. JlapnoHOB B . Π., KoBajibHVK B . A. XjiaflOCTOHKocTb H H3HOC AeTajieâ
MainHH H CBapHHx coeflKHeHHO. HoBOCHÖnpcK. CnÔHpcKoe OTflejieHne H3,n;-Ba
«HayKa», 1976, 206 c.
11. HOBHUKHH JI. A . , ΚθΗΚΘΒΗΗΚΟΒ H. Γ. ΤβΠΛθφΗ3ΗΗβΟΚΗβ CBOHCTBa MaTe-
pnajiOB πρπ ΗΗ3ΚΗΧ TeMHepaTypax. M., «MannmocTpoemie», 1975, 216 c.
12. CaMCOHOB Γ. B . , 3anopoîKeu; A. A. Pa3BHTne θπβκτροΗΗΗΧ npeßCTaBjie-
HHH o npouecce H3HamHBaHHH nepexo,n,HHX MeTajuiOB B cpe/je HaiflKoro a30Ta.—
«OH3HKO-XHMHHecKaH MexaHHKa MaTepnajiOB», 1970, Ns 6, c. 43-48.
1 3 . CMHPHOB E . H . , KyflpHBijeB E . A . , CMHPHOB E. B . ΠΡΗΜΘΗΘΗΗΘ aHTH-
Φ Ρ Η Κ Ι Ι , Η Ο Η Η Η Χ MaTepnajiOB B H a c o c a x fljia « Κ Η Η ^ Η Η Μ Χ r a 3 0 B B H C O K O I O /jaBjie-
HHH.— «XHMHHeCKOe H ΗθφΤΗΗΟΘ ΜαΠΙΗΗΟΟΤρθβΗΗθ», 1 9 7 3 , Ν° 1 0 , C. 3 9 - 4 0 .
1 4 . GnpaBOHHHK ΠΟ φΗ3ΗΚΟ-ΤθΧΗΗΗθεΚΗΜ OCHOBaM ΚρΗθΓθΗΗΚΗ. UOJS, ρ β β .
M. Π. MajiKOBa. M., «3ΗΘΡΓΗΗ», 1973, 387 c. ABT.: M.II. MajiKOB, H. B . flamuiOB,
A. Γ. 3ejib,n;oBHH, A. B . (DpaflKOB.
15. Tpemie H H3HOC npn HH3KHX TeMnepaTypax.— «MeTajuioee^eHne H τβρΜΗ-
HecKan oèpaôoTKa MeTajuiOB», 1971, N° 3 , c. 9-12. A B T . : Γ. H. IIpecHflKOBa,
H. M. JlK)6apcKHH, B . Φ. ΥΑΟΒΘΗΚΟ, E. H. MapbHXHHa, C. G. HepHHK.
16. Tpemie miamipoBaHHOH cTajiH 40X B BaKyyMe npn TeMnepaTypax —190
H + 2 0 ° C — B cô\: ΠθΒβββΗΗβ MaTepnajiOB B ycjioBHHX BanyyMa H HH3KHX τβΜ-
nepaTyp: XapbKOB, 1972, c. 42-46. A B T . : Γ. H . IIpecHHKOBa, H. M. JIioöapcKHH,
B. Φ. y,n;oBeHKo, E . H. MapbHXHHa.
17. ycTaHOBKa fljin HCCjießOBaHHH nponecca Bbicmero τρβΗΗΗ H CMa3biBaHHH
B CBepxBbicoKOM BaKyyMe npn TeMnepaTypax οτ 500 RO 5 K.— «ÏIpoÔJieMbi τρβΗΗΗ
H H3HamHBaHHH», 1972, N° 2, c. 68-73. ABT.: C. C. KapaneTHH, B . C. OCBKHH,
A. H. IÏOHOMapeB, A. A. CHJIHH.
18. XapnTOHOBa JI. $ . PacneT TeMnepaTypHoro nojia B y3jiax τρβΗΗΗ HH3KO-
TeMnepaTypHbix MamHH.— «H3BecTHH By30B. MamHHOCTpoeHHe». 1973, «N2 12,
c. 105-110.
19. 9JIKOHHH B . B . O paöoTOcnocoOHOCTH cenapaTopoB mapHKonoflmnn-
HHKOB npn HH3KHX TeMnepaTypax.— «Ββοτππκ MamnHOCTpoeHHH», 1968, N° 2,
c. 34-36.
20. Burton R. A., Rüssel J. A., Ku P. M. Metallic friction at cryogenic
temperatures.— "Wear", 1962, No. 5, p. 60-68.
21. Flom D. G., Porile N. T. Friction of teflon sliding on teflon.— "Journal
of applied physics", 1955, No. 9, p. 1088-1092.
22. King R. F., Tabor D. The effect of temperature on the mechanical pro­
perties and the Friction of Plastics.— "The Proceeding of the Physical Society",
1953, vol. 66B, p. 728-734.
23. Schaaf S. A. On the superposition of a heat source and contact resistance.
— "Quarterly of applied mathematics", 1947, vol. 5, p. 107-111.
24. Swenson C. A. Mechanical Properties of teflon at low temperatures.—
"Review of Scientific Instrument", 1954, No. 8, p. 834-835.
25. Wisander, Johnson. Wear and Friction in liquid nitrogen with austenitic
stainless steel having various surface coatings.— "Advancing Cryogenic Engi­
neering", 1960, vol. 4.
 Chapter 15

FRETTING

15.1. BASIC INFORMATION

The useful life of many tribological joints is limited by wear or
failure of the rubbing components due to fretting, which occurs with
oscillatory relative displacements of the rubbing surfaces. Such
displacements may result from vibrations, reciprocating motion,
periodic bending or twisting of mating components, etc. Slip be­
tween joint faces is an indispensable condition for fretting to arise.
Intensive wear of the components involves the loss of the design
dimensions beyond the tolerances. Fretting also tangibly downgrades
the surface layer quality, producing increased surface roughness,
micropits, subsurface microcracks, which reduce the fatigue strength
of the components.
According to GOST 5272-68 fretting is defined as corrosion of rub­
bing surfaces oscillating relative to each other in presence of a corro­
sive medium. GOST 16429-70 gives a definition of fretting wear as a
mechano-corrosive wear of rubbing surfaces having small relative
oscillatory displacements. The term 'fretting', or 'fretting wear',
is sometimes applied to the phenomena that occur in the rubbing of
precious metals or non-metals, and also in that of chemically active
metals in high vacuum or dry inert gases. The term 'fretting' can also
be found as referred directly to the oscillatory relative displacements
of rubbing parts pressed against each other.
Fretting is a specific kind of wear that has the following differen­
ces in character and origination conditions from the conventional
wear observed in non-oscillatory rubbing:
—wear debris are hard to remove from the friction zone owing to a
small amplitude of oscillations, and surface damage is clearly con­
fined to real-contact areas;
—the rate of relative motion of the rubbing surfaces is much lower
than that of plain non-oscillatory motion. For.instance, with a slid­
ing amplitude of 0.025 mm and a frequency of oscillation of 30 Hz,
the maximum rate of sliding equals 4.7 mm/s, and the mean rate,
3 mm/s;
—the presence of oxygen may reduce wear in plain sliding friction,
whereas in fretting it aggravates surface damage. Wear debris in
fretting are mainly metal oxides.
93
 Typically, fretting develops in various forced fits on rotating-
shafts, in the attachment of turbine and compressor blades, in splined,
keyed, threaded and riveted joints. Subject to fretting are also
cables and cable pulleys; contact surfaces oî antifriction bearings
that transmit loads without rolling; couplings; contact surfaces of
compression springs, leaf springs, safety valves and machine gover­
nors; cams and linkages; electrical contacts, etc.
Surface damage caused by fretting appears in the form of wear
scars, pick-up of metal particles; tearing or pitting, with the pits
often filled with powdery wear debris; bands or grooves of local wear
and also surface microcracks. On the surfaces subject to fretting,
such phenomena can be observed as seizure, microcutting, and fa­
tigue failure in microvolumes accompanied with oxidation and corro­
sion. Depending on loading conditions, materials and ambient me­
dia, one of these processes can be dominant and the other complimen­
tary. The first visual indication of fretting on rubbing surfaces is
the presence of coloured spots where compacted oxides accumulate.
In addition to the changes in geometry and appearance of the com­
ponent, fretting can bring about another harmful effect, such as a
loss of dimensional accuracy. This may develop in two ways. If the
wear debris can to some extent escape from the contact zone, the
character of the initial fit will change and the interference in the
joint will become weaker. If the debris is trapped, the joint is
liable to seizure or even jamming, which is all the more likely because
the volume of the wear debris is usually greater than that of the
metal oxides formed. This situation is particularly critical in app­
lications where the parts in contact have from time to time to disen­
gage during operation (as, for instance, in safety valves and gover­
nors).

15.2. FRETTING TESTS

The testing methods are reviewed in detail in [1, 2, 3]·
Experimental practice indicates that fretting wear tests give the
best results when performed on specimens with flat annular contacts.
Resistance to fretting can be assessed by mass wear AUm or linear
wear t/, or by these quantities related to a unit sliding distance.
The mean linear wear is determined by recording the profile of the
sliding track. Although it provides a general picture of surface da­
mage, the method sometimes may prove to be inaccurate.For instance,
deep local micropits may be more harmful than those of the same
volume but of smaller depth. The mass wear evaluation method is
ineffective in situations where the extent of wear is small and, parti­
cularly, the transfer of material from one rubbing surface to the
other is likely. Surface damage due to fretting can also be assessed
by multiplying the area of the wear spot by its depth.
Before testing, the specimens are carefully cleaned and degreased.
After the tests, the oxides on the rubbing surfaces are removed either
94
by mechanical action or by means of solvents. For all practical pur­
poses the following solutions provide the required cleaning effect:
No. 1 (for 100 ml of aqueous solution): 4 g hydroquinone, 22 ml
ortho-phosphoric acid (concentrated), 20 ml alcohol;
No. 2: 70 ml liquid glass (density 1.2 to 1.25) and 100 ml hydro­
chloric acid. The liquid glass is added to the acid, and the solution
is hold for 24 h before using.

15.3. FACTORS INFLUENCING

THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRETTING
The rate of fretting wear depends on the mechanical characteristics
of contact interaction, the nature of the materials in contact, the
chemical composition of an ambient
medium (gaseous or liquid), and vv -ios, cm*
other factors.
Amplitude of slip. Relative oscil­ /,
latory displacements of the mating
surfaces are essential for fretting to
occur. A very small amplitude
(8 X 10"7 mm) of slip is believed
to be sufficient to cause a conspi­
cuous surface damage. As the amp­
litude grows, the effects of fretting
become increasingly similar to plain
sliding wear.
Normally, the rate of fretting /
wear is in direct proportion to the /
amplitude of slip, but some find­
ings have revealed a parabolic re­ /
lation as well (Fig. 15.1). A parti­
o

cularly sharp [rise in the wear of n °-û2Ï

steel is observed with an amplitude 50 Ì00 150 ατ,μπτ
of 0.10 to 0.15 mm, when seizure
develops to a considerable degree. Fig. 15.1. Wear volume Uv as
With very small amplitudes, the afunction of slip amplitude α τ for
low-carbon steel—duralumin com­
friction is rolling rather than sliding bination at N = 19 kgf; Nc = 10e
in nature, because the oxide par­ cycles (according to O.N. Murav-
ticles function as rolling elements, kin, A.V. Ryabchenkov and
and that checks the development N. Panafidin)
of seizure. The character of relation
between the wear rate and the slip amplitude varies depending on
the material of the parts in contact, and on the testing methods
and conditions.
Contact pressure. Tangible damage due to fretting may arise at
very small pressures (in unloaded rolling bearings, in loose threaded
assemblies, etc.). The effect of load on the development of fretting
is rather difficult to evaluate, because the actual contact pressure in
95
the joint does not remain constant during operation. The reason is
the changes in the initial microprofiles of the mating surfaces and
U
the formation of a wear debriis
M,mff
layer at the interface.
Ί
10
The relation between the wear
rate and normal load can be linear
1
/ 2^ or parabolic depending on the test­
/ ing method and conditions, pro­
Is ^3
perties of the materials, surface
damage criteria, slip amplitudes,
0 7 3 pa,kgf/mn>2 and load ranges (Figs. 15.2 and

Fig. 15.2. Wear of carbon steel as

15.3).
function of specific load (ατ = If the drive system of the test
0.09 mm; Nc = 67 800 cycles; rig is not rigid enough, an increase
/ = 38 Hz) in the normal load may result in
l—according to Read and Butter; a decrease in the oscillation ampli­
2—according to I. Pheng and G. Ulig;
3—according to K.G.R. Wright tude and in the rate of wear. How­
ever, this decrease in wear achiev­
ed on reaching a certain critical load value should not be attributed
entirely to the reduction in amplitude, because a similar effect is
also observed when the amplitude is maintained constant (Fig. 15.4).

ÜM.m9

1
Jn
'7

75
}/1

0 50 100 >S0 200 N,kgf J8 pa,kgf/mm2

Fig. 15.3. Wear of steels 20(4),. Fig. 15.4. Wear by volume as function
18X2H4MA (3), 30ΧΓΟΑ (2); and of specific load at ax = 0.05 mm:
alloy aluminium #16 (1), as func­ / = 25 Hz; Nc = 25040 3 cycles
tion of normal load (counterface of i—hardened steel 45; 2—steel 12X{8H9T;
3—bronze; 4—alloy ZU6T; 5—Armco 3iron;
steel 30ΧΓΟΑ, ax = 0.3 mm ; Nc = 6—normalized steel 45
■= 27-10* cycles, / = 2 5 Hz) accor­
ding to ;B.D. Shipilov et al.

Here, the amount of wear grows up to a load of 600 to 800 kgf7cm2

and then goes down. The observed wear behaviour signifies that diffe­
rent basic phenomena underlying fretting come into play. At the
loads corresponding to the rising portions of the curves, the corro-
96
sion fatigue processes, particularly typical of fretting, run on the
mating surfaces, which still can relatively easily be reached by
atmospheric oxygen. The decrease of wear at loads exceeding the
critical values is brought about by more intensive seizure and mutual
metal transfer on the joint faces. Although the overall amount of
wear declines, the depth of surface damage at individual points
grows with the rise of the specific load. As this takes place, an
increase in the friction force slows down owing to the plastic flow
of the metal and to the growing intensity of thermal effects.
Oscillation frequency. Variation in oscillation involves the chang­
ing of the cycle period, the speed of the relative oscillatory motion,

u
»>9 o
0.05
_J
0.02 \

0.01 ÏH ^
>
—v~
δ
-H K

•
<o —^ !r
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 30O0
n,rev/min

Fig. 15.5. Wear of low-carbon steel in dry air as function of oscillation

frequency and amplitude at pa = 3.7 kgf/mm2
I - e - = 0.23 mm; JV, = 67 800 cycles; 2 - αχ = 0.091 mm; Nc = 457800 cycles;
, - a = 0.091 mm; k = 67 800 cycles; 4 - l x - 0.01 mm; Nc = 67 800 cycles;
O —referred to 25°G; «-temperature of test (from Pheng and Ulig)

and the contact temperature. Typically/fretting wear in air decreas­

es with rising oscillation frequency, and then it tends to level oil
(Figs 15.5 and 15.6). In nitrogen, wear does not depend on oscilla­
tion frequency. The formation and rupture of oxide films determine
the amount of wear to a considerable degree. As lower oscillation
frequencies at a constant amplitude prolong the time of exposure
of metal surfaces in contact to oxidation, a respective increase in the
amount of wear may result.
Apparently, the critical frequency at which wear reaches its peak
and the rate of this wear for different materials must depend on their
oxidation stability. This is confirmed by the fact that steels that
resist oxidation (e.g., steel 18X2H4MA) scarcely respond to fre­
quency changes (Fig. 15.7). The abnormal wear behaviour of alu­
minium alloy A16 is usually attributed to the predominance of
abrasion. It follows from Fig. 15.5 that the effect of frequency on
wear grows with the slip amplitude, contact pressure, and testing
time. „ . . ...
The change of wear rate with oscillation frequency in fretting can
also be accounted for by a marked decrease in the fatigue life of me­
tals at lower loading frequencies.
97
7-01156
 The number of loading cycles. Damage to the surfaces in contact
from fretting spreads with the increase of testing time. However,
the character of fretting progress may change depending on proper­
ties of the material, oscillation amplitude, and specific load. Nor­
mally, the wear rate for steel grows particularly fast during the
running-in stage, and then it slows down. It is interesting to note,
however, that a low-gradient
UM, mg
280
portion may be observed on the
wear curve near its origin
(Fig. 15.8), which reflects repeat­
2k0 ed transfer of the metal from
one mating surface to the other.
With small amplitudes and
moderate contact loads, the wear
curve may at some testing stage
become decaying in character;
with high amplitudes and spe­
cific loads the extent of wear is
generally proportional to the
number of test cycles.
In some situations where fret­
ting involves the formation of
very hard wear debris (e.g., for
aluminium and its alloys), the
wear grows linearly straight from
the beginning, which indicates
the predominant role of micro-
itOO 600 800 1000 1200
cutting. If the relative tangen­
f, cycle/min tial oscillations of the mating
surfaces are accompanied with
Fig. 15.6. Effect of oscillation frequen­ pulsations of the normal load,
cy (cycles/min) on fretting wear of
steel 15 (pa = 5 kgf/mm2, ατ = precipitate wear may result.
0.524 mm) Ambient medium. The inten­
1—NC = 103 550 cycles; 2 — NQ = 70 850 sity of fretting is strongly de­
cycles; 3— Nc = 38 150 cycles; 4— Nc = pendent on the corrosive activity
16 350; 5- JVC= 10 900;6-JV c = 5450;
7 -2V C =2 725 (from A. N. Ryabchenkov and of the gas medium and on the
o.< N. Muravkin) chemical activity of the metal.
In air, fretting wear is greater than in vacuum, nitrogen, and helium.
In oxygen all metals are damaged by fretting harder than in
air.
Data on the effect of humidity on the development of fretting are
discrepant. Some authors report a 50 to 60 percent reduction in the
wear of steel with humidity rising up to 100 percent as compared
with the wear observed in dry air. Others report still greater change
of wear with humidity, their relation not always being monotone
(Fig. 15.9). One of the factors contributing to the reduction of wear
in humid air is a change of frictional characteristics due to adsorption
or capillary condensation of water vapours on the joint faces.

98
 Wear in atmospheric conditions is usually several times greater
than in liquids (e.g., distilled water, sodium hydrate solution).
Apparently, in liquids protective oxide films form faster than in

0.75 7.25
f · I03t cycLe /min
Fig. 15.7. Effect of oscillation fre­ Fig. 15.8. Fretting wear of low-carbon
quency on (fretting wear ofkalloy ,11,16(1); steel as function of the number of
steel 18X2H4MA (2); steel 20 (3); and loading cycles at ατ = 0.097 mm;
steel 30ΧΓΟΑ (4) at2 ατ = 0.3 mm;& / = 9 Hz; Pa = 3.72 kgf/mm2;
Pa = 1.25 kgf/mm ; Nc = 2.7-10 1 — in air; 2—in nitrogen; 3—the
cycles (from V.L. Shipilov [et al.) initial portion of the curve 1 (accord­
ing to I. Pheng and G. Ulig)

air. In addition, in liquids wear debris are less hard, and they are
partly washed out of the contact zone, thereby reducing abrasive
wear.
Lubrication. Although lubrication usually cannot give full pro-
tection from fretting, any lubricant in the joint is better
than none at all. Fluid lubri­ 3
cants, such as mineral and fatty Ui/,mm
0.05\
oils, provide the maximum 7
s*
effect when the surfaces in con­ 0.04
tact are immersed in the oil 0.03 — <s Λ
K
{
delivered to the friction zone
so that the surfaces are protect­ 0.02 \
ed from oxygen. The best \ ^ ^
0.01 \
results are obtained with the
oils in which oxygen dissolves
\ a-ί ' - 1
20 40 60 80 mo
poorly and has a low diffusion Relative humidity, °/o
coefficient. In addition, the
oi s should have good tacki­ Fig. 15.9. Bulk wear of steel as func­
tion of relative humidity
ness, withstand high pres­ 1—according to N. Soda and A.Aoki; 2—accord­
sures, resist oxidation, and ing to K. G.R.Wright
provide high stability of the
properties in time. For example, polyglycol ethers and diesters are
more effective than mineral oils of the same viscosity. Of all synthe­
tic oils for instrument applications, the maximuam resistance to fret­
ting is achieved with oils having high lubricity: BHHH ΗΠ-6,
MH-60, and BHHH ΗΠ-223. Oils based on silicone fluids, such as

7* 99
 ΜΠ-601, ΜΠ-610, ΒΗΗΗ ΗΠ-274, ΒΗΗΗ ΗΠ-293 do not provide
adequate fretting stability. Thin mineral oils (transformer oil,
spindle oil) are ineffective for protection from fretting, whereas
thin synthetic diester oils blended with additives like tricresyl
phosphate (e.g. oil BHHH ΗΙΊ-50-1-4Φ) are capable of considerably
retarding the progress of fretting. Some non-metal films, for instance
those formed by phosphating and anodizing, provide good retention
of an oil film on the mating surfaces and thereby reduce fretting
effects.
The application of fluid lubricants involves the problem of keep­
ing them in place by sealing; despite various solutions to this
problem, fluid lubricants are often, under severe conditions of fret­
ting, incapable of separating effectively the mating surfaces and
preventing them from direct contact. For this reason, in certain
circumstances it is advantageous to use greases. With greases, how­
ever, the antifretting properties are heavily dependent on the mechan­
ical stability, consistency, soap content, additives, etc. Greases
similar in chemical composition and consistency may have different
fretting stability, depending on their shear strength. Generally, the
effect of fretting is more pronounced with the use of greases having
high shear strength. The initial consistency of greases as such can­
not define their antifretting properties. Diluting to lower consisten­
cies improves the ability of greases to prevent fretting. In some cases,
however, a grease of lower consistency exhibits much poorer antifret­
ting properties because of its soap content.
In some cases solid lubricants, both metals (lead, indium) and non-
metals (graphite, molybdenum disulphide), can be effectively used
for the prevention of fretting. On the other hand, molybdenum disul­
phide, graphite, and zinc oxide added to greases produce little or
sometimes even negative effect.
Good results can be achieved by the use of calcium greases with
extreme-pressure additives. Typically, a lubricated surface with
greater roughness shows better resistance to fretting. The reason for
it is that surface irregularity valleys serve as natural lubricant collect­
ors which regenerate boundary lubricant films; in addition, wear
debris accumulate there. For softer metals, however, increased sur­
face roughness results in greater wear.
Fretting resistance of various materials. All materials (metals
and non-metals) in any combination are to some extent subject to
fretting Depending on contact pressure, slip amplitude, testing
time, and lubricant, some combinations of materials under certain
conditions can be damaged more than others and under different con­
ditions may prove to be less sensitive to fretting. Three groups of
the combinations of materials according to their resistance to fret­
ting are given in Table 15.1.
No positive relation between the hardness of metals and their re­
sistance to fretting has been established. Only the materials that do
not oxidize in fretting (quartz, ruby, glass, mica, etc.) exhibit the

100
 Table 15.1
Fretting resistance of various materials combinations
(testing in dry air without lubrication)

Combinations of materials with fretting resistance

Good Medium Poor

According to Mc Dowell
Cast iron/cast iron: Cast ir:n/cast iron (with Cast iron/cast iron coat­
with phosphate coating smooth, rough and un- ed with shellac
with rubber gaskets machined surfaces) Cast iron/chromium pla­
with rubber cement Cast iron/copper coating ting
adhesive Cast iron/amalgamated Cast iron/tin plating
with tungsten sulphide copper coating
with powdery molyb­ Cast iron/silver plating
denum disulphide
Cast iron/stainless steel
with powdery molyb­
denum disulphide

Cold-rolled steel/cold- Copper/cast iron Hardened tool steel/stain­

rolled steel Brass/cast iron less steel
Hardened tool steel/tool Zinc/cast iron Aluminium/stainless
steel steel
Aluminium/cast iron
Magnesium/cast iron
Bakelite/cast iron
Laminated plastic/cast

Laminated plastic/gold Magnesium/copper pla­ Gold plating/gold pla­

plating ting ting
Circonium/circonium Chromium plating/chro­
mium plating

According to Gray and Jenny

Sand-blasted lead-coated Sand-blasted steel/steel Steel/steel
steel/steel (very good) Sulphide-coated bronze/ Sand-blasted copper-, tin-
Steel/steel with nylon steel or silver-plated steel* 1 /
gasket 1.6 mm thick Cast bronze/phosphated steel
(very good) steel Sand-blasted steel coated
Bonderized (Zinc-and- Magnesium/steel with aluminium foil/
Iron) steel/steel (good steel
with adequately thick Nitrided steel/chromium-
coating) plated steel* 2
Steel/steel with beril-
lium-bronze gasket

*i Silver-plated steel can be effective with small loads and plating thicknesses
(0.1 mm).
*2 Some improvement in fretting resistance is gained with heating the chromium-
plated steel to 538°G for 1 hour.

101
 Continued

Combinations of materials with fretting resistance

Good Medium Poor

According to Sackman and Rightmire

Lead/steel Zinc/steel Steel/steel
Silver plating/steel Cadmium/steel Nickel/steel
Phosphated steel/steel Copper alloy (phospho­ Aluminium (or its alloy)/
rous bronze)/steel steel
Tin/steel
Antimony/tin

Silver plating/alumini­ Zinc'aluminium Aluminium/aluminium

um coating Copper coating/alumin­ Zinc plating/aluminium
ium Iron-coated steel/alumin­
Nickel plating/alumin­ ium
ium
Silver plating/alumin­
ium
Iron coating/aluminium

increase of resistance to fretting with hardness. Apparently, damage

to surfaces from fretting is largely related to the abrasive properties
of the wear debris. Besides, resistance to fretting depends on the abi­
lity of the material to withstand dynamic loads (cyclic strength), its
corrosion resistance, and its plasticity and toughness.
In some cases, an important part in fretting is played by the elec­
trochemical factor. It follows from Fig. 15.10 that the higher the
positive electrode potential of a material relative to that of steel 45
which it contacts, the less is its damage by fretting and, in turn, the
greater is the wear of the steel itself. Sometimes this factor is out­
weighed by a specific mechanical property: a material with low cor­
rosion stability but high cyclic strength (e.g., steel 30XrCHA) re­
sists fretting well. On the other hand, high corrosion stability with a
relatively low cyclic strength also provides adequate resistance to
fretting. Considering materials chemically active to approximately
the same degree, it can be inferred that surface damage from fretting
correlates with the cyclic strength of the materials. The electrochem­
ical factor comes into play when dispersed-phase oxides emerge in
the friction zone; these oxides can actively absorb moisture and oxy­
gen from air and retain them on the surface.
Table 15.2. gives information on fretting resistance of some ma­
terials.
Ambient and contact temperatures. It has been observed in prac­
tice, that in winter fretting is generally much stronger than in sum­
mer. Experimental findings indicate that fretting wear of carbon
102
 Table 15.2
Fretting resistance of steels (α* = 50 μηι, / = 30 Hz)* 1
Fretting resistance at
pressure, kgf/cm2,
Steel grade Heat treatment Q-103 cycIe/μm
100 I 300 500

30XrCA Oil hardening from 870-890°C,

tempering at 400°C, cooling in oil 125 100 71.4
30XrCHA Oil hardening from 890-900°C,
tempering at 200°G 250 167 125
40XHMA Oil hardening from 850°C, tem­
pering at 600°C 200 125 83.3
38XA Oil hardening from 860°C, tempe­
ring at 520°G 125 83.5 62.5
12X2H4A Oil hardening from 780-810°C,
tempering at 150-170°C in air 83.4 45.5 14.1
12XH3A Oil hardening: 1st stage from
840+20°C, 2nd stage from 780-
810°C, tempering at 150-170°G
in air 100 71.5 43.2
14rCH2MA(flIU3A) Oil hardening from 820±20°C,
tempering at 190°C in air 114 91 57.5
18XHBA Carburizing at 980-1030°C, harden­
ing from 950° C in air, tempering
at 200°C 62.5 50 45.5
38XMIOA Nitriding: 1st stage 500-520°C for
18 h, 2nd stage 540-560°C for 25 h,
cooling with furnace 125 83.3 62.5
16ΧΓΤΑ Oil hardening from 790-860°C,
tempering at 160-180°C 125 41.7 22.7
08X18M10T Air hardening from 1050°C 253 16.2 117
XH38BT(9H703) Water hardening from 1140°C 250 83.3 71.4
14X17H2 Oil hardening from 1020°C, tem­
pering at 300°C, cooling in air 278 167 125
13Χ12Η2Β2ΜΦ Oil hardening from 1020°C, tem­
pering at 700°C, cooling in water 200 135 91
40Χ12Η8Γ8ΜΦΒ Water hardening from 1150±10°G
(heating for 1.75-2 h), two stage
ageing at 670°C (16 h) and 790±
-M0°C (16 h), cooling in air 250 167 106.3
XH77TIOP*2 Air hardening from 1080+10°C
(8 h), ageing at 700±10°C (16 h),
cooling in air 334 200 116
/KC6-K*2 Air hardening from 1210-1220 °C
(4 h) 227 167 79.4
ΙΠΧ15 Oil hardening from 835-860°C,
tempering at 150°C 83 23.8 15.6
ΧΒΓ Oil hardening from 820-840°C,
tempering at 160-180°G 55.5 31.3 23
45 Hardening from 830-850°C, tem­
pering at 300°C 143 71.4 58.8

*i Reference material was heat-treated steel 45 (hardening at 830-840°C, tempe­

ring to HV 600).
*2 Alloy.

104
steel steadily grows with its temperature lowered to—140°C, where­
as within the range of from + 5 0 to 150°C its rate remains prac­
tically unchanged. At low temperatures the metal may become brittle,
and the adsorption of gases increases, which may change the speed
of the chemical reactions.
The oscillatory contact interaction may itself result in substan­
tially increased temperatures in surface layers. The contact tempera­
ture varies depending on the oscillation amplitude, specific pressure

'JMimm3
l0
YÏÏ Π SteeL U5
0.5
0Λ □□ À73
0.3

0.2 373

V\
0.Ì
323

Zn Cd Fe Pb Sn A% AL Cr 2 ^ 6 8 Wpa,kgf/mmz

Fig. 15.10. Histograms of fretting Fig. 15.11. Mean temperature of sur­

wear (by volume) of electrodeposited face layer for steel Grade 45 as func­
and thermodiffusional coatings in tion of specific load at / = 25 Hz;
contact with steel 45 at pa- 5 kgf/mm2; 1—ατ= 0.02 mm; 2—ax = 0.03 mm;
6
Nc = 0.5.10 cycles 3—ατ = 0.05 mm; 4—ατ = 0.08 mm

and thermal properties of the surfaces in contact (Fig. 15.11). High

instant temperatures (up to 700 to 800°C) may occur on the contact
surfaces at moderate as well as at high loads. These are localized tem­
peratures at the spots of real contact. For materials of lower thermal
conductivity, all other things being equal, contact temperatures
produce a stronger effect, which may lead to surface-layer structural
changes and a stronger tendency to seizure.

15.4. MECHANISM OF FRETTING

Generally, the process of fretting for steel under dry friction con­
ditions can be divided into three main stages. At the first stage,
the strengthening of the surfaces in contact and a cyclic flow of the
surface layers are observed; most asperities forming the spots of real
contact interact plastically. This is aided by the seizure of juvenile
metal at the spots of contact after the rupture of the natural oxide
films. The aspérités disintegrated due to fatigue and the disrupted
cold-weld junctions produce primary wear debris, part of which oxi­
dizes. But most of the wear debris at this stage is metal particles.
Transition of the surface layers into a highly dispersed state speeds
up the process of oxidation.
104
 The second stage of fretting involves continued accumulation of
fatigue damage in the subsurface layers. Simultaneously, a corrosive
medium is formed in the friction zone through the adsorption of
oxygen and moisture on the oxides. The rate of wear at this stage is
not high; this wear is mainly associated with the destruction of oxide
films in the friction zone. Here the amount of the wear debris levels
off because its departure from the contact is balanced by the forma­
tion of new wear particles. These conditions give rise to a specific
(mechano-chemical) mechanism of increasing the oxidation of metal
surfaces. This mechanism involves the development, under cyclic
loading conditions, of a chemically responsive highly-dispersed sur­
face-layer structure. This is a mixed structure (consisting of the me­
tals and their oxides), which may perform as a protective factor,
reducing wear. The second stage of fretting may be called the incu­
bation phase. Under the optimal conditions of the stabilized contact,
the previously strengthened surface layers carry somewhat reduced
cyclic loads and accumulate fatigue intensified by corrosion proces­
ses.
Being semiconductors, the highly-dispersed oxides formed in
fretting serve as catalysts in the process. They increase the adsorption
of oxygen and moisture in active radical and ion-radical forms, de­
veloping an active electrolytical medium between the mating sur­
faces.
The third stage of fretting is characterized by a final disintegration
of the affected areas loosened by the fatigue and corrosion processes.
Since electrochemical processes are likely to run at this stage, it can
be called fatigue-and-corrosive destruction. At this stage the surface
layers, which have long been subjected to cyclic deformations, be­
come so weakened that they lose stability and rapidly disintegrate.
This is manifested by increased wear rate.

15.5. QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF

FRETTING
In its present state, the theory of fretting has yet to be further
developed to allow purely analytical calculations of wear rate for
various materials. The current methods of experimental wear-rate
analysis can be divided into two groups depending on the adopted
criterion of fretting resistance.
The first group can be exemplified by the method suggested by
A. S. Akhmatov and M. S. Ostro vsky. Here, the fretting-resistance
criterion used is the duration of the latent period of fretting (x)r
after which the boundary lubricant film is broken, and tearing in
depth occurs on the contact surface
τ = kfìa exp (—k2ANf/Ra)
where A = amplitude of slip; / = oscillation frequency; kx and
k2 = empirical coefficients determined from experimental data.
105
 The second-group methods involve calculations of the amount of
wear. The equation used is based on the fatigue-and-corrosion mech­
anism of fretting:
AFn = k.Na.N, + (k2 + k3N + A4tf2) ^
where ku k2, k3, and Zc4 = constants determined by the chemical
activity, specific surface energy, and fatigue strength of the material;
Nc = number of cycles. The values of the coefficients are found from
experimental data on AFn for several (no less than four) sets of N,
JVC, /, and ατ.

15.6. PROTECTION FROM FRETTING

Damage to contact surfaces is generally determined by the main
processes, such as fatigue, corrosion, seizure, and microcutting.
These processes develop in the surface layers simultaneously, but,

Surface protection against fatigue and corrosion

due to fretting

I
I 1
Protecting
Strengthening Improving Reducing
the surfaces the thermoduna- the friction from contact
in contact mic stability force effect {electrochemical)
of system corrosion
I
1 1
^
II
<?

"^
^^
t-

s<^)+3
o§
'
I3 Î . 5 Se

*
tl
<0 Q,

1^ Ì
$
V
^IS=
<5>
^ ^> .1
*} S5 l·?
1 n•1
P Ì si
^ *
5 1
g»ts -§
1I
^ ^ 1
t* <3**-*i 1 1 ^
■ss.?
1
•s-«?3 1 §0 I III
Fig. 15.12. Choice of methods of protection against corrosion and fatigue due
to fretting

depending on the materials' properties and loading conditions, one

of them becomes the principal process that limits the life of the joint.
The differentiation of the processes running in the surface layer in
Ί06
the course of fretting allows for a rational classification of measures
for fretting prevention. Fig. 15.12 shows a diagram of methods select­
ed for the protection from the most typical fretting process, that
is, corrosion combined with fatigue.
A complex interplay of physical and chemical phenomena in fret­
ting along with a great number of factors that determine the inten­
sity of these phenomena in a given situation makes it difficult to

Fig. 15.13. Elimination of fretting in a shaft/hub assembly

(a) initial arrangement; reducing stress concentration by enlarging shaft diameter
(&) and by introducing relieving groove (c)

work out universal protection methods. Therefore, most of the pro­

posed methods have been developed and proved for specific applica­
tions, so that the same method in different conditions may give a
different effect.
Design and manufacturing methods. Slip and fretting are prevent­
ed by such design measures as increased interference in forced fits,
the use of special devices for damping vibrations, improved lubri­
cation, and rational design of mating parts. For instance, an increase
in the diameter of a shaft where it fits into a hub or a relief groove
(Fig. 15.13) holds back the development of fretting. The groove
(Fig. 15.13c) should be so dimensioned that the equilibrium between
the stresses in the fretting region and in the groove bottom is achiev­
ed. Interferences in excess of 25 to 30 μπι practically prevent the
initiation of fretting. On the other hand, geometry errors of the
mating surfaces (taper, ovality, etc.) make way for fretting.
The oscillatory displacements of mating surfaces can be elimina­
ted by reducing the tangential force through coating one or both
surfaces with films having a low elasticity modulus. The limita­
tion here is that at a given slip amplitude the tangential force must
not be as high as the maximum friction force.
Specific design solutions can be recommended for protection from
fretting, e.g. non-contact labyrinth seals, spherical locating surfaces
rather than cylindrical, rolling friction rather than sliding, tightly
fitted prismatic and Woodruff keys.
Wide possibilities are offered by fretting-resistant materials for
parts in contact (see Table 15.2). The use of such materials as Teflon
and rubber in shaft-and-bushing assemblies sometimes makes it pos­
sible to exclude fretting completely. A Teflon film is sprayed onto
the shaft, heat-treated and greased before assembly. Variations are
107
possible in which Teflon and rubber are used as liners interposed
between mating surfaces.
The solution of Rubrax*, adhesives BflJ/S and ΕΦ-2, and zinc
plating also provide high protective properties, without any signi­
ficant detriment to the contact of the mating surfaces.
The use of fluid and solid lubricants also holds promise as a means
for protection from fretting. Graphite and molybdenum disulphide
can markedly retard the development of fretting (Table 15.3). Where
Table 15.3
Effect of solid lubricants on fretting resistance of steel
(according to E. E. Veismantel)
Friction Number
Solid lubricant coeffici­ of cycles Extent
ent n-10-6 of damage

Water paste of MoS2 0.055 5 1

Varnish emulsion of MoS2 0.115 15 2
Zinc chromate 0.070 15 4

Suspension of 25% powdery zinc chromate 5.2 2

and 75% MoS2 in a paint 0.090 9 3
15 5

Suspension of 10% powdery zinc chromate

and 90% MoS2 in a paint 0.062 15 2
MoS2 0.048 15 1

Suspension of MoS2 in black treacle 0.045 15 2

Mixture of fine-grain graphite with silicone
resin 0.058 15 2
Colloidal graphite 0.040 15 1
Mixture of colloidal graphite with epoxy resin 0.085 15 3
Mixture of colloidal graphite with silicone
resin 0.104 15 4

Designation of damage: 1 — negligible; 2 — slight; 3 — moderate; 4 — substantial;

5 — severe.

service conditions may involve ejection of the lubricant (by an air

flow, centrifugal forces, etc.), the best solution is the use of lubri­
cants filled with binders. Compounds of silicone resin and fine-flake
graphite, and also molybdenum disulphide with 10 percent zinc
chromate have proved effective in such applications.
Methods for protection from the main fretting processes. These
are primarily manufacturing methods for the physico-chemical modi­
fication of mating surfaces; their aims are to strengthen the surfaces,
to protect them from corrosive action of the medium, to increase the

* Trade name of vulcanized bitumen.—Jr.

108
thermodynamic stability of the system and reduce the effect of the
friction force, etc.
Good results are achieved by cold working, heat treatment, thermo-
chemical treatment, electroplating, chemical coating, deposition of
plastics and polymer films.
Table 15.4 gives data on the fretting resistance of steel 45 treated
by various methods. The greatest effect in each of the groups is
provided by hydraulic shot blasting, tinning, and composite bora-
ting, respectively.
Table 15.4
Effect of surface treatment on fretting resistance of steel 45
Fretting resistance*!
Q· 10 3 cycles/μπι at pressures
(α τ = 0.05 mm, /2 == 30 Hz),
Kind of treatment kgf/mm
1 3 5

Steel 45 in basic condition 45.5 40 38.2

Cold working:
hydraulic shot blasting 155 111 83.4
air shot blasting 143 100 66.6
vibrogrlnding with strengthening 125 91 58.8
Thermal and thermochemical treatment:
composite borating 1150 820 700
aluminizing 273 185 114
borating with copper plating 217 116.2 86
siliconizing 185 114 86.3
nitriding 125 83.3 62.5
induction hardening 120 83.4 62.5
impregnating with vanadium 104 69.5 55.6
furnace hardening 102 71.4 58.5
borating 74 59 55.7
Electroplating and chemical coating:
tinning 125 100 55.6
silver plating 83.2 62.5 50
cadmium plating 67.4 53.7 43.8
phosphating 52.6 45.3 41.7
zinc plating 43.1 28.6 24.2
lead coating 62.5 28.4 33.4

*i Fretting resistance (Q) was assessed as the number of test cycles required to
obtain wear of unit depth (indenter — steel 45 hardened to HV 600).

When selecting a protective coating for parts subject to fretting,

it must be taken into account that the coating may affect the fa­
tigue strength of the material, since the deposition process involves
the immersion of the part into an acidic medium. The surface layer
becomes hydrogenated, and that leads to reduced fatigue strength.
This effect may reduce the fatigue strength even stronger than fret-
109
ting itself. For this reason most electrodeposited coatings must be
used in combination with a surface strengthening treatment. Ele­
ctroplatings are recommended for use on spacers and bushings as a
means for protection of the main parts.

REFERENCES

1. Tojiero H. JI., ΑΛΗΟΒΘΒ A. H., ΙΠΘΒΘΛΗ B . B . ΦρβττΗΗΓ-κορρο3ΗΗ MeTaji-

jiOB. ΚΗΘΒ, «TexHÎKa», 1974, 269 e.
2. ΡΗΟΗΘΗΚΟΒ A. B . , MypaBKHH 0 . H. ΦρβττΗΗΓ-κορρο3ΗΗ H 3amHTa MeTaji-
jiOB. M., IJEHTH, 1957, c. 4.
3. yoTepxaya P. B. ΦρβττπΗΓ-κορρο3ΗΗ. JI. «MamnHOCTpoeHne», 1976,
270 c.
4. ΦΗΛΗΜΟΗΟΒ Γ. H . , Bajiaii,KHH JI. T. ΦρβττπΗΓ B ΟΟΘΑΗΗΘΗΗΗ cyAOBHx
^eTajieâ. JI., «CyflocTpoeHHe», 1973, 294 c.

110
 Chapter 16 I

FRICTION AND
OSCILLATIONS I

Friction and oscillations are closely interconnected: friction is-

capable of generating oscillations, and oscillations have influence
on friction.
To simplify analysis of the phenomena taking place in the friction
contact, the following discussion is based on the concept that the
friction force is mainly formed by a load normal to the rubbing sur­
face and by the corresponding normal contact deformation (Amon-
ton's law).
Important is also the concept that the oscillations in complex
elastic systems, i.e. the actual tribological joints, are interdependent
[10, 12]. That means, that the normal and tangential (both longitu­
dinal and transverse) oscillations of a slider cannot arise irrespective
of one another. When one kind of oscillation occurs, the others usu­
ally take place too.
This interdependence is determined by how close the natural fre­
quencies of the respective oscillations are and by the character of
their relation.

16.1. NORMALLY DIRECTED

OSCILLATIONS GENERATED
BY FRICTION OF
SURFACES WITHOUT LUBRICATION
OR WITH BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
If a sliding body (further referred to as the slider) has a height that
is not much greater than its transverse dimensions, i.e. this slider
is other than a rod sliding on its end face, the elastic compliance of
the slider in the normal direction is dozens of times lower than the
compliance of the contact layer, the latter being a layer formed by
the peaks and valleys of microirregularities of the rubbing surfaces.
In this case, the slider is roughly similar to an absolutely rigid body
that rests on a number of minute springs which simulate the peaks of
surface irregularities. Some of these are in contact and carry the nor-
111
mal load, while others, the smaller ones, are out of contact. Any
casual normally directed pulse acting on the slider will cause its
free oscillations in the normal direction. These oscillations are non­
linear and asymmetrical, because more and more new smaller peaks
come into contact as the slider moves downwards, and because the
contact rigidity is variable: it rises when the slider moves down
and drops when the slider moves up. An increase in the amplitude
of these oscillations causes the mean level of the slider over the
counterf ace to rise and thereby the total real contact area to decrease.
As the slider moves along the counterf ace, its surface asperities
receive micropulses from the asperities of the counterface. The nor­
mal components of these micropulses continuously generate the
oscillations of the slider as a whole in the normal direction. I t has
been shown by experiments [17], that these micropulses, chaotic
as they are, maintain permanent quasiperiodic sustained oscillations
of the slider in the normal direction. Because the amplitude of these
oscillations is small (micrometres or their fractions), the fundamental
oscillation frequency is very near the natural frequency of linear
oscillations:

where k = contact rigidity coefficient and m = mass of the slider

The oscillations considered, being asymmetrical, lift the slider.
and reduce the friction force [9].
The higher the speed of sliding, the more intensive are the normal
components of the micropulses between the surface asperities, and
hence the greater is the amplitude of the oscillations, the higher is
the mean level of the slider movement, the smaller is the real contact
area, and the weaker is the friction force. That may explain the droop­
ing of the friction force-speed characteristic, i.e. reduction in the
friction force with increase in the speed of sliding in the absence of
lubrication. Oscillograms of the oscillations (which henceforward
will be referred to as contact oscillations) show, that their amplitude
grows linearly with the sliding speed.
To sum up, the force of dynamic sliding friction is always some­
what weakened by the contact oscillations generated by this friction,
and the force of static friction is also always weakened by the contact
oscillations generated by microseisms with amplitudes of tenths to
hundredths of micrometres, which always take place [18, 19].

16.2. THE EFFECT OF

FORCED OSCILLATIONS ON
FRICTION FORCE
Normal forced oscillations. To reduce friction, use is made of nor­
mally-directed forced oscillations whose frequencies are usually
very different from the contact resonant frequency. For this reason

112
a tangible reduction of friction force requires the application of
powerful vibrators.
It must be borne in mind that in actual tribological joints the cha­
racter of the normal oscillations is determined, strictly speaking,
not only by the contact rigidity of the rubbing interface ("frictional
rigidity"), but also by the rigidity of the joint's components, their
arrangement, etc. [10]. Therefore resonance effects sometimes can be
observed at various frequencies.
The optimum frequency of normal forced oscillations must be near
the value found from formula (16.1). Due to the non-linearity of

>
80

60 1o
Fig. [16.1. Variation of relative decrease of
friction force with frequency of forced normal à s^ °
oscillation at constant mass of slider and 40
different loads exerted by vertical spring. IL· o
Unhardened steel, surface roughness 0.6 μπι Ra, 20 Δ %
slider mass m = const; O — N = 250 gf; !Ä Δ
Δ __ N = 1050 gf W00 2000 3000 KHz

contact oscillations, the resonant frequency can be shifted off this

value by about 10 percent [17].
Formula (16.1) is applicable not only to multiple contacts, but
also to a single contact, exemplified by a smooth sphere with a
fairly smooth spherical socket. In the former case the contact rigidity
has to be found by experiments, and in the latter it can be calculated
by the Hertz formulas.
The selection of a vibrator is determined by the construction of
the tribological joint and by the mass of the vibrating element. Piezo­
electric vibrators are convenient to use for small masses, whereas
electrodynamic vibrators are used for large masses. The quantitative
problem of power rating of the vibrator depending on the slider mass
and the rubbing surface properties has yet to be solved. It can be
said, however, that the power of the vibrator must increase with an
increase in its mass.
An example of the effectiveness of reducing the friction force by
normally-directed forced oscillations is given in Fig. 16.1 in the
form of a graphically represented relation between the oscillation
frequency and the friction force. Piezoelectrical vibrators are attached
symmetrically to the top surface of the slider so that they extend
radially from this surface far enough to provide the coincidence of
their natural bending oscillation frequencies with the resonance freq­
uency of the contact oscillations and, at the same time, with that of
the vibrator. That increases the magnitude of the friction-force reson­
ance minimum without changing its frequency. The frequencies

8-01156 113
causing the extreme drop of the friction force coincide with a 10 per­
cent error with the frequency of contact oscillations calculated by
formula (1). Similar diagrams obtained from tests on a vibration
table are shown in Fig. 16.2. The calculated and experimental results
as compared with each other are presented in Fig. 16.3. Figs. 16.1

r
7", kgf
K— 3
r**~°
o 'L ° ( ****CL ' > -^ ΐ

T \\ \
\
/ 2 \l
N
y\ n 'V
v
1 ^>
v
A 1 /
^
400 800 1200 WO 2000 2m 2800 KHz
Fig. 16.2. Variation of friction force with frequency of forced oscillation of
slider on counterface placed on vibration table. Slider mass and table oscil­
lation amplitude are constant with loads
*—3.0 kgf; 2—4.0 kgf; 5—10.0 kgf

and 16.2 illustrate a new application of the slider's forced oscillations

for friction-force control, i.e. the changing of the friction force by
controlling the frequency of the forced oscillations. If this frequency
is changed within the range near the resonance value, the friction
force will be very responsive to it. For gradual control, the forced
oscillation frequencies should be farther from the resonant frequency.
Tangential forced oscillation. Another example of the resonance
method for reducing the friction force given in the paper [4] is a
single-point contact of a horizontal cemented-carbide pin supported
by two through-hole synthetic sapphire bearings with polished bear­
ing surfaces. The aim of the work was to verify the foregoing con­
cepts and their effectiveness for reducing friction in precision instru­
ments. The pin was subjected to forced axial oscillations so that in
addition to the above-mentioned effect of contact oscillations, an­
other effect could take place. It consists in that transverse tangential
oscillations at instantaneous velocities vt produce the friction force
vector that is always directed opposite the instantaneous values of
the resultant sliding velocity. The latter makes an angle a =
= arctan — with the vector of the transverse displacement velocity
v. Therefore, the instantaneous values of the force which resists the
transverse displacement is Tin8t = fN cos arctan - ^ . Hence
Tinst = fN υ% + ν2

114
Of

Tin,t = fN (16.2)
/i^+oVcos^oi
Tiinst min = fN- (16.3)
/ι;2 + <
As seen from formulas (16.2) and (16.3), effective resistance to
sliding at a = const must drop monotonously with the rise of the
frequency of the forced transverse tangential oscillations, i.e. no
resonance minimum of the friction force should have taken place if
the described effect of resonance with normal contact oscillations had
not been brought into play.
Let us consider the way the tangential oscillations, either trans­
verse or longitudinal, induce normal contact oscillations. Normal
Κ,Ηζ

2000
1600 ψ

1200
800 * ί
400

0 4 8 12 16 20 k'10~7kqf/m
Fig. 16.3. Analytical relation between resonance frequency and rigidity of
contact in normal direction as found by formula (1). The points indicate
magnitudes of resonant frequency obtained experimentally (cf. Fig. 16.2)

micropulses are proportional to the speed of sliding. W i t h tangen­

tial oscillations at work, the normal micropulses reach its maximum
twice for one period of the tangential oscillations. As there is the
natural frequency of the normal oscillations, the frequency of the
forced tangential oscillations, which is half that of the normal oscil­
lations, must act as a resonance frequency for inducing the maximum-
amplitude normal oscillations.
Such, then, is the mechanism of reducing the friction force by for­
ced tangential oscillations, both transverse and longitudinal. Each
of them can be used for the purpose, if that is more convenient than
the use of normal oscillations. Here, however, the condition of the
friction-force minimum will be other than (16.1):

v t = 4π V m (16.4)
By the way, the trivial effect of reducing the friction force through
jerks of the slider at ω2α > g also has a monotone dependence on
frequency and produces no resonance whatever.
8* 115
 In the course of the work [4], a sharp (tenfold) resonance drop of
the friction force was observed at forced axial oscillation frequencies
whose values were very close to half the normal-oscillations reson­
ance frequency value found from the Hertz formulas for contact rigidi­
ty. The typical results are given in Table 16.1, where v is calculated
Table 16.1
Frequencies of natural normally directed
oscillations and resonant frequencies
of axial oscillations

V v/2
m, g 'res

Hz

2.5 8.6 4.3 5.5

7.5 6.0 3.0 3.8
23.5 4.1 2.05 2.75

by formula (16-1), vt being the forced oscillation frequency which

gives a sharp resonance drop of the friction force. The quantity
(v]/ m) is not constant here, because contact rigidity in formula (16.1)
depends on load, i.e., mass in this case. However,' k ~Nn accord­
ing to the Hertz formula, where n <C 1, and thereby the effect of
mass on frequency prevails over the effect of rigidity on it, and re­
sonance frequency decreases with a rise in mass.
The influence of tangential forced oscillations upon the friction
force has also been discussed in [10,24], but irrespective of the effect
they give through inducing normal contact oscillations.

16.3. FRICTION AL SELF-EXCITED

OSCILLATIONS
A non-uniform sliding of solids rubbing against each other under a
constant reactive force may involve more or less periodic halts.
This non-uniformity is called frictional self-excited oscillations [5, 7,
10].
A possible explanation for non-uniform sliding is a drooping slid­
ing speed-friction force characteristic. In this case a casual accelera­
tion of sliding reduces the friction force and leads to a further accel­
eration until the slider has slipped into the position where its exter­
nal 'elastic constraints develop a reaction force which causes the sli­
der to slow down. The slow-down increases the friction force and there
fore leads to a further slow-down. In some cases the slider slows
down to a stop, and then the pull of the elastic drive rises until it
dislodges the slider by causing it to skip once again.
Ü6
 The non-uniformity occurs when the gradient of the drooping char­
acteristic, i.e. a negative derivative of the friction force with res­
pect to the sliding speed,becomes greater than the coefficient of damp­
ing of the drive's oscillating system. The greater this gradient, the
more intensive oscillations take place and the higher is the speed
below which the slider oscillations are attended with halts. It follows
from the foregoing, that the main practical recommendation for elim­
inating the non-uniformity of sliding is to increase the damping
capability of the slider drive and to lower the gradient of the fric­
tion force-sliding speed characteristic or to remove completely the
factors which gi\e rise to a drooping characteristic. For lubricated
surfaces such a factor is [9] the hydrodynamic effect of the lubricant
(in the region of mixed-mode friction).
However, practical experience and special experimental studies
do not prove the conclusions made from the above explanation. For
instance, the use of low-viscosity lubricants reduces the gradient of
the characteristic, but such lubricants considerably increase the non-
uniformity instead of reducing it. The reasons for this phenomenon as
well as the significance of the drooping of the characteristic as a
consequence of normal contact oscillations generated by friction [18„
19] will be discussed later. 4
Some authors [5, 7, 8, 10] believe aso-called jumpAT7 of the fric­
tion force during the transition from a standstill to sliding to be the
cause of frictional self-oscillations. This jump is capable of genera­
ting frictional self-excited oscillations with halts irrespective of the
sign of the friction-force derivative with respect to sliding speed,
i.e. even when the friction force rises with the speed. According to
this view, there is a critical speed of sliding that rises with AT, i.e»
with an increase in the duration of a halt. At the speeds higher than
the critical speed, halts disappear. The main difficulties in carrying
into practical effect recommendations based on this view stem from
the lack of dependable data on the magnitude of the friction-force
jump for different sliding conditions.
A more general understanding [10] of frictional self-excited oscilla­
tions is aided by the foregoing concepts about the significance of
complex movement of a slider as part of an elastic system which
includes constrained oscillations with a positively determined rela­
tionship between the friction force and the normal load. In accord­
ance with this understanding, a casual change in sliding conditions
(the friction force, speed, acceleration, etc.) gives rise to tangential
displacements due to deformations of the drive. These tangential
deformations, being somewhat interconnected with normal defor­
mations, produce the deformations normal to the rubbing surfaces.
That leads to a change in the friction force (or its projection on the
direction of movement) and to a further change in the tangential de­
formations of the drive's elastic system. At certain phase relation­
ships between the tangential and normal displacements (oscillations),
conditions are created for changes in the magnitude of the friction
117
force in unison with the tangential longitudinal oscillations of the
slider, i.e. the non-uniformity of its movement. Generally, there are
three kinds of constraints: the elastic or coordinate constraint; the
speed constraint, or that expressed in terms of the first derivative of
coordinate with respect to time; and the inertial constraint, expres­
sed in terms of the second derivative of coordinate with respect to
time. The coordinate constraint arises from the fact that the direc­
tion of action of the friction force does not coincide with the axes
of rigidity of the elastic system that carries and moves the slider
(including the contact interaction of the rubbing surfaces). In this
case, the friction force varies owing to an additional loading caused
by the elastic forces. Such conditions, for instance, can be found in
some types of shoe brakes, on the side surfaces of slideways in va­
rious machines, etc. Such a system with a coordinate constraint
has been treated independently in studies [21, 22, 23, 25], as appli­
cable mainly to the sliding of the end faces of inclined rods on a
plane.
According to R. T. Spurr, a rod, fixed at its upper end in an elastic
joint and inclined back from the normal at an angle approximating
arctan / (where / is the sliding friction coefficient) and producing no
tension in the joint, receives a tangential force applied to its lower
end and directed against its speed:

71 fG
- (16.5)
1 —/tane
where G = mass of the slider fixed on the lower end of the rod, and
Θ = angle of the backward deviation of the rod from the normal
(i.e. the upper end of the rod is shifted in the direction opposite that
of its sliding). As the upper end moves forward with the lower end
being stuck, angle Θ grows. With tan Θ ->- j \ v e have T ->- oo. If the
elastic joint at the rod's upper end had no freedom of vertical elastic
deflection, the whole moving system would completely wedge at this
angle. However, the joint is attached to the other, very stiff hori­
zontal rod, which now begins to deflect upwards. Force T reaches its
A

maximum at Θ = arctan -r and then changes the sign, and the rod's
lower end is forced forward by the moment of the joint recoil. The
phase of jamming changes over to the phase of »lipping when the
joint's moment changes its sign and again begins to press the rod
against its counterface. Angle Θ grows again, and the cycle repeats.
R. Gourtel considers both positive and negative deviations of a
rod from the normal at an angle of 3° and demonstrates mathemati­
cally that the lower end of the rod must oscillate and jam if the rod
is so loaded axially that, owing to interdependence between con­
tact rigidity and load, the natural frequency of its axial oscillations
is twice the natural frequency of its bending oscillations. The axial
and the bending oscillations produce resonance, the amplitude of the
118
axial oscillations grows, and the friction drops. "The Courtel front
bulge" [21], formed in front on the rod's lower end at each initial
displacement preceding its skip, serves as a brake.
Of practical importance is the action of the hydrodynamic force
of lubrication as an instance of the speed relationship between tan­
gential and normal oscillations [9, 10, 11]. Under the action of this
force which increases with sliding speed, the slider "floats up", i.e.
receives a displacement normal to the surface of friction. That re­
sults in a lower contact load and contact deformation, and hence,
in a lower friction force. This effect can explain why the friction force
falls as the sliding speed goes up, i.e. the drooping of the friction-
speed characteristic. If the speed changes in the course of longitu­
dinal oscillations, the hydrodynamic force then periodically changes,
too, and so does the friction force. However, with rapid speed varia­
tions the slider fails to float up because of its inertia and also because
it is difficult for the lubricant to penetrate into or to be forced from
a narrow space between the surface irregularities of the slider and the
slideway. Consequently, the contact friction force varies much less
during oscillations than it does during a stable movement at speeds
corresponding to the maximum and minimum speeds of the move­
ment with oscillations. This factor, which is very important for ana­
lyzing the slider's slow-down with a sharp change in its speed, as is
the case with accurate positioning in machine tools, implies that the
drooping friction-force characteristic is here a very insignificant
cause of non-uniform movement and so for practical purposes can be
left out of consideration.
The inertial constraint arises mainly in sliding movement of
objects whose centre of gravity is situated far from the surface of
sliding (high uprights, overhanging structures moving along verti­
cal ways, etc.). Any variation in sliding speed generates an inertial
force due to acceleration, and that gives rise to the wobbling of the
slider in its ways. Asa result, the contact deformation and friction
force vary and thereby bring about variations in the deformation of
the drive and in the sliding speed.
As a rule, all kinds of constraints are found in actual tribological
systems. It should be noted that, depending on design features and
frictional conditions, the coordinate constraint may result not only
in non-uniform sliding but also in wedging of the slider in its ways,
where the contact deformations and friction force rise faster than
the thrust of the slider drive, and the slider is impossible to shift.
The mechanism of a non-uniform sliding due to the described features
of a sliding system is illustrated in Fig. 16.4. In a plane perpendicu­
lar to the plane of sliding, two translatory oscillations, for instance
those along axes ξ and v, can be distinguished, which are somewhat
shifted relative to each other in time, i.e. in phase. Since oscilla­
tions take effect on different coordinate axes, the resultant motion
has a path of the relative sliding of two rubbing bodies (which is
superposed on the specified movement) in the form of a closed curve,
119
theoretically an ellipse. Motion along such a path, which is shown
in the diagram as successive positions of the frictional contact, in-
volves variations in the normal contact deformation of the rubbing
bodies. The normal contact deformation and hence the friction force
T, which is determined by it, vary in such a way that when sliding
takes place along the friction-force line of action, the contact defor-
mation is greater than it is during sliding in the opposite direction.
In the diagram the magnitudes of
1/, friction force T and load N are taken
to be proportional to the amount of
normal contact deformation. The area
!J confined within the curve depicting
variation of the friction force during
sliding represents the work of the fric-

$T~ ZTZ~;
tion force in the course of oscillations
that is expended further on generating
the oscillations. Self-excited oscilla-
tions set in, when the energy brought
in this way becomes equal to the energy
dissipated by resistance to motion
(with regard to non-linearity of the
system).

&ltbz Jrny
An.other kind of relation between the
tangential and normal oscillations
which are produced during sliding by
asperity interaction [18, 19] is de-
1820534 scribed on pp. 4-115.
A casual acceleration of sliding
Fig. 16.4. Path of :motion and increases the amplitude of contact
variation of friction force in oscillations, reduces the friction force
process of oscillations and leads to a further acceleration
_.) _!~ until the slider skips forward by iner-
tia into a position where external elastic constraints develop a recoil
which slows down the slider. The slow-down reduces the amplitude
of the normal contact oscillations, raises the friction force and,
consequently, brings about a further slow-down. In some cases such
a slow-down results in a halt, wherein the pull of the drive builds
up until the slider skips forward again.
During each skip the amplitude of normal asymmetrical contact
oscillations grows and the slider rises over the counterface. There-
fore, the self-oscillatory skips are always not merely dashes forward
but jumps along two axes. Th~s behaviour is inevitable with any
primary cause of non-uniform sliding, because the cause just dis-
cussed always combines with other possible sources of the non-uni-
formity.

120
16.4. THE ROLE OF
TANGENTIAL SELF-EXCITED
FRICTIONAL OSCILLATIONS AND
THE PROVISION OF
MOTION UNIFORMITY

The main adverse effects of the oscillations of this kind are, first,
a non-uniform movement of tool slides in their ways resulting in a
periodic micropattern on the machined surfaces and, second, errors
of positioning [10, 16].
A great variety of factors conducive to generation and damping of
self-excited oscillations and also the possibility of their simulta­
neous action make it hardly possible to offer quantitative recommen­
dations for eliminating these oscillations.
The simplest situation is found with friction without lubrication
or with boundary friction, when the rate of feed is within the region
of a sharply drooping friction-speed characteristic, which corresponds
to very slow feeds. Here, the main cause of non-uniform sliding is
exactly a fall in the friction force with an increase in sliding speed;
as we have seen, this factor is governed by normal contact oscillations
generated by friction.
Hence, two seemingly contradictory measures can be taken.
The first is to eliminate normal contact oscillations by damping
them in the normal direction. Adequately-intensive damping re­
moves self-excited oscillations, although the frictioniorce grows signi­
ficantly. This measure, however, is difficult to realize in actual
constructions.
Much simpler is the opposite measure, namely, forced oscillations
of the slider in a contact-resonance regime, when the amplitude of
the normal contact oscillations is so great that the slider "floats" at
the maximum level. This method is very effective and is simpler ta
realize. It has been successfully used in [6], where recordings of fric-
tional self-excited oscillations show their sharp disappearence at
the resonance frequency of the forced normal oscillations of the sli­
der. Tangential oscillations whose frequencies are half the frequen­
cies of the normal oscillations can also be used for the purpose in
accordance with formula (16.4).
Some other general qualitative recommendations can be given for
attaining a uniform motion [5, 10, 12]. These are as follows:
1. To increase the stiffness of the drive without giving rise to, or
strengthening, the detrimental coordinate constraint and without
reducing the damping ability.
2. To lower the friction coefficient by all available means, inclu­
ding the forced oscillation mentioned above, i.e. by using appropri­
ate materials for the rubbing surfaces (such as fluoroplastics, for
instance), lubricants with high boundary-film properties, and anti­
friction joints (rolling guideways, ballscrews, etc.); denser lubricants
121
to provide mixed-mode friction with a lower friction coefficient,
and wedge-like chamferings on sliding surfaces; etc.
3. To reduce the total friction force in complex tribological joints
with several sliding surfaces (guideways) by relieving measures (deli­
vering oil under pressure to the guides, using spring-controlled rol­
lers that take up part of the load, etc.); by eliminating misalign­
ments in the joint due to errors in design, machining, and assembly;
and by reducing excessive tightness created by gibs and wedges used
sometimes to increase the contact stiffness of movable joints.
4. To increase the damping ability of a system by rational use of
fixed joints or special damping materials and devices.
5. To eliminate or modify constraints in a system by re-orient­
ing the axes of stiffness of the elastic system and by changing the
relative magnitudes of stiffness; by bringing into coincidence as
fully as possible the vector of the resultant friction force and that of
the drive forces, and also the centres of gravity of the sliding member
and the system's stiffness centre.
6. To provide conditions which prevent seizure of the rubbing
surfaces.
Design analysis of non-uniform motion conditions that takes into
account a complex interaction of the rubbing surfaces forming a
system with many degrees of freedom is a special problem, which can
be solved approximately with the use of computer techniques [10].
In practice, use can be made of very simple calculation methods
which give approximate values of the parameters that determine
limiting conditions under which non-uniform motion takes place.
The critical speed vc, above which no jumps of the slider occur,
15, 16] is evaluated from the formula

where ψ = 4πθ = relative dissipation of energy in oscillations;

Δ/ = difference between the static and sliding friction coefficients;
k = slider drive rigidity, kgf/μηι; m = slider mass.
Given below are approximate values of the difference between
the static and sliding friction coefficients for machine-tool slide-
ways [15]:
Cast iron-cast iron ! 0.08 Cloth laminate-cast iron . . . 0.12
Steel-cast iron 0.05 Teflon-cast iron 0.04
Bronze-cast iron 0.02
The critical value of the ratio between the total friction force and
the drive stiffness at the minimum specified speed of sliding can be
evaluated by the formula suggested in [20] and recommended by
ENIMS* [13]:
(16 7)
τ<-Ηχ] ·
Experimental Machine-Tool R & D Institute, Moscow.

122
where n9 « 1 . 5 = safety factor; \ -r = parameter determined for
machine-tool slideways from the chart in Fig. 16.5.
With a known relation between the friction force and the sliding
speed for given sliding conditions, it is possible to find the critical
speed using the limiting values of \ η- .
We have not yet touched upon the question of rolling, although
in many cases a drooping speed characteristic and self-excited oscil­
lations can also be found there. However, they are easier to dispose

tr/Klum

0.1 0.2 0.304 0.60.81 2 3 4 6 810 20 30 ^mm/min

Fig. 16.5. Parameter -—as function of sliding 'speed. Surface roughness

0.32-0.63 μιη, Ra oil, H-20A

of, because a small coefficient of friction makes it possible to remove

self-oscillations by increasing the drive stiffness to a much smaller
extent than in sliding.

16.5. THE EFFECT OF

OSCILLATIONS ON
WEAR OF RUBBING SURFACES
Few studies have been conducted as yet to clarify the question of
whether or not the normal forced oscillations that lower the friction
force have any effect on wear. In one of them [14], destruction of a
sphere and a plane in contact under only a normal periodic load has
been investigated. The destruction was observed in a narrow annular
contact zone, and it could be ascribed to Reynolds' periodic slip,
which accompanies a mutual normal deformation of contact surfaces
of different curvature, rather than to normal periodic deformations.
A. V. Chichinadze et al. [1] investigated the effect of both tangen­
tial and normal oscillations on the performance of power transmis­
sions in tracked and wheeled vehicles. They found that normal oscilla­
tions with amplitudes of 5 to 50 Hz cause increased wear to the fric­
tion elements and lead to an unstable braking torque.
123
 Table 16:2

123
Coefficient of friction (/) and resistance to fretting (τ) as measured in testing instrument
oils used ior a sliding pair: sphere (steel ΙΠΧ15, 0.04-0.08 μιη Ra) against a flat
(synthetic sapphire, 0.02-0.04 μιη Ra); N = 20 gf; v = 260 Hz

Viscosity, cSt, Lubricant effect

at temperature limits
Working tempera­
Oil grade GOST, TU ture range, °G
resistance
upper lower / to fretting

MH-60 GOST 8781-71*1 —60- +150 50 000 11-12 0.106 >5000

BHHH ΗΠ-6 TU ΗΠ 5 5 - 6 4 —50-+150 5 200 3 0.112 >5000
ΜΠ-714 TU 38-1-258—69 —10-+150 — 8-14 0.120 3000
ΗΗΗΗΠ-40-60Π TU 25-07-693—73 —60-+60 17 800 20 0.126 2000
II3C-C-1 GOST 10957—74 —60-+100 5 000 7 0.140 950
1
BHHH ΗΠ-1-4ΜΟ GOST 13374—67 —60-+170 7 000* 30 0.170 200
1
OKE-122-3 GOST 18375—73* —60-+100 5 720 7.5 0.180 170
ΜΠ-605 TU 38-1-01-78—70 —60 - +200 6 500 12 0.270 39
ΗΗΗ^Π-41-60 TU 25-07-693—73 —60-+60 5 350 18 0.280 42
ΜΠ-610 TU 38-1-01-120—71 —60 - +250 3 300 57 0.290 32
ΜΠ-601 TU 38-1-259-69 —60-+150 2 500 10 0.286 35

*l At -40°C.
 Table 16.3
Coefficient of friction (/) and resistance to fretting (τ) as measured in testing instrument
greases used for a sliding pair: sphere (steel ΙΠΧ15, 0.04-0.08 μηι Ra) against a flat
(synthetic sapphire, 0.02-0.04 μηι Ra); N = 20 gf; v = 260 Hz

Viscosity, p, at Lubricant effect

temperature limits
Working tempera­
Oil grade GOST, TU ture range, °G
resistance
upper lower / to fretting

BHHH ΗΠ-223 COST 12030-66 —50- + 1 0 0 4000 2 0.115 >5000

BHHH ΗΠ-271 TU 38-1-299—69 —60-+130 3000 4 0.140 800

OKE-122-7 MPTY 38-1-230-66 —60-+80 20000 50 0.172 230

U.HATHM-201 GOST 6267-74 -50-+100 11000 50 0.158 390

IJHATHM-221 GOST 9433-60*1 — 60-+150 8000 50 0.260 120

BHHH ΗΠ-270 TU 38-1-299—69 —60 - +130 400 10 0.122 3000

BHHH ΗΠ-274 TU 38-00154—71 —80- +170 2000 9 0.290 20

BHHH ΗΠ-257 GOST 16105-70*1 —60-+150 2900*1 9 0.300 <10

*l At -40°C

123
 Most work on the influence of oscillations on wear dealt with
tangential oscillations. These questions have been treated in detail
in Ch. 15.
In practice, it is important to test miniature tribological joints
in instruments, watches, etc., for resistance to fretting. The testing
method [3] consists in that a miniature part is secured to a tuning-
fork prong and is pressed against a miniature counterpart by the
normal component of the weight. The normal load can be changed
to a minimum by changing the inclination of the entire fork-part-
counterpart complex. With the fork turning in a vertical position,
the normal load approximates zero. The coefficient of friction, whose
changes make it possible to determine the latent period of fretting,
i.e. resistance to fretting, can be calculated from a period of oscilla­
tion decay produced by the friction of the tested part during the
free oscillations of the fork as well as during its oscillations indu­
ced by an electromagnet.
The result of testing various lubricants for their effect on fret­
ting resistance τ (a latent period of fretting) are given in Table 16.2
(for instrument oils) and in Table 16.3 (for instrument greases).

REFERENCES

1. AjienceeB Γ. Φ., HHqHHaA3e A. B., EopucoB C. Γ. Tpemie H H3HOC φρπκ-

Η,ΗΟΗΗΜΧ n a p ΠΡΗ HajlOJKeHHMX BHÖpaUHHX. TeOpHH ΤρβΗΗΗ, H3HOCa H CMa3KH
1975, TanmeHT, TaniKeHTCKHÜ ΠΟΛΗΤΘΧΗ. HH-T, C. 172-173.
2. AxMaTOB A.C. MojieKyjiapHan ($H3HKa rpamiHHoro τρβΗΗΗ. M., Φπ3Ματ-
ΓΗ3, 1963, 472 c.
3. AxMaTOB A. C , MaB/uoTOBa P . , OCTPOBCKHH M. C. HccjieflOBaHne KOHTaKT-
ΗΟΓΟ B3aHMO,o;eHCTBHH MeTajiJi-MHHepajibHHx nap B VCJIOBHHX BHÔpai^HÔ: Te3HCbi
flOKjia^oB Bcec. Hayra. ΤΘΧΗΗΗ. ceMiraapa no KOHTaKTHOH HtecTKocTH B MamHHO-
ΟΤρθθΗΗΗ. TÖHJIHCH, Γρν3ΗΒΧΚΗΗ ΠΟΛΗΤΘΧΗ. HH-T, 1974, C. 4.
4. EyflaHOB B . B . , XaHßejihCMaH K). M., YcKOBa C. Γ. 0 BJIHHHHH BH6pau.Hn
Ha τρβΗΗβ B KaMHeBHx onopax CKOJIBJKCHHH.— B c6.: ^ a c w H nacoBBie Mexami3-
MBI. «TpyAM HHHHacnpoMa», ΒΜΠ. 13. M., HHHHacnpoM, 1973, c. 77-83.
5. fleparaH B . B . , Ilym B . 3 . , TOJICTOH A- M. Teopnn ΦΡΗΚΗ,ΗΟΗΗΗΧ aBTO-
KOJieÖaHHH C ΠβρΗΟβΗΗθΟΚΗΜΗ OCTaHOBKaMH. «TpyAM Π Ι BceC0K>3H0H ΚΟΗφθρθΗ-
H.HH no TpeHHK) H H3HOcy B MamnHax», T. I I . M., H3fl-Bo AH CCCP, 1960, c. 132-
152.
6. TpHropbeBa C. P . , TOJICTOH J[. M., HHHHHafl3e A. B . 0 6 ycTpaHeHHH
φρΗκμπθΗΗωχ aBTOKOJieôamiH. flAH CCCP, T. 202, JY2 1, 1972, c. 76.
7. MUIJIHHCKHH A. K)., KparejibCKHH H. B . 0 CKaïKax πρπ TpemiH. ΪΚΤΦ,
τ. XIV, ΒΒΙΠ. 4-5, 1944, c. 276-283.
8. KparejibCKHH H. B . Tpemie H H3HOC. Η3β. 2-e, nepepa6. M., «ManiHHO-
CTpoeHne», 1968, c. 480.
9. KyflHHOB B . A. rHApoAHHaMHHecKaH Teopna nojiyjKHAKOCTHoro τρβΗΗΗ.—
B c6.: Cyxoe H rpaHHHHoe τρβΗΗβ. ΦρκκηΗθΗΗΗΘ MaTepnajibi.
«Tpy^bi III BcecoK)3HOH κθΗφβρβΗΠ,ΗΗ no ΤΡΘΗΗΙΟΗ H3HOcy B MamHHax», τ. I I .
M., M3A-BO AH CCCP, 1960, c. 161-170.
10. KyflHHOB B . A . ^HHaMHKa CTaHKOB. M . , «MamHHOCTpoeHne», 1 9 6 7 ,
359 c.
11. KyßHHOB B. A. H JIHCHH,BIH H . M. OcHOBHbie φaκτopH, ΒΛΗΗΚΗΠ,ΗΘ
Ha paBHOMepnocTb ΠΘΡΘΜΘΙΠ,ΘΗΗΗ CTOJIOB H cynnopTOB CTaHKOB npn CMemaHHOM
ΤρβΗΗΗ.— «CTaHKH H HHCTpyMBHT», 1962, N° 2, C. 1-5.

126
 12. KyAHHOB B. A. upnpofla aBTOKOJieöamiH πρπ Tpemra.— Bc6.: Hccjie-
AOBaHne KOjieôaHHH MeTajiJiopejKymHX CTaHKOB npn pe3aHnn MeTajijiOB.
M., MamrH3, 1958, c. 251-273.
13. MeTOflHKa pacneTa V3JIOB MeTajiJiopeHcymnx CTaHKOB Ha njiaBHOCTb Mea-
jieHHHx nepeMemeHHH. M., 9HHMC, 1972. ABT.: KVAHHOB B. A., ΚοπκΗβΕ
H. A., BpyxHMOBHH M. H., JIoMano H. Π. 21 e.
14. ΠΗΗΘΓΗΗ C. B., OpjioB A. Β.Ή ΓνβΗβΗκο B. M. PaapymeHHe MaTepnajioB
HOA ΑβπετΒΗβΜ nyjibcnpyioineH HarpyaKH.— «MamHHOBeßeHne», 1966, N° l r
e. 76-83.
15. Ilyni B. 3 . KoHCTpynpoBamie MeTajiJiopeHcym,HX CTaHKOB. M., [«MamHHO-
CTpoeHne», 1977, 392 e.
16. Ilym B. 9. Majiue nepeMemeHHH B CTaHKax. M., Mamma, 1961, e. 124.
17. TojiCTOH fl. M., BopneoBa Γ. A. H rpnropoBa C. P . Pojih ΟΟΟΟΤΒΘΗΗΗΧ
KOHTaKTHBix KOJie6aHHH HopMajibHoro HanpaBjieHHH πρπ τρβΗΗΗ.— B c6.:
0 πρπροββ τρβΗΗΗ TBep^Hx Teji. MHHCK, «TexmiKa», 1971, c. 116.
18. TOJICTOH J[. M. H KanjiaH P . JI. K Bonpocy o pojra HopMajibHbix nepe­
MemeHHH πρκ ΒΗβπΐΗβΜ τρβΗΗΗ.— B c6.: HoBoe B τβορκπ τρβΗΗΗ. M., «HayKa»,
1966, c. 42-59.
19. TOJICTOH A· M. CoôcTBeHHhie KOJieôaHHH noji3yHa, aaBHCHHHde οτ ΚΟΗ-
TaKTHOH JKecTKOCTH H HX BJiHHHHe Ha τρβΗΗθ. ,Ο,ΑΗ CCCP, T. 153, N° 4, 1963 r
820 c.
20. ΦΗΛΗΠΟΒ ^ . B. PacieT njiaBHOCTH nepeMemeHHH y3jiOB no^an CTaHKOB.
9κοπρβοε-ΗΗφορΜαπιΗΗ. Cep. «AßTOMaTBraecKHe JIHHHH H MeTajuiopeîKynnie
CTaHKH», 1969, tâ 37.
21. Baglin R., Rongier P. et Courtel R. Sur la rigidité de contact entre
deux surfaces solides et son role dans le frottement en présence des vibrations.
C. R. Acad. Se. Paris, t. 268, 1969, 686 pp.
22. Courtel R. Sur l'observation de certains dommages périodiques causés
a surfaces par le frottement et leur interprétation. C. R. Acad. Se. Paris, t. 253,
1758 p.
23. Courtel R.Normal vibration in contact friction.—"Wear", 11, 1968, p. 77„
24. Lenkiewicz W.The sliding friction process—effect of external vibrations.—
"Wear", 13, 1969, No. 2, p . 99-108.
25. Spur R. T. Frictional Oscillations.—"Nature", vol. 169, 1961, p. 50.

127
 Chapfer 17

SELECTIVE TRANSFER

17.1. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL
MECHANISM OF SELECTIVE TRANSFER

17.1.1. Main Terms and

Definitions

Selective transfer is a kind of frictional interaction characterized

primarily by the molecular component of the friction force. It ari­
ses as a result of chemical and physico-chemical processes taking
place on the rubbing surfaces and involves the phenomena of self-
compensation for wear and those of reducing friction. The most typi­
cal phenomenon is the formation of a protective film wherein a
diffusion-vacancy mechanism of deformation is realized without
accumulating the effects typical of fatigue processes.
The systems of self-compensation for wear and of reducing friction
or, shorter, of reducing wear and friction are physico-chemical pro­
cesses or phenomena that facilitate relative displacement of rubbing
surfaces or protect them from wear or provide self-compensation for
wear.
Wear and friction reducing systems other than selective transfer,
can be exemplified by the formation of a boundary layer of adsorbed
lubricant or a run-in surface under boundary-friction conditions.
The following selective transfer systems can spontaneously arise
under selective transfer conditions:
—reduction of pressures due to selective dissolution of the surface
irregularity peaks under load and due to formation of a plastic sur­
face film (similar to a run-in layer);
—facilitation of relative displacement and reduction of wear of the
rubbing surfaces due to a diffusion-vacancy mechanism of deforma­
tion of the surface film that excludes deformation of the main ma­
terial;
—protection of the rubbing surfaces against oxidation due to a redu­
cing lubrication medium;
—collection of the dispersed metal particles by a double-layer elec­
tric field and their deposition in the contact zone, which signi­
ficantly reduces their outflow with the lubricant;
—formation on the rubbing surfaces of polymeric films from lubri­
cant decomposition products, which reduce friction and increase
wear protection [13].
128
 A definite characteristic of selective transfer in its variations is
the formation of a protective metallic film which, depending on the
initial lubricant medium, has a varying ability to reduce friction
and wear.
Different changes taking place during the initial stage of friction
determine four main variations of selective transfer: plasma-forming
lubrication, metal-plating lubrication, traverse lubrication, and ion
lubrication. Hence, the very concept of lubrication becomes trans­
formed (excepting, of course, the action of applying a lubricant) and
takes several forms different in content:
—lubricant as an initial substance before changes in the friction
zone, e.g. a plasma-forming lubricant;
—lubricant as the products of change of the initial substance, e.g.
surface-active agents resulting from chemical reactions directly on
the rubbing surfaces;
—lubricant as a protective metallic film formed on the rubbing
surfaces, which features a very low resistance to their relative dis­
placement.
Let us give definitions relating to the main variations of selective
transfer:
Plasma-forming lubricants are a group of hydrocarbon lubricants
which provide selective transfer through tribodestruction of part of
their constituents during friction in the contact zone, through chemic­
al sorption of the destruction products on the anodic components of
the alloys used in the tribological joint, and through the formation
of surface-active agents and a protective metallic film. Lubricants
of this type give rise to selective transfer only on the rubbing sur­
faces containing a film-forming material, such as bronze and
copper.
Seruovital* film is a protective metallic film in which a diffusion-
vacancy mechanism of displacement takes place in friction. It ap­
pears at the initial stage of friction when anodic components of the
surface layer of the rubbing metal or alloy undergo selective dissolv­
ing. The film is subject to the action of surface-active agents [7,
pp. 12-19; 16].
Diffusion-vacancy mechanism of displacement is a process running
when shearing occurs in the servo vital film. The film features a
high concentration of vacancies and a low density of dislocations;
for this reason the diffusive process of disruption and formation of
metallic bonds therein runs with increased intensity.
Nubial film (Latin nubium—skin) is a protective tribopolymeric
film formed from the products of tribodestruction of lubricant hydro­
carbons. Unlike the tribopolymeric films formed from special addi­
tives to mineral oils, the nubial film acts on real contact areas which
are greater by two orders of magnitude than the contact microareas

* This and other terms pertaining to the protective films described in this
chapter have been proposed by A. A. Polyakov. Tr.

9 -01156 129
 usual in boundary lubrication conditions, and, respectively, at pres­
sures which are lower by two orders of magnitude [14].
As distinct from the metal-plating lubricants below, the plasma-
forming lubricants can function under selective transfer conditions
only in tribological joints whose materials are capable of forming
protective films. Actually, however, such lubricants are fairly accept­
able for 'hybrid' conditions, i.e. for boundary friction combined
with selective transfer.
A servovital film formed from the cathodic component of the
antifriction alloy on its rubbing surface is transferred to the steel
counterface in the course of friction. The film fills the valleys of
surface irregularities on the steel surface and thereby forms an
adjoining film on it. The alloy particles are transferred in a colloid­
al or ion form. The colloidal particles provide lubrication and, as
they become discharged, they give up metallic particles and mole­
cules of the surface-active agents to the film.
The diffusion-vacancy mechanism of displacement is the most
representative, inherent only in selective transfer, process of lubri­
cation by a metallic film saturated by surfactants whose molecules
occupy its micropores, reduce its strength and so promote the outcrop
of dislocations accumulated during its deformation. This mechanism
is treated in greater detail in [16].
The formation of the nubial film has been discovered experimen­
tally. However, its role in reducing friction and wear has yet to be
studied.
To utilize selective transfer in tribological couples which do not
have film-forming materials, e.g. steel against steel, steel against
cast iron, use is made of metal-plating lubricants.
Metal-plating lubricants are a group of greases and liquids which
contain powder of a film-forming material subject to selective dissolv­
ing, or a metallic oxide, or an organometallic compound. All these
constituents undergo reducing or destruction in the zone of friction
and release metal, which forms the metal-plating film. Here, sur­
face-active agents must be either in the basic lubricant or formed
in the destruction of the organometallic compound [6, pp. 94-103;
15, pp. 59-95].
Metal-plating film is a protective film in which the diffusion-
vacancy mechanism of displacement takes place. The film is formed
at the initial stage of friction from a metal-plating lubricant con­
taining a metallic powder or metal oxide which is added to a plas­
ma-forming lubricant (activating selective dissolving [15] or re­
ducing), or it is formed by tribodestruction of organometallic com­
pounds which give up the metal. The film is under the action of
surface-active agents. ^ B^f/
The metal-plating film substantially differs from the servovital
film not only in the mode of formation, but also in quality. The
absence of selective dissolving of the surface roughness peaks has to
be compensated for by filling the surface roughness valleys with the
130
film material, which makes a difference. The surface-active agent
formed in the selective dissolving process is replaced either by the
surface-active agent contained in the lubricant or by that formed
from anions remaining after the tribodestruction or dissociation of
the organometallic compounds.
Metal-plating lubricants (e.g. based on grease ϋ,ΗΑΤΗΜ-201)
containing bronze or brass powders are used in heavily loaded assem­
blies, such as screw-and-nut mechanisms, where conventional lubri­
cants produce little effect [15].
Wear resistance of the metal-plating film varies considerably
owing to a wide diversity of its components and variations in their
properties. In an extreme case where lubrication is effected by a
medium having no surface-active agents, e.g. an aqueous solution
of sulphuric acid for chemical engineering applications or aqueous
solutions of salts used in well drilling, it can be classed as ion lub­
rication.
Ion lubrication is based on the property of metal ions formed in an
electrochemical process to be drawn into the clearance between the
rubbing surfaces and to be discharged there. The discharge produces a
protective metallic film (dividing film). Metal ions can also be obtai­
ned from a solution of the lubricant and be deposited in the contact
zone.
Dividing film is a protective metallic film formed during friction
in the contact zone as a result of the discharge of metal ions (ion
lubrication). The diffusion-vacancy mechanism is not realized there.
The film has mainly a dividing function.
The formation of ions in the course of electrochemical interaction
between a lubricant and a metal placed therein is described in [15].
The formation of a dividing film from solutions of cuprous salts is
described in [15, pp. 120-127], where the film was found to show high
effectiveness compared with instances where no such film was pre­
sent. The phenomenon in which ions from an aqueous salt solution
used as lubricant are drawn into the clearance between the rubbing
surfaces of rubber and glass is treated in reference [20].
The wear resistance of rubbing surfaces in the presence of salt
brines significantly grows if the products of destruction of plastics
or solid hydrocarbons are introduced in between the surfaces. For
instance, specially designed joints with inserts of those materials
working in sea water have substantially increased wear life [15].
The products of destruction of solid plastics in contact behave simi­
larly to those of liquid hydrocarbons, i.e. they initiate an oxidation-
reduction process and form surface-active agents, which markedly
reduces wear. The reason for this is that the relative movement of the
rubbing surfaces sets the particles in motion and so brings them in
contact, as is the case with their behaviour in a liquid. Because of
its combination with the ion or the plasma-forming lubrication types
(where there is a part made from a film-forming or metal-polymer
material), such a lubrication system is called traverse lubrication.
9* 131
 Traverse lubrication is therefore lubrication with products of plas­
tics tribodestruction (combined with the ion lubrication) or one in a
pair formed by a metal polymer and steel, or one in friction between
a film-forming material with polymer inserts and steel. This type
of lubrication involves the transfer to the contact zone of not only
charged metallic particles, but also the polymer tribodestruction
products equally charged and adsorbed on the contact.
An indispensable element of the traverse lubrication is the pre­
sence of metal particles reacting with tribodestruction products in
the polymer film being formed. It should be noted that only those
metal polymers that contain film-forming materials, such as copper
and bronze, are capable of providing the traverse lubrication.
Selective transfer by means of the traverse lubrication is used
for marine applications [6, pp. 53-58] and for applications where
metal-polymer materials contain film-forming components.
Sometimes it may be difficult to identify the type of lubrication
that involves selective transfer (which is revealed by the formation
of copper or some other film on the rubbing surface). However, the
very phenomenon of the spontaneous formation of a protective me­
tallic film that sharply reduces friction and wear is indicative of
selective transfer as such.

17.1.2. Preparatory
Physico-Chemical Processes of
Selective Transfer
These are tribodestruction of the lubricant or an additive, select­
ive dissolving, and passivation. At the initial stage, these processes
prepare transition from a disordered friction where considerable
disturbances or even scoring are likely to occur to the orderly,
stable conditions of selective transfer, where those disturbances are
excluded.
In sliding pairs bronze-steel with the use of a plasma-forming lu­
bricant, the processes preparing the surface to friction are the tribo­
destruction of the lubricant, and consequently, the selective dissolv­
ing of alloy components in a thin surface layer of bronze and the
formation of a servovital film and surface-active agents.
In steel-steel or steel-cast iron sliding pairs using a metal-
plating lubricant, the preparatory process is the release of atoms
or ions of the metal from the decomposing lubricant and their depo­
sition together with molecules of the surface-active agents in the
contact zone during friction. As they form metallic bonds, the metal
atoms leave some superfluous amount of vacancies. The ligands left
over from the complex compounds can constitute surface-active
agents. The latter can also be represented by the active components
of the lubricant, by compositions of the tribodestruction pro­
ducts, and by complex compounds themselves. For example, if the
atoms of the metal are reduced from its oxide, the surface-active
132
 agent should be contained in the basic lubricant; the same holds
for additives of a metal powder, e.g. copper and bronze. In this case
the surface-active agents facilitate its deformation and dissolving.
The sediment of the metal powder fills the irregularities of the steel
or cast-iron surface, thereby forming a metal-plating film.
In extreme cases, where lubrication is effected, for instance, by a
flow of a sulphuric-acid solution, as in chemical production processes,
the deposition of a protective metallic dividing film may occur.
Although such a film cannot withstand wear, and its coefficient of
friction is about 0.1, it readily recuperates and tangibly reduces the
wear and friction that take place when it is absent.
Tribodestruction of the lubricant. For a fluid lubricant in boundary-
friction conditions this is an adverse process because it involves
corrosion, a change in lubricant viscosity, etc.
In selective transfer conditions, the tribodestruction of the lubri­
cant provides the active parts of the desintegrated molecules which
are necessary to initiate a chain of processes leading to selective
dissolving and formation of the servovital film. For this reason it is
desirable to use, as lubricants, organic compounds with a low ener­
gy of dissociation and decomposition.
The elementary chemical processes in a low-temperature plasma
are placed into two classes: (1) the processes running with neutral
particles and (2) those running with charged and excited par­
ticles.
The first class includes the reaction of molecule dissociation, e.g.
CH 4 -> CH 3 + H. The formation of atoms and radicals leads to the
reactions of exchange RH + CH 3 -> R + CH4, of dehydrogenation
RH + H - v R -f- H 2 and to some other reactions. This promotes
the development of radical-and-chain transformations which run at
high speeds and low activation energies. The second class of reac­
tions includes the excitation H + £—>-H* + e and ionization
H + e—>-H+ + 2eof atoms by electrons; the dissociation of mole­
cules in their collisions with electrons H 2 + e-^ 2H + e; H 2 0 2 +
+ e-> 20H + e\ 0 2 + e-+ 20 + e; dehydrogenation C2H2 + e-+-
-»- C2H + H + e\ C2H4 + e->- C2H2 + H 2 + e; dissociative re­
combination AB + + e—>■ A + B + e; and recombinative ioni­
zation in the collision of three particles N + N + K + e->-
- ^ N 2 + K+ + e [8].
Such processes have often been observed in lubricants. These quick-
running intermediate processes, as well as catalytic, electrochemical
and others, result in destruction products which, as a rule, have a
reduced molecular mass.
In investigation of the selective transfer mechanism as applied
to tribological couples copper alloy-steel working in glycerine, the
surface tension of the latter at the interface with air has been found
to decrease. Hence, it has been assumed that the mechano-chemical
reactions and the dissolving of the more active components of the
133
copper alloy result in the formation of surface-active agents and
other decomposition products.
These products are mostly made up of deoxidizing agents. By
reacting with oxides, they reduce an oxide film on the surface.
The elimination of the oxide film lowers the energy of electron
emission, facilitates the running of the chemosorption processes and
the loosening of the surface layer.
As said above, organometallic compounds are formed from the
interaction of the destruction products with the impurities and alloy­
ing elements:

>i2H 0 H2H 0 0 H H2
II I // II I // \\ I II
Fe+ 2 C - C - C - ^ C - C - C C-C-C + 2H
I I I I I \ / I I
OHOHOH OHOH 0-FeO OHOH

The presence of polar and polarized substances in the gap between

the rubbing surfaces gives rise to electrokinetic processes, which is
of great importance where charged metal particles formed on dis­
persion of the surface layers get into the gap. These particles are held
there by an electric field and, as there is no oxidation of the metal,
they can once again adhere to the metal surface, thereby reducing
its wear.
Selective dissolving is a physico-chemical process running be­
tween lubricant tribodestruction products and alloy components in
a thin surface layer of the friction zone; the process is activated by
friction and pressure on the contact. This process runs spontaneously
and results in:
—formation of a metallic protective servovital film with increas­
ed concentration of vacancies, which determines the diffusion-
vacancy mechanism of its deformation; the film is formed from the
metal surface layer left after selective dissolving;
—formation of a new organometallic compound which is a sur­
face-active agent, that is, a product of reaction between the alloying
elements and destruction products; as it is adsorbed on the film,
the surface-active agent reduces the film's strength thereby reduc­
ing its resistance to shearing strain; as is known, such compounds
are used as antiwear additives to oils [12];
—reduction of contact pressure due to an increase in the real
contact area by several orders of magnitude as a result of select­
ive dissolving of the asperities being under load [15 i.
Passivation. The preparatory processes spontaneously come to
an end owing to reduced contact pressure and lower potential diffe­
rence between all galvanic pairs on the surfaces in contact, since the
latter become covered with a film, excepting the contact and gap
areas. The passivation takes place in stable friction conditions and

134
promotes the transfer of charged particles to the contact zone.
In extreme cases, where the lubricant is an aggressive medium (e.g.
solutions of acids, salts, or sea water), the same processes take place;
that, however, does not exclude corrosive action of the lubricant on
the rubbing surfaces [11, 18].

17.1.3. Physico-Chemica!
Essentials of the Wear
and Friction Reducing Systems
Boundary friction and fdry friction comprise systems which in­
volve heat dissipation and irreversible changes in the metal: oxida­
tion, dispersion, fatigue failure or failure due to structural changes.
A thin oxide film and layers of the lubricant or a mixture of oxygen
and moisture adsorbed on it are incapable of protecting the metal
surface layer from deformation, strengthening, and breaking, and
they produce considerable friction.
Although metal and chemical films artificially created on the
rubbing surfaces prolong service life of the surface layer, their ef­
fect is often inadequate. The principal drawback to such films is
lack of compensation for damage and wear, and for unbalanced
processes leading to failure.
Selective transfer involves two processes: (a) the formation of
organometallic compounds which reduce the strength of the adsor­
bent, i.e. the main metal providing the reduction of wear, and (b)
the formation of superfluous vacancies in the surface layer which
also aid in reducing its strength in deformation without breaking.
The oxidation of the lubricant and metal is used in selective
transfer for reducing wear and friction losses.
The analysis of the physico-chemical mechanism of wear reduc­
tion by selective transfer [13] and the revealing of other factors
conducive to higher wear resistance have lead to the conclusion that
wear reduction is brought about by the action of the above-men­
tioned individual wear and friction reducing systems.
Actually, various combinations of materials and lubricants can
create a variety of the wear and friction reducing systems. Accord­
ingly, their ability to reduce wear and friction will be variable.
Several of such systems can be singled out which are possible not
only in the selective transfer regime but also in the boundary-fric­
tion regime (e.g. based on electrophoresis or polymerization on the
contact). Here, the effect of these systems differs markedly from that
in the selective transfer regime.
The system of reducing the specific load. In the selective transfer
regime, upon selective dissolving of the alloying components
by tribodestruction products in a thin surface layer, a servovital
film with a self-lubricating capability is formed on the surface. The
surface-active agents developing here directly on the cathodic ele­
ment, i.e. on the material of the emerging servovital film, permeate
135
 it, reduce its bulk strength and facilitate its dispersion. The latter
leads to the formation of colloidal particles, which develop micelles
owing to the presence of surfactants, whose concentration should
exceed the critical value required for micelle formation.
Simultaneously with these processes, the servovital film is trans­
ferred onto the steel counterface, where it fills the valleys of surface
irregularities, levels out the profile and so reduces the pressure.
When the real contact areas grow up to the size of the nominal
surface and the pressure sharply drops, the dispersion and selective
dissolving will come to an end, and friction will then take effect on
the servovital film containing the surface-active agents, lubricant
and micelles.
In steel-steel and steel-cast iron tribological couples, pressure is
reduced as the metal from the lubricant is deposited on the rubbing
surfaces, filling the asperities with a metal-plating film.
If there is no surface-active agent in the lubricant or in the pro­
ducts of chemical reactions, its function can partly be performed by
the inactive hydrocarbons. If the latter are absent (for instance, in
lubrication by a sulphuric-acid solution), the formation of a pro­
tective film goes slow. The film thus formed (dividing film) may
easily oxidize, and for this reason the film formation in the stable
regime goes on without stopping. As this takes place, the specific
loads decrease but slightly.
Reduced pressures make it possible to increase the reliability of
joints and their load capacity, specifically in aircraft applications.
Here, studies have been undertaken on the range of selective trans­
fer application with regard to critical specific loads, temperature
effects, and design characteristics of tribological joints. The use
of selective transfer makes it possible to load the joints heavier with­
out increasing their mass and overall dimensions [15].
The system of compensating for surface-layer deformation effects
produced by friction and of reducing the resistance to shear. The ser­
vovital and metal-plating films have the ability to reduce the
amount of dislocations developed during friction to the level found in
an annealed material. That is sufficient to prevent fatigue and
destruction processes in the surface layer. This phenomenon is ba­
sed on the diffusion-vacancy mechanism, whose principle is as fol­
lows.
It has been found [16] that the protective film has a high concen­
tration of point defects, or vacancies. Indeed, it is known [1] that
selective dissolving of the alloying components of a copper alloy
(consisting in that atoms of the alloying elements leave their pla­
ces in the crystal lattices of solid solutions and chemical compo­
sitions) produces superfluous vacancies. In addition, vacancies de­
velop as the film is deformed and when] dislocations come to the
surface. A film 1 μπι thick has porosity, which additionally reduces
its thickness to the magnitude commensurable with the disloca­
tion stress fields. A surface-active agent which occupies the pores
136
 reduces the strength of their walls. A high mobility of dislocation»
in the film is therefore provided by the combined assistance of such
favourable factors as a high superfluous vacancy concentration, the
Rebinder adsorption effect, and the thin walls of the film pores.
At the same time, the increase of the real contact area to a va­
lue near the nominal contact area on the one hand, end the reduc­
tion of friction by about an order of magnitude on the other, give us·

27 39 51 62 74 86 38
/?, kgf/cm2
Fig. 17.1. Variation of friction coefficient Fig. 17.2. Change of friction?
with load (lubrication with oil MC-20—the coefficient with time at suddenly
upper curves, and with glycerine—the lower applied additional pressure
curves) for sliding speeds (a) boundary friction; (b) selective
O—0.6 m/s; x —1 m/s; Δ—2 m/s. The figures transfer
indicate temperatures

the reason to believe that friction runs between weakly bonded

individual particles rather than between solid surfaces. This condi­
tion of the film is difficult to investigate because it exists in the
process of friction attended by pressure, heat, and tribochemical
action, and it ends when the friction is stopped.
In friction, the servovital film differs from the boundary-lubrica­
tion film only in magnitudes of friction and wear. Fig. 17.1 shows
relationships between the friction coefficient and pressure for bound­
ary lubrication (upper curves) and for selective transfer (lower
curves). The tests were carried out in the AE-5 friction testing
machine on specimens made of bronze EpAHîMn; 10-3-1,5 rubbed
against steel 45.
Comparing the curves for oil MC-20 (boundary friction) and gly­
cerine (selective transfer), it can be seen that in the first case the in­
creased temperature and speed of rubbing cause a rise, whereas in the
second case, a fall in friction. Such a phenomenon in the selective
transfer regime indicates an improvement in the lubricity and a
decrease in the toughness of the film due to chemosorption processes,
137
-which is excluded for boundary friction. The temperature range for
lubricant operation in the selective transfer regime is markedly
widened.
A similar effect is observed in the selective transfer regime with a
sharply increased loading. Fig. 17.2 illustrates a change in the fric­
tion coefficient in time with a suddenly applied additional pres­
sure for boundary friction (Fig. 17.2a) and for selective transfer
(Fig. 17.2&). At the beginning of loading the coefficient of friction
grows in both cases, and the rubbing surfaces get heated. When the
additional load is removed, the friction with boundary lubrication
gradually decreases to the initial level. In the selective transfer
regime, the removal of loading sometimes produces a sharp fall in
friction which then gradually mounts to its initial level. This be­
haviour as well as that observed at rising temperatures has essen­
tially the same reasons, which are the change from adsorption to
chemisorption, additional dissolving, and the formation of surface-
active agents.
It has been found that the ability of the servovital film to reduce
Tvear and friction depends on the features of the copper alloy used,
namely, on the quantity and properties of alloying elements, on the
alloy composition regularity, on the number of the alloying ele­
ments with regard to the alloy solution limit, and on the properties
of the surface-active agents formed in friction.
The system of wear compensation by the use of electrical pheno­
mena for collecting and depositing the dispersed particles of metal
in the friction contact zone. Under selective transfer conditions,
'electrical phenomena may have a significant part to play in re­
ducing wear and friction.
When selective transfer changes over to a steady-state regime, a
double electrical layer is found at the interface of the servovital
film (or metal-plating film) and the lubricant.
When one or both rubbing components are dielectrics, a double
electrical layer can be generated on their surfaces by triboelectrifi-
cation. Therefore, a more or less intensive electric field is always
present in the gap between the rubbing surfaces. This field creates
electrokinetic processes which assist in reducing wear and friction
through the adsorption of the contacts of ions, colloidal particles or
cathodic metal particles present in the lubricant [5].
The process of electrophoresis compensates for the loss of the film's
dispersed particles returning them to the contact area. These are
-colloidal particles which make up the bulk of the particles in the
steady-state regime.
A very important case is the transfer of ions and larger charged
particles to the contact zone in the electrochemical process running
between the contact zone and the other surfaces (which even may
not take part in friction). This pertains to all electroconductive lu­
bricants, such as solutions of acids, salts, and hydrocarbons con­
taining electroconductive additives. This also includes the adsorp-
138
 tion of copper particles in the friction contact zone in refrigerating
machines, the particles being conveyed by a flow of freon from the
areas where corrosion dissolves the material of copper tubing.
During friction in a steady regime, the double electrical layer un­
dergoes a cyclic change in the concentration of anions and cations
in the diffusive and dense parts of the film. The process of friction
depolarizes the polarized surface layers and so promotes the surface
'dressing'. As a result, most particles get discharged, adsorbed,
-compressed under load, and turned into the metal of the servovital
film. As this takes place, the molecules of a surface-active agent ad­
sorbed by a metal particle are drawn by the latter into the film.
These molecules eventually provide porosity and elasticity of the
film, additional lubrication, and, what is the most impotrtant, ad-
sorptive action on the film. It is more than probable, tha the mole­
cules prolong the life of vacancies as they adsorb on the latter.
In the absence of organic compositions the dividing film is form­
ed which, as it wears, recovers again during the steady-state fric­
tion regime, and prevents the rubbing surfaces from direct contact.
Actually, such wear consists most likely in oxidation, because only
in this way a metal ion (an atom or a component of an oxide mole­
cule) can, on getting discharged, go out of the contact zone. If the
source of ions is some non-rubbing surface, this wear can go on
infinitely. Since the ions are solvated and the sediment generated
is loose enough, the friction force is lower than it is in friction of
steel against steel.
The diverse rubbing conditions, lubricants, and materials combi­
nations used in engineering practice influence the effectiveness of
the electrical phenomena in reducing wear and friction.
Some examples of the use of different materials under conditions
typical of the discussed system are presented in Table 17.1. The first
line of the Table gives the results of an experiment disclosing the ef­
fect of ions collected by the double electrical layer field on the coef­
ficient of friction, which was here reduced by a factor of 2. The other
lines contain data on the industrial use of the system in the selective
transfer regime, where the effect of the system is the most prominent.
It should be noted that the deposition of particles in the gap alone
is not sufficient to form the servovital film capable of deformation
without destruction, because it aslo requires organic compositions
and surface-active agents in the lubricant. Table 17.1 gives only three
instances where the lubricants contain organic compositions. In
the other cases, however, where the dividing film is formed, the lack
of organic compounds is somewhat compensated for, because the elec-
trokinetic collection system restores the film as this wears out.
When the wear resistance of a tribological joint needs to be increas­
ed, organic molecules can be delivered to the contact zone by the
transfer method or some other methods.
The system of preventing the metal from oxidation in rubbing.
The wear of the oxide film accounts for most of the metal surface
139
 Table 17.1
Application of electrical phenomena for reducing wear and friction

Material of sliding Source of ions or

pairs Fluid lubricant particles Field of application Notes, reference

Glass /rubber Aqueous solutions of Aqueous solutions of Experiments Friction reduced [20], no
salts or alkalis salts or alkalis selective transfer

Glass-}-cuprous ox­ Water+crude oil Cuprous oxide Oil wells drilling Friction reduced by 80%
ide/steel [15, pp. 120-127] [17]

Wood impregnated Glycerine + complex Complex copper com­ Textile machinery

with complex com­ compounds pounds bearings
pounds/steel

Steel/steel Aqueous solution of Copper alloy Tribological joints in [15, pp. 176-180]
sulphuric acid chemical equipment

Cutting fluids with Copper salt Metal cutting [15, pp. 19^-201]
addition of salt or
copper

Freon + oil Copper Refrigerator machines

wear in dry and boundary friction. The oxide film forms a barrier
that prevents the metals of the rubbing components from seizure.
The latter is typical of metals only; it involves the integration of
crystal lattices of the rubbing surfaces at real contact areas. In
high-load friction conditions, the rupture of oxide film and the de­
velopment of local seizure result in rapid wear. The thickening of
oxide films and increased wear rate are observed at elevated bulk
temperatures (caused by external heating and inadequate heat
removal).
In the selective transfer regime, oxidation and seizure are prevent­
ed by the dense layers of an adsorbed surface-active agent. As men­
tioned above, a surface-active agent is formed mainly at the initial
stage of friction, where the products of destruction of the alloy's
anodic components undergo selective dissolving [1, 7, pp. 6-9J.
As these layers are transferred to the cathodic surface, they block
it from the molecules of oxygen. At the same time they reduce the
strength through the adsorptive action and facilitate the dispersion
of the metal. The dispersion gives rise to colloidal particles, which
are drawn by the double electrical layer into the contact zone, where
they get discharged and join the film metal. In this way seizure turns
into a useful phenomenon, because it prevents the dissipation of
particles and replenishes the film material.
Reducing conditions on the rubbing surfaces are also provided by
the tribodestruction and oxidation of the lubricant hydrocarbons
which yield a number of reducers, including hydrogen.
The removal of the oxide film reduces the energy of electron emis­
sion and thereby facilitates the running of chemisorption processes
and the loosening of the surface layer.
With a lubricant having no organic compounds, the dividing film
during friction operates in reducing conditions and does not oxidize.
However, when the friction stops, oxidation takes its course as usual.
To protect the dividing film, use is made of lubricating inserts
which supply the film surface with organic compounds [6].
The system of forming a protective polymer film. A lubricant
containing substances that polymerize on the contact was proposed
in the 1950s [19]. The resultant film provides much higher resist­
ance to deformation and penetration than the carrier liquid does.
A number of oil-soluble additives have been proposed [9], e.g.
a mixture of methyl ether of a polybasic acid and polyamines that
gives a polyamide polymer, which effectively reduces seizure on a
Rider gear-type testing machine.
However, both the cases have the drawbacks typical of boundary
lubrication, i.e. high specific pressures due to a small real contact
area and the presence of oxide films. In addition, the oxide film on
steel is a poor catalyst of polycondensation and polymerization rea­
ctions.
Unlike boundary friction, the selective transfer regime at the be­
ginning of friction involves processes which provide favourable con-
141
ditions for a strong bond of the polymerization products with the·
metal, low pressures commensurable with the film strength and free
chemical bonds arising in the selective dissolving of the alloy com­
ponents, these bonds being available for interaction with the polymer
formed on the surface. The absence of the oxide film on the surface
also makes for this interaction. The free radicals of organic substan­
ces that are formed in the process of decomposition during friction
can form polymeric chains, which adhere by the active end to the
metal surface and thereby produce polymeric formations. These
were observed in the selective transfer regime [1, 18].
Chemical and mass spectrophotometric analyses have shown that
as a result of mechano-chemical processes at the sliding interface
between brass and steel lubricated by glycerine, the latter is oxi­
dized into aldehyde glycerine, acrolein, glyceric acid, and other pro­
ducts with the molecular weight lower than that of glycerine [7h
These products, often being unsaturated hydrocarbons, can be poly­
merized by triboactivation.

H H " H H
I i
„ n n Friction 1 1
1 1 ...-C—C
1 1 1
I
11
H C= 0 H C=0
I
1 1
1
H H

The resulting structure formed from the polymerized molecules

complements the action of the other wear and friction reducing sys­
tems. In addition, the polymeric formation, which has been found
to be in a semiliquid state [1], has a coefficient of friction which ap­
proximates that for fluid friction.
As mentioned in the foregoing, the absence of individual systems
from the whole complex of the/wear and friction reducing system leads
to losses in its effectiveness. On the other hand, selective transfer
can be utilized in some tribological joints by methods not mentioned
above, which, however, do not change the nature of the processes.
Such methods are: brass-plating, the use of bronze inserts [2, 10}
and of cemented carbide materials in a copper matrix [6]. These
methods are based on the combined action of the wear and friction
reducing systems modified by losses due to the intrinsic drawbacks,
such as the use of bronze inserts instead of solid bronze part, etc.
However, these losses are in most cases negligible and are offset
by the advantages offered by these methods.

142
17.2. UTILIZING SELECTIVE
TRANSFER IN TRIBOLOGICAL JOINTS
Practical experience makes it possible to indicate several ways of
utilizing the selective transfer phenomena:
—to develop wear-resistant bronze-steel sliding pairs, working in the-
selective transfer regime;
—to use metal-plating lubricants providing the selective transfer
regime in steel-steel sliding pairs;
—to develop wear-resistant metal-ceramic, metal-polymer, and other
materials working in the selective transfer regime;
—to develop cutting fluids providing a copper film on the cutting;
edge in the course of machining for increased tool life;
—to develop new techniques for processing rubbing surfaces, e.g.
frictional bronze- or copper-plating, for improved antiscuff proper­
ties, reduced run-in wear, and reduced fretting;
—to speed up the running-in process for sliding pairs with the ini­
tial point contact (e.g. gear mesh in globoidal reduction gears);
—to prolong the life of weak-current electric contacts [15], etc.
The use of selective transfer in tribological units involves some-
increase in the mass of the steel component, since the material of
the bronze component is transferred to it during the initial period
of friction when the bronze wears at a somewhat increased rate. How­
ever the unit as a whole hardly loses any mass.

17.2.1. High-Load Pin Joints

Pin joints in the aircraft landing gear operate in short-cycle swing-
motion conditions at frequencies of 0.5 to 10 Hz, low sliding speeds
(0.005 to 0.1 m/s), and high specific pressures (2 to 15 kgf/mm2),
with inadequate lubrication, and often with no lubrication at all
[15]. A study of selective transfer was undertaken with the use of
a special testing device (see Fig. 17.3) simulating the operation of
an aircraft landing-gear pin joint.
The experiments revealed critical pressures (pcr) and critical tem­
peratures (&cr) of the unit at which the operation of the bronze-
steel pair changes over from the selective transfer regime (zone
/ , Fig. 17.4) to the regime of intensive wear of the bronze bushing
(zone II). The rubbing surf aces were lubricated with grease IJHATHM-
201 periodically through 4 X 103 swinging cycles.
In testing within the range of pressures and temperatures defined
by zone I in Fig. 17.4 the rubbing surfaces of the bronze bushings
were found to have a surface roughness of 0.08-0.32 μπι Ra and the
loaded areas of the bushings to be coated with a thin copper film.
The steel pin was covered with copper only when cadmium-plated;
the chromium-plated pins had no copper film. At these pressures, the^
bronze-steel pair exhibited a low wear rate; here the bronze bushings
only were subject to wear, whereas the steel pins remained intact.
143
 At the pressures and temperatures within zone / / , operation of
the bronze-steel pair was characterized by a high wear rate of the
bronze bushings, by seizure, by tearing in depth of bronze and by
the smearing of bronze particles on the friction surfaces·

Fig. 17.3. Sliding components

2, 4—hinges; 2—bronze bushings; 3—steel pin; 5 - thermocouples; 0—rocking bar

As seen in Fig. 17.4, the region of selective transfer relative to

pressure is substantially limited by the bulk temperature of the unit.
/?c/,,kgf/mmz

0 40 80 120 160 200 0 40 80 120 160 200

Fig. 17.4. Critical loads and temperatures for bronze/steel sliding couples
1—bronze BpAJKH10-4-4/chromium-plated steel; 2—bronze EpA}KMulO-3-i.5/chromium-
plated steel; 3—bronze EpA}KH10-4-4/cadmium-plated steel; 4—bronze EpAJKMii
10-3-1.5/cadmium-plated steel

With the rise of the bulk temperature, the critical pressure and hen­
ce the load-carrying capacity of the joint decrease.
It was established that when the joint that had been operated for
a long time at pressures exceeding the critical value was switched
144
over to operation at pressures below the critical value, the selective
transfer regime was restored.
The experiments have shown that the pressure and temperature of
the joint also have a significant effect upon the friction coefficient.
Relationships between the friction coefficient for bronze-steel com­
binations and the parameter p/pcr (where p = pressure on the bush­
ing and Per ~ critical pressure at the respective temperature)
are shown in Fig. 17.5. The curves are constructed for steady-state

0.6 ,s - a fr-fl 0.6 A

& Δ
as 0.5 Λ

0.4 0.4 <

Γ
0.3 0.3
ihN4 SPΔ
0.2 V
0.2
ΔΔ
^
0.1 0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 £ ' 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 £-
(a) W
Fig. 17.5. Coefficient of friction as function of parameter p/pcr
(a) bronze BpA>KH10-4-4/cadmium-plated steel; (b) bronze EpA)KH10-4-4/chromium-plated
steel

wear conditions. As seen from the charts, the character of the rela­
tionship depends on the rubbing materials, on the kind of pins coa­
ting, and on the temperature regime through the critical pressure
value. As specific pressures exceed the critical value in the bronze —
cadmium plated steel combination, the friction coefficient sharply
grows, which indicates that the sliding couple changes its frictional
regime from selective transfer to one of intensive wear of the bronze
bushings. In the bronze — chrome plated steel combination this tran­
sition shows a milder change in the friction coefficient.

17.2.2. Automotive Running Gear

Prolonged service life of automotive running gear units and

parts can be achieved by the use of lubricants containing fine pow­
ders of copper, copper alloys or their oxides [15]. In the course of
friction, the oxides reduce to pure copper and coat the rubbing sur­
faces with a thin metal layer, which markedly increases their wear
resistance and antiscuff properties. Only 1 percent (by mass) of cop­
per powder added to greases YC-2 and 1-13 made it possible to ob­
tain nearly a two-fold increase of the seizure load limit.
10 — 01156 145
 Laboratory tests on friction machines with reciprocating and ro­
tary motion showed that with 5 percent of powder and over, the
selective-transfer phenomena took place as early as at the initial
stages of friction. With a powder concentration of 10 percent and
over, the copper is transferred onto the steel surfaces. The copper la­
yer thus formed remains constant and effective up to the extreme
load provided by the friction machine. An insignificant variation in
the layer thickness and the absence of tangible wear over the whole
period of testing imply that the entire plastic deformation in given
loading conditions is taken up by the copper layer 0.6 to 1.7 μιη
thick.
A series of tests with recording the bulk temperature showed that
the antiscuff properties of lubricants with added powders remained
at temperatures in excess of 150°C (the dropping point for grease 1-13
is 120°C and for grease YC-2 is 100°C). The maximum temperature
fixed for grease 1-13 with a 10 percent powder content was 186°C.
Further loading of the specimens raised the friction coefficient
to 0.2-0.3 and caused the lubricant to smoke, but no surface scor­
ing was observed. That proves that the main load in the extreme
friction conditions was taken by the copper layer, which is important
for emergency conditions.
Special tests were carried out to simulate the operation of a
truck wheel hub used in the 3HJI-130 truck. The hub with a loading
device and recording instruments was mounted on revolving drums.
The load on the wheel hub was 1125 kgf, which corresponds to the
truck's full loading capacity, with a rotational frequency of 500 rpm
and a test run of 500 hours.
Performance data, such as wear of the mating surfaces of the bear­
ing and the swivel axle spindle, the copper film thickness, the lu­
bricant viscosity and temperature, were fixed during the test run.
The metal-plating lubricants shown in Table 17.2 were tested. These
Table 17.2
Composition of metal-plating lubricants

Lubricant Filler content, Powder grit

grade Powder filler size, μπι
%

1-13 Cuprous oxide 10 15-20

yc-2 Powder of EHK-brass 15 5-10
Ü;HATHM-201 Copper powder 15 10-15

lubricants were found to reduce wear substantially. The rubbing

surfaces were covered with a thin layer of copper. The growth of the
layer lasted for 60 to 65 hours and then stopped. The copper layer
covered all loaded surfaces of the bearing: its outside and inside di­
ameters, the rollers and the tracks.
146
 Field tests of metal-plating lubricants were undertaken for three
years on 29 trucks (twelve JIA3-695E units, five JIA3-699A units,
and twelve 3HJI-130 units). To assess the effectiveness of the metal-
plating lubricants, the left-hand wheel hubs were filled with grease
1-13 and the right-hand ones with the same grease containing copper
powder. The hubs were inspected after every 12000 km of running.
The processes within the hubs were also permanently recorded with
the aid of strain gauges and recorders installed in two sample ve­
hicles run in the same conditions.
The results obtained are given in Table 17.3.
Table 17.3
Results of service tests of automobile
wheel assemblies

Right-hand wheel hubs, Left-hand wheel

Test run, km metal-plating lubricant, hubs, grease
wear, μπι 1-13, wear, μιη

2000*1 <^0.29 70
12000 <0.29 27*2
24000 <1.3 19*2
36000 <1.25 25*2
48000 <0.6 33*2
60000 <0.3 37*2

*i Running-in.
*2 Before lubricant change.

The use of the metal-plating lubricants in the wheel hubs made it

possible to establish the optimum period between lubricant changes
at 36000 km and to reduce the specific cost of these operations by
60 percent.

17.2.3. Leadscrew-and-Nut Assembly

Studies of selective transfer in a leadscrew-and-nut assembly were
conducted on experimental installations which make it possible to
simulate operating conditions similar to those in machine tools
[15]. The test specimen was a plain leadscrew-and-nut assembly hav­
ing a trapezoidal thread of 50 X 8, a thread surface finish of 1.25-
2.5 μπι Ra and accuracy within the 3rd tolerance grade.
Friction and wear in the assembly were studied using a metal-
plating lubricant, grease IJ,HATHM-201 containing copper powder.
Since the antifriction properties of a metal-plating lubricant depend
on the character of interaction between the filler (copper powder)
and the rubbing surface, the filler concentration is important for
the lubricant service properties. Fig. 17.6 shows a relationship bet­
ween the nut wear rate and the copper powder concentration in
UHATMM-201.
10* 147
 The metal-plating lubricant formed by grease 1];HATMM-201
plus 10 percent (by mass) of copper powder drastically reduces fric­
tion and wear as compared with oil H-20A and grease IJHATHM-
201 without the filler (Figs. 17.6 and 17.7). That can be attributed
to a thin film typical of selective transfer, which is formed on the
thread flanks as these come in contact. The film creates favourable
operating conditions and reduces friction by localizing deformations
within itself. The thin copper film has a lower yield point and shear
strength than the leadscrew and nut materials.
Industrial tests of the metal-plating lubricant IJHATHM-201 +
+ 10 percent copper powder were effected in the leadscrew-and-nut
f
0.25\

0.2
x
0.1
rvklX x^jjw~[
Ί x
ί I i
x 0 Y η·

0M

%Cu
1 1 Ι^Τ~Τ~ΜΜ
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 t,h
Fig. 17.6. Relation between the Fig. 17.7. Variation of friction coefficient
rate of wear of nut (bronze in time
EpOIJC5-5-5) and the concent­ leadscrew (steel 45)—nut (BpOD;C5-5-5); n=
ration of copper powder in = 60Srpm; axial load 250 kgf; x—oil H-20; m —
grease IJHATHM-201 IÜHATHM-201; O—mïATHM-201 + 10% copper

pairs of the longitudinal feed drives in horizontal and vertical mil­

ling machines, models 6M82 and 6Μ12Π. The machines were used in
mass and small-lot production under identical operating conditions
[15].
It was found that the wear life of leadscrews lubricated with the
metal-plating lubricant IJHATHM-201 + 10 percent copper was 3
times longer than that of leadscrews lubricated with oil P1-30A.
The estimated economic effect of utilizing the selective transfer
regime in the leadscrew-and-nut pair of a horizontal or vertical
milling machine amounts to no less than 160 roubles per annum for
one unit.

17.2.4. Metal-Plating Lubricants

in Production Equipment
The automated lubricating systems of production equipment can
deliver metal-plating lubricants to the rubbing surfaces [15]. Wear
and friction investigations were performed on low-power presses equip­
ped with automatic lubrication systems and on casting machines,
models 5924 and 5922, where the centralized lubrication systems
148
delivered metered quantités of lubricant to the rubbing surfaces du­
ring the opening of the mould. The lubricant under test was grease
IJHATHM-201 with 10 percent (by mass) of cuprous oxide.
In operation, measurements were taken of power consumption
and temperature in movable joints. The power consumption of the
press using the metal-plating lubricant was found to drop by 15
to 20 percent against that with conventional lubricants. The tempe­
rature varied with the power consumption.
The tests were carried out in different modes of lubrication, i.e.
the lubricant was fed by fixed quantities but at variable time inter­
vals. The tests showed that the metal-plating lubricant can be sup­
plied less frequently than conventional lubricants, which implies
its lower consumption.
Unlike operation with conventional lubricants, no scoring was ob­
served with the metal-plating lubricant.
The use of metal-plating lubricants in production equipment can
reduce lubricant consumption by 25 to 30 percent and power consump­
tion by 10 to 15 percent, and prolong service life 1.5 to 2 times.

17.2.5. Wear-Resistant Materials

for Submersible Pump Seals
Such a material is basically tungsten carbide in the form of mould­
ed grains measuring 0.18 to 0.28 mm with the addition of copper

w,
12 3

wk («)
'
(C)

i ! w W)
Fig. 17.8. Face sliding components
(a) steel blank with annular groove; (6) punch;
(c) workpiece with copper-plated groove walls: (i),
pressed tungsten carbide layer (2) and copper layer
(3); (d) sliding counterpart with wear-resistant
layer (4) on steel backing (5)

[6]. Sliding face seals utilizing this material are manufactured as fol­
lows. An annular groove of rectangular cross-section is machined on
the end face of a steel blank (Fig. 17.8a). The walls of the groove are
electroplated with a thin coating of copper. The groove is then fil­
led with a uniform layer of tungsten carbide grains which is pressed
with a punch at 3000 to 4000 kgf/cm 2 . The pressed grains are then
covered with a uniform layer of copper powder and pressed again
under the same pressure. The workpieces thus obtained (Fig. 17.8c)
are placed in a vacuum furnace, where the pressed layer is impreg­
nated with molten copper at 1150 to 1200°C. The residual pressure
inside the vacuum furnace is maintained at 10~2 to 10~3 mm Hg.

149
 The molten copper fills the voids between the grains, forming a
hard layer of tungsten carbide and copper firmly bonded to the ste­
el base (Fig. 17.8d). The workpiece then undergoes machining ope­
rations which include grinding the working face with a diamond
wheel and lapping with diamond powder or paste on a cast-iron sur­
face plate. The working layer of this new compound has a thickness
of 1 to 5 mm and over. A layer of 1.5 mm thick requires that tung­
sten carbide grains should be put into the groove in a layer 2.8 to
3 mm thick, with the groove depth being 5 mm.
The face seal thus obtained exhibits high wear resistance and good
antifriction properties. The copper content in the working layer usu­
ally comes to 11-12 percent. The material comprises carbide grains
(eutectic W2G + WC) bonded by copper layers, the eutectic struc­
ture being distinctly differentiated and mostly fine-grained, which
provides its higher strength.
The composite material offers advantages over metal-ceramic
tungsten-cobalt cemented carbides, such as grades BK-3, BK-8,
BK-15. It is less brittle and has no tendency to thermal cracking
owing to the copper bond.
Laboratory tests of the face seals used in a 119^-type submersible
electric motor for oil-field applications were carried out at a sliding
speed of 7.5 m/s (n = 3000 rpm) and a pressure of 2 kgf/cm2. Inside
the sealed chamber there was oil MG-20, and outside, saline water,
with a pressure difference of 2 kgf/cm2. The seal wear after 2000
hours of operation was found to be 0.027 mm. Similar results were
obtained in laboratory tests of the face seals in water pumps
ΓΗΟΜ100-25. The seals were tested with oil MG-20 and clayey water
separated without any pressure difference, at a sliding speed of
7.1 m/s and a pressure of 3 kgf/cm2. The average total wear of the seal
for 500 hours of operation amounted to 0.01 mm, with the coefficient
of friction being 0.082 to 0.095.
In the seals that separate oil from water, the latter, as it gets on
the sliding interface, initiates the selective transfer process.

17.2.6. A Wear-Resistant Material

for Oil Pump Seals
The material has been developed to increase the service life of
powerful oil pumps, whose downtime due to wear of sliding pairs
accounted for 40 to 50 percent of the total downtime [15]. The ma­
terial is obtained by sintering the powders of tungsten and cobalt
carbides with copper-nickel alloys. The sintering is carried out in a
hydrogen medium. The production process is similar to that used
for the seals described above.
Cobalt and nickel provide for secure bonding of tungsten carbide
grains since tungsten readily dissolves in these metals. Copper,
which is uniformly dispersed in the alloy micropores, creates pre­
requisites for selective transfer. The latter begins as water and oil
150
«orne in contact with the seal interface. The composite material was
designated TM-1.
Investigations showed that the content of tungsten carbide grains
in the material in excess of 80 percent is undesirable, because the
compound becomes harder to press and has an increased brittleness.
The TM-1 was laboratory tes­
ted. When operated in crude oil,
the combinations TM-1 against
TM-1 and TM-1 against bronze 0.12\
EpOIJC 5-5-5 exhibited a 1.5-2
times increase in load capacity 0M\
Over the sliding pair formed by
•case-hardened steel 16ΧΓΤΑ and 0.04
bronze EpOIJC 5-5-5 (Fig. 17.9).
The TM-1 against TM-1 pair can
operate in a medium with abra­ 16 p, kgf/cm2
sive particles. The sliding pair has
high hardness and good antifric­ Fig. 17.9. Coefficient of friction as
tion properties which make it function of contact pressure between
sliding components in crude oil at
possible for the seal to operate sliding speed 15 m/s
without stopping for over 9000 1—steel 16ΧΓΤ A/bronze EpOU;C5-5-5;
hours. This is four to five times 2_alloy TMl/alloy
TMl/bronze BpOI];C5-5-5
TM1; 3—alloy
longer than the wear life of the
seals utilizing bronze against graphite.
Of much interest is the sliding pair TM-1 against EpOIJC 5-5-5
when used in diesel fuel. It operates in the selective transfer regime.
A copper film is formed on both the bronze and the carbide counter-
faces, providing the lowest coefficient of friction (0.05 to 0.07)
and high load capacity.

17.2.7. A Glass-Metal Sliding

Fair
The glass coatings of casing pipes are used in oil-field applications
-as protection against paraffin sedimentation and corrosion [15].
A difficulty arising in their use is that drill collars are moved
along their surface, being pressed against the pipe walls with varia­
ble force. As a result, the glass coating is rubbed away down to the
pipe metal and completely destroyed. That brought forward the
problem of increasing the glass coatings wear life.
The maximum effect was obtained by introducing 1 to 1.35 per­
cent of cuprous oxide (Cu20) into industrial grades of glass. The rate
of wear was substantially reduced and brought to that of carbon
steel 40 for given testing conditions (Fig. 17.10). A significant
difference in the sliding surfaces of a conventional and the cuprous-
oxide filled glass was obversed. The conventional-glass surface was
found to have a great number of cracks, whereas the surface of the
glass filled with cuprous oxide proved to be smooth and crackless.
151
 The studies revealed that the wear behaviour of glass coating dif­
fers from that of glass plates made of the same grade of glass. The
reason for it is that the process of glass coating involves substantial
compressive stresses which under definite conditions cause the chan­
ge in the character of wear; a uniform abrading changes to the scaling
of glass particles from the sliding surface, which ought to be regar­
ded as its complete wear.
The addition of cuprous oxide has made it possible to substantially
shift away the region of scaling owing to reduced cracking of the

2.5
V ;

}
2.0 V Xe^eejx

150
2-f
1.5\

I
Δ

J
r.o\ 100
2
0.5\
Δ — —Δ Δ—1
—Ά 50

20 40 60 80 100 n>10~3
Double strokes 713 2026 40 60 80/7, kgf/'cm2

Fig. 17.10. Wear rate for glass coa­ Fig. 17.11. Wear of glass coatings
tings as function of the number of as function of pressure
sliding double strokes 1—glass filled with 1.5% Cu 2 0; 2—unfil­
1—unfilled glass; 2—glass filled with led glass
1.5% Cu 2 0

sliding surface. The wear of glass coatings unfilled and filled with
Cu 2 0 as a function of the nominal pressure by a steel specimen is
shown in Fig. 17.11.
In order to explain this wear decrease effect, the rubbing surfaces
of the glass coating and the steel specimen were studied after testing.
The surface of the steel specimen was found to have a thin film of
copper. This film became visible after prolonged test runs.
All that makes it possible to conclude that friction between cuprous-
oxide filled glass and metal involves the selective transfer pheno­
menon, which extends the wear life and the field of application of
the glass coatings.

17.2.8. Tribological Joints

Working in Corrosive Media
A great number of tribological joints in chemical engineering ap­
plications operate in corrosive media. The use of the selective trans­
fer phenomenon in friction in chemically-active media presents dif­
ficulties, because the thin layer of copper formed on the rubbing sur­
faces is dissolved and eventually not restored, and copper alloys

152
 (bronze, brass) do not provide corrosion resistance in most aggressive
media.
A method for depositing a layer of copper on the rubbing surfa­
ces during friction in corrosive media has been proposed in [15],
whereby the copper layer is obtained with the aid of a thermoelect-
romotive force created by placing the rubbing parts in contact with
stainless steels containing copper.
The parts under test were the rings of a face seal made of cemented
carbide, grade BK6. The rings were mounted in holders made of
stainless steel 08X18H10T
containing 0.24 percent
Cu. The tests were carried
out in a 5 percent solution
of H 2 S 0 4 and in a 10 per­
cent solution of NaOH.
These media were selected
with regard to the maxi­
mum and minimum corro­
sion resistance of the
cemented carbide BK6:
high resistance (grade 2 to
GOST 13819-68) in NaOH,
and low resistance (grade
8) in H 2 S 0 4 . The tests were
performed in a face friction 17.12. Schematic diagram lace-
machine (Fig. 17.12). friction machine
1—shaft; 2- holder of upper specimen; 3,
The testing conditions specimens; 5—holder of stationary lower specimen;
6—housing; 7—electrolyte
were: specific load 3.86
kgf/cm 2 , sliding speed
7.3 m/s, coefficient of mutual overlap Κ0Ό = i, ambient temperature
20°C, test duration 183 hours.
Analysis of the testing results showed that the linear wear of the
rings in the 10 percent solution of NaOH amounted to 0.02 mm with
slight traces of spot corrosion on the rubbing surfaces. In the 5 per­
cent solution of H 2 S 0 4 no linear wear was found. A copper film
0.04 mm thick was formed on the rubbing surfaces.
The rings were also tested in H 2 S 0 4 in rotation without contact
to exclude friction and wear; the gap between the rings was 3 mm.
After 307 hours of run the rings were found to have lost their mass
from corrosion at a rate of 1.9117 g/(m 2 h) and 2.074 g/(m 2 h), respect­
ively, or 1.1 to 1.2 mm per annum, which corresponds to wear
grade 8. No copper layer was observed on their surfaces.
The loss of mass without friction in the 5 percent solution of
H 2 S 0 4 should be fully attributed to corrosion, whereas during fric­
tion the formation of a copper film on the rubbing surfaces protects
them against wear. Friction in NaOH gives no rise to a copper film.
The copper film on the rubbing surfaces excludes wear of the pa­
rent materials of the sliding pair.

153
17.2.9. Water-Lubricated
Trîbological Joints
The utilization of selective transfer for increasing the wear life
of trîbological joints operating in water resulted in a wear-reducing
method reported in [15]. To embody the method, a new composite
material was developed, which made it pos­
sible to discard the use of greases and to design
movable joints that require no servicing.
The rubbing surface of the composite mate­
rial (Fig. 17.13) consists of metal 1 and poly­
mer 2 elements arranged in alternating order.
The metal base is made of copper alloys. The
polymer inserts are made of fluoroplastic fil­
led with graphite. During operation, the wear
Fig. 17.13. Bearing debris of the fluoroplastic inserts is transferred
with lubricating in­ by the counterface to the metal portions. Here,
serts favourable conditions are created for the select­
1 —insert; 2—metal bush­
ing ive transfer process. Selective dissolving
of the copper alloy is activated by water
and is greatly accelerated by friction. However, the copper film
formed from metal particles undergoes rapid oxidation under the
action of water, and the wear rate rises.

h'W
W

s
*A
\

^S^-i/
> * 2
(
10 JO 50 300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100 m
p, kgf/cm2 Sliding distance

Fig. 17.14. Effect of load applied Fig. 17.15. Increase in wear after cut-
to lubricating element on wear of ting off water from friction zone
inserts (1) and metal (2) I—water is delivered; II—water is cut off

The character of the process changes, if the contact zone is

supplied with substances which shift the chemical balance to reducing
processes, and that provides for a steadier selective transfer regime.
These substances are included in the insert material. The servovital
film formed during friction has a high load capacity.
The loa d capacity of this film depends on the rate of delivery of
the wear products to the contact zone, which is determined by the
ratio of the insert and metal areas. The pressure at which the wear
154
of the metal is equal to that of the insert is defined by the point of
intersection of the curves in Fig. 17.14. In water, the servovital
film builds up gradually, resulting in increased contact area and
reduced wear rate. The film can for some time retain its properties
after the delivery of water to the friction zone has been stopped, ex­
hibiting a slow rate of wear. The run of the process of wear is depict­
ed by the graph in Fig. 17.15. The tests were performed in the
ΜΦΤ-1 testing machine at a pressure of P0 = 100 kgf/cm2 and a
sliding speed of 0.05 m/s. After the water had been shut off the wear
rate remained at the same level over 300 m of sliding. Then it began
to rise and mounted up more than 10 times. With the delivery of
water resumed, the friction surfaces gradually levelled off, and the
wear decreased to the initial-rate level.

17.2.10. Cutting Tools

The wear of cutting tools in machining steel can be reduced by

creating conditions for selective transfer phenomena at the contact
of the tool and the workpiece. A thin film of copper is formed on the
tool surfaces, which exhibits a considerable compressive strength and
a low tangential shear strength [15]. Such a lubricating film can be
obtained through chemosorptive interaction between some copper-
containing substances (e.g. CuS0 4 ), a surfactant (e.g. glycerine, a
mixture of glycerine and alcohol, oleic acid, sulphanole), and the
rubbing surfaces.
If these components are delivered to the friction zone during cut­
ting, the film formed will be present on the tool over the whole pe­
riod of operation. The film reduces the coefficient of friction, the
possibility of direct contact between the cutting edge and the work-
piece, the cutting temperature and hence the tool wear.
In the case of copper sulphate as a copper-containing agent, wa­
ter is used as its carrier. The concentration of CuS0 4 in the solution
varies from 1.5 to 20 g per litre, depending on cutting conditions.
The amount of oleic acid or sulphanole in the overall volume of the
solution is 0.5 percent and 0.06 percent, respectively. An addition
of up to 60 g per litre of sodium tripolyphosphate is recommended to
prevent corrosion.

17.2.11. Frictional Plating of

Steel Surfaces by Brass,
Bronze, and Copper

The frictional plating method is used for steel parts to prevent

their seizure during running-in and to reduce their wear during nor­
mal operation. Before assembly, the parts are coated by the friction­
al method with thin layers of brass, bronze or copper [4, 10]. Se­
lective transfer can be induced in such layers.
155
 The process is carried out in two stages: preparation of the surfa­
ce and frictional plating as such.
The preparation begins with degreasing, which is done twice by
cleaning with pure benzine without any additives. The first clean­
ing consists in wiping the surface with cloth soaked in benzine
for complete removal of visible grease films, especially slushing com­
pounds. Then the surface is treated with a brush in fresh benzine
and dried.
After the cleaning, thick oxide films are removed from the sur­
face. The removal is effected by sand paper whose grain size is de­
termined by the required surface finish, bearing in mind that the

Fig. 17.16. Frictional brass-plating device

latter is not impaired by frictional plating. The best results are at­
tained when the surface is ground to a finish of from 1.25-2.5 μιη Ra
to 0.08-0.16 μιη Ra. Treating with sand paper can be done on the
workpiece loaded in a machine tool where the frictional plating
operation is to be performed immediately after.
The process is carried out in a lathe. The workpiece is held bet­
ween centres or in the chuck with the back centre, and a friction
plating device is clamped in the tool holder.
The device (Fig. 17.16) has a body 1 which is provided with a la­
teral extension for clamping in the tool holder. A piece 4 of brass,
bronze or copper bar 4 mm in diameter is passed through the bores of
bushings 3 and 6, both bores being 4.2 mm in diameter. The bar is
fixed in position by a screw 5. Spring 2 provides the necessary work­
ing pressure. In operation, the bar is moved by the carriage along
the workpiece and pressed against its surface by the spring. The work­
ing pressure (10 to 12 kgf/mm 2 ) is checked through special marks
provided on bushing 3.
The frictional plating is done with the use of glycerine, which is
applied with a brush to the surface being coated.

156
 The process was initially developed for coating carbon steels
110]. When tried on chromium-nickel steels, it failed. The coating
material was found to cover only individual areas of the surfaces
spaced far apart from each other. The reason is that glycerine is not
capable of loosening and reducing the denser and more complex oxi­
des of the main material, which contain compositions of chrome and
other alloying elements (Si, Ni, Mo, Ti).
Hence, use is now made of media containing glycerine with ad­
ditives, such as zinc chloride, ortho-phosphoric acid mixed with ani­
line, hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid.
Unlike electrodeposits, the platings produced by the friction
method are free from hydrogen, which is an advantage. They are
used as running-in coatings for aircraft landing-gear pin joints and
also for fuel-metering equipment components.

17.2.12. Globoidal Worm Gearings

Globoidal worm gearings, produced in the USSR, with the worm
made of steel 40X, heat treated to HRC 32-35, and the wormwheel
made of bronze ΒρΟΗΦ 10-1-1, operate at a sliding speed in mesh of
6 m/s and pressure of 1000 kgf/cm 2 . These conditions allow the se­
lective transfer effect to be used for self-generating the rubbing sur­
faces in the globoidal gearing [15].
With the point contact, the copper film formed is readily sque­
ezed out of the contact zone, which facilitates formation of the bear­
ing surface in mesh. This^ was the premise for testing the globoid­
al worm gearings.
The tests were carried out on a testing machine which made it pos­
sible to determine frictional losses with high accuracy (the accuracy
of measurement at the wormwheel shaft is 0.2 percent and at the worm
shaft 0.4 percent).
The worm gearing tested was a ΡΓΥ-80 reduction gear unit, with
A* = 80 mm, i** = 37, n = 1500 rpm. The worm material was
alloy steel 40X, HRC 32-35. The wormwheel was made of bronze
ΒρΟΗΦ 10-1-1, it had 37 teeth cut by a Hindley hob. The unit had
no preliminary running-in. It was filled with industrial grade gly­
cerine. In the course of testing, the following parameters were fixed
at one-hour intervals: efficiency, load M 2 , worm rotational frequen­
cy* glycerine temperature, and ambient temperature. The testing
machine was stopped each 8 hours to check the wormwheel teeth,
the contact-pattern size and the backlash. The gearing was loaded
stepwise in order to determine the maximum load capacity, using
running-in in the selective transfer regime. The results are presented
in Fig. 17.17. At a 40 kgf/m load, which amounts to 150 percent of
the rated value, the efficiency dropped and the temperature rose.

* Centre distance.
** Ratio.

157
The tests were stopped. On inspection, the contact pattern was fount!
to have spread over 70 percent of the tooth area. The axial displace­
ment of the worm did not increase, the leading flank of the worm helix
was covered with a thin layer of copper. The overloading did not af­
fect the condition and the rate of wear of the teeth. The test showed
that the gearing, working in the selective transfer regime at the ini­
tial stage, had run-in rapidly (for 40 min) and then could take heavy
loads.
Another eight reduction gear units of different makes were tested
in the selective transfer regime. In all the cases, the initial 45-min
period of running-in made it possible to achieve efficiency that sur­
passed the rated values, which are usually obtained in 80 to 100 ho­
urs of operation. It was found that the selective transfer phenomena
A/^kgf-m

40 .[ M2
30 : r-*~
20

r^:
Efficiency
0.06 \ Hf\
0.05\ 0.8 ^^Ks\
0.04\ 0.7\
0.0J\ 0.6
0.02\ £A°C| υ
0M1\ 50
0λ40
JO ϊ
\ 0 10 20 JO t,\\

Fig. 17.17. Testing a reduction gear [unit [lubricated with glycerine. Test
results chart

had begun after 2 to 3 min of loading and reached a steady condi­

tion in 10 to 15 min; the main rise of efficiency took place in this
period. The contact pattern area spread over 35 to 40 percent of the
tooth surface, the wear came to from 0.02 to 0.03 mm.
After the gear unit run in with glycerine had been changed over to
operation with cylinder oil, the copper film disappeared in 25 to
30 min of run; the efficiency dropped by 8 percent, and the contact
pattern ceased growing. These tests have signified that the opti­
mal contact conditions in the gear pair are achieved rather rapidly
in the initial period of operation with selective transfer. These condi­
tions provide for reliable operation of the gearing with high efficien­
cy and load-carrying capacity.
In all, 80 reduction gear units were run in under selective transfer
conditions, and not a single one developed scoring, although in some
of them the initial pressure was as high as 1500 kgf/cm2.
The rapid running-in of the worm and worm wheel can be accounted
for by the fact that the copper film is easily forced from the contact
158
zone under the contact load; in addition, part of the film is transfer­
red to the worm through plastisizing action of the surface-active-
agents.

REFERENCES

1. TapKyHOB fl. H . , KparejiBCKnii H. B . , ΠΟΛΗΚΟΒ A. A. HsOHpaTejibHtin

nepeHOc B y3jiax τρβΗΗΗ. M., «TpaHcnopT», 1969.
2. TapKyHOB fl. H . , KpacnKOB G. Γ. OneHKa αΗΤΗφρπκΗ,ΗθΗΗΜχ CBOHCTB-
MaTepnajiOB B TPOHHOM coneTaHHH.— B c6.: MeTOflbi HcnbiTaHHH H ou,eHKa cjiy-
HieÖHBix CBOHCTB MaTepnajioB ΠΟΑΠΙΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ ΟΚΟΠΒ5ΚΘΗΗΗ. M., «HayKa», 1972 r
c 10-13.
3. TapKyHOB R. H . , IIOJIHKOB A . A . ΠΟΒΗΙΠΘΗΗΘ H3HOCOCTOHKOCTH fleTajien
KOHCTpyKH,HH caMOjieTOB. Ü3A. 2-e. M . , «MainHHOCTpoeHHe», 1974.
4. TapKyHOB fl. H., CHHTKOBCKHH M. M., GOJIOMKO B . A. 0 ΠΡΗΜΘΗΘΗΗΗ
H36HpaTejiBHoro nepeHOca B y3jiax τρβΗΗΗ B CVAOBHX MexaHH3Max. M., UjEHTH
MHHMopφJIOτa CCCP, 1975.
5. ÄVXHH G. G., fleparHH B . B . 3Λθκτροφορβ3. M., «HayKa», 1976.
6. MsonpaTejibHWH nepeHOc npn τρβΗΗΗ H ero aKOHOMHHecKan 3φφθκτκΒΗ00ΤΒ.
(CöopHHK CTaTen). M., Μ Α Η Τ Π HM. fl3ep>KHHCKOro, 1972, c. 22-28, 53-58,.
91-103, 183-188, 209-212, 229-232. A B T . : K. Π. BOJIKOB, R. H . TapKyHOB, C. C.
ΓρΗ,Π,ΘΗΟΚ H flp.
7. MsOHpaTejibHwii nepeHOc πρπ τρβΗΗΗ. M., «HayKa», 1975, c. 6-9, 12-24.
ABT.: A. A. ÜOJIHKOB, JI. M. PtiöaKOBa, K). G. GniviaKOB H ,π,ρ.
8. KoKypHH A. fl. XHMHH njia3Mbi. JI. «3HaHHe», 1948.
9. Jleoe^eBCKan B . Γ., EpoflCKHH E . C., 3acjiaBCKHH P . H . CocTae H CTpyK-
Typa nojiHMepoB τρβΗΗΗ.— «XHMHH H ΤΘΧΗΟΛΟΓΗΗ ΤΟΠΛΗΒ H Maceji», 1976,
JVo 4, c. 53-57.
10. JI030BCKHH B . H . Φρπκπ,ΗθΗΗθθ jiaTyHHpoBaHHe CTajibHbix fleTajien^
IlepefliOBOH HayHHO-TexHHHecKHH ΟΠΒΙΤ. M . , I Î H T 3 H H , 1 9 6 1 .
11. MejibHHHeHKO H. M., ΠΟΛΗΚΟΒ A. A. HccjieflOBaHHe 3jieKTpoHHoro ποτβΗ-
ijnajia MeflHO-HHHKOBoro cnjiaea B 3aBHCHMOCTH OT ero φa30BOΓO cocTaßa H CTpyK-
Typu.— B c 6 . : ΠροΟΛβΜΗ τρβΗΗΗ H H3HainHBaHHH, N° 8, ΚΗΘΒ, «TexmKa»,
c. 69-74.
12. OjIOBOOpraHHHeCKHe ΠρθΗ3ΒΟ,Π;ΗΕΙΘ a j I K H J ^ e H O J I O B — npOTHBOH3HOCHbie
npnca^KH κ CMa30HHbiM MacjiaM.— «XHMHH H ΤΘΧΗΟΛΟΓΗΗ TOHJIHB H Maceji»,.
1977, N° 4, c. 54-57. ABT.: B . JI. Jlainxn, 0 . H . IJßeTKOB, Φ . H . EpMOJiOB H AP·
13. IIOJIHKOB A. A . , TapKyHOB ,□,. H . , KparejibCKHH H. B . ΦΠ3ΗΚΟ-ΧΗΜΗ-
necKan MexaHHKa noßaBJieHHH H3HOca B ΗΒΛΘΗΗΗ H36HpaTejibHoro nepeHOca.
ß A H CCCP, 1970, T. 191, Jtè 4, c. 821-823.
14. ΠθΛΗΚθΒ A. A . , TapKyHOB J\. H . , KparejibCKHH H. B . ΠΡΟΗΒΛΘΗΗΘ-
θφφβκτα 6e3H3H0CTH0CTH B ycjiOBHHx Η3βπραΤθΛΒΗ0Γ0 nepeHOca.— B c 6 . :
H36HpaTejibHHH nepeHOc B y3Jiax TpemiH. M., Μ,ϋ,ΗΤΠ HM. .D^epjKHHCKoro,
1971, c. 4-8.
15. ΠθΒΕΐπΐθΗΗθ H3H0C0CT0ÊK0CTH Ha ocHOBe H36HpaTejibHOro nepeHOca.
Πο# pe^. A- H . TapKyHOBa. M., «MamHHOCTpoeHHe», 1977.
16. PbiöaKOBa JI. M., KyKceHOBa JI. H. 0 6 Η3ΜβΗβΗΗΗ nepHOßa KpncTajuiH-
necKOH pemeTKH B npHnoBepxHOCTHbix CJIOHX MeflH H jiaTyHH npn Tpernin.—
ΦΜΜ, T. 39, ΒΗΠ. 2, 1975, e. 362-366.
17. TpeHHe H H3HOC MaTepnajioB Ha ocHOBe nojiHMepoB. MHHCK, «HayKa
H TexHHKa», 1976, 431 e. A B T . : B . A . EejibiH, A . H . CeHpHfleHOK, M. H. Πβτρο-
KOBeu; H ,π;Ρ·
18. 3jieKTpoxHMH^ecKHe npon,eccbi πρπ τρβΗΗΗ H Hcnojib30BaHHe HX B 6opb6e
c H3HOCOM. Te3HCbi flOKjiaflOB. M., H3A-BO BCHTO, 1973, c. 136-137, 159-161,
122-124, A B T . : B . ,Π,. BopoHKOB, B . H. Jleôe^eB, H. M. ΜΘΛΒΗΗΗΘΗΚΟ H ,n;p.
19. Furey M. J., The formation of polymeric films directly on rubbing sur­
faces t o reduce wear, "Wear", v o l . 2 6 , 1973, p . 369-392.
20. Mortimer T. P . , Ludema K. C. Rubber friction in aqueous solutions.
"Wear", v o l . 28, N o . 2, 1974, p . 197-206.

159
 Chapter 18

THEORY OF
ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC
LUBRICATION

The elastohydrodynamic lubrication theory gives an explanation

of the phenomena that occur in the contact area of two elastic solids
separated by a liquid film. Formulas relating to this theory make
it possible to determine the thickness of the lubricating film, frac­
tional stresses, and temperature for heavily loaded contacts at pres­
sures > 3 X 10 3 kgf/cm 2 . The film thickness has effect on the perform­
ance of tribological components in the elastohydrodynamic ope­
rating conditions, that is at h > Ra. The frictional stress τ determi­
nes the energy losses in a contact, and the performance of the lubri­
cant depends essentially on its temperature θ. The main elastohy­
drodynamic parameters are necessary for the calculation of dynamics,
stiffness, temperature fields, and stress conditions in complex elas­
tohydrodynamic systems, such as, for instance, rolling bearings.
The theory of elastohydrodynamic lubrication is applicable to
rolling and sliding bearings, mechanical transmissions, metalfor-
ming lubrication, and biomechanics. It offers methods for calcula­
tion of parameters for parts in lubricated contact and recommenda­
tions on the choice of their geometry, materials, and operating con­
ditions.

18.1. PHYSICAL PHENOMENA IN

ELASTOHYDRODYNAMIC CONTACT
The coordinate system is referred to the point or line of contact.
The axes x and y lie in a plane tangent to the bodies in contact, and
the axis z is directed normally to them. The lubricant adheres to the
rubbing surfaces and is drawn into the clearance between the bodies
because of their rolling and (or) sliding motion. A high contact pres­
sure deforms the bodies, enlarges the area of the small clearance,
and makes it almost planoparallel; the viscosity of the lubricant
grows by several orders of magnitude. The clearance becomes smal­
ler near the boundary of the elastohydrodynamic contact, and the
highly viscous lubricant escapes with great difficulty out of the nar-

16)
row clearance, which is nearly closed on all sides except that from
which the lubricant is supplied. An elastohydrodynamic lubricant
film of about 0.1 to 10 μπι is formed. Fig. 18.1 depicts clearance level
lines 1 in a typical contact. The arrows 2 indicate the lubricant flow.
The shape of the clearance, the distribution of pressure and the
thickness of the film can be determined experimentally [10] by
numerically solving the appropriate equations of elastohydrodyna-
mics [2, 8, 11], or by using approximate semi-asymptotic methods

Fig. 18.1. Elasto- Fig. 18.2. Distribution of pressure in contact of two

hydrodynamic con- cylinders
tact

14]. Fig. 18.2 shows a typical distribution of pressure p (x) in a con­

tact of two cylinders [2, 8, 11]. Here h (x) is the film thickness, vx
and v2 are the velocities of the surfaces, q is the load per cylinder unit
length: the dash line designates the Hertzian distribution of pres­
sure.
Large pressure gradients and sliding in the contact cause the lu­
bricant to work at high speeds of displacement. The heat generation
due to displacement raises the temperature of lubricant by tens and
even hundreds of degrees and increases the temperature of the bodies
near the contact area. The temperature field in this area, which is
variable both through the depth and across the plane of the film,
can be determined by solving the system of two equations: one for
the motion and energy of the lubricant, and the other for the ther­
mal conductivity of the bodies. Fast motion of the lubricant (about
10~ 5 s) is similar to explosion phenomena.
High pressures and displacement speeds (about 10 7 1/s) result in
a very complex behaviour of lubricant: they cause, in particular,
non-linear viscous properties and relaxation effects to show up.
W i t h an increased loading and temperature or lower rolling veloci­
ties, the surface roughness becomes a factor that markedly affects
the frictional and thermal conditions in the contact area. In the re­
gion of the contacting surface asperities, the film thickness becomes

11-01156 161
 Table 18.2
Variation of viscosity and piezo-coefficient
of different oils with temperature

Viscosity η·103 kgf s/m2 (upper line) and piezo-coefficient

a 108 m2/kgf (lower line) at temperature °C
Type of oil

50 60 80 100 120 140 150

MC-20 11.4 7.60 3.40 1.84 1.05 0.70 0.57

22.3 20.7 17.6 14.5 11.3 8.3 6.8

75% MC-20 + 25% 5.84 4.00 1.91 1.08 0.67 0.47 0.39
transformer oil 20.6 19.2 16.5 13.7 10.9 8.2 6.8

50% MC-20+ 25% 2.85 2.06 1.05 0.64 0.41 0.30 0.26
transformer oil 19.2 18.0 15.4 13.0 10.5 8.1 6.8

25% MC-20+75% 1.46 1.08 0.60 0.39 0.27 0.21 0.19

transformer oil 17.6 16.5 14.4 12.3 10.2 8.0 ! 6.9

Spindle oil 2 1.16 0.86 0.47 0.31 0.22 0.17 0.16

12.8 12.3 11.4 10.5 9.5 8.7 8.2

MK-8 0.74 0.55 0.30 0.20 0.16 0.13 0.12

15.9 15.0 13.2 11.4 9.6 7.8 6.9

Transformer oil 0.74 0.55 0.32 0.22 0.16 0.14 0.13

15.9 15.0 13.2 11.4 9.6 7.8 6.9

MH 7.5 0.310 0.214 1.14 0.70 0.49 0.36 0.32

12.8 12.3 11.1 10.1 9.0 7.9 7.4

BHHH ΗΠ-7 2.24 1.69 1.01 0.64 0.46 0.34 0.34

12.3 12.0 11.2 10.5 9.9 9.2 8.8

B-38 2.32 1.63 0.83 0.52 0.35 0.26 0.22

8.4 8.3 8.3 8.2 8.1 8.1 8.1

JIHM3-36/1-K 1.01 0.74 0.43 0.29 0.22 0.17 0.15

9.4 9.1 8.4 7.7 7.1 6.4 6.1

50-1-4Φ 0.68 0.55 0.38 1 0.28 0.21 0.16 0.15

0.92 9.1 8.4 7.8 7.3 6.8 6.5

162
very small and variable. With local film thicknesses of the order of
10" 8 m [7], transition to boundary friction is possible. As a rule, the
elastohydrodynamic frictional conditions are effective at h Ä Ra.

18.2. LUBRICANT FILM THICKNESS

The average thickness h of the lubricant film occurring in a con­
tact of two cylinders is given by the formula [8, 4]

£ = l.e5(-C.)'-" ( * ) - · " (18.1)

where R = RiR2/(R1 dz R2) = effective radius; R1 and R2 = radii
of the cylinders, R1 > R2; the sign "plus" is taken for external, and
the sign "minus" for internal contact; η and a = dynamic viscosity
and piezo-coefficient of the base oil contained in the lubricant, res­
pectively, at the inlet temperature (Table 18.1); p0 = maximum
contact pressure according to Hertz: E' = £7(1 — μ 2 ); ν = (v± +
+ v2)/2, where νλ and v2 = cylinder-surface velocities in the coordinate
system referred to the cylinder axes (see Fig. 18.2).
The film thickness in an elliptical contact is found by the formula

^ - = (l. 8 2 -0.68x,(ÄL)"'5(A)-»- (Ì8.2)

where Rx = RlxR2x/(Rlx ± R2X)', Rix and R2X = curvature radii

of the surfaces in the plane passing through the direction of rolling
or sliding motion (axis x) and a normal common to both surfaces
(axis z); Rlx > R2X, χ = RJRy; Ry = RlyR2y/(Rly ± R2y); Rly
and R2y = curvature radii of the surfaces in the section yz (see
Fig. 18.1); Rly > R2y; 0 < χ < 1; v = (v± + v2)/2; vx and v2 =
surface velocities in the direction x. The results of the calculation
by formula (18.2) are in good agreement with numerical solution of
the elastohydrodynamic equations obtained so far only for one set of
parameters. Comparison between the results obtained by the calcu­
lation with formula (18.2) and those obtained experimentally [1]
is given in Table 18.2. In [1], E = 9.8 X IO9 kgf/m 2 ; the comparison
is made for v = 0.5 m/s. Subcripts 0, 1, and 2 refer to the
experiment, formula (18.2), and the Archard formula, respectively.
In the design calculation of lubricated tribological units, the film
thickness can in some cases be used as an approximate criterion of
performance. The larger the thickness h, the higher the contact fa­
tigue life and lower the wear, lubricant temperature, and energy los­
ses. Larger values of h can be achieved by increasing η and a through
the choice of an appropriate lubricant or improvement in cooling
conditions, by increasing the rolling speed, dimensions and rigidity
of the mating parts, and by reducing the contact pressure.
At high rolling velocities y, the values derived from the formulas
(18.1) and (18.2) should be multiplied by the coefficient φ =

11* 163
 Table 18.2
Comparison of calculated results with experimental data

J3
2X
mm
p
2J/'
mm
P,
kgf
η
kgf s/m2 '(ΐ).»· (ΐ),"* W'"
2.6 oo 3.08 2.75 2.58
3.2 oo 0.49 0.056 2.60 2.43 2.26

2.6 oo 0.98 0.057 2.96 2.62 2.58

3.2 oo 0.056 2.50 2.28 2.16

2.6 oo 2.94 2.65 2.40 2.32

3.2 oo 0.057 2.34 2.13 2.02

2.6 oo 2.50 2.30 2.23

3.2 oo 2.19 2.04 1.96

2.6 4.37 1 4.9 0.053 1 3.27 3.02 2.56

3.2 4.37 0.057 2.81 3.14 2.54

Note. Coefficient a = 2 . 5 8 x 1 0 ? m2/kgf

= 3.94/(3.94 + ψ 0 · 62 ), where ψ = ηδι;2/Α: (k = lubricant's ther­

mal conductivity; δ = temperature coefficient of viscosity [3]).
With insufficient lubrication, the film thickness in a contact of two
cylinders can be estimated by the formula
1 / 3
^ = 6 . 6 e 5/6(Ä) ^L (18.3)
which holds true if ε <c (ηαινΤ?)1/2 (ρ0ΑΕ")~3/2, where ε = distance
from the meniscus boundary to the Hertzian region.

18.3. FRICTION AL STRESSES,

HEAT FLOW, AND TEMPERATURE
Let the viscosity of oil, η, depend on pressure p and tempera­
ture d in accordance with the formula
η = η 0 exp [ap/(l + βρ) - δ* (O - * 0 )]
where
δ* = δ + γρ/(1 + βρ) or η = η 0 exp [αρ/(1 + βρ)!
X [1 + δ (0 - θο)]" 1
Then, regarding the lubricant as a non-linear Maxwellian fluid
with a high-frequency shear modulus G, we can obtain equations for

164
frictional stress
τ v2 — νΛ arsinh Λ
1_(T/G)· -V—h ΑγΤ+Αϊ (18·4)
where
A = {A?[l-(x/G)2, + s i n h 2 [ Ì l ^ ^ - ] } 1 / 2
here Λ 0 = (ηό^/δά) 1 / 2 | v2 — v1 | ; Ό^ and Φ2 = surface tempera­
tures: # = («! + θ 2 )/2; G = IO6 to IO7 kgf/m 2 , and
y2—-Pi arctan Λ0 /ylo r\
:T
1 — (τ/G) 2
'i - VΛ^ Äö
Λ° (18·5)
where
Λ° = Λ*[1 - (T/G) 2 ] 1 /*

Λ* _ \v*-vi 1 f η 0 οθχρ[αρ/(1 + βρ)] I 1 / 2

2[1 + δ ( Φ - Φ 0 ) ] \ fc /
Example 1. Calculate τ with the equation (18.4) for8 a sphere 2
with a radius
of 15.9 mm in contact with a plane. Assume p0= I0 kgf/m ; v1 == 1.4 m/s;
v2 = 0; ft0 = 50°C; θχ = 75°C; Ga = 115°G; Ελ = 2 X IO10 kgf/m2; E2 = oo;
μ = 0.3; the lubricant consists of 50 percent MC-20 and 50 percent transfor­
mer oil; inlet temperature ϋ = 30°C; 3
G = 4 2X IO6 kgf/m2; h2= 0.013 kgf/(s°C).
From Table 18.1 η 0 = 2.85 X IO" kgf s/m ; Ô = 3 X IO" 1/°C; β = 0; α =
= 1.92 X IO- 77 m2/kgf; γ = 1.24 X IO"» m2/(kgf °C). From the formula (2)
A « 2.8 X 10~ m. The equation (4) is solved by the trial method, rendering
T « 3 . 9 X 106 kgf/m2. The coefficient of friction at the centre of the contact
area / « 0.04.
Semi-empirical formulas for the mean coefficient of friction are
obtained in [5]. In operation a t high rolling speeds, the effect of
tangential stresses on the kinematics of the contact needs to be con­
sidered [13]. If slipping occurs over the whole contact area, the lo­
cal sliding is determined by the formula
s = s0 (1 + κξ) (18.6)
where s0 = sliding without regard to tangential deformations;
ξ = xla (a = half-axis of t h e contact ellipse); κ = 2fp0 [B —
— μ (D — C)]/s0G0; G0 = shearing modulus for the material of the
rubbing components; B = D — e2C\ 2D = K + e2C; E = (2 —
— e2) D — e2C; K and E = elliptic integrals of the first and the
second kind; e = eccentricity of ellipse. For cylinders κ =
= 4/p0/*oir<i.
Local heat flows are determined by the expressions
ì ò
__τ(ι>8—Pi) Γ4 _L_
«,. = — ^ [ l ± ^ T S i n„;»u
h ^ |*(®
= M j (18.7)
where
Λ; = Λ 0 [i - (T/G)2]1/2
For maximum temperature in the lubricant film, the following ap­
proximate formula is valid
2
* n„-Êl±Èl
'max ■ + -L
Ô*
l n rcosh—*-|
ln| c o e h £ i * ^^ ++ΛA:'-l- ^ - 8 ΐ'η 1 ι 2 — * - | *-'J
0 + --Λ

(18.8)

165
18.4. SERVICE LIFE OF
ROLLER BEARINGS
The ratio of the lubricant film thickness to the mean surface rough­
ness, called parameter λ, can serve as a criterion for the assessment of
service life of high-speed roller bearings [9]. With λ > 1, the actual
bearing life normally exceeds the rated life [12] because a compara­
tively thick film reduces tangential stresses in the contact. The pa­
rameter λ = hl\/ R2^ + R2a2', here h is computed by formulas
(18.1) and (18.2).
The parameter λ for the most heavily loaded roller in a cylindri­
cal roller bearing should be found by the formula

11.3s [T)0att(l + 2s)] 0.73

2 _0.18.0.73 (18.9)
1 + * YR*ai + R a2 ^0 s

where s = dr/dlì dr = roller diameter, m; dx = raceway diameter

for the inner ring, m; η 0 = lubricant viscosity at the inlet tempera­
ture, kgf s/m2; n = rotational frequency of the inner ring, 1/s; p0 =
= 5.67 X 104 [Fr (1 + s)/lZd1s]1/2 kgf/m 2 ; here Fr = radial load

1
1 _

/ 1A 2 2.6 J λ
Fig. 18.3. Effect of parameter λ on service life of rolling bearings

on the bearing; I = effective length of the roller (the length of its

line of contact with the raceway); Z = number of rollers. After
finding λ by the formula (9), the graph in Fig. 18.3 should be used,
where a is the ratio of the bearing life V that takes into account the
effect of lubricant on the bearing life L. The graph is obtained from
the results of the work [9] and experiments conducted at the Bear­
ing Research Institute.
Example 2. Estimate the service life of a 6-32208 RT2 bearing with dr —
= IO"2 m; dx = 5 X 10" 2 m; I = 7.8 X 10~3 m; Z = 14; Rax = Ra2 = 1.6 X
X IO"7 m, running at n = 83.3 1/s; Fr = 1070 kgf; # = 65.5°C; the lubricant
composition is 50 percent MG-20 and 50 percent transformer oil; the inner race
is rotated.
From Table 18.1 we find η 0 and a by interpolation: η = 1.78 X IO - 3 kgf s/m2;
α = 1.59 X IO -7 m2/kgf. Now, we determine s; compute p 0 , γRa\ -j- Ra\, and
166
λ. The values found will be: s = 0.2; p0 = 1.96 X 108 kgf/m2; γRa\ + Ra\ =
= 2.6 X 10-? m; λ = 1.92.
By the graph in Fig. 18.3 we determine a, it will be 2.2. The bearing life
L = 4.26 X 107 revolutions, and U = 9.4 X 107 revolutions.

18.5. DESIGN CALCULATION

OF BALL BEARINGS
The thickness of oil film for a ball in contact with the raceways
can be estimated by using formula (18.2) and the values of Rx, v,
and p0 appropriate for the given type of bearing. With precision
bearings, however, reliable values of h and, in addition, the kinematic

Fig. 18.4. Design diagram for ball bearing

and load characteristics of the bearing need to be obtained.

A considerable axial preload is typical of high-precision bearings.
In this case (Fig. 18.4), the equations have the form [3]
Çxcos ax — Fxl sin a t — Q2 cos a2 + Fx2 s^n a 2 — Pc = 0
Q1 sin a x + Fx2 cos ax — Q2 sin a 2 — Fx2 cos a 2 = 0
F
1
yi - y2 = F'c
M Mgy=0
Mxl + Mx2 + Mlh cos αλ + M2k cos a 2 = 0
M z l + Mz2 — Mgz + Mlh sin ax + M2k sin a2 = 0 } (18.10)
Q2 sin a 2 + Fx2 cos a 2 — jFa/Z = 0
(R1 — 0.5Z) + δ1- hx) cos a x + (R2 — 0.5i) + δ 2
— h2) cos a 2 = (R1 + R2 — D) cos a 0 ]
(Ä! - 0.5Ö + Ô! — K) sin a i + (Ä2 — 0.5D + δ2
— h2) sin a 2 = δ^ + (R1 + JR2 — D) sin a 0

167
m = 1, 2; subscript 1 relates to the outer race, and subscript 2 to
the inner race; am = contact angles; Fa = axial load; Z = num­
ber of balls; Rm = raceway radius; D = ball diameter; 6 m = ela­
stic approach between ball and raceway; a0 = initial angle of con­
tact; δχ = axial displacement of the inner race.
All the quantitiesin the equations (18.10) are functions of unknown
variables a m , 6 m , δ^, ω^, ων, ω 2 and coc, where ωχι ων and ω ζ =
= components of the ball's angular velocity in a coordinate system
rotating together with the ball centre; coc = angular velocity of the
cage.
Qm = Kmôm3/*; Km = (ΕΊ3χ\ί*) (2/rc6m)3/2;

Ryin = 2[D (1 + cmy cos a m ) ] " 1 ; y = D/d;

d = d0 — 2 (R1 — 0.5D) cos a0 + 2X2;
c o s a i = X2{X\- XI)-1'2;
cos a2 = [(i?i + R2 — D) cos a 0 — X2]/(R2 — 0.5D + δ 2 — Λ8);

^! = 1; c 2 = — 1; Rxm and i ? v m are substituted into formula

(18.2) for Rx and Ry; 0.5d0 = 0.5D2 + R2 — (R2 — 0.5D) cos a 0 ,
where D2 = inner raceway diameter; nòm = K (em) {(4/π2) [1 +
+ (RxrnlRyrn)}^-1 (em)}^ RymlRxm = (1 - 40 5 W / [ % ) -
— D (em)]; K (em) and D (em) = elliptical integrals of the first and
the second type; pom = 3QJ2nambm\ am = rj m (SQJJE'nm)1'*;
,
bm = μ^ (3(? m /£ x m )V3; η m = J ( 2 / n ) [ l + {RxmIRym)\ D(em]?/*i
μπι = {(2/π) [1 + (RyJRxm)] IK (em) - D (em)i (1 - 4 0 1 / 2 } 1 / 3 ;
wm = (D/A) {com [(l/γ) + c m cos am] + ωχ cos am + ω ζ sin a m
with the rotating inner race ω1 = — coc; ω 2 = Ω — œ c ;
Ω = angular velocity of the inner race; (vxm + yj m ) 1/2 should
be inserted into formula (18.4) in place of v2 — vx;
vxm = tosml/m + ω y r m ; vym =— co s m x m + ωπι (d/2 + cmrm cos am) —
— (ω χ cos am + coz sin a m ) r m ; ωsm = ω* sin a m — ω ε cos a m —
— cmcum sin a m ; r m = D/2 — 6 m /2 — x2J2Rxrn— y2m/2R*m; R%m and
■#ym = curvature radii for the surfaces in contact [12]; local
pressure pm = pom [1 — (xm/am)2 — (i/ m /6 m ) 2 ] 1/2 ; Fxm =
= \ \ txmdQm; Fym = \ \ xymdQm\ xxm, %ym = components of

vector τ; Mj, m = j J ^mrmcK2m; Ai Ä m = [ \ [x ym (r m cos a m +

x m sin a m ) — T^mz/m sin a m ] d Q m ; Mzm = j j [ T y m (r m sin a m —

— xm cos a m ) + T Äm » m cos am]dQm\ F (c) = M (d/2)co?; Mgy =

= 7 ω 0 ω ζ ; M g z = / œ c œ y ; / = MDViO; M = ball mass; F'c =
168
= nlc (η0ωcdli)/(2hcZd); lc = width of the region of contact between
the cage and the race shoulder; dcl = outer diameter of the cage;
hc = locating clearance; Mmh = tumQm, t = retardation time for
steel.
The system of equations (18.10) is solved by the Newton method,
and appropriate programmes can be used for the purpose. The in­
put data are: the geometry of the bearing, the operating conditions-
and the characteristics of the lubricant.
Example 3. A rotor runs in type 1076097 bearings; Ω = 3142 1/s; D =
= 2.381 mm; a 0 = 12°; the raceway temperature in the outer and the inner
Table 18.3'
Results of calculation for three magnitudes of preload [3]

ai a2 PoiXlO - 8 P02XIO"8 hi h2 ω
F
a' ο
kgf Ω
radians kgf/m2 μπι

0.342 0.211 0.235 1.18 1.16 0.4 0.18 0.4025

1.52 0.230 0.240 1.56 1.56 0.37 0.17 0.4034
2.4 0.238 0.246 1.72 1.73 0.36 0.16 0.4037

ring is 100°G and 120°C, respectively; i = 5 x 10~8 s; the base oil is MC-14r.
and its parameters atfl 0 = 100°C are: η 0 = 4 X IO"3 kgf s/m2; a = IO"7 mVkgf;.
/

0.5
i\ s 1

Ψ
—>=^ ^βή
0 2
^
Fig. 18.5. Results of kinematic calculation kgf
1—ωδ1/Ω; 2— ωδ2/Ω; 3— ω χ 102/Ω; 4—ωζ/ωχ η^

9
β = 3.3 X5 IO- mVkgf; δ = 5.8 X 10~ °Ο; k = 2.5 X 10~2 kgf/(s °G) and G =
2

= 8 X IO kgf/m2. Some calculation results are given in Table 18.3.

The results of calculation of the kinematics are presented in Fig. 18.5.

18.6. CALCULATION OF
GEAR TRANSMISSIONS
Gear transmissions are calculated according to USSR Standard
21354-75. For the calculation of the lubricant film thickness use
may be made of formulas (18.1) and (18.2) or formulas given in
[6, 8], Let us consider, by way of example, the calculation of a spur
gear transmission.
169*
 Example 4. The pitch circle radii i?x = 85 mm; R2 = 385 mm; the pres­
sure angle a = 20°; angular velocity CUI = 125.6 1/s; the load per tooth unit
length q = 2 X 105 kgf/m; the oil used is MG-20, and the input contact tempe­
rature is 50°C. Compute the film thickness for the contact at the pitch point.
The effective7
radius
2
of curvature R = 23.8 mm; η = IO -2 kgf m/s 2 ;
a = 8 2.3 X 210" m /kgf; the rolling speed v = 3.6 m/s; p0 = 1.75 X
XlO kgf/m ; and h = 1.8 X IO"6 m.
Using the formulas (18.4) and (18.5), it is also possible to calculate the coeffi­
cient of friction and the maximum film temperature.

REFERENCES

1. EaKamBHJiH J\. JI. HccjieftOBamie KaneHna inapHKa B mapHKono^niHn-

ΗΗΚβ. T p y A B I 1 - i l BcepOCCHHCKOH ΚΟΗφβρβΗΙ^ΗΗ «KOHTaKTHO-rHßpOßHHaMIFieCKaH
τβορπΗ CMa3KH H ee npaKTircecKoe πρπΜβΗβΗΗβ B τβχΗπκβ». ΚναβΗΐπβΒ, KyAH
HM. G. Π. Kopojieea, 1973, e. 75-84.
2. TajiaxoB M. A., 3annapoB K. H. PacnpeflejieHne ßaBjieHHH B ynpyro-
rnApoAHHaMHHecKOM κοΗΤακτβ ii;HJiHHflpoB.— flAH GGCP, 1977, τ. 232, Ns 1,
c. 54-57.
3. TajiaxoB M. A., 3annapOB K.M., ΗΚΟΒΠΘΒ H . H . KiraeMaTHKa H ßiraaMHKa
pa^najibHO-ynopHoro niapiiKono,n;iniramiKa πρκ oceBOH Harpy3Ke — «H3B. AH
GCGP. MexaHHKa TBepfloro Tejia», 1977, N° 3, c. 53-57.
4. TpyÖHH A. H. OCHOBH ruApofliraaMHHecKOH τβορηη CMa3KH TH>Kejio
HarpyH^eHHMx irHjiiraflpHHecKHX noBepxHOCTeä.— «Tpyßfci L(HHHTMAIII»,
KH. 30, 1949, c. 126-184.
5. ,IÌP03AOB jo. H., Pem;HKOB B. Φ. 0 κο3φφΗη;ΗβΗτβ τρβΗΗΗ H TOjimirae
MacjiHHOH njieHKH B THîKejio HarpyHîeHHOM KOHTaKTe — «BecTHHK Mamimo-
CTpoeHHH», 1968, Ν° 12, c. 9-12.
6. Ko/nrnp J\. G. KoHTaKTHaa rHßpofliraaMHKa cMa3KH ßeTajien Mamira.
M., «ManiHHOCTpoeHHe», 1976, 303 c.
7. KopOBHHHCKHH M . B. 0 ΗβΚΟΤθρΜΧ B O n p O C a X 3JiaCTOpeOJIOrHH, ΗΜβΚ)Πΐ;ΗΧ
npnjio>KeHHe B τβορπη TpemiH.— B c6.: Tpemie H H3HOC B Mainiraax. M., Η3#-ΒΟ
AH GCGP, 1962, m 17, c. 68-165.
8. neTpyceBHH A. H. OcHOBHHe ΒΗΒΟ^Η Η3 KOHTaKTHO-rHflpoAiraaMiraecKOH
Teopnn CMa3KH. M., H3fl-B0 AH CCGP, OTH, 1951, JY2 2, c. 209-223.
9. CnypKa H. G. ynpyrornTrpoßiraaMHHecKaH cMa3Ka POJIHKOBMX ποβ-
ΠΙΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ.— «ΠρθβΛβΜΗ ΤρβΗΗΗ H CMa3KH», 1970, N° 2, C. 110-122.
10. Cameron A., Gohac R. Theoretical and Experimental Studies of thè
Oil Film in Lubricated Point Contact. Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. A. N 1427, vol. 291,
1966, p. 1021-1034.
11. Dowson D., Higginson G. R. Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication. New
York, 1966. 235 p.
12. Harris T. A. Rolling Bearing Analysis. New York, 1966, 481 p.
13. Kalker I. I. On the Rolling Contact of Two Elastic Bodies in the Pre­
sence of Dry Friction, Thesis, Delft, 1973, 283 p.
 Chapter 19

ROLLING BEARINGS

19.1. GENERAL DATA ON

ROLLING BEARINGS

19.1.1. Classification
By the direction of the load sustained, rolling bearings are clas­
sified as radial, angular-contact, thrust, and angular-contact thrust
bearings, and by the shape of rolling elements, as ball and roller be­
arings (Table 19.1).
By the width-to-diameter ratio, rolling bearings come in the extra-
light, very light, light, light broad, medium broad, and heavy series.
Light and medium-series bearings are applied most commonly. Along
with standard types, custom-designed bearings are manufactured.

19.1.2. Accuracy Classes

USSR St. Std. GOST 520-71 establishes five classes of accuracy
for bearings: 0, 6, 5, 4, and 2. The accuracy classification according
to former GOST 520-55 was different (see Table 19.2).
The 2nd class bearings are designed for use in ultraprecision ma­
chine tools and measuring instruments.

19.1.3. Designation
The main bearing designations are stipulated by GOST 3189-75
<Table 19.3).
Along with the main numerical character in the designation of a
bearing, there may also be additional signs that characterize alter­
native grades of material in the component parts, special design,
or specific requirements (Table 19.4).
The accuracy class according to GOST 520-71 is indicated on the
left of the main numerical code. Just before the accuracy class, an
appropriate figure may be placed to denote the range of radial clea­
rance in accordance with current standards.

171
 Table 19.T
Classification of rolling bearings according to USSR
St. Std. GOST 3395-75

Radial bearings Angular-contact bearings Thrust thrust

and angular-contact
bearings

Ball type Roller type Ball type Roller type Ball type Roller t y p e

Single-row Single-row, Single-row Single-row, Thrust Thrust,

with short with tape­ single-row cylindrical
cylindrical red rollers rollers
rollers

Same, with Same, Single-row, Same, with Thrust Thrust,

snap-ring double-row with sepa­ flanged double-row tapered
groove rable rings, outer ring rollers-
three- or
Single-row, four-point Angular-
spherical contact contact,
rollers with 60°
contact
angle

Same, with Double-row, Single-row, Double-row Thrust,

shouldered spherical two-piece tapered spherical
outer ring rings rollers rollers

Same, with Same, Double-row Four-row,

flange- shielded tapered
mounted rollers <
outer ring
—
Same, Single-row, «
shielded needle
rollers

Same, sealed Needle rol­

lers, com­
posite rol­
Same, self- ler-guiding
aligning raceway

Double-row,
self-aligning !

172
 Table 19.2
IBearing grades of accuracy

GOST 520-55 Accuracy GOST 520-55 Accuracy

and TU 5 434-ST GOST 520-71 characte­
ristic and TU 5434-ST GOST 520-71 characte­
ristic

H and Π 0 Normal C 4 Precise

ΒΠ, B and AB 6 Improved T and CT 2 Ultra-
A and CA 5 High precise

Table 19.3
Bearing designation

Place of digits
Signification of
Place of digits
in designation in designation Signification of
(from right to left) digits (from right to left) digits

First and second Bore diameter Fourth Type

T h i r d and seventh Series Fifth and sixth Special design
features

Table 19.4
Additional characters in bearing designation

Additional characters
No. Design features
for basic make for modification

1 Rin;^s and rolling elements K) KM, 102, etc.

from stainless steel
2 Rings and rolling elements P PI, P2, etc.
from heat-resistant steel
3 Rings and rolling elements X XI, X2, etc.
from carbonized steel
Heavy cage
4 from bronze B El, E2, etc.
5 from brass JI Jll, JI2, etc.
6 from aluminium Ä Al, Λ2, etc.
7 Textolite cage E El, E2, etc.
8 Heavy cage from graphitized Γ Π, Γ2, etc.
steel
Ό Special heat-treating require­ T, T l , T2, T3 —
ments
10 Grade of lubricant put into Cl, C2, C3, C4, etc. —
shielded or sealed bearing
11 Noise requirements Ill, Oil, ΙΠ2, ÌII3, etc.

Note: The characters according to Nos. 1-8 are indicated in bearing drawings, and
those according to Nos. 9-11 are additional to the former and can be indica­
ted in the specifications.

173
19.1.4. Materials for Components
Races and rolling elements of standard bearings are made from
steels 111X15, Π1Χ150Γ or ΠΙΧ20(Τ, 18ΧΓΤ, and 20X2H4A. Races
and rolling elements for stainless bearings are made from chromium
steels 11X18M and 95X18, and those for heat-resistant bearings,
from tungsten-vanadium steel 8Χ4Β9Φ2 (9H347II1). The hardness
of the components should range from 58 to 65 HRC depending on
the grade of steel.
Stamped steel cages are produced from cold-rolled strip, thin-sheet
carbon steel, and quality steel plate. Heavv cages are turned from
brass, bronze alloys EpAÌKMn; 10-3-1.5* and BpAÎKH 10-4-4.
aluminium alloys ,ΠΙΤ and AK-4, and tubular textolite.

19.2. CHOICE AND DESIGN OF

ROLLING BEARINGS

19.2.1. General Suggestions on

Choice of Bearings

A rolling bearing suitable for the specified operating conditions-

is chosen with regard to the following factors:
—the magnitude and direction of load which can be radial, axial,.
or a combination of both; momentary loading is also possible;
— the character of load application (continuous, variable, vibratio-
nal, or impact);
—the rotational frequency of one or both races;
—the required bearing life (that is, service life expressed in working
hours or millions of revolutions);
—the operating environment (air, vacuum, water, aggressive liquid
or gas), temperature, dust content, and so on.
Specific requirements to be placed on bearing units may include:
—self-alignment of the shaft or bearing housing to make up for
their unavoidable misaligning in operation;
—shaft axial displacement capability in response to temperature
variations;
—location of the bearing on a plain shaft by means of an adapter
sleeve or the use of special accessories for easier assembly;
—specification of frictional moment for start-up or steady-state
rotation;
—stiffness and true rotation.
When considering a bearing application, priority should be given
to ball bearings which have lower energy losses compared with more
labour-intensive and costly roller bearings. Wherever practicable,
use must be made of the class 0 normal accuracy bearings; the higher-
accuracy and precision bearings should be employed only where es­
pecially accurate rotation is needed.

174
 Tentative choice of rolling bearing type and series
Rotational frequency and speed parameter
High rotational Extra-high rotational
Load Medium-speed rotation frequency frequency
Static load Slow rotation5
3X105 < dmn <
n=0 dmn < l x 10 1-105 < dn< 3-105 d n > 15X10 5
< 15X105

H
Purely radial +3
Uta n B m α.-1Γ·
Combined:
axial component
is small a ma a r
α=/Ζ-2£κ ri-upto 200rcu/min . a=/0...7£ o CL=f2Ï>r CL=20...28°
axial component
is commensuri
able with radia- Wtwfy
one a o
K--I2...30' -OL-26° a-=26°
axial component a.=20...2S°
is 2-5 times as W^yÈ^M TS-li
large as radial

CL=45...M° OU--45...600 a=20...2S'

radial compo­
nent
small
is very
I1
OL=45...ffü°
Purely axial ^mmmmm

5 Oscillatory radial Designations: n = rotational Note: Before determining the required dyna­
01
(small-angle oscil­ Q LUX frequency, rpm; dm = mean mic load capacity and bearing type and size,
lation) bearing diameter choose the type most suitable to the specified
e operating conditions.
 The designer should not specify an excessively long bearing life
as this tendency may lead to increased mass of the assembly; moreo­
ver, the heavier the bearing, the greater its energy losses and the more
limited its maximum rotational frequency.
I t is good practice to choose the required bearing in the following
sequence:
(1) select the type of bearing tentatively on the basis of the ope­
rating conditions, design, and assembly of the bearing unit (use
Table 19.5 and a catalogue of rolling bearings);
(2) detail the required type and size of bearing, using the procedure
described below;
(3) specify the bearing's accuracy class.
In order to choose the type and size of bearing, the equivalent
load needs to be calculated. The bearing life is determined by the
contact fatique strength of its working surfaces. Bearing failures
except those due to the contact fatigue do not commonly lend them­
selves to prediction.
With the design relationships given below, the necessary dynamic
load capacity C is found, and by this parameter a particular type
and size of bearing is selected from a standard rolling bearings cata­
logue.
Apart from the dynamic load capacity, the catalogue tables list
the limiting number of revolutions for the bearings. The values given
in the catalogue apply to the 0 class bearings with a stamped cage.
For bearings with heavy cages, for precision bearings, and for bear­
ings with forced lubrication and improved heat removal, the limit­
ing number of revolutions can be significantly increased.

19.2.2. Equivalent Load

The equivalent load for radial- and angular-contact bearings is
taken to mean a constant radial load that provides, when applied
to a bearing with the rotating inner race, the same service life as the
bearing will have in actual loading and running conditions. For
these types of bearings, the equivalent load is determined by the
formula
P = (XKvFr + YFa) KsKf
where X = radial load factor (Tables 19.6-19.8); Y = axial load
factor; Fa = axial load, kgf; Kv = rotational factor (for rotation
of the inner race Kv = 1, and for rotation of the outer race Kv =
= 1.2); Fr = radial load, kgf; Ks = safety factor, and Kf = tem­
perature factor (see Tables 19.10 and 19.11).
Small axial loads have no adverse effect on the life of radial ball
bearings and angular-contact ball and roller bearings; in the latter
type such loads are even advisable in order to hold the races against
axial displacements and set up a preload necessary for the rigidity
of the bearing unit.
176
 F
In case -rr-Sr < e (here e is the axial loading parameter), the
axial load acting on a single-row ball bearing or an angular-contact
ball bearing need not be taken into account, that is, X = 1 and Y =
= 0.
F
The values of the parameter e at j^-— > e, and also the values
of X and 7 a s a function of γτ
F for ball bearings are given in Table

19.6.

Table 19.6
Values of parameters X, F, and e for calculation
of radial and angular-contact ball bearings
Type of bearing 1
single-row 1 double-row
Contact F
angle, e
degrees W r >e W r <e W r > e

x 1 Y 1 x 1 y 1 x 1 Y 1

0.014 2.3 2.3 0.19

0.028 1.99 1.99 0.22
0.056 1.71 1.71 0.26
0 0.084 0.56 1.55 1.55 0.28
0.11 1.45 1.45 0.30
0.17 1.31 1 0 0.56 1.31 0.34
0.28 1.15 1.15 0.38
0.42 1.04 1.04 0.42
0.56 1.00 1.00 0.44

0.014 1.81 2.08 2.94 0.30

0.029 1.62 1.84 2.63 0.34
0.057 0.45 1.46 1.60 2.37 0.37
12 0.086 1.34 1.52 0.74 2.18 0.41
0.11 1.22 1 1.39 1.98 0.45
0.17 1.13 1.30 1.84 0.48
0.29 1.04 1.20 1.69 0.52
0.43 1.01 1.16 1.64 0.54
0.57 1.00 1.16 1.62 0.54

18-20 0.43 1.00 1.09 0.70 1.63 0.57

24-26 0.41 0.87 0.92 0.67 1.44 0.68
30 — 0.39 0.76 1 0.78 0.63 1.24 0.80
35-36 0.37 0.66 0.66 0.60 1.07 0.95
40 0.35 0.57 0.55 0.57 0.93 1.14

Self-aligning ball 0.40 0.4 1 0.42 0.65 0.65 1.5

bearings cot a cot a cot a tan a

12-01156 77
 The values of X, Y, and e for tapered roller bearings and spherical
barrel roller bearings are found by the relationship ΤΓ-^Γ ^ e
from Table 19.7, depending on the contact angle a.
Table 19.7
Values of X, Kv, and e parameters for calculation
of tapered and spherical roller bearings

F
Type of bearing a . .
Vr ' "

Single-row χ=Ί; y=o X = 0A\ 1.5 tan a

Y =-0.4 cot a
Double-row (symmetri­ X-l; X = 0.67; 1.5 tan a
cally disposed rollers) y = 0.45 c o t a y = 0.67 c o t a

With single-row spherical roller bearings a = 0°, and at Fa =

= 0 the value of X is equal to unity.
For double-row and single-row cylindrical short-roller bearings
not capable of carrying axial loads, the equivalent load is determined
by the formula
P = FTKtKsKt
Bearings with flanged rings or with end-face shield washers can
take small, preferably intermittent, axial loads owing to sliding con­
tact of rollers ends.
Table 19.8
Values of X, Km and e parameters for calculation
of angular-contact thrust bearings
Type of bearing
single-row double-row
Contact
angle,
Type of bearing degrees F /F
a r>e FjFr ^ e Fa/Fr^c e
of arc
X y X Y X Y

Angular-contact 45 0.66 1 1.18 0.59 0.66 1 1.25

thrust ball bearing 60 0.92 1 1.90 0.54 0.92 1 2.17
75 1.66 1 3.89 0.52 1.66 1 4.67
Tapered roller and tan a 1 1.5 tan a 0.67 tan a 1 1.5 tan a
spherical roller
thrust bearing

Note. At a = 90° (thrust bearing) F = 0; X = 0; Y = 1.

178
 In contrast to all the other types of bearings, the equivalent load
for thrust ball and roller bearings is axial rather than radial:
Pa = FaKsKt
For angular-contact thrust bearings, the equivalent load is also
axial: Pa = (XFr + YFa) KsKt. The values of X, Y, and e are
given in Table 19.8. With large values of the parameter e, these bear­
ings are advisable to use for supporting purely axial loads.
For magneto-type ball bearings with a separable outer ring,
e = 0.20 at Fa > e, X = 0.5, and Y = 2.5.
Two angular-contact thrust bearings put back-to-back or face-to-
face are regarded as one double-row bearing. When such bearings are
mounted in tandem, the values of X and Y are taken just as for single-
row bearings, with the radial load divided between them. In double-
row angular-contact ball bearings, the axial load is sustained by one
F
of the rows, and at r r 4 r > e, the second row is practically relieved of
nvt r
load.
The axial components S of radial load are determined through,
the parameter e. For radial and angular-contact bearings S = eFr,
and for tapered roller bearings S = 0.83eFr. The radial reaction
of a bearing is regarded as applied to the shaft at the point of
intersection of the normals, drawn through the centre of the contact
area of each ball or roller, with the shaft axis; this point is situated
at a distance a from the locating face of the bearing (Fig. 19.1).
If load is supported by a single row of rolling elements, the value of
a can be found approximately by formulas given in Table 19.9.

Table 19,9
Formulas for calculating the value of a

Tyj.c of bearing Approximate formula

Single-row angular contact ball bearing 0.5 [B-

d+ D
tan ■ )
d+D
Double-row angular-contact ball bearing - 0 . 5 ( 4 B- tan
·)
Single-row tapered roller bearing (d + D)e
6
Double-row tapered roller bearing 3Γ , {d+D)e
a=
— + 6

The diameters d and D, width B and overall width T for a given

type and size of bearing are selected from tables of standard bearing
ratings.

12* 179
 Table 19.10
Specifications of safety factor Ks depending
on loading conditions

Character of loading *s Type of machine or equipment

Steady, impactless 1.0 Low-power speed reducers and drive me­

chanisms; rollers in load conveyors; hand-
operated cranes, hoists, winches, and pul­
ley blocks; control drives.
Light impacts; mo­ 1.0-1.2 Precision gear transmissions; metal-cutting
mentary overloading machine tools (except shapers, slotters,
up to 125% of rated and grinders); gyroscopes; lifting gear in
load cranes; power-operated tackles and win­
ches; low- and medium-power electric mo­
tors; light fans and draught blowers.
Moderate impact lo­ 1.3-1.5 Gear transmissions of 7th and 8th degrees
ads; vibrations; mo­ of accuracy; speed reducers of all types;
mentary overloading rolling-stock axle bearings; crab-traversing
up to 150% of rated gear, slewing gear, and gib overhang ad­
load justing mechanisms in cranes; spindles in
grinding machines, and electric spindles.
The same loading con­ 1.5-1.8 Centrifuges and separators; axle-bearings
ditions, but higher and traction motors in electric locomo­
reliability require­ tives; crab wheels and sie wing-gear bearings
ments in cranes and excavators; high-power elec­
tric machines; power-generation equipment;
vehicle wheels.
Significant shocks and 1.8-2.5 Gears of 9th degree of accuracy; crushers
vinration; momentary and pile drivers; crank mechanisms; rolls
overloading up to in rolling mills; high-power fans.
200% of rated load
Heavy impact loads 2.5-3.0 Heavy forging machines; log frames; re­
and momentary over­ frigerating equipment; roller conveyors in
loading up to 300% heavy-section rolling, blooming, and slab­
of rated load bing mills.

Table 19.11
Value of coefficient Kt

O, °C K
t tf, °c K
t tf, °G K
t

125 1.05 175 1.15 225 1.35

150 1.10 200 1.25 250 1.40

180
 The safety factor K8 allows for the effect of external dynamics and
other adverse conditions on the operation of the bearing. This factor
ranges mostly from 1.0 to 1.5, and more seldom, from 2.0 to 3.0
(Table 19.10).

(ί)
Fig. 19.1. Position of radial Fig. 19.2. Mounting of angular-contact bear-
reaction on shaft supported by ings: with backs directed outwards (a)
angular-contact bearing and inwards (b)

The temperature factor Kt is equal to 1.0 up to 100°C, and with

further rise in temperature, it increases in accordance with the va­
lues listed in Table 19.11. At operating temperatures in excess of
200°C, the service life of bearings made from steel ΠΙΧ15 sharply
decreases. In such conditions, bearings produced from heat-resistant
steels are the obvious choice.

19.2.3. Axial Load Ratings for

Angular-Contact Bearing Units
The axial force component S dictates the use of identical angular-
contact bearings in pairs on one shaft, with the locating faces oppo­
sing each other. Two types of mountings are practicable, namely with
the wide faces directed outwards or inwards (Fig. 19.2). The axial

181
load ratings on each of the bearings are determined by the type of
mounting and the relation between the external axial load, Faj
and axial components, S1 and S2-

19.2.4. Design of Bearing Life

The service life of a bearing is defined as the number of revolutions
(or hours of operation at a specified constant rotational frequency)
for which the bearing is to function until evidence of contact fatigue
emerges in the material of its races or rolling elements.
The rating life is taken to mean the life of a batch of bearings, dur­
ing which no less than 90 percent of identical bearings are to operate
at identical load and rotational frequency without evidence of ma­
terial fatigue (pitting or flaking) on the working surfaces.
The rating life L (millions of revolutions) or Lh (hours) is computed
on the basis of equivalent load P (kgf) and dynamic load rating
C (kgf) by the formulas
T ( C \v T 106L
L=[ — ) or £, = w
10
where p = 3 for ball bearings, and p = — = 3.33 for roller bearings;
n = frequency of rotation, rpm.
These formulas are suited to any rotational frequency that does
not exceed a limiting one indicated in the tables of standard ra­
tings, if / 2 ^ 10 rpm. At n ranging from 1 to 10 rpm, the calculation
is made as for n = 10 rpm. At n < 1 rpm, the acting load is consi-7
dered static and is compared with the static load rating C0 for the
given type and size of bearing indicated in standard-rating tables.
The scope of these formulas outside the range of standard rota­
tional frequencies is limited.
The above formulas show that a double increase in the equivalent
load leads to a reduction in rating life by a factor of 8 for ball bear­
ings, and by a factor of 10 for roller bearings. For this reason, the
acting loads should be determined as accurately as possible so that
no arbitrary overload factors are introduced into the design calcula­
tion.

19.2.5. Choice of Bearings for

Variable Operating Conditions
When load on a bearing varies from P m i n to Pmax uniformly,
as, for instance, in bearings of drums with a single-direction win­
ding, the equivalent load can be found from the formula
p ^mln~~T~2/max
3
If the bearing operation can be broken down into separate stages
with a definite duration, then the equivalent load should be deter-
182
mined by the formula
p = {/PÎL1 + PlL2 + PjL3+ ... + P*nLn

where P11 P2, P3, . . ., Pn = constant loads acting during L1,

L2, L3, . . ., Ln million revolutions; L = Lx + L2 + L3 + . . . +
+ Ln = the total of millions of revolutions over which all the
loads act.
With the known value of P, the rating life for the given bearing
is computed by the formula L = {CIP)V, or the required dynamic
load rating is found from the formula C = PL1^ for a bearing to be
selected.

19.3. HIGH-SPEED BEARINGS.

FRICTIONAL LOSSES IN
ROLLING BEARINGS
19.3.1. Recommendations on Use of
High-Speed Bearings
A modern tendency in the development of machinery and equip­
ment is the increase in speeds and rotational frequencies since fast-
operating equipment apart from higher productivity has better weight
and size characteristics.
Considerable angular velocities combining with larger sizes of
rotational parts, which is due to ever increasing power of such equip­
ment as gas-turbine engines, compressors, and large power-genera­
tion machinery, contribute to growth in peripheral speeds along
with rotational frequencies.
Bearing failures in such machines are often caused by thermal
jamming, catastrophic wear, fracture of cages, and corrosive, or abra­
sive wear rather than by fatigue pitting. As a rule, such failures are
due to incorrect selection of the type and size of bearing, disturbed
lubricating conditions, deficient removal of heat from the bearing
unit, or inadequate packings. The limiting speed is evaluated ap­
proximately with the speed parameter [dmn\, which is the product
of multiplying the mean bearing parameter dm = -i— by the
maximum operating number of revolutions n for the considered type
and size of bearing. Here d is the bore diameter, and D is the outside
diameter of the bearing. The recommended maximum values of the
speed parameter for standard bearing designs are listed in Table 19.12.
The values of [dmn] may be taken greater than indicated in the
Table with the use of a heavy cage and press-feeding a lubricant of
an optimum viscosity.
The factor Ks should be somewhat increased for high-speed bear­
ings (within the range of 1.1 to 1.4) in order to allow for the effect
of centrifugal forces acting on the balls.
183
 Table 19.12
VaJues of parameter \dmn\
10-5 [dmn] 10-5
t d m"]
mm rpm m m rpm
T y p e of b e a r i n g T y p e of b e a r i n g
grease oil grease oil
lubri­ lubri­ lubri­ lubri­
cation cation cation cation

Ball bearings: Ball bearings: 1.3 1.8

single-row radial 4.5 5.5 single-row-thrust
single-row radial shi­ Roller bearings:
elded 4.5 — radial with short cy­ 4.0 5.0
single-row radial sea­ lindrical rollers 2.5 3.5
led 4.0 — single-row tapered 2.0 3.0
double-row self-alig­ double-row tapered 1.8 2.5
ning 4.0 5.5 four-row tapered
single-row angular-
contact with stamped
cage 4.0 5.5

Bearings running at high rotational frequencies that exceed the

standard rating limits should be calculated with regard to an addi­
tional load from centrifugal forces acting on rolling elements; these
forces are effective in the contact areas of
kF of ball outer races (Fc):
for a ball
—'ϋϊί ■ cos a \ 2
/7c = 0 . 5 7 x l O ~ 1 2 A X A ('=■
dm or

for a roller
F'c = 0.85xlO-^D2wlnfrdm
2
χ (licosa,,)
where Dw = ball or roller diameter, mm;
nir = rotational frequency of the inner
Fig. 19.3. Change in con race, rpm; dm = -γ- = diameter of the rol­
tact angles due to cent ling-element centres, commonly equal to the
rifugal action of balls
mean diameter, mm; I = whole length of
the roller, mm; aor = contact angle on the outer race, degrees of arc.
In these formulas the sign "—" within the brackets is taken if
the inner race is rotated, and the sign " + " , if the outer race is rotated.
The centrifugal forces exerted by balls increase the contact angle
on the inner race and reduce it on the outer race (air > a 0 > a or )
(Fig. 19.3); as a result, an accurate determining of contact forces
between the balls and the races presents some difficulty.
In engineering calculations, the force on the most heavily loaded
ball in its area of contact with the outer race can be found by the
184
formulas
i m a x ^ ^ + ^c at a0 = 0

^ m a x ^ T ^ ^ + ^cCOSOo at a0>0(Fr = 0\

Beyond a certain rotational speed limit, the contact stresses on*

outer races become higher than those on the raceways of inner races.
Such loading conditions require more elaborate methods of calculating
the bearing life, whose description can be found in the special lite­
rature on the subject. It is desirable that the contact stresses in ball
bearings made from steel ΙΠΧ15 and its modifications should not
exceed (3-4) X 104 kgf/cm2 over a normal hardness range of HRC 60
to 65.

19.3.2. Design Characteristics of

High-Speed Bearings

Related to high-speed bearings are radial and angular-contact

ball bearings, including those of the types 276 000, 126 000, and
176 000 with two-, three-, and four-point contact.
High-speed bearings are provided with a heavy cage made of a
non-ferrous metal or textolite; they are located mostly from the
outer race. The main parameter to govern the choice of a specific
bearing series is the contact angle which determines the relation
between the axial and the radial load-carrying capacity. Allowance
should also be made for a variation in the initial contact angle caused
by the centrifugal forces of the balls (the angle decreases on the outer
race and increases on the inner race), and for increasing gyroscopic
spin of the balls at large contact angles. There is no hard-and-fast
rule for the selection of a bearing series, but Table 19.13 may prove
helpful.
Table 19.13
Recommended bearing series
F
a Bearing Initial anple
K F
v r series of contact Note

0.3-0.6 36 000 12 The use of light, very light, and

extra-light series is advisable
Over0.6-0.8 46 000 20-26 Light series is to be preferred a t
126 000 very high speeds
176 000
276 000
Over 0.8 66 000 26-36 The 66 000 series is unsuitable at
126 000 very high speeds
176 000

185
 At 7r-^r < 0.3, single-row radial ball bearings should be used.
A special feature of multi-point contact bearings is the capability
of carrying heavy two-direction axial loads as well as radial loads.
The contact angles in these bearings range from 20 to 30°, and the
equivalent load is computed by the formula intended for ball bear­
ings.
Preload is preferable for most angular-contact bearings, and for
precision bearing units it is mandatory. The magnitude of the pre­
load is found approximately by the formula
Apr œ 1.7 Fr tan a

19.3.3. Friction Losses in

Bearings
With ball and roller bearings, the resistance to rotation is esti­
mated by the amount of static friction torque (start-up torque) or
by dynamic torque which is by 30 to 50 percent lower. The amount
of both types of torque depends on the type of bearing, its geometry,
roughness of the operating surfaces, type of lubricant and method
of lubrication, magnitude of the load applied, and rotational fre­
quency or start-up acceleration.
The power expended on overcoming friction in any rolling bearing
can be estimated by the mean frictional torque determined by the
formula

where P = equivalent load on the bearing determined by the usual

dynamic calculation formulas, kgf; fa = averaged coefficient of
dynamic friction related to the diameter dm of the ball centre circle
(Table 19.14).
Table 19.14
Averaged values of coefficient of rolling friction

Type of bearing /aXl03 Type of bearing /aXl03

Radial ball bearing, self- Radial short-roller bea­

aligning type included 1.5-2.0 ring 2.0-3.0
Angular-contact thrust ball Tapered and spherical rol­
bearing 2.0-2.5 ler bearings 3.5-5.0
Thrust and angular-contact Needle roller bearing 5-10
thrust ball bearings 2.5-3.5 Thrust roller bearing 5-8

The listed values hold for bearings used with oil and grease lubri­
cation in average service conditions (that is, at standard load and
speed ratings).
186
 For practical purposes, the values of fa given in the Table should
he increased 1.5-2 times, since additional friction is bound to emerge
in actual bearing units because of the action of sliding-contact pa­
ckings, manufacturing and assembling inaccuracies, overloading, or
contaminated lubricant.
The total resistance to rotation in bearings is a complex parameter
combining a large number of components that are hard to analyze.
For this reason, determining the friction torque mathematically is
very difficult and can be carried out only to a certain approximation.
The value of the rolling friction coefficient largely depends on
the bearing's operating conditions: it decreases with increasing
load within allowable limits and grows with increasing rotational
frequency.
During steady-state running, the moment of resistance to rotation
is relatively constant, although it can fluctuate within certain li­
mits, which is especially typical of lightly loaded instrument bear­
ings.
A number of testing apparatus are available for the assessment of
the static and dynamic friction torques. The operating principle of
apparatus for measuring the static friction torque is based on counter­
balancing this torque with a moment of external forces whose mag­
nitude defines the friction torque in the bearing.
The dynamic friction torque is determined by measuring the angle
of creeping of the race that is free from the action of the applied ex­
ternal torque but turns together with load under the action of fric-
tional torque.
The power Nf (kW) required to overcome friction in a bearing
loaded with a force P (kgf) can be assessed approximately with the
formula
N /_ — Tfn —l /a p dmU
~" 97.4 ~ 194,800

Accordingly, the generation of heat in the bearing (kcal/h)

Q = 860 Nf

19.4. FITS AND LUBRICATION OF

ROLLING BEARINGS

19.4.1. Fits
Basic-hole fits are used for mounting bearings on shafts, and
basic-shaft fits, for mounting bearings in housings. The USSR State
Standards establish the bearing fits and their designations as indi­
cated in (Table 19.15).
The choice of a fit depends on the type and size of bearing, its
operating conditions, and on the magnitude, direction, and charac­
ter of acting loads.
187
 Table 19 JS
Bearing fits and their designations

Designations for Designations for

accuracy classes accuracy classes
Type of fit Type of fit
5 and 4 0 and 6 5 and 4 0 and 6

Force fit for thin- Locational tran­

walled housings p7 sition fit Πΐπ Ππ
Medium drive fit Γΐπ Close-sliding fit Cm
Light-drive fit Close-running fit Am An
Tin Tn Running fit
Locational inter­ xD
ference fit Hin Hn

Depending on whether or not a given race rotates with respect to

the applied radial load, distinction is made between three types of
loading: local, circulating, and oscillatory (Fig. 19.4). Each type
requires a definite fit between the bearing race and the mating shaft

w m fa

Fig. 19.4. Diagrams of bearing race loading

(a) and (b) circulating loa^ on inner race and local load on outer race; (e) and
(d) circulating load on both races; (e) oscillatory load on outer race and circulating
load on inner race; (/) oscillatory load on inner race and circulating load on outer race

or housing, namely, a ring carrying a circulating load should be

joined to the mating part by a stationary fit; for locally loaded race r
a clearance fit or a small-interference fit is typical; and oscillatory
loading mostly requires a close sliding fit between the race and it»
seating.
The correct location of bearings calls for rigid connection of the
rotating part of a bearing assembly (shaft or housing) with the race
188
I t carries. The rotating race should be mounted on the shaft or in
t h e housing with a definite amount of interference provided by the
ΪΙ Π , Η π , T n and Γ π classes of fits. From 60 to 70 percent of the inter­
ference is taken up by the raceway of the inner race, and from 30
to 40 percent by the raceway of the outer race. Such a distribution
has the effect of reducing the mounting radial clearance in the bearing,
which is undesirable in some bearing applications, particularly where
small bearings are involved. For this reason, and also for easier
fitting and dismantling of bearings, large amounts of interference
are not used at light loads. At heavy and impact loads, however,
a significant mounting interference is essential to prevent creep of
the races with respect to their seatings.
The most frequently used bearing fits are Π π and H n for shafts,
a n d C n for housings.

19.4.2. Lubrication

Rolling bearings are lubricated with fluid lubricants (mineral and

synthetic) and greases.
The purpose of lubrication is
(a) to decrease friction between the rolling and sliding surfaces;
(b) to ensure the uniform distribution of heat in all bearing com­
ponents and the removal of heat generated by friction;
(c) to protect bearing components against corrosion;
(d) to improve the sealing of the housing in order to prevent the
ingress of foreign abrasive and contaminating matter.
The main characteristic of lubricating oils is viscosity, which
-defines the flowability and other properties. The grade of oil for a
specific application is, therefore, selected primarily by its viscosity
index.
With increasing loads and operating temperatures, oils with
a higher viscosity index and flash point are used. Light, thin oils
are applicable for small high-speed ball bearings. At temperatures
ranging from 200 to 300°C, use can be made of silicone fluids based
on methyl silicone.
The amount of oil fed to a bearing depends on its load and rota­
tional frequency, which determine the generation of heat at the con­
tact points. The main oil-feeding systems for bearings include the
bath, drip-feed, wick, splash, oil-mist, and circulating types.
Bath lubrication is used for lightly loaded bearing units mounted
on horizontal shafts. Oil is poured directly into the bearing housing
through suitable holes in the cover so that half the lowest rolling
«element is immersed. This lubricating system requires highly refined
oils because the oil does not circulate in the housing and is changed
but periodically.
Lubrication with the aid of drop lubricators is used for lightly
loaded bearing assemblies in periodic operation.

189
 Wick oiling is applicable in a wide range of operating conditions»
An advantage of such a lubricating method is that the wick ensures
removal of foreign matter from the oil supplied to the bearing and
feeds the oil by small portions.
Splash lubrication is preferable where bearings are lubricated
together with gear transmissions from a common system. The oil
splashed produces mist around the bearing.
Circulating systems of lubrication with metering nozzles are very
dependable in the operation of bearings at high speeds and loads.
Jet lubrication with a group of circularly arranged nozzles is the
most effective for bearing applications under severe operating con­
ditions. The use of several nozzles provides for uniform cooling of
the bearing around its periphery, which is particularly important
for bearings running at high rotational frequencies that cause intense
generation of heat.
Oil-mist lubrication through spraying oil by a jet of well-dried
compressed air supplied at a pressure of 0.5 to 1.5 kgf/cm 2 is used
for lightly loaded high-speed bearings. The air-oil mixture forced
through the bearing forms a constant oil film on the working surfa­
ces, ensures good cooling, and protects the bearing against conta­
mination.
Greases are the most suitable lubricants for rolling bearings.
A wide application have found calcium, sodium, and calcium-sodium
greases. Bearing greases also come in lithium-base grades (IJHATHM-
201, υ,ΗΑΤΗΜ-202, IJHATHM-203, OKB-122-7, JI3-31, and JIHTOJI-
24) and aluminium-base grades (AMC-1, AMC-3, and MC-70). Appli­
cable at elevated temperatures are also synthetic lubricants based
on silicone fluids (I^MATHM-221, and I],MATHM-221C).
Greases are used for closed-type bearings (that is, having two pa­
ckings or two shield washers). During assembly of such bearing units,.
grease is put into them for life.
Grease should take from V 3 to 2 / 3 of the free inner space in the
bearing housing, and its amount is determined by the operating
conditions. One-third of the free space is normally filled in high­
speed bearings. The larger amounts of lubricant are allowable in
low-speed bearings, where an excess of grease is not harmful.

19.4.3. Self-Lubricating Bearings

Self-lubricating bearings are used in conditions where oils and

greases cannot be used.
Such conditions may include high vacuum, intense radioactive
radiation, high and extra-low temperatures, and gaseous and aggres­
sive environments.
Self-lubricating bearings employ solid lubricants. There are many
substances serving as solid lubricants (see Chapter 9), but the main
of them, particularly suited to rolling bearing applications are molyb-

190
denum disulphide, fluoroplastic, graphite and composites based on
these materials.
Some types of self-lubricating bearings, which are being currently
under field tests, have the cage made from ACII plastics reinforced
with a metal frame.
Soft metals, such as gold, silver, nickel, cobalt, indium, or lead
oxide, deposited on the working surfaces in a thin layer, are also
used as solid lubricants.
The choice of a particular type of solid lubricant depends on the
bearing's operating conditions and manufacturing feasibility.
A selected type of lubricant determines the design of a self-lubri­
cating bearing.
Three main groups of self-lubricating bearings have found appli­
cations in engineering practice, and their design features are as fol­
lows:
—the races and the cage made
from metal are coated with a
thin layer of a solid lubricant;
—the races are coated with a so­
lid lubricant, and the cage is
made from a non-metal antifri­
ction material reinforced in some
designs with a metal frame;
—a cake of a solid lubricant (in­
cluding ACn plastic) is pressed
into a metal cage.
A bearing in which a cake of Fig. 19.5. Designs of self-lubricating
an antifriction material contain­ bearings
(a) with metal cage in which antifriction
ing 50 percent fluoroplastic and material is embedded; (b) with ACII-pla-
50 percent molybdenum disul­ stic cage reinforced with metal frame
phide is embedded in a bronze
cage is the most suitable for severe operating conditions (Fig. 19.5).
The balls in such a bearing pick up the antifriction material and
spread it over the raceways, so forming a lubricating film between
the moving surfaces. This process occurs continuously to result in
a long bearing life.
The allowable loads on self-lubricating bearings are lower than
those on bearings lubricated with greases; their magnitude must be
such as to keep a m a x above 15000 kgf/cm 2 . At contact pressures ex­
ceeding the indicated value, the performance of self-lubricating
bearings sharply deteriorates. The cause is that solid lubricants are
not capable of removing the heat generated on the surfaces in contact.
Moreover, at heavy loads the lubricant film is broken by contact
pressure, which leads to increased friction and, as a consequence,
to faster wear of the bearing components.

191
REFERENCES
1. KoBajieB M. Π., Hapo^eiiKHH M. 3 . PacqeT BHCOKOTOHHHX mapHKonoß-
ΙΗΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ. M., «ManiHHocTpoeHHe», 1975, 279 c.
2. Onopti ocen H BajiOB MauiHH H πρπβοροΒ. JI., MainrH3, 1970, 520 c. ABT.:
H. A. CmmuH, M. M. MauiHee, E. H. KpacKOBCKHH H ρ,ρ.
3. ΠΟΑΗΙΗΠΗΗΚΗ KaqeHHH. KaTajior-cnpaBoqHHK. M., HHHHABTonpoM,
.1972, 465 c.
4. GripHUieBCKHH A. H. ΠΟΑΠΙΗΠΗΗΚΗ KaqeHHH. M., MauirH3, 1969, 632 c.
 Chapter 2 0

SLIDING BEARINGS

20.1. DRY-RUBBING BEARINGS

20.1.1. Calculation of
Contact Parameters

Related to contact parameters of sliding (plain) bearings are: (a) the

arc of contact between the shaft and the bush, which is defined by
the angle of contact 2φ0; (b) the distribution of contact pressures
p (φ); and (c) the maximum contact pressure pm.
The above contact parameters can be calculated by the Hertz for­
mulas [20] for internal contact of two cylinders on condition that [5]
a [(1 - μ») + (1 - μ\) ψ] < 0.092 (20.1)
where

P0 = load per unit length; ε = Rt — i? 2 = radial clearance in the

bearing; indexes 1 and 2 refer to the bearing and shaft materials,
respectively.
Since the radii i?x and R2 (Fig. 20.1) in sliding bearings differ in­
significantly, the formula for the contact angle may be put down as

8ίηφ0=|/4-[(1-μΪ) + (1-μ22)ψ]^ (20.2)

The distribution of contact pressures obeys the equation

The maximum magnitude of pressure at the centre of the contact

zone is found by the formula
2P0
(20.4)
nR1sinq>0
Where the condition (1) is not met, solutions should be used that
impose no limitation on the size of the contact zone. The calculation
will be different for two cases.
13-01156 193
Fig. 20.1. Design diagram for plain bearing
(a) before applying load P 0 ; (&) after applying load P 0 ; J—bush; 2—shaft; and 3—bear­
ing race

n2.
IU

101

10°

10~1
—7
//
/
2 /
m
IU

^
//

1
/
If)'*
20 JO 40 50 60 70 80 u>2 10 20 JO 40 SO 60 70 80 v°n
(a) (»

Fig. 20.2. Variation of dimensionless parameter with half contact angle in

sliding bearings
(a) at [it < 0.5 and μ, = 0.5 for split bush; (b) at nt = 0.5 for integral bush

194
 The first case: ψ < IO -2 . This case is typical of bearings with poly­
mer bushes.
The calculation method for the contact parameters is based on ana­
lysis of stress conditions in an elastic annular bush. The design dia­
gram is shown in Fig. 20.1. The solution is obtained on the following
assumptions [11, 12, 16]:
1. The bearing is deformed elastically, and its material exhibits
the isotropy of the elastic properties.
2. The shaft and the pedestal body are undeformable components.
3. Tangential stresses are absent along the contact arc because the
coefficient of friction in sliding bearings is low (/ < 0.3).
4. The load P is distributed uniformly through the journal length I
P
with a rate P0 = y .
It has been established that in the two-dimensional strained state

P<> : (20.5)
Ελε φ (<Ρο)
where
2φ 0 —sin 2φ 0
Ψ (Ψο) = cos φ 0

The function φ (φ0) is graphically represented in Fig. 20.2a.

The factor k depends on the relative thickness of the bush y — —
R
and on the Poisson ratio μχ for the bush material (Table 20.1).
Table 20.1
Value of k in formula (5)

Reference
No. source Note

[11] 1 —γ 2 Bearing bush is de­

2(1 + μ ι ) ( 1 - 2 μ ι ) formed as Winkler
1 - 2 μ ι + γ2
base, T>-i5~

[16] 2(1 + μ 1 ) ( 1 - 2 μ 1 ) 1 _ 2 1 μ ι ^ μ ι Ύ

[12] (μι 1ηγ + μι —1) In 7 |1ηγ|<1

2(1 + μ ι ) ( 1 - 2 μ ι )
(ΐ-μι)2

[19] 2(1 + )(1-2μι). 1-Υ Ύ>

μι
γ(ΐ-μι) ΊΓ

13* 195
 With the small bush thicknesses typical of polymer plain bearings
the values of k hardly differ from each other (Fig. 20.3).
If μλ = 0.5, the length of the contact arc is found by one of the
following formulas [17]:
—for a split bearing bush by the formula (20.5), the value of k de­
pending on the relative bush thickness:
3 1 —y
Ä=- (20.6)
—for a solid bush
4= ^ = 91 (Φο) (20.7)

where Φ ι (Φο) = 2φ° ^ 2φ

°+ ^ ^ (tan φ0 - Φο), and A is com-
puted by the formula (20.6).

k k
0.6 1 *"y3 0.6
1*
2 %\ b- 4

2-
0.4 0.4

■0.2 0.2

0.7 0.8 B.S y i.7 0.8 0.9 -y

(a)

k k
1,3
DA A 0.4
2
1,3
^w
0.2 0.2
f^^^

0.7 .0.8 i:V 6.7 0.8 0.9

Fig. 20.3. Relationship between coefficient k and parameter y

(a) μ! = 0.3; (b) μι = 0.35; (c) μ! = 0.40; and (d) μι = 0.45. Reference numerals
for curves correspond to ordinal numbers in Table 20.1.

A graph of the function φ! (φ0) is shown in Fig. 20.2b. The dist­

ribution of pressure along the contact arc length at μχ ^=0.5 obeys
the equation
COS OS(Po
P &)-&■=
Ε λζ T l 7 :cp0
cos (20.8)

19B
that is, at the centre of the contact arc the pressure is a maximum
2Exs 1 — cos φ0
Pm = Affi (20.9)
cos φ0

The mean contact pressure p = is found from the relation-

2i?icpo
ship
Ρ - ^ Γ = Φ2(φο), where φ2(φ0) = \COBvJ
With materials having the Poisson ratio μχ = 0.5:
for a solid bearing bush

ρ(φ)
Ri
Ε λζ
-""A3 _1!- v_ V/ cos φ —cos φ0 . tan φ 0 —φ 0
) (20.10)
cos φ 0 π —φ0

for a split bush

cos φ 0 —cos φ 0 (20.11)
PW-& 3 1—γ cos φ 0

The maximum pressure on the contact arc will be determined from

the formulas (20.10) and (20.11), assuming that φ = 0.
The second case: ψ > 10~2. This case applies to bearings with
metallic bushes and to those coated with thin antifriction linings
(see Vol. 1, Ch. 5 and 9).
The solution of the contact problem stated in this way [13]
amounts to an integro-differential equation for the function p (φ).
The numerical solution of this equation has shown [7] that the
function
(20.12)
*-'(-!&)"
can be taken as an approximate relationship between half the con­
tact angle and a dimensionless parameter a.
Formulas for computing the exponent n are given in Table 20.2.

Table 20.2
Formulas for calculation of exponent n

10 ^ ψ ^ 0.1 •φ > 10 Ί])< 0 . 1

n= m^i + πι2μ2 + nQ* n = 0AÌ μ2 + 0.45 Ai = 0.16 μ! + 0.55

mi = 0.07(1 — lgif)
ma = 0.20(l + lg\|>)

* Variation of n 0 with ψ is presented in Fig. 20.4.

197
 The coefficient C in the formula (20.12)

C= 0.32(-^fFfl)n (20.13)
where
Co -■= -J I(i — μΐ) + (i — μΐ) Ψ1 (20.14)
With regard to (20.13), the formula (20.12) will take the form
η
<Po = 0.32 [ ( ΐ ^ Γ + ΐ ) ^ Τ τ ] (20.15)
The distribution of the contact pressure is described by the for­
mula (20.3).
The maximum pressure pm at the centre of the contact arc is com­
puted by the formula
Pm = 0 . 5 5 ^ ( ^ + 0.35) (20.16)

The initial data for the calculation of contact parameters in sli­

ding bearings are (a) the design characteristics of the bearing unit
(Z, i? 1? ε and γ); (b) the mechanical properties of bearing material
(E-L and μχ) and shaft material (E2 and μ 2 ); and (c) the acting load P.
It should be kept in mind that all the design relationships given
in this paragraph apply only to bearings in which / < 0.3.
The calculating sequence is as follows:
1. Ascertain whether the contact parameters of a plain bearing
can be found from the Hertz theory (see formula (20.1). If the in­
equality (20.1) is followed, compute the contact angle by formula
(20.2), the pressure over the contact area by formula (20.3), and the
maximum pressure at the contact area centre by formula (20.4).
2. If the inequality (20.1) is not met, find the parameter ψ. If it
turns out to be smaller than 0.01, take the following steps:
(a) With μχ < 0.5, find the value of k from the graph in Fig. 20.3
or by calculation with one of the formulas in Table 20.1. At μ! = 0.5,
determine the value of k by formula (20.6).
(b) With μ-L < 0.5 and for a split bush at μχ = 0.5, solve the left-
hand part of equation (20.5). Plotting the obtained values along the
ordinate on the graph (see Fig. 20.2a), find the contact angle 2φ 0 .
At μ1 = 0.5 for a solid bush, solve the left-hand part of equation
(20.7) and determine the contact angle by the graph in Fig. 20.26.
(c) With φ 0 known, compute the maximum pressure, pmi at the
contact area. For this purpose use either formula (20.9) (for μχ < 0.5)
or one of the formulas (20.10), (20.11) (for μχ = 0.5), assuming
φ = 0.
The mean contact pressure p is found by the formula

198
 3. If ψ > 0.01, the bearing unit is calculated by the formulas cor­
responding to the second case, and the sequence of calculation is as
follows:
(a) Depending on the value of ψ, compute the exponent n by one
of the formulas given in Table 20.2 with the use of the graph in
Fig. 20.4.
(b) Find the coefficient CQ by formula (20.14) and the contact angle
2φ 0 by formula (20.15).
(c) Calculate the pressure in the contact zone by formula (20.3),
the maximum pressure at the centre of the contact arc by formula
(20.16), and the mean pressure by formula (20.17).

"0
0.54
0.52
0.50
0.48
0.46
044
0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 ψ

Fig. 20.4. Variation of n0 with parameter ψ

One more note in conclusion. Special coatings are often applied

to the operating surfaces of bearings in order to improve their fric­
tion and wear characteristics. If the thickness of the coating, δ,
is small compared with the contact arc, that is λ = -g— ^ 0.1,
then the mechanical properties of these coating materials are dis­
regarded in the above calculations. Alternatively, if λ > 10, the
coating is considered thick and it is precisely its mechanical pro­
perties that are taken into account, whereas the body to which the
coating is applied is assumed undeformable [4].

20.1.2. Analysis of Wear in

an Inverse Sliding Pair
The basic premises of analysis [3].
1. The bearing is much more wear-resistant than the mating shaft
journal. For this reason the bearing bore diameter is regarded as
invariable.
2. The bearing assembly wears at the expense of the journal, which
is assumed to retain the shape of a circular cylinder as it wears away.
In this instance, for any revolution n of the shaft, the bearing dimen­
sions will obey the relationship
Rx = R2 (n) + ε (η) = constant
where R2 (n) and ε (n) = journal radius and radial clearance in
the bearing after the rath revolution of the shaft.
199
 3. The Hertz theory is applicable to the calculation of contact para­
meters with regard to a change of bearing dimensions from revolution
to revolution, namely
x(i+y)Po (20.18)
'm (») >
;(ΐ+χ)(ΐ-χ</)θ Σ Α 2 (0)

:(n) = ■ΛΫΙι+χ)(ΐ-χ»)^βθ
«χ(ΐ+»)
Σ Α. ι(0)
(20.19)

P(n; 4 e p m ( n ) | / " l - ( 1 £ j F ) 2 (20.20)

where χ = | ^ ; y = JjjÖ— 1; ΘΣ = ΘΧ + Θ2; ε (0) = initial
radial clearance in the bearing; a (n) = half the width of the contact
area.
4. The journal's wear rate relates to the contact pressure as
/ = Kpm
where K and m = parameters which can be either computed by the
appropriate formulas (see Vol. 1, Ch. 3) or found experimentally.
The journal's wear h (n) during an nth revolution is determined as
+a{n) 1
h (n) = \ Kp (n; x) dx = 2a (n) [ Kpm (n; t) dt
m

-a(n)

where £ = τ-Γ-ίτ , which corresponds to the average wear rate on the

rath revolution
1
7
( ) = ^ j " = Î R p n ^ ^dt
n
(20·21>
0
Making integration of equation (20.21) with regard to (20.20),
we find

2r
(T+T)
where Γ (z) = gamma function.
Since the numerical value of h (n) is equal to the change in radial
clearance on the nth shaft revolution, the wear characteristic of the
bearing must conform to the differential equation
de = h (n) dn
whence the number of revolutions at which the clearance ε* will be
reached is
ε*-ε(0)
n= [ - ^ (20.23)
e(Jo) ^ W W
200
 If the quantity ε* is regarded as the maximum allowable clearance
in the bearing, formula (20.23) will determine the bearing life as de­
pendent on wear.
With allowance for (20.18), (20.19), and (20.22), expression (20.23)
can be given the form
n = n0F (20.24)
where
F
A{^f^d^ "·-
0
^-^(20.24a>
#(l+x)xm-iç 2

y l f V
- 8(0) π(1 + χ)χ*2(0)
The values of the integral for different combinations of m and i/*
are listed in Table 20.3.
For plain bearings, the effect of χ on the value of F is negligible.
Table 20.3
Numerical values of function F

m m
V* y*
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.5 1.75 1.42 1.15 0.95 0.78 0.66 0.56
0.5 0.16 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 6.0 1.91 1.52 1.22 0.99 0.81 0.68 0.57
1.0 0.32 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.27 6.5 2.07 1.63 1.29 1.04 0.84 0.70 0.59
1.5 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.41 0.39 0.36 0.34 7.0 2.23 1.73 1.36 1.08 0.87 0.71 0.60
2.0 0.64 0.59 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.43 0.39 7.5 2.39 1.83 1.42 1.12 0.89 0.73 0.60
2.5 0.80 0.72 0.65 0.59 0.53 0.48 0.43 8.0 2.55 1.93 1.48 1.16 0.92 0.74 0.61
3.0 0.96 0.85 0.75 0.66 0.58 0.52 0.46 1 8.5 2.71 2.03 1.54 1.19 0.94 0.75 0.62
3.5 1.11 0.97 0.84 0.73 0.63 0.56 0.49 9.0 2.86 2.13 1.60 1.23 0.96 0.77 0.63
4.0 1.27 1.08 0.92 0.79 0.68 0.59 0.51 9.5 3.02 2.22 1.66 1.26 0.98 0.78 0.63
4.5 1.43 1.20 1.00 0.84 0.72 0.61 0.53 10.0 3.18 2.32 1.71 1.29 1.00 0.79 0.64
5.0 1.59 1.31 1.08 0.90 0.75 0.64 0.55

Example. A dry-rubbing bearing consists of a steel shaft coated with a

ΦΚΗ-7 polymer-composition layer having a thickness δ = 0.25 mm and a steel
bearing bush. The dimensions of the bearing are: R2 (0) = 25 mm, I = 50 mm;
ε (0) = 0.05 mm. The mechanical properties of the materials:4 for steel E=
= 2 X IO6 kgf/cm2; μ = 0.3, and for ΦΚΗ-7 E = 1.15 12
X 10 kgf/cm2; μ =
= 0.4. The parameters of the wear law: K = 4.8 X 10~ ; m = 1.4. The coeffi­
cient of friction / = 0.19. The load on the bearing P = 500 kgf.
Find the bearing life provided that the maximum allowable clearance ε* =
= 0.2 mm.
First determine whether the coating may be considered thin. To this end*
compute the maximum allowable value of A,raax, characteristic of steel-to-steel
contact between the shaft and the bush.
1. Compute CQ by formula (20.14):

C o = - ^ p - [ ( l — 0.3 2 ) + ( l - 0 . 3 2 ) l ] = 1.43

201
 2. Compute n by the formulas in Table 20.2 at ψ = 1, and by the graph]given
an Fig. 20.4.
m1 = 0.07 (1 — lg 1) = 0.07; m2 = 0.20 (1 + lg 1) = 0.20
n0 = 0.502; R = 0 . 3 X 0.27 + 0.502 = 0.583
3. The dimensionless parameter
P0 _ P __ 5 χ 1 0 2 χ 1 0 3
• = 10-2
Eis (0) ~~ lEte (0) 5 x 2 X 10e X 5
4. Find the angle φ 0 by formula (20.15):
Γ / 1.43 ,. Λ
A IO"22 10.583
φ0 = 0.32 11
.12 ' V 10-2 +
5. Compute the parameter X m a x
0.25
^max — " 0.09<0.1
0.11X2.5
Hence, the coating is thin.
Using the relationship (1), check whether the Hertz theory applies in this
înstiîTice*
[(1_0.3 2 ) + (1—0.32) 1] IO"2 = 0.0182 < 0.092
Thus, the relationships (20.18), (20.19), (20.20) and (20.24) are applicable
to the calculation of the contact parameters and the service life of the bearing.
From formulas (20.24a) we obtain
< ^' 3.14
^ T * ^ * 1
(1 + 2 XlO- 3 )
0
; l ^
2χ10-3χ2.5"
.=5.79x10-3
(9.1 X l O - 7 ) 1 · 4
n0-- -= 4.13 XlO 6
"4.8 x l O - 1 2 (1 + 2X10- 3 ) (2X10-3) 0 · 4 (5.79 χ IO"3)1·
8* — ε (0)
For the rated allowable clearance y* = = 3 and m = 1.4, the value
ε(0)
of F, found from Table 20.3, will be 0.87. Finally, the bearing life n = n0F =
= 0.87 X 4.13 X 106 = 3.6 X
χ ΐ θ 6 revolutions.

0.75
20.1.3. Analysis of
Load-Carrying Capacity
0.5
The analysis of plain be­
arings for load-carrying ca­
2
Jf\\ \y\ \
pacity requires the intro­
0.25
duction of notions of a thin-
walled bush and a thick-
0.5 1.0 1.5 walled bush [6]. If the thick­
<fo,ract ness δ of the bush wall
Fig. 20.5. Criteria of bearing-bush wall exceeds the depth of the
thickness plastic flow in it, the bush
J—μη = 0; 2—μη = 0.17; 3—μη = 0.32; 4- ■μη = is called thick-walled. If the
bush is deformed through­
out the whole depth of the wall, it is considered thin-walled.
In Fig. 20.5, the regions disposed above the appropriate curves
relate to thick-walled bushes and the regions lying below the curves
202
relate to thin-walled bushes. With y < 0.56, a bush should be con­
sidered thick-walled regardless of μ η = ^τ, where k plastic con­
stant of the material, and τ = tangential stresses.

ΨοΨ %V
to 9)
Fig. 20.6. Diagrams for distribution of normal pressures in contact area at
(σ) for thick-walled bush; (6) for thin-walled bush

Tentative assessment of the plain bearing wall thickness at / ^ 0.1

and, accordingly μη ^ 0.2 to 0.3 can be made, ignoring the influ­
ence of friction, with the relationship

which corresponds [to the linear section of the curve (Fig. 20.5) for
μη = 0.
In a thick-walled bush, the normal contact pressures are distribut­
ed in accordance with the relationship [1] (Fig. 20.6a):
at φλ ^ <p ]> 0
p/2k = A1 + α χ φ (20.25)
at 2φ 0 > φ > φ λ
p/2k = A2 — α2 (φ — 2φ 0 ) (20.26)
where
Ai = -τ- -f- — arccos 2μη -f -5- + -Ö- s i n arccos 2μ η

A - i î L - — arccos 2μ η + -x- + -s- sin arccos 2μ η

α1 = 1.78(1 — μ η ) ; · α 2 = 1 . 7 8 ; φ λ = ^2 — ^ i + 2a2<Po
Λΐ+«2
By integrating equations (20.25) and (20.26) for the contact arc,
we will determine the critical load [P0] in the case of a thick-walled

203
bush:
\P 1
- ^ - = Aì [sin φ0 + sin (φ λ — φ0)] + Α2 [sin φ 0 — sin (φ λ — φ0)]
+ («ι + α2) [cos (φ λ — φ0) + <Ρλ sin (φ λ — φ0) — cos φ0]
— 2α 2 φ 0 sin (φ λ — φ0) (20.27)
If friction is neglected, expression (20.27) will take the form
- g s L = 2 ( - £ + 1 ) sin <p0 +; 3.56 (1 - cos φ0) (20.28)
The diagram of distribution of the normal contact pressures in a
thin-walled bush at μ η = 0 is shown in Fig. 20.66 [6]. The diagram
is symmetrical, so only half of it is given. In the region φ* ^ φ ^ 0
c=pt12k c=p/2k
3.0 Ó.U

2.8 2.8
2.6 2.4
2.4 ?.?
15 30 45 60 75 φ° 0 15 30 45 60 75 <p°

c=p/2k c=p/2k
3.0
2.8 ■
2.6
2.6 2.4
2.4 2.2
2.2 1 2.0
15 30 45 60 75 φ£ 0 15 30 45 60 75 φ°
ip) W
Fig. 2Ö.7. The mean critical pressures vs contact angle for thick-walled
bearing bush
(α) μ η = 0; (b) μη = 0.1; (c) μ η = 0.2; (d) μ η = 0.3

adjacent to the contact zone boundary, the stress is distributed line­

arly according to equation (20.25); here Ax = ^ - - f 1, and ax = 1.78.
The following relationship holds for the rest of the contact contour:
pl2k = A[ + α[φ
where A't = 2, and a[ = 0.33 j 1 + 1.78.
The limiting pressure for a thick-walled bush
i ^ L - — 2Ai [sin φ0 — sin (φ0 — φ*) ]
+ 2ax [cos (φ0 — φ*) — φ* sin (φ0 — φ*) — cos φ0]
+ 2Α[ sin (φ 0 — φ*) + 2α[ [1 + φ* sin (φ0 —φ*) - cos (φ 0 — φ*)] (20.29)
where φ * = ^ £ .

204
 Transition from elastic to plastic deformation will come about at
the moment that the mean contact stresses calculated by the formula
of the theory of elasticity (see Sec. 20.1.1) reach the magnitudes of
the mean stresses in the fully pla­
stic conditions (Figs. 20.7 and 20.8). 0.05
Equalizing their values, it is
possible to find the angle φ 0 and,
further, by using relationships
(20.27), (20.28) or (20.29), to deter­
mine the critical load on the bear­
ing.

20.1.4. Analysis of Temperature

Conditions
A stationary temperature field
in a polymer bush is calculated in
[18] on the following assumptions: Fig. 20.8. The mean critical pres­
(1) the work of the frictional forces sures vs contact angle for thin-
is completely transformed into walled bearing bush
heat; (2) the source of heat spread
over the contact area causes the distribution of heat flows between
the bearing and the shaft, which is characterized by a constant at;
(3) the thermal conductivity of the bearing housing is much greater
than that of the bush and, therefore, the temperature gradient from
the housing to the bush is low.
The distribution of temperature in a thin bush has the form
*i = Co (<p) + tcx (φ) (20.30)
Φ <Po
ο(φ) (20.31)
' " Ι θ ( φ ) + μ ίΡ Λ 1 ρ(φ) at | φ | < φ 0
ί γ ο Ρ Α ι ί Ι - Υ ο Ρ Α ^ Ι Ο ο - θ ί φ ) ] at 9l>9o
Ci (φ) = J (20.32)
■μ*Ρ#ιΡ(φ) at | φ | < φ 0
where
1 Ä In r/R1x
t = HT ; ft-'d-atWÄi^
Ρ=ίηΊϊΓ
# 0 = temperature of air between the shaft and the bearing; γ 0 =
= HJk-ù H1 = coefficient of heat exchange between the bearing and
the air inside it; / = thermal equivalent of work; kx = coefficient
of thermal conductivity of the bearing bush; ω = shaft angular velo­
city; and r = current radius.
From the solution of the problem of thermal conductivity for the
bearing shell it follows that
Θ (<p) = μ, (D0 + Dx cos φ) (20.33)
inhere D0 and Dx = constants.
205
 Substituting the second relationships in the equations (20.31)
and (20.32) into (20.30), with regard to the expressions (20.33) and
(20.8), we shall obtain the race temperature at | φ | ^ φ 0 in the form

♦.-m(c t +i>, w . T -"*vcy" t> ) <2o-34>

Let us express the mean temperature along the contact arc (t = 0)
as
<Po

GT = — ( Oidcp (20.35)
o
Then, with allowance for (20.34), expression (20.35) will take the
form
β ; = μα* (20.36)
where q* = D0 + D,^-0 + PRlP*

° 2 p0(COS(po_Ä)
y
7?1(sin29o —2φ0)
The mean linear temperature of the shaft can be represented,
according to [2], as
χτ2 — T κ
1+2
where κ dimensionless coefficient;
=
<Po D D / . 21.9 / 3.1/ \ λ z Λ _. Z2+4s2
x fi; β=4 θχ 0Ο8Η 0 5λ
=i£ +7^ ρ(--ΐ7) ^~ · ^-βΐ-'
« R2H2
here, 772 = coefficient of heat transfer from shaft; z = coordinate
of a point along
n 1 r m rr the
t.Vi a shaft
e Vi a f t axis
AYI'S j
I z
σ. |I ^
<T^ — and k2 = coefficient of ther­
mal conductivity for shaft.
Averaging the temperature of the shaft along its length by intro-
1/2
ducing the coefficient B* =-j\
Bdz, we obtain the shaft's mean
o
surface temperature in the form
m==atRl<*Jfp*%* (2037)

where
/*_. ΰ
πλ 2 ' ^ - *T ^
The coefficient Βλ depends on the ratio of the journal diameter to
the bearing length (Fig. 20.9). By equalizing the shaft and bush

206
mean temperatures in the contact area, θ* and d j , we shall find the·
coefficient of the distribution of heat flows:
κ^χρ*/?! L-l
af: (20.38)
The sequence of temperature calculation in the plain bearing is:
(1) compute the contact angle φ0; (2) determine the coefficint of
heat-flow distribution at from formula (20.38); and (3) compute the·
maximum and the mean bush tempera- j?7
ture by formulas (20.34) and (20.36).
Criterion pv*. The pv criterion, where
p and v = shaft peripheral velocity,
p = 77Ö- 7
ΔΙΧχΙ
to
is a widely applicable characteristic of ope­
rating conditions for plain bearings. The
allowable value of this criterion [pv] is de­ 0.5
termined by the relationship [15]
kht [θχ]
[pv]
1 1.2 1* 1.6 1.8 l/R2
Fig. 20.9. Variation of
where kht = parameter of the bearing's coefficient'B with design
heat transfer; [dj = allowable excess tem­ dimensions ±of sliding be­
perature on the working surface of the aring
bearing bush.
Normal operating conditions for a plain bearing should meet the·
requirement
pv < [pv]
Typical temperature limits for some polymer materials used in
plain-bearing applications are presented in Table 20.4. The heat
/Table 20.4
Maximum operating temperatures for polymers
used in plain bearings

Polymer #, °c Polymer #, °c Polymer ft, °c

Polyamides 80-110 Polycarbonates 100-135 Silicone resins 145-200

Polyolefins 70-105 Siloxane ela­ Hard fluorine-
Epoxy resins 80-135 stomers 135-185 containing po­
lymers 155-200

* Increased load on the contacting surface leads to an increase in the num­

ber of contact spots rather than to a substantial change in pressure on an indi­
vidual spot because the loading conditions on a single spot keep invariable.
Increased sliding speed can give rise to change in the conditions of formation
of the protective film on the contact spots because of the change of their tempe­
rature that leads to alterations in the structure of the surface layers. For these
reasons, the pv criterion, though frequently applicable, should be used with
caution. Editors,

207
transfer parameter depends on the design of the bearing unit. The
most frequently used bearing designs are classified [15] into four
groups (Fig. 20.10).
The group / incorporates bearings mounted in a heavy housing.
Bushes held in components that are placed on an axle are referred to
groups II and III; an example is idle gears. The removal of heat
from the bearings in groups / , II, and III is effected mainly in a
radial direction through the bearing-housing components. Group IV

Fig. 20.10. Design classification of sliding bearings

includes bearing housings that have a small radial but a long axial
extension. Heat is removed from such a bearing mainly
axially.
In the general case, the heat transfer parameter kht is a sum of
the parameters of heat removal through the bearing housing kh and
the shaft k8h.
Depending on the design group, the heat-removal parameter is
calculated by the formulas given in Table 20.5. In these formulas
A= 2nkvhhl^\
Bi = 2nRk8thhmh$; C = HhFh and
B2 = nV Hhk6tô2Dm(Dm + ô2)
The coefficient k^ allows for a non-symmetrical temperature field
around the bearing periphery; at an invariably directed load &φ =
= 0.85 to 0.9 with a rotating bush (groups I and II) &φ = 1.0,
208
 Table 20.5
Formulas for calculation of kh for plain-bearing
design groups

I II and III IV

i. f _ ^φ — ^ 0
h
_J^ko__ kh=
Λφ Λο
lih
~ 1 1 1
' 1 , 1
A + B1 ~Α~+~ΒΪ+ΊΓ
_L+_LT
A B2

k0 = ry- ; $0 = ambient temperature; hh = wall thickness of the

heat-removing housing; kp and kst = thermal conductivity coeffi­
cients for polymer and steel, respectively [W/(m-°C)]; Hh = coef­
ficient of heat exchange between the housing and the environment
[W/((m2-°C)]; Fh = heat dissipating area of the bearing housing;
Dm and δ 2 = mean diameter and cross-sectional area (group IV);

mh -V{ 2Hh
dhh

J1(-!!!p-)K1(mhR)-Jl(mhR)K1(^L)
Ψ- J (m R) K ( - ^ ) + Λ (-Ζψ·) Κ0~^Β7)
0 h X

where J0 (z), Jx (z), K0 (z), and Kx (z) = Bessel's functions of ima­

ginary argument.
The parameter of heat transfer through the shaft is computed by
the following formulas. If the shaft may be considered infinitely
long
ksh = nV2H2kstR\
For the shaft of a limited length L
ksh = π V2H2kstR32 tanh (mshL)
Here H2 = coefficient of heat exchange between the shaft and the
environment, W/(m2-°C); L = shaft length; m8h = j / ' * ¥ ± .

20.1.5. Geometric Relationships

The dimensions of metal-fluoroplastic strip are given in Volume 1,
and those of bearing bushes made of it, in Table 20.6.
The wall thickness for polyamide bearing bushes is chosen from
the following range in mm:
Shaft diameter . . 10-18 18-30 30-40 40-50 50-65 65-80
Bush wall thickness 0.8-1 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.0 2.5-3.0 3.0-3.5 3.5-4.0

14-01156 209
 Table 20.6
Bearing bushes from meta]-fluoroplastic strip
(dimensions, mm)

Inner Outer Inner Outer

diameter diameter Length diameter diameter Length

10 13 10-12-16 30 33
12 15 10-12-16-20 32 37 20-25-32-40-50
15 18 10-12-16-20-25
16 19 10-12-16-20-25 36 41 25-32-40-50
40 45 32-40-50-60
18 21 55 60 ! 32-40-50-60-65-70
20 23
22 25 16-20-25-32-40
25 28

Note. Tolerances on inner and outer diameter are A3 and Π Ό ΐ 3 , respectively.

The amount of interference for pressing the bush into the housing
is chosen according to the relationship Aj = (0.03 to 0.05) Dh, where
Dh = housingseat diameter, and the radial clearances in the bearing
are chosen according to the relationship ε = (0.005 to 0.015) R2.
The dimensions of graphite bush bearings are presented in Tab­
le 20.7.
Table 20.7
Graphite bush bearing (dimensions, mm)

Radial Wall Radial Wall

Shaft diameter clearance thickness Shaft diameter clearance thickness

Up to 10 0.005-0.015 2 Over 35 to 70 0.04-0.07 6-8

Over 70 to 100 0.06-0.08 10-12
Over 10 to 20 0.01-0.03 3-5 Over 100 to 150 0.1-0.2 12-18
Over 10 to 35 0.03-0.05 Over 150 to 200 0.2-0.3 18-25

20.2. HYDRODYNAMIC BEARINGS

20.2.1. Classification, Form Errors,

and Operating Conditions
Two types of hydrodynamic bearings have found the most exten­
sive use: journal bearings, in which the load is perpendicular to the
rotation axis, and thrust bearings, which are loaded along (parallel)
to the rotation axis.
Journal bearings are made in the form of a solid bush (sleeve) or
a split bush supporting the shaft journal.
210
 Thrust bearings either may form a joint of a plate with the end
face of the shaft or the bearing may incorporate many self-aligning
pads forming something like a split ring.
By the type of loading, bearings fall into three categories: the
first, taking a constant-magnitude load directed invariably with
respect to the stationary component of the sliding pair; the second
supports a constant load with an orientation invariable relative to
the rotational component of the sliding pair (that is, the load rotates
together with this component), which occurs in loading by the centri­
fugal force; and the third category is subjected to a complex-type of
loading sometimes referred to as dynamic, in which momentary loads
are variable both in magnitude and direction.
The load-carrying capacity of the lubricant film, that is the ability
of hydrodynamic bearings to support and carry load through
developing a lubricant pad (the hydrodynamic wedge) that separates
the mating surfaces, can arise only if the following conditions are
met: (1) the rubbing surfaces move relative to each other; (2) there
is a viscous liquid or gas between the surfaces; and (3) the shape of
the mating surfaces is such as to cause the viscous fluid to enter the
narrowing space formed by the rubbing surfaces.
The purpose of the calculation of hydrodynamic bearings is to
determine two characteristics: first, the minimum value of thickness
of the lubricant film that must separate the mating surfaces in the
most severe operating conditions, and the second, the maximum tem­
perature of the load-carrying lubricant film.
The minimum thickness of the carrying lubricant film must be
sufficient to exclude the contact of the sliding surfaces during-
overloading and also to exclude the jamming of the lubricant-con­
taminating particles whose size exceeds the limits permissible for
a given type of joint.
The maximum temperature of the lubricant film must be lower
than the temperature limit proper for the combination of the anti­
friction lining, the mating part material, and the lubricant.
Experience suggests the conclusion that with well-filtrated mine­
ral oils operating at sliding speeds up to 20 m/s, the allowable tempe­
rature should not exceed 122°C for babbitt B83, 160°C for lead bronze,
and 200°C for antifriction aluminium alloys.
Synthetic metal-ceramic materials containing fluoroplastic can
safely work at temperatures up to 250°C with a heat-resistant lubri­
cant.
Engineering calculations of hydrodynamic bearings are based or*
the assumption that the mating surfaces of the journal and the bearing
bush or the thrust plate and the shaft collar are ideally round or flat.
The effect that form and position inaccuracies have on the design
parameters of a sliding pair should be estimated with respect to
the operative geometric condition of the parts rather than their preas-
sembled condition. For instance, the cylindrical working surfaces
of bearing liners deliberately bored to an oval or elliptical cross-
14* 211
section may not be considered faulty if the deformations arising in
operation cause the oval or ellipse to take a circular shape, whereby
surfaces of the liner and the journal mate correctly.
The most harmful geometric form and position inaccuracies for
thrust bearings are out-of-flatness of the working surfaces and out-
of-squareness of the bearing plate and the collar of the shaft to its
rotational axis; for journal bearings such errrors are misalignment of
axes in the bearing bush and the shaft journal, radial runout of
journals in a multi-journal shaft, and misalignment of bore axes in
crankcase bearings.
Any deterioration in the shape and position of the mating surfaces
during operation is undesirable and must be prevented.

Fig. 20.11. Equivalent surfaces for geometric form errors

(a) taper; (b) bellmouth; (c) barrel

An antifriction lining runs in easily; for this reason, the manufac­

turing inaccuracies of the surfaces lined with soft antifriction mate­
rials do not have such adverse effect as the inaccuracies of hard-mate­
rial surfaces.
In calculation of hydrodynamic bearings, geometrically true
cylinders are substituted for the actual surfaces having form errors
(such as taper, barrel, or bellmouth). For instance, instead of a tapered
bore and journal, calculation is made for cylindrical surfaces
with the diameters D and d for the bearing bore and the journal, res­
pectively (Fig. 20.11).
The dimensions of these equivalent surfaces are then taken as the
base for determining the minimum design thickness of the lubricant
film.
Corrective factors allowing for the form errors are subsequently
introduced.
The value of the coefficient λ which allows for the running-in
capacity of the bearing liner surface is 1.0 for steel and bronze, 0.5
for babbitt, and 0.25 for metal-ceramics containing fluoroplastic.

212
 The correction for non-parallelism or misalignment of axes of t h e
bearing and the journal is given by
Aknp' ίλ8
ΊΒ
here, λ = coefficient allowing for running-in capacity of the sliding
component; s = mutual departure of axes measured at a distance B
(Fig. 20.12).
The correction for the deflection of the shaft section disposed be­
tween the support points (Fig. 20.13)

where fdf = magnitude of deflection of the journal or bore over t h e

bearing length.
The correction allowing for a decrease in the minimum lubricant-
film thickness due to misalignment or runout of journals on a multi-

Fig. 20.12. Parallel misalignment Fig. 20.13. Shaft deflection

of bearing and shaft axes

support shaft and bearing-bore axes should be determined depending

on the stiffness of the mating parts, the direction of journal eccentri­
cities relative to the centrifugal component of load, and the direction
of eccentricities of the bearing axes with respect to the stationary
component of load.
The measurement and calculation of these quantities during as­
sembly is difficult; for this reason, use is made of an approximate
method of determining the correction for the runout between two
adjacent journals Rj and bearing-linear axes Rb in the most unfa­
vourable combination
&-*/.+ *.
It should also be kept in mind that in case the sum of the runouts
of a journal and the mating bearing is larger than the diametrical
clearance Δ, the journal will necessarily deform in rotation; therefore,
Δ > Rj + Rb

2ia
 The sum of the ovalities of a journal and the bearing bore must be,
first, smaller than the minimum diametrical clearance, and, second,
smaller than half the maximum clearance.
For thrust bearings, the main mating error is the out-of-squareness
of the runner and the bearing pads to the shaft axis of rotation:
Ah08 = λ1οε1 + X2os2
where osx and os2 = respective out-of-squareness values for the runner
and the bearing pads measured at extreme points.
The surface roughness of a steel bearing component operating on
an antifriction lining should be taken such as has developed in ser­
vice because even a very carefully processed and polished surface
develops a surface roughness* proper to the operating conditions of
the given sliding pair; this steady-state roughness will be coarser than
the initial one with finely machined surfaces, and finer with more
coarsely machined surfaces.
For finely ground steel shaft journals of a conventional design
operating under average service conditions with a mineral-oil lubri­
cation, the steady-state surface roughness may be assumed to be 0.6
to 1.3 μπι Rmax.
The value of the minimum thickness of the operative film can be
expressed as
Kp = K — (tShg + i?max)
where h0 = minimum design value of the lubricant film thickness;
Ahg = correction allowing for geometric form and position errors
of the sliding pair, including deflection.
The allowable minimum operative thickness of the lubricant film
cannot be constant and identical for all types of machinery. It is
established for a specific bearing application, depending on the mate­
rials of the sliding pair, dimensions of its components, operating
conditions, and quality of manufacture.
Experience in troubleshooting machine bearings has shown that
the minimum thickness of the operative lubricant film under the
most severe operating conditions should be over 2 μιη.
The minimum lubricant film thickness for babbitt-lined thrust
bearings of the 2nd accuracy class is determined from empirical rules
that establish the value of the sought parameter depending on the
diameter (D) of the bearing disc.
With small (20 to 200 mm) outside diameters of the bearing disc,
hop = 3.8 + 0.21D 3 / 4 μπι, and with large diameters (300 to 5000 mm),
hop = 15 + 5 X 10"3D μιη; here D is expressed in millimeters.
Polymer-metal-ceramic antifriction materials present no hazard
of temporary worsening of bearing operation. Therefore a factor of
0.65 may be introduced into the above formulas.
* The choice and prediction of the value of steady-state roughness, that is,
roughness that duplicates itself in the process of wear is described in detail in
Ch. 2.

214
20.2.2. Design of Thrust Bearings
for Maximum Lubricant-Film
Load-Carrying Capacity

In design of a tilting-pad thrust bearing, it is necessary to find an

optimum position of the fulcrum point (a spherical or a knife-edge
supports) about which the pads will tilt, and an optimum relation
between the dimensions of the pads [9].
The optimum can be obtained on condition that the fluid-film
friction holds with regard to three parameters:^!) the minimum thick-

Fig. 20.14. Design diagram for axial (thrust) bearing

ness of the load-carrying lubricant film; (2) the minimum frictional

losses; (3) the minimum heating of the load-carrying film.
Described below is a design method that allows the lubricant film
of a maximum load-carrying capacity to be obtained, which is vital
for compact, heavily loaded machinery.
The basic data for the design calculation are (Fig. 20.14) the total
load on the thrust bearing (P), the angular sliding velocity ω, the
inner radius (rx) of the pads, the physico-mechanical properties of the
lubricant fluid, the lubricant temperature (fl^) in the space between
the pad and the collar near the pad's entry edge; the cooling con­
ditions of the bearing housing and the thrust collar; and the materials
of the sliding-pair components.
The degree in which the process is non-isothermic is assessed by
the coefficient a. The physico-mechanical properties of lubricant
215
are characterized by the coefficient ax [8]:
h i

a = a 1 Adj b
where η = local value of dynamic viscosity of the load-carrying
film, kgf -s/m2; r\m = value of dynamic viscosity related to the mean
temperature of the load-carrying film; kgf-s/m2; Δθ ί& = heating
of lubricant in the load-carrying film, °C; d m = mean temperature
of the load-carrying film;

Each pad of the thrust bearing has an entry edge (see Fig. 20.14).
The tangential extension of the entry edge

where β = centre angle of the pad with an entry edge; p = propor­

tionality factor (the recommended value of p is 0.10).
The pads are divided with between-pad spaces whose inner periph­
eral extension is
θ, = *β
where s is a factor usually taken to be 0.15 to 0.25.
Assuming a uniform distribution of load among the pads, we shall
find the fraction of load alloted to each pad

where i = number of pads.

It is advisable to start the calculation by specifying the value of
p m , the mean pressure on the working surface of the pad. The
minimum thickness and maximum temperature of the oil film should
then be found from the pressure pm, and by changing the latter, the
appropriate correction should be introduced.
Under these conditions, the outside radius r2 of the pad will be
determined regardless of the number of pads, namely: with the entry
edge on one side
ri=\frl 1+ s
npm i — p
and with the entry edges on both sides, made for bi-directional rota­
tion
r.-|/"r; 1+s
«Pm 1—2/)
The radii of r2 and rx being determined, the bearing ring should
be broken into load-carrying sections, that is pads.
216
 An optimum film load-carrying capacity is ensured with the radial-
to-mean tangential dimension ratio of the pad as shown in Fig. 20.15·
2(1 —z)
£>= Pop (1 + 2)
Here, z = rxlr2 = pad's inner-to-outer radius ratio; ß op centre
angle of the pad's working portion (without the entry edge).
The temperature conditions of the frictional process are stabilized
when the amount of heat Qf generated from the resistance to sliding
caused by the lubricant film is equal to heat Qih removed by the
lubricant escaping through the clearance along the periphery of the
pad and heat Qa dissipating into the
ambience, that is JJ \
Qf = Qa + Q lb
or, else, when
yQt = Qib
The value of the coefficient y allowing
for the heat resulting from friction and
removed by the lubricant through the
clearances along the pad's periphery is
determined by the bearing' design and
operating conditions. Fig. 20.15. Optimum values
The sequence of calculation on the of parameter D as dependent
basis of the above data should be as on coefficient a allowing for
follows. First, we assign a likely amount non-isothermal conditions
of growth in the temperature Δΰ1 lb of the
load-carrying film, and also find the value of this growth analyti­
cally from the heat balance equation. Then comparing the assigned
and the calculated values of Δθζ&, we make re-calculation to ensure
that these values coincide.
From the specified values of ΔΦ^ and ϋ^ we determine the mean
temperature of the load-carrying film, which allows the value of the
coefficient a1? and, whence, the value of coefficient a to be found.
Next we determine the appropriate value of the parameter D
for the obtained value of a, using the curve in Fig. 20.15, and, fur­
ther, find a tentative value of the centre angle for the working
portion of the pad, appropriate for the given conditions
2(1-*)
β ί , Op = (1 + 2) D
The tentative value of the centre angle must suit the number of
pads; this should be a whole and, preferably, even number in order
to facilitate the balance of the thrust collar.
Now we determine the tentative number of pads, close to an opti­
mum one, from the expression
^ 2π(1-ρ)
* Pi, op (1 + 5)

217
 Rounding off the obtained figure to a whole even number, we
find the actual number of pads i, and from the latter, the actual tan­
gential extension of the pad's working portion
n _ 2π 1—-p

Allowance should be made for some departure from the specified

value of the mean pressure, which has occurred in refining the num­
ber of pads:

where Aop = working surface area for a single pad.

Now we ascertain whether our selection of the value of Δ θ ^
has been correct.
It has been established [9] that
AO,6=-2.34xlO-^Cia-^°C
where ξ = coefficient allowing for disturbances in the current pro­
cess, which result in higher resistance to rotation and, consequently,
higher generation of heat due to friction; c = specific heat of lubri­
cant, kcal/(kg-°C); γ = density of lubricant, kg/dm3; pm = pres­
sure, kgf/cm2.
With the use of mineral oils having an average value of viscosity
at an average sliding speed of about 20 m/s in average cooling con­
ditions of the bearing housing, the value of y can be taken to be from
Ό.85 to 0.90.
The coefficient ξ allows for departure of the bearing conditions in
the load-carrying film from ideal ones. The value of this coefficient
depends primarily on the extent to which the harmful turbulence
arising in the between-pad space and leading to saturation of the
lubricant by air is neutralized and to which the between-pad space
is cleaned of the used lubricant; it also depends on the bearing design
and stiffness; and on the running-in capacity of the sliding compo­
nents.
The values of the coefficient ξ will vary with the operating con­
ditions, dimensions and quality of manufacture of the thrust bearing,
and should therefore be established depending on bearing applica­
tions.
Where the area of the pad is near to 400 cm2 and the mean pres­
sure is about 70 kgf/cm2, the value of ξ comes up to 1.3. In lighter
service conditions, it ranges from 1.1 to 1.2.
The value of the coefficient Cta can be obtained from the curves
shown in Figs. 20.16 and 20.17. This provides for the first variant
of design for heating [ΔϋΊ^α of the load-carrying film of lubricant.
As a rule, the result of this variant shows no coincidence with the
initially selected value of [Δθ^Ι^.
;218
Fig. 20.16. Values of coefficient Cta over the range of a = 0-2.0 as a fun­
ction of tangential length ß o p of pad's operating portion

By the assumed and the calculated values of Ad^ obtained from

the two variants of calculation, a graph can be plotted (Fig. 20.18),
in which the assumed value, [Ad Z6 ] a , is plotted along the abscissa
and the design value, [Δθ Ζ5 ] οί , is plotted along the ordinate. The
points thus obtained are connected to give curve 1. A straight line
of the assumed values of Δ θ ^ (curve 2) is then superimposed on curve
1. The intersection of the two lines will indicate the condition
under which the assumed and the design values coincide.
Having found in this way the bearing temperature conditions, their
non-isothermal character, and the optimum number and dimensions
of bearing pads, we determine the values of the remaining parameters.
219
Fig. 20.17. Values of coefficient Cia over the range of a = 2.0-4.0 as a
function of tangential length ß o p of pad's working portion

The minimum thickness (in μπι) of the load-carrying film

ψ
yshoL "m

or

ei_Lrt|/"i!in«Ll()l
zChoc y Pm

220
 55

V
50
s/

45

40 45 50 55°
[Av
lh]d

Fig. 20.18. Graphical determination of heating of load-carrying oil film

Fig. 20.19. Values of coefficient Cha over the range of a = 0-2.0

221
 c
Aoc

/ "1
20/ / > - ?z=0.é|0
10.0

<? ^ U.75

<--]1
^ X
3.0 y
z
\0.80^
■*^~ ■- -
\θ.75^
8.0 \oj(ka ^ ^- - 1

\0.5^
=-: rsi —~·^ ^-^ ΪΟ^γ^
'jff .
^.7/7

7.0
^>*^^
S^^
^Ο _^- U.^
r^nz . .. -"^" £ ^ —— J
ξ ^ ^T^r--^
Ξ^—Ζ

6.0
Ξ ^ = ^=^Φ=--—
==r-^M
)o.d
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 OJ ß■op
Fig. 20.20. Values of coefficient Cha over the range of a = 2.0-4.C?

Fig. 20.21. Values of coefficient Cqa over the range of a = 0-2.0

222
 2--0.80
6.5

a=4.0

6.0

5.5
^
S 0.75

2 / 4JLS z=0.80
'-^3.0
\o.so(
5.0

0.70
Z--0.80 ^3
4.5
r75\/ Λ^ v
\
J^ 4.0^,
ΐί'
'z--0JS

»C \ -^— —-"-
0J0 2*0.65
4.0\ \/
\o.6sA z=0.70
2.0
s^

3.5
\0J60Q
]055^ 0\ > ■
7^ ζ=0.7δ]
z=0.60_

\0.50^ ^5 ζ ^ z^O.55
4.0 z=0.65

\ ^0 z=0.70
^^ >si!sr=:= z-0.50 0.60 \
3.0 $ =z"

\ ^ ^
^ > _ 0.55

\^ ^"^ -— - ^ - — 0.55 1
2.5
Ξ5 ^ 0.60 1
0.50
0.55
0.50
1
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 ftop

Fig. 20.22. Values of coefficient Cqa over the range of a = 2.0-4.0

223
where Cha = dimensionless coefficient whose values are given in
Figs. 20.19 and 20.20; the dimensions of the other quantities are:
r in cm; i]in in kgf-s/m 2 ; ω in rad/s; and pm in kgf/cm 2 .
The heat-generation intensity [kcal/(kgf-s)] of the actual working
process in the load-carrying film

^ / α = 2 . 3 4 χ 1 0 - ^ ρ α ω Γ 2 | /~ Άτ ,ω
Pm

ΌΓ

a
ξ^ /α = 2 . 3 4 χ 1 0 " 7 ξ - 'Q* - 4T
cor. V Pm

where Cqa = dimensionless coefficient, whose values are given for

an ideal process (without regard to disturbances induced by the bear­
ing design and operating
conditions) in Figs. 20.21
20.0 and 20.22.
The maximum tempera­
ture of the load-carrying
film
15.0 \
= fli + Δ# lb
The values of tangential
10.0
0.0
0.2
offset ε τ of the pivot (or
OA spherical support) for the
0.6
0.8 tilting pad required to
1.0
1.2 achieve the maximum load-
s.o) '
1A
1.6
carrying capacity of the
1.8 lubricant film, are given
2.0
2.2 in Fig. 20.23.
2.4
2.6
ΰ.θ\
— 2.8 ε τ =[θ.5--^]ΐΟΟ°/ο
^ 3.0
For ensuring the mini­
0.3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2(1-Z)
mum specific heat evolu­
tion and minimum heating
Fig. 20.23. Tangential eccentricity of til- of the load-carrying film,
ting-pad pivot for maximum load capacity the tangential eccentricity
of oil film values presented in Fig.
20.23 should be increased.
The radial coordinate of the centre of hydrodynamic pressure deve­
loping in the load-carrying film (the centre of the spherical support),
r0,* or, in relative terms C0 = ~ can be determined from the expres-

sion ψ = \°__z whence C0 = — — - + 1; the values of the coef­

ficient ψ are given in Fig. 20.24.

224
 0.2 O.J 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Q
°P
Fig. 20.24. Values of coefficient ψ

The maximum of the temperature field set up near the pad's

working surface is disposed at an angle Qmf = (0.28 to 0.24) β ο ρ .
Then, the highest temperature near the working surface in steady-
state thermal conditions

*m/-*i+(l—^Δθ«
ft op

15-01156 225
20.2.3. Design of Journal Bearings
Let us consider the most frequent case of loading by a force whose
magnitude and direction are constant [10].
Two regions arise in the bearing clearance (Fig. 20.25): in the
first, the lubricant film is unbroken"and in the second, the film is
broken up into separate flows. The first region of the lubricant flow
is capable of carrying load and is therefore referred to as the loaded
one, whereas the second region
cannot carry load and is referred
to as the unloaded one.
The initial formation of the
loaded region is determined by
the location of the oil-feeding
means. When fed through a hole
(usually disposed in a diametri­
cal section), the oil flow moves
radially along it and then, run­
ning against the mating-part
surface, turns aside by almost 90°.
The flow is not only carried by
the rotating shaft tangentially,
but also spreads toward the end
faces squeezing out the exhausted
Swept area of oil 3il that has passed the loaded
film
region of the lubricant film.
Fig. 20.25. Operating diagram for As the oil flow moves tangen­
hydrodynamic journal bearing
i — oil-film load-carrying region: 2- tially, pressure grows inside the
loaded region; 3—used oil film up to a maximum and then
goes down to zero at the bound­
ary of the loaded region. Here air penetrates the lubricant which
has lost the capacity of filling the clearance growing in a tangen­
tial direction. Some underpressure develops in the available space,
into which the atmospheric air breaks, dividing the oil flow into
separate portions.
The gases given off by heated used oil also contribute to occur­
rence of breaks in the flow.
There is an optimum location of the feed hole, at which, other
conditions being equal, the lowest temperature and highest load-
carrying capacity of the oil film can be obtained. This hole must be
in the region of the most thick lubricant film.
When oil is force-fed, the angular extension of the load-carrying
film depends on the location of the feed hole, the eccentricity of
the journal in the bearing clearance, and the feed pressure; it decrea­
ses with a greater eccentricity, and increases with a growing oil-
feed pressure.
Because of the difficulty of its analytical determining, the film
extension can be taken equal to 130° for engineering calculations,
226
assuming that the journal bearing commonly operates at eccentri­
city ratios* χ = 0.7 to 0.85, with the location of the oil-feed hole
near to the optimum one, and at a feed pressure p lb = 2 to 5 kgf/cm 2 .
With the axes of the journal and the bearing being parallel, the
variation of pressure within the oil film in an axial direction, is

i ytT —' ^ ι ^ i i i i i i ι
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 *//-%.

Fig. 20.26. Load coefficient vs eccentricity ratio

close to a parabola with an exponent of 2.2 to 2.3. The oil pressure

is at a maximum in the central section of the load-carrying region of
the bearing.
A mathematical analysis of the process occurring in the lubricant
film has revealed a relation between the dimensionless parameter cp,
referred to as the loading coefficient, which takes into account the
load, design, and operating conditions of the bearing, and χ, which is
the eccentricity of the journal in the bearing clearance.

where Δ = diametrical clearance, μπι; d = diameter of the journal,

cm.
The value of φ being found, we determine the eccentricity ratio χ
with the aid of the graphs given in Fig. 20.26, and, hence, the mini-
* The eccentricity ratio is the displacement of the shaft centre and the
bearing-bore centre relative to the bearing clearance.

\b* 227
mum oil film thickness
Δ(1-χ)
h0 =

To determine viscosity included in the formula (20.39), it is es­

sential to know the temperature conditions in which the bearing
operates.
Friction processes in the loaded and the unloaded region of the
oil film are markedly different, therefore the frictional heat evolution
in these regions is considered sepa­
ù
rately.
\ op
I Heat evolution (kcal/s) in the load­
13 ed oil-film area
1
18 Qfop = 1.17 x IO" 5 PmcP Ιωίορ
17
,\ \ where fop = operative value of the
16
coefficient of friction effective in the
15 \
loaded film area;
M \
l
ij
\
IH J
/°Ρ=ξβ°ρ,/(τ)10-4
w\
WA\
12 \ here, ξ = coefficient allowing for
11 ψ\ \ departure of the operating process from
\ \ \L an ideal one, and specifically for the
JO
3 V J
\ \ extent to which the bearing is run in,
the stiffness of the constmction, and
IV w
\ \
the materials of sliding pair; Δ, μπι;
σ.ί\ Λ
Y
\\
Λ
\ΰ3
V
V
I and d, cm, β 0 ρ, / is the design
value of the coefficient of friction in
μ* \\ \ \ the loaded film region (Fig. 20,27).
^V V Λ \ The values of the coeffibteht' ' | as
dependent on the eccentricity are given
^ in Fig. 20.28. They are found experi­
"''· 2
v: ^ ^ M mentally for a well run-in pair of
<$
1 materials (hard steel on lead bronze)
! 1 used in a bearing construction of a
0.1 0.2 0J 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 % very low stiffness (the conrod bearing
in an aircraft twin engine), subjected
Fig. 20.27. Coefficient ß o P i / vs to loading with a force of a variable
eccentricity ratio
magnitude arid direction. These values
should be looked upon as the devia­
tion limits for the most unfavourable combinations of a non-rigid
structure with a pair of mating materials that are most sensitive to
departure from an optimum geometric form. With the same materials
of the sliding pair, but a rigid bearing construction, the value of this
coefficient is close to unity over the whole range of variation of the
eccentricity.
Heat evolution in the unloaded area of the oil film depends on the"
concentration of the local oil flows divided by flows of àir, on their

228
direction, and on the turbulence of their motion; therefore, this kind
of heat evolution Qfc (kcal/s) is related to the oil flow through the
region considered within the range of plb = 1 to 10 kgf/cm 2 ;
2.7pw 1 η^Μο^ω
<?*-[*+ ^ ] Δ2
where κ = coefficient whose values are given in Fig. 20.29 for two
types of structural stiffness: curve 1 for a very non-rigid (limiting)
bearing construction and curve 2 for a very stiff construction; the
dimensions of the quantities are: M2, cm 3 /s, pih, kgf/cm 2 , r\mf
kgf-s/m 2 , d, cm, γ, kg/dm 3 , Δ, μπι, and ω, 1/s.

2.0 A
f
5.0
4.0
"7
3.0
1.5 2.0
1.0
0.5 0.6 07 % 0.6 0.7 0.8
Fig. 20.28. Coefficient ξ vs Fig. 20.29. Coefficient κ vs
eccentricity ratio eccentricity ratio

The total heat evolution in the bearing due to friction is equal

to the aggregate of heat evolutions in the loaded and unloaded re­
gions of the oil film (Qf = Qf,0p + Qfc)-
In many applications, the journal bearing serves as a locating
part. In such cases, the rotating shaft journal is provided with col­
lars mating with the end faces of the stationary bearing bush to fix
the shaft against axial displacements. The size of clearance between
the bush ends and the shaft collar has a marked effect on the rate
of oil flow through both regions of the film.
The escape of oil through the bearing's clearances is substantially
affected by the stiffness of the bearing components because the load-
induced deformations cause departure of the local film thickness
from the design value,.
The oil flow rate (cm3/s) through the loaded film area is determined
by the expression

The values of the coefficient ξχ that apply to the ideal shape of the
mating surfaces are given in Fig. 20.30.
Experiments with journal bearings having lid = 0.68 at eccen­
tricity values ranging from 0.5 to 0.84 resulted in the following values

229
of lst: for a very rigid bearing ξ 8 ί = 1.0, and for a bearing of a very
low stiffness (the conrol bearing in an aircraft twin engine) ξ θ ί =
- 0.4 + 0.113-*-·
i—χ
With a longitudinal clearance equal to 5.7 X 10" 3 of the journal
diameter and a height of the shoulder of the locating collar equal
to 0.1 of the journal diameter, the value of the coefficient | i s = 1.0,
and with a longitudinal clearance of 1.6 X 10~ 3 of the journal dia-
e meter, the same size of the
W° collar shoulder, and the
eccentricity ratio ranging
from 0.5 to 0.84,

à. = 0.5+ 0 . 0 3 9 ^

With the oil-feed hole

located in the favourable
position or near to it (within
± 1 0 ° ) , the hole being pro­
vided with a small chamfer
(not larger than twice the
hole diameter) or a groove
at its outlet, the oil flow
(cm3/s) through the unload­
ed film region can be exp­
ressed as
Plb&3
M, = A
ι
here plb — pressure of the
lubricant fed, up to 10
kgf/cm 2 ; d and I = diame­
ter and length of the opera­
tive bearing length, cm.
Fig. 20.30. Coefficient %±vs eccentricity ratio For a simple type of
loading (by a stationary or
a centrifugal force), and
with the oil-feed hole located close to the favourable position,
the coefficient A is determined by the formula
A = kaay (O.81;4/3 + 0.6) (1 - 0.98Α:αχ) IO" 9
where ka = coefficient allowing for the structural stiffness: ay =
= coefficient governed by the amount of the axial clearance; v =
= sliding speed up to 12 m/s; and χ = 0.5 to 0.84.
Experiments conducted with a bearing having lid = 0.68 within
the eccentricity ratio of 0.5 to 0.93 gave the following values of the
above coefficients. For a very stiff bearing construction ka = 1, and

230
for the construction of a low stiffness (connecting rod in aircraft twin
engines), ka = 0.9.
With a longitudinal clearance equal to 5.7 X 10~3 of the journal
diameter and a height of the collar shoulder of 0.1 of the journal dia­
meter, the value of the coefficient ay is 1.0, and for a longitudinal
clearance of 1.6 X 10~3 of the journal diameter and the same height
of the collar, ay = 0.54.
The efficiency of heat removal by the oil escaping from the loaded
and the unloaded region of the film is different.
The loaded region is supplied from the central area of the feed
hole with fresh cool oil at a temperature θχ. This oil has no enough
time to get hot as it passes through the hole, and it is protected against
mixing with the used oil by peripheral flows passing close to the hole
walls.
During the passage through the loaded region, the oil gradually
heats from the temperature fl^ to the temperature # 2 effective in the
area of the minimum thickness of the load-carrying film.
Assuming a linear variation of temperature in the load-carrying
film in a tangential direction, and allowing for unequal intensity of
flow in different sections of the end faces, the amount of heat (kcal/s)
removed by oil from the loaded film region can be expressed as

where c = specific heat of oil, kcal/(kg-°C); y = oil density at a

temperature equal to the arithmetic mean of the incoming and out-
coming oil temperatures, kg/dm3; /&2 = maximum oil-film tempe­
rature, °C; dj = temperature of oil entering the feed hole, °C; Mx =
= oil consumption, cm3/s.
Taking into account incomplete mixing of oil and its excess in the
course of feeding, the amount of heat carried away by the oil exhaust­
ed from the unloaded bearing region can be given by
QibJ= 0.8cyM2(Ü2-®i)
The dissipation of heat into the metal surrounding the bearing
and the journal depends on the product design. Several heat flows
from several sources usually pass over the housing walls, which makes
an accurate calculation of the amount sought very difficult.
The total amount of heat (kcal/s) transferred into the metal of the
bush and the journal is given by the expression
Q0 = a0IIdZ
where a 0 = heat transfer coefficient, kcal/(s*cm2); d and I = bea­
ring dimensions, cm.
To a first approximation, the value of the heat transfer coefficient
is
a 0 = 4.7xlO- 7 a(ft m --flo) 1 · 3
231
where a = coefficient dependent on cooling conditions for the bear­
ing housing, namely: a = 1 for still air around the housing, a = 2
for slightly circulating air; a = 3 for a fanned housing; ftm = mean
oil-film temperature; $0 = temperature of the atmosphere surround­
ing the bearing housing, °C.
The thermal balance equation has the form
<?/, op + <?/c = Qlbl + Qlb2 + Qo (20.40)
Solution of the equation (20.40) will allow the value of θ 2 to be
obtained, that is the value of the maximum temperature effective
in the area of the minimum thickness
of the load-carrying film.
K-s This equation is most convenient to
solve graphically in a way similar to
40
that described above, by specifying
a value of A<h& and seeking the con­
H-i? 'c ditions in which the thermal balance

Φ^t
holds.
When the value of $2 is known, it is
30 \ *0& possible to find the mean temperature
of the load-carrying film and the cor­
responding oil viscosity. The use of the
20
y formula (20.39) and the graphs given in
0.7 0.9 Fig. 20.26 will then allow the minimum
design value of the load-carrying
Fig. 20.31. Variation of attitude film thickness to be obtained.
angle with eccentricity ratio
The optimum position for an oil-feed­
ing hole is in the region where the
oil film is the thickest, that is on the line connecting the centres
of the bearing bush and the journal. Therefore the feed-hole location
can be related to the direction of the main load (stationary or cen­
trifugal).
The angle between the centre line (the optimum position of the
feed hole) and the load vector is known as the attitude angle a c .
The values of this angle for an elementary type of loading (for in­
stance, by a stationary or a centrifugal force) are given in Fig. 20.31.

20.2.4. Suggestions on
Bearing Design

Non-rigid bearing constructions and faults of manufacture and

assembly of the components give rise to detrimental dynamic de­
formations and considerable form and position errors. Hence, the
need for larger initial clearances.
The temperature conditions of bearing operation depend to a con­
siderable extent on the amount of clearance, namely, the temperature
rises with smaller clearances.
232
 Both theory and experience show that a 0.7 length-to-diameter
ratio in a bearing is an optimum to achieve good operating condi­
tions. This ratio can vary within 0.3 to 1.0 for different applications·
If it is lower than 0.3, the load-carrying capacity of the oil film falls
beyond permissible limits because of an extensive escape of oil through
the bearing end faces. If the ratio exceeds 1.0, the mating surfaces
are liable to come into local contacts at the ends of the bearing;
such contacts disturb the cooling oil flows and thereby raise the ope­
rating temperature.
Poor bearing operation due to inadequate journal stiffness can
be eliminated by machining the bore of the bush to the shape of
a single-sheet hyperboloid.
Securing low temperature conditions is the main goal in desig­
ning bearings for severely-loaded modern machinery. This goal is
achieved by reducing heat generation and controlling the heat flows
arising from friction.
In order to reduce the generation of heat in friction, it is essential
primarily to eliminate the local contacts of the operating surfaces,
which are due to manufacturing inaccuracies and deformations caused
by load, temperature, and inadequate assembly. It is also necessary
to use a lubricant of a proper, not, excessively high viscosity.
Heat flows are controlled by forming sufficiently intense and well
directed flows of oil, which will remove heat primarily from the hot
areas.
Increased oil flows can be obtained in three ways: (1) by the ap­
propriate location of oil-feed holes; (2) by raising the oil supply
pressure; and (3) by the application of oil of a reasonably low viscosity·

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HHH ΠΡΗ ΒΗγτρβΗΗΘΜ COnpHKOCHOBeHHH Η,ΗΛΗΗΑρΗΗβΟΚΗΧ ΤΘΛ Β yCJIOBHHX HfleajIL·-
ΗΟΗ njiaCTHHHOCTH.— «ΜαΙΠΗΗΟΒΘβθΗΗΘ», 1972, Ν° 6, C. 55-60.
2. BaôeniKO Β . Α., ΒοροΒΗΗ H. M. Κ pacneTy KOHTaKTHtix TeMnepaTyp,
B03HHKaK)mHX πρπ BpamemiH BajiKa Β ΠΟ^ΠΙΗΠΗΗΚΘ.— «ΠΜΤΦ», 1968, Ν°Γ 2>
e 135-137.
3. ΒΛΙΟΜΘΗ Α. Β . , Xapan Γ. Μ., θφροο # . Γ. Pacne-man oneHKa ΗΗΤΘΒΧΗΒ-
HOCTH n3HamnBaHHH H pecypca ΟΟΠΡΗΗΪΘΗΗΗ Baji — BTyjiKa c oôpaTHOH napoâ
τρβΗΗΗ.— «BecTHHK ManiHHOCTpoeHHH», 1976, N° 2, c. 29-32.
4. BopoBHH H. H., AjieKcaHflpoB B. M., Eaôenmo B. A. HeKjiaccHHecKne-
CMeinaHHtie 3a,n;aHH τβορππ ynpyrocna. M., «Hayna», 1974, 455 c.
5. ra<$Hep C. JI., ,Ο,ΟΟΒΙΗΗΗ M. H. K pacneTy yrjia KOHTaKTa πρπ BHyTpeHHeM
COnpHKOCHOBeHHH HHJIHHApHHeCKHX ΤΘΛ, paflHyCH KOTOptlX ΠΟΗΤΗ paBHH.—
«MamHHOBeAeHHe», 1973, N° 2, c. 69-73.
6. flootiHHH M. H . , AjieKceeB H. M. PacneT HecymeË CHOCO6HOCTH ΠΟΑΠΙΗΠ-
HHKOB cKOJiDKeHHH H ΒΚΛα^ΒΐπΐθΗ.— «MamHHOBeAeHHe», 1975, «N2 1, c. 107-114.
7. ,ϋ,οβΗΗΗΗ M. H . , ΓαφΗβρ C. JI. BjiHHHHe τρβΗΗΗ Ha KOHTaKTHue napa-
Μβτρκ n a p u Baji — BTyjiKa.— B c6.: ΠροβπβΜΗ τρβΗΗΗ H H3HaniHBaHHH. ΚΗΘΒ,
«TexHÎKa», 1976, c. 30-36.
8. ^BHHKOB A. K. PacneT AaBJieHHH B MacjiHHOM cjioe no^ymeK ynopHora
noflniHnHHKa πρπ ΗβΗ3θτβρΜΗΗβοκοΜ npon,ecce.— «MamHHOBeAeHHe», 1966,
JNfe 2 , c . 1 0 0 - 1 1 1 .

23a
 9. flbHHKOB A. K. OnTHMaJIbHHe BeJIHHHHbl TaHreHU.HaJIbHOrO 3KCU,eHTpH-
CHTeTa caMoycTaHaBjiHBaiomHXCH no^yineK ynopHoro noßiHHnHHKa.— «MamnHO-
ΒΘΑΘΗΗΘ», 1974, N° 2, c. 64-73.
10. flbHHKOB A. K. ΠθβΙΠΗΠΗΗΚΗ CKOJIbJKeHHH JKHAKOCTHOrO ΤρθΗΗΗ.
ΒΗΜΤΟΜΑΙΠ. M., M a m m a , 1955, c. 1-151.
11. ΕΦΗΜΟΒ A. B . , MajibiH B . H . 0 peineHHH KOHTaKTHbix 3aAan MeTajuio-
nojiHMepHHx ποβΐΗΗΠΗΗΚθΒ.— C6.: MccjienoBaHHe B oójiacTH MexamraecKHX
n3MepeHHÜ. Tpy^M Β Η Η Η Φ Τ Ρ Η . M., 1971, Β Η Π . 8 (38), c. 57-64.
12. KoHTaKTHan s a t a n a RJIH. KOJibueBoro CJIOH Majion ΤΟΛΙΠ,ΗΗΒΙ.— «Hmne-
HepHbiH HcypHaji MTT», 1966, N° 1, e. 135-139. A B T . : B . M. AjieKcaHflpoB,
B . A. EaöeiHKo, A. B . BejiOKOHb, H . H . BopoBHH, K). A. YCTHHOB.
13. KopoBHHHCKHH M. B . 0 Ηβκοτορωχ BOiipocax 3JiacTOpeojiorHH, ΗΜΘΙΟΠ;ΗΧ
npHJioH^eHHe B TeopHH τρβΗΗΗ.— Co.: TpeHHe H H3HOC B MamHHax, T. X V .
Ü3A-BO A H GCGP, 1962, e. 332-374.
14. KopOBHHHCKHH M. B . ΤθθρβΤΗΗΘΟΚΗΘ OCHOBbI paÔOTbl ΠΟβΙΠΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ
€KOjib>KeHHH. M., MamrH3, 1959, e. 1-401.
15. JleBHH A. J I . Hccjie^oBaHHe Tpemm H pacneT ΠΟ^ΙΠΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ cKOJibtfce-
ΉΗΗ H3 nojiHMepHHX MaTepnajiOB. ABτopeφepaτ AnccepTau;HH. PocTOB-Ha-floHy.
PHIDKT, 1975, 30 e.
16. HeoóepfliiH K). A. HccjieAOBaHHe ΚΟΗΉΚΤΗΕΙΧ HanpHJKemiH AJIH npHMbix
H oôpanjeHHbix njiacTMaccoBbix ΠΟΑΙΗΗΠΗΗΚΟΒ cKOJib>KeHHH. ABTopeφepaτ Ha
•coHCKairae yneHOÖ ΟΤΘΠΘΗΗ KaHß. ΤΘΧΗ. HayK. J I . JITH HM. JleHcoeeTa, 1973,
24 e.
17. PaeBCKiiH A. H . uojiHaMHAHbie ΠΟΑΠΙΗΠΗΗΚΗ. M . , «ManiiraocTpoeHHe»,
1967, 140 c.
18. PacneT TepMoynpyrnx KOHTaKTHbix Α^ΒΛΘΗΗΗ Β ΠΟΑΙΠΗΠΗΗΚΘ C ΠΟΛΗ-
MepHblM ΠΟΚρΜΤΗΘΜ.— GÔ.'. KOHTaKTHbie Sa^aHH H HX HHJKeHepHbie npHJIOJKeHHH.
M., ΗΗΗΜΑΙΠ, 1969, c. 214-220. A B T . : B . M. AjieKcaHApoB, B . A . Ea6emKO,
A. B . BejiOKOHb, B . E . KoBajibnyK, B . A. Kynepoe, O. M. ΠΘΗΗΗ, B . H . CMe-
TaHHH.
19. ΡΘΜΗ30Β J\. ,0,., BjiacoB B . M. PacneT Hecymeö: CHOCOÔHOCTH MeTajuio-
nojiHMepHoro noAninnHHKa CKOjib5KeHHH n p n HeBpamaiomeMCH Bane.— C 6 . :
HccjieflOBaHHe H H3bicKaHHe HOBHX paóonnx opraHOB cejibCK0X03HHCTBeHHbix
MauiHH. Bbin. V i l i . M . , 1971, c. 38-43.
20. Hertz H. Über die Beriihung fester elastischer Korper. Gesam. Werke.
Bd. 1. Leipzig, 1895. S. 155.
 Chapter 21

TRANSMISSIONS

21.1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The assessment of the performance of mechanisms is made with

regard to their loading conditions, kinematics of contact, operating-
temperature conditions, and variation of tribological characteristics.
The initial stage of calculation should include the correct deter­
mining of the acting forces (with allowance for the process dynamics),
rolling and sliding velocities, the actual temperature of the tribo­
logical unit (the finding of the mean temperature for the surfaces
of the bodies coming into contact is desirable), and the temperature
arising in the frictional contact area.
The structure, analysis, and functional characteristics of mecha­
nisms, and the calculation of the acting forces and speeds are dis­
cussed in the literature on general engineering mechanics [1]. We
shall concentrate, therefore, on the factors critical for the assessment
of the frictional contact conditions in the most typical transmission
mechanisms.
These factors are the contact pressures, the size of the contact areas
and, in some cases, the amount of approach [18].
The main kinematic parameters that have influence on the cha­
racter of friction, wear, lubrication, and the formation of heat in the
load-carrying contact are the rolling and sliding velocities. The
rolling, or sweep, velocity in rolling attended by sliding is taken to
mean the sum of the velocities at which the contact line moves along
the surfaces being in rolling contact. These surface velocities are
designated in Fig. 21.1 as vx and y2. The sliding velocity is equal to
the vector difference of the surface velocities vai = vx — y2. The
sweep velocity is vsw = v± + ιγ, its magnitude determines the
flow rate of lubricant in the contact area.
In many mechanisms the contact under load is characterized by
a combination of rolling and sliding (toothed gearing, cam and
friction drives, rolling bearings, and others). The effect of both sli­
ding and rolling velocities on the friction and wear characteristics
of the rubbing surfaces should be taken into account. In cam drives
with a roller follower, for instance, the rolling and slidings velocities
235
are not difficult to determine from the angular velocity and the
geometry of the components. With rotating gear wheels, the tooth
flanks normally roll and slide, and pure rolling occurs at the pitch
point only. Once the pitch point is passed over, the vector of the
sliding velocity alters its direction. The rolling velocity of a point
on each tooth flank is equal to the projection of the absolute velo­
city of this point onto the tangent plane. The tooth addendum is the
leading surface and dedendum is the retarding surface. The frictional
forces arising on the driving tooth are directed away from the pitch
point, and those arising on the driven tooth, towards the pitch point.
The average sliding velocity in the contact area of a friction drive
or between a ball (or roller) and the ring in a rolling bearing does

2r 1*
I* / 2
L·
"*Ί
1 1 1
"11 ! I F

Fig. 21.1. Determining sliding and Fig. 21.2. Diagram for calculating
rolling velocities sliding distance
1 — cylinder (peg); 2 — disc

not exclusively depend on the contact geometry and the rated speed
of motion. It is greatly influenced by the operating conditions, such
as the lubricant viscosity and temperature, or the ratio of tangen­
tial to normal force in the contact area.
Since the kinematic constraint in the frictional contact is not
positive and the interrelation between the contact parameters has
a complex nature, the laws of motion found experimentally as func­
tions of the main parameters for a given mechanism are often used
for practical engineering calculations. As the growing speeds of
motion in machinery induce the exhaustion of the load-carrying
capacity of the lubricant film, which leads to intensive wear of the
rubbing surfaces, the kinematic calculations become increasingly
important, and at the same time, more complex. The correct deter­
mining of the sliding distance is also essential.
Let us consider an example (Fig. 21.2). By the sliding distance is
meant the distance traversed by the points of the body that take part
in the process of friction. Then, for the points of the disc 2 that rub
against the cylindrical test specimen 1, the maximum sliding dis­
tance will be S 2 = 2 rnt, and for the points of the specimen i ,
S1 = 2π Rnt, where t = time, and n = number of revolutions per
unit time.
236
 The basic relationships tying up all critical factors are sometimes
unavailable. In such cases, the modelling of the process can be car­
ried out with analysis of the dimensions for the physical quantities
defining the friction and wear of solids. Such an analysis proves
helpful where the complexity of the phenomenon and the lack of
knowledge do not allow a sufficiently full mathematical description
of the process to be obtained.
The functional relationships characterizing a process and repre­
sented as dimensionless criteria of similarity hold true for all the
processes whose criteria of similarity are numerically equal to those
of the process being studied.
The principle of physical modelling which requires that the model
and the object of study should be identical by nature is the most
suitable for obtaining the values of the wear rate. The main diffi­
culty when calculating mechanisms for wear is in the correct deter­
mining of the wear rate under various conditions. The theory of
modelling helps to obtain the necessary characteristics in laboratory
conditions identical to field conditions. Another way to this end is
to find the wear rate from the basic theoretical relationships and
physico-chemical characteristics of the contacting surfaces [141.

21.2. LUBRICANT FILM THICKNESS

The thickness of the lubricant film affects the performance and
service life of engineering products. It determines the contact strength,
the wear resistance, the load-carrying capacity with respect to
scuffing, the frictional forces, and the temperature of contact placed
under load. Accordingly, the finding of the film thickness is of vital
importance for a proper understanding of the processes that occur in
the frictional contact and for the development of calculation methods.
The elastohydrodynamic theory of lubrication is applicable to the
description of the process of friction and lubrication of solids that
roll with sliding. The main problem of the theory consists in finding
the contact pressure (Fig. 21.3), the geometry of lubricant film and
the temperature by jointly considering the equations that describe
the flow of lubricant, the elastic deformations of the solids, and
the thermal processes. The flow of lubricant in the clearance is de­
scribed by the equations characterizing the momentum, the conti­
nuity of the flow, and the .conservation of energy, and also by the
equations of state. The deformation of the bodies is found from the
theory of elasticity. The temperature relationships are determined
from the energy equation with the use of the appropriate boundary
conditions. In the general case, a system of non-linear integro-diffe-
rential equations for determining pressure, temperature, and the
thickness of the oil film are solved numerically with the use of
direct and inverse iteration. The analytical relationships, however,
are very difficult to obtain. The initial differential equations do
not take account of all complex interrelations that take place in the

237
frictional contact; many physical characteristics of lubricant and
other thin surface films on the contacting bodies remain unknown.
For this reason, combining theoretical concepts with experimental
studies is essential if the relationships suitable to engineering cal­
culations are to be obtained.

Fig. 21.3. Pressure distribution and shape of clearance in contacting solids

(a) dry-rubbing elastic solids; (&) lubricated rigid solids and (c) lubricated elastic solids

The basic equations for an elastohydrodynamic systemfof solids

that execute rolling motion with sliding (the two-dimensional ela­
stohydrodynamic problem of lubrication theory) are*:
■g.
dx
=6η(1;1 + ,2) h-h?h°
dp
at x = o o ; p = 0; x = x0; Ρ= ι τ= 0

\ - χ
_2_ / 1 -—
μ? , 1—μ§
h = h0-{ x* — xl π \ E1 ■)Jp©l ξ —*ο
dl
— oo

οθ dîQ 9 2 dP
1 Α^„( M _LW
a t £ = — oo, θ = θ0

η/ ΛΧ / ! \1/2 f I dQ
I de
I ft

•Mj-i^ri-^ — OO
de
\y=h (x-e)V»

= T1 ^βρ-αΔΘ

here ι^ and z;2 = peripheral speeds; h = clearance; fe0 = minimum

clearance; i? = effective curvature radius ί/R = l/i?i + l / ^ 2 r
where Rt and i? 2 = radii of cylinders; c, λ, c1? λΐ7 C2, and λ2 ==
respective values of specific heat and coefficients of heat conducti-
* For easier analysis, the Reynolds equation is taken in the isothermic
form.

238
vity for the lubricant and the materials of the bodies; ß = piezo-
coefficient of viscosity for the lubricant; a = coefficient relating
viscosity to temperature in the Reynolds formula; x and y coordi­
nates along and across the film; ε = additional variable; x0 =
abscissa, where p = dpldx — 0; χ = coefficient of lubricant's ther­
mal expansion.
Conditions of definitness. Geometrical characteristics: Rx, R2r
length of contact Z; surface roughness parameters Rz (a)j and Rz (a)2.
At the specified loads, effective radii of curvature, contact length,.
and elastic properties of materials of the contacting bodies, the
contact width, 2&, is determined definitely by the Herz formulas.
Physical properties of lubricant: η 0 , ρ0, c0, λ0, β and a. These
quantities are taken at a characteristic temperature of the bodies in
contact.
The quantities specific to the materials of the contacting bodies:
Eii E2l μι, μ2ΐ HB, pu p 2 , cu c2, λ1? and λ2. These are taken at the
characteristic temperature.
Also regarded as physical properties are the relationships, obtain­
ed in experimental studies, that show the variation of the main
physical properties of the lubricant (η, ρ, c, λ, β) and the materials
with temperature and pressure.
Boundary conditions are rated for speeds, pressures and tempera­
tures: vu v2, vsl = vx — v2; vsw = vx + v2; contact load P, load
per unit length Pn = P/l; pmax) and the mean temperature θ 0 of
θ l θ
he bodies before their coming into contact: θ 0 = 01J~ 02 , where
θ 01 and θ 02 = respective temperatures of the bodies brought into·
contact.
General characteristics. The expressions for general criteria and
conditions of similarity are found by using the method of integral
prototypes, the basic system of equations, the boundary conditions,.
and the conditions of definiteness [3]:
51 = ( - £ » - ) =idem
λ
5 2 = ßPmax = idem; S3 = = idem
9ocovswO
Si= ^ ' = idem
Pocoysiü&"o

S e = -τ-2 TTö- = idem; S7 = αθ0 = idem

e — -Pn(ei + B2) i d p __KJL. p _bv02

^8— D — mem, re 0 1 — — , re 0 2 — —■—
n a01 a02
_ λ01 m _ λ 02
υι ΌΖ
^οιΡοι c02p02
239»
 T h e physical meaning of the obtained criteria of similarity:

is the main elastohydrodynamic criterion that characterizes thee

P
load-carrying capacity of the contact, and its deformability,
V W S ’

s, = ‘’ R
(ol+og) . An increase in the product ~ u , , leads to a
,

growth in the thickness of oil film during rolling, reduction in the

coefficient of sliding friction, and a rise in the resistance of thee
frictional contact to scuffing. This complex is close in structure toe
the complex (5) widely applicable to hydrodynamic plainn
o

bearings. The radical difference is in a negative influence of slidingg

velocity (when rolling is attended by sliding) on the oil-film thick-­
ness and the contact resistance to scuffing; the latter substantiallyy
diminishes with increasing sliding velocities. From the statementt
of hydrodynamic problem for stiff rolling solids it follows thatt
h
-
R
= 2.447 Ew,
pn
that is the relative oil-film thickness varies in--
versely with S,-S, = Ppmaxand S, = ue0,these criteria character-­
izing the physical properties of lubricant as a function of temperaturee
and pressure. S , = - Lo - ratio of the heat transferred through
POCOVS w b h
conductivity to that transferred through convection. S, = 6

0 0 aw 80
= ratio of the heat dissipated inside the oil film to that transferred
d
by convection; S , = ”
ho,P&a
- and S6 = 0
1
h02Peh&
= ratios of the
e
heat supplied to lubricant through conductivity to that transferred
by the bodies in contact. The Peclet numbers Pe,, =& andd
Pe,, = 9 a01
characterize the ratio of the heat content in the flow ind
an axial direction to that in a transverse direction. The obtainedn
02

criteria relationships are general dimensionless characteristics usedd

in composing equations for determining the oil-film thickness, thed
coefficient of sliding friction, the temparature and the anti-scuffinge
property of the contact. The structures of the criteria can be used forg
obtaining both determining criteria (that is, those containing ther
conditions of definiteness) and criteria to be determined. I t shoulde
be borne in mind, however, that experimental relationships can bed
successfully summarized in the obtained characteristics only ife
the assumed basic mathematical relationships reflect to a full extentf
the physical interactions inherent in the process being studied. Thet
effect of any factor that has not been taken into consideration wille
require a refinement of the established general relationships. l
24 0
 The calculation of the film thickness in quasi-isothermal lubricat­
ing: conditions for steel surfaces can be made by the formula
£.1.7(2^)°·'(^P)0·« (21.1)
or
/& = 1.7ηο v8WPn H p
With allowance for the sliding speed in the contact

or
h = 0.3y\l^vQJv-s0r52Pn'0^R° 4
λ°·26α-° 26β°·β
The dimensions of the quantities: h = cm; η 0 = kgf«s/cm2; Pn =
= kgf/cm; R = cm; vsw and v8i = cm/s; ß = cm2/kgf; λ =
= kgf.cm/(cm.s.°C); a = 1/°C.
Depending on the viscosity of oil and its thermophysical charac­
teristics λ and a, the magnitude of the sliding velocity v8ÏJ at which
the effect of sliding becomes perceptible, ranges from 220 to 10 cm/s
for the viscosity values ranging from 2 to 1000 cSt (at λ =
= 0.012 kgf.cm/(cm.s.°G) and a = 0.02 1/°G.
The oil film thickness values, fe, for which the validity of these
formulas was checked were from 0.5 to 6 μπι.
Table 21.1
Calculation results /*, μηι
vsl, cm/s vsl, cm/s
v
sw> 10 25 50 80 120 200 V
8W> 10 25 50 80 120 200
cm/s cm/s
By formula (1) By formula (2) By formula (1) By formula (2)

50 0.574 — — — 500 2.877 2.8 1.95 1.5 1.24 0.95

100 0.93 0.91 — 2000 7.59 7.4 3.95 3.95 3.27 2.5

Example 1· Determine the oil-film thickness by the formulas (1) and (2)
for oil MG-20; v 50 = 157 cSt; η = 141.3 X IO"8 kgf-s/cm2; Pn = 2000 kgf/cm;
Reff = 2.74 cm, λ = 0.012 kgf.cm/(cm.s.°G); a = 0.02 1/°C.
The method of determining the film thickness before the occurrence of scuf-
ing is given in [12].

A study of the frictional force and the oil-film thickness during

rolling accompanied with sliding for heavily loaded surfaces led
to the relationships presented in [7].
* The oil-film thickness can only increase with sweep velocities up to
10 to 15 m/w.

16-01156 241
 Figure 21.4 shows the effect of the sweep velocity, viscosity of
oil, and contact pressure on the dimensionless value of the oil film
thickness and the coefficient of sliding friction, the results being
obtained experimentally.
The opposite relation of the above parameters to / and h is notice­
able. The dash-line curves show the relationship between the oil-
film thickness and the contact parameters, whereas the solid linea

10 f
\ΪΓ
\Peff I\ Weff
\1.00 0.07Ì 1.00
W.75 00B\
r ii« —r
^
\0.50 0.05\
/ '"
0.50
■ —
\0.25 OM 0.25
2
\0 OM 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 usw,cm/s 5000 7000 3000 11000 13000 /^kgf/cm*
(a)

30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700*> cSt

(c)

Fig. 21.4. Variation of lubricant film thickness and coefficient of friction a t

various sliding speeds
(a) sweep speed ( P m a x = 12 000 kgf/cm2, v = 110 cSt); (5) contact pressure (v8w —
« 550 cm/s, v = 110 cSt); (c) oil viscosity (vsw = 550 cm/s, p m a x = 12 000 kgf/cm8); I—a
vsl ~* 20 cm/s; 2—at vsl « 120 cm/s

refer to the sliding friction coefficient. Increase in sliding velocity

leads to simultaneous reduction in both oil-film thickness and coef­
ficient of friction (Fig. 21.5).

21.3. COEFFICIENT OF
SLIDING FRICTION
The relationship between the sliding friction coefficient] and the
sliding velocity during rolling with sliding generally has the form
shown in Fig. 21.6. Two peculiar points, A and B, can be indicated
on the curve. The point A characterizes the maximum value of the
coefficient of sliding friction and defines the region of stable opera­
tion for a friction drive. The values of / m a x are basic for designing
the actuators for frictional drives. In a toothed gearing, the lowest

242
contact strength of the teeth is in the area where the maximum fric-
tional forces arise, whereas the limits of contact-fatigue strength dur­
ing rolling with sliding vary with maximum coefficients of frict­
ion. The point B is indicative of a severe rupture of the oil film and
the contacting surfaces; this point, therefore, determines a safe
limit of the load-carrying capacity with respect to scuffing. If a me­
chanism intended to operate in lubricated conditions is designed so
that its loading and thermodynamics make for the occurrence of the

f | H
Peff

£
0.07 1.00
2 /
0.06\ ς-— 0.75
*^j*
0.05 Γ^ *Ί 0.50
^^ N
0.04 0.25
^.
0.03 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 ffûvsi,cm/s

Fig. 21.5. Variation of oil filmj thick­ Fig. 21.6. Variation of coefficient
ness and coefficient of friction |with of sliding friction with sliding
sliding speeds at different oil viscosities speed (v = const, p= const, and
(at v8W = 550 cm/s and p m a x = 12X00 v8W = const)
kgf/cm2)
2—v = 50 cSt; 2—v = 200 cSt

point B, then scuffing of the surfaces will arise. The curve for the
most frequent form of the relationship / = / (vsi) in rolling with
sliding (vsw = const; pma* = const; v = const, Fig. 21.6) can be
broken down into four sections: /—the section where sliding is low;
it characterizes growth in the coefficient of friction with increasing
sliding velocity and contains the maximum value of the sliding
friction coefficient; //—the section where the coefficient of friction
decreases with growing sliding velocity; / / / — t h e section of a small
variation of the friction coefficient with sliding velocity and IV—
that of a rapid growth in the coefficient of friction, where the oil
film and the surfaces in contact rupture severely. At high rolling
and sliding speeds (vslv^ 3000 cm/s), the coefficient of friction shows
no rise at the moment of oil-film rupture.
Thus, the mechanisms operating at rolling with sliding in lubricat­
ed conditions can function without sudden severe wear and scoring
over the range of sliding from the point 0 to the point Z?, or within
the areas / , / / and / / / . The character of the relationship between
the coefficient of friction and the sliding velocity is largely determ­
ined by the viscosity of oil on the surfaces making contact. Growth
in viscosity at increasing speed leads to a sharper rise of / at section
/ and to its fall at section / / . Increase in the sweep velocity has prac­
tically no influence on the character of the relationship / =
= / (^sz)· The moment at which scuffing occurs depends significantly

16* 24$
 on the sweep velocity at the contact. With small vsw, scuffing arises
at insignificant sliding speeds. With increasing viscosity of the oil
entering the contact area, severe rupture of the film comes about at
higher sliding speeds.
The effect of the sweep velocity in the contact area on the maximum
coefficient of friction in operation at different contact pressures is
shown in Fig. 21.7. The relationship between the coefficient of
friction and the sweep velocity during the initial contact of the
bodies at a point or along a line can
be characterized in the following way:
0.06 I with increasing sweep velocities the
0.05\ ^J
5y^a\» i coefficient of friction always dimi­
0.04 nishes; the degree of influence of the
0.05 rolling speed of / depends on the
0.07 (a)
contact pressure; the reduction in the
0.06
0.05^ %&-*™_
coefficient of friction with increasing
0.04 2H g&^Γ sweep velocities is more pronounced
0.03 at their lower magnitudes (up to
0.07 (i) ^ S I Ü ^ I S O to 200 cm/s). The tendency
towards smaller dimensions and mass
0.05Ì of mechanisms and higher power to be
0.tM\ transmitted leads to high contact stres­
0.03 ses. The maximum Hertzian pressures
0 220 HO 660 880 usivicm/s in gear transmissions of current machin­
(c) ery reach magnitudes of p m a x ^ 20 X
Fig. 21.7. Effect of rolling speed 103 kgf/cm2; some speed reducers oper­
on maximum coefficient of sli­ ate at p a x > 40 X 103 kgf/cm2. High-
m
ding friction at contact pressures
(a) 12 2x 103 kgf/cm38; (6) 20 X 10«
pressure friction drives operating in
kgf/cm ; (c) 30 X 10 kgf/cm» oil with initial contact made at a
point are normally designed for con­
tact pressures p m a x = (20 to 30) X 103 kgf/cm2. The relationship
between the coefficient of friction, especially its maximum value
(/max)» a n d the contact pressure is found to be rather complex.
With increasing contact pressure, the coefficient of friction becomes
independent of rolling speeds and oil viscosities in low ranges of
their magnitude. At high rolling speeds and viscosities an increase
in the coefficient of friction is typical at the initial stage of oper­
ation. At high Pmax, the coefficient of friction remains practically un­
changed. For some combinations of oil viscosity and rolling speed, no
relation between the coefficient of friction and the contact pressure
has been established. The factors contributing towards the setup
of the contact hydrodynamic lubricating conditions and increase
in film thickness lead to an insignificant growth in / with rising
contact pressures. Fig. 21.8 shows the region of variation of the
maximum coefficient of friction with increasing contact pressures
at different oil viscosity values and sweep velocities. The upper
boundary for the values of / corresponds to low magnitudes, and the
lower boundary, to high magnitudes of v and v8W.
244
 Oils used in various applications can substantially differ in vis­
cosity. However, in typical temperature conditions under which
transmissions are operated, the values of viscosity range approxima­
tely from 2 to 250 cSt. For straight mineral oils, the effect of tem­
perature on the coefficient of friction manifests itself through the
viscosity. For oils with additives such a direct relation can be upset
and become more complex. The influence of oil viscosity on the

1
'Ί

max

0.08 »/;%
^ ^ ^ ?? 7?< »s1-OJmJs

^r
ZtVsWzs "V ^ y ? 7

1
0.07 '/A//, vv 22 S 'vvyVi *· 1
0.06 Φ S 0.01 s 1
0.5

/ 0.03
0.05 ^ 1
0.02 V
0.01 s
0 1 8 1216 20 24 28 32p0'10'Jtkqf/cm2 0.01 .
0.03 1050 70 100 150200 300 600 τ>, cSt
Fig. 21.8. Effect of contact [pressure Fig. [21.9. Effect of oil viscosity
on maximum coefficient of sliding on coefficient of sliding friction
friction (usw3 > vsw2 > vslol\ v3 > (Pmax = 8330kgf/cm 2 , vsw = 1100
> v 2 > vx) cm/s)

coefficient of friction depends on the average temperature of the

surfaces coming into contact, the contact pressure, and the sliding
speed.
At sliding speeds lower than those corresponding to maximum coef­
ficient of friction, variation of oil viscosity has significant effect on
the coefficient of friction; higher values of the latter usually are due
to higher values of viscosity. An increase in sliding speed beyond
the magnitude corresponding to the maximum coefficient of fric­
tion always causes the coefficient of friction to grow and viscosity
to diminish. The higher the sliding speed, the greater the extent to
which the coefficient of friction varies (Fig. 21.9).
Arise in contact pressure lessens to some extent the influence of
viscosity on the coefficient of friction. In the region of the maximum
coefficient of friction the effect of oil viscosity is commonly insigni­
ficant. On properly run-in surfaces, / decreases with rising oil tem­
perature. An increase in rolling speeds results in somewhat reduced
influence of viscosity on the coefficient of friction. In elastohydro-
dynamic frictional conditions the viscosity and the piezo-coefficient
of viscosity are the main parameters of oil to affect the coefficient
of friction. The requirements placed on the oils to be used in friction-
al-transmission applications are conflicting as they call for high
coefficients of friction and, at the same time, good wear resistance
of the mating parts.
245
 Experiments have shown the identity of the relationships for
variation of the coefficients of friction for bodies making contact at
a point and along a line. As the shearing stress limit, which depends
on the pressure and temperature, is reached in the oil film, a shear­
ing action inside the film occurs. The maximum coefficients of
sliding friction arise during rolling with sliding at small absolute
magnitudes of sliding speed. The maximum of the coefficient of
friction as a function of sliding speed is particularly prominent at
high oil viscosities (Fig. 21.6). At low viscosities, the coefficient of
friction decreases insignificantly after the peak point as the sliding
speed grows. The absolute magnitude of sliding speed at / m a x depends
mainly on the viscosity of oil at the temperature the bodies come
into contact and on the contact pressures: the higher the viscosity
and the contact pressure, the lower the sliding speed corresponding
to the occurrence of/ max . As the bodies grow heated, the peak point
shifts towards larger sliding speeds. This phenomenon is especially
notable in experiments with oils whose viscosity varies considerably
with temperature. The processing of the data, obtained from a large
number of experiments with mineral oils over a wide range of con­
tact parameters, resulted in empirical formulas appropriate for prac­
tical uses. For bodies with a linear initial contact, the maximum coef­
ficient of friction occurs at a speed
v
si = ^ Γ ^ (21·3)
Pmax
*(£)
where vsi = sliding speed corresponding to / m a x , cm/s; K1 =
= 2 X 105 kgf/(cm«s) = dimensional factor; pmax — maximum
contact pressure according to Hertz, kgf/cm2; v c = oil viscosity at
rubbing-surface temperatures, cSt, v oc = 1 cSt. The formula is valid
for contact pressures of 5,000 ^ pmax ^ 30 000 kgf · cm2 and viscosities
of 2 ^ v c ^ 1000 cSt. If the viscosity v c on the contacting surfaces
is lower than 5 cSt, the latter value should be substituted into the
formula.
For the initial contact made at a point, the formula for determin­
ing the sliding speeds that correspond to maximum coefficient of
friction has the same structure as that for the linear contact:

where K2 = 106 kgf/(cm«s) = dimensional factor.

The formula holds true if the entering quantities vary over the
following ranges: 10 000 < p m a x < 45 000 kgf/cm2; 10 < v c <
<1000 cSt.
At viscosities lower than 10 cSt, the latter value should be sub­
stituted. Variation in the sliding speed corresponding to the maxim­
um coefficient of friction at different oil viscosity and contact press-
246
lire is shown in Fig. 21.10. The condition of occurrence of the maxim­
um coefficient of friction (or the maximum tangential stress in the
oil film) can [be expressed in vsl,cm/s
the form .<
r
max"<l 35
\>=50cSt

■«(e)' = 1
25 \i>-50cSt
./ 700
X/pL· /
where K = Κλ = 2 X IO5 \ e }>=W00cSt
kgf/(cm-s) for the initial con­
tact along a line, and K =
= K2 = 106 kgf/(cm.s) for
15

2l
100 I
I
k
S
the initial contact at a point. ^h^rï^fOOOcSt
J I I 1 1
Dynamic viscosity can be rea­ 5' 15 25 35 p0'10~\ kgf/cmz
dily introduced instead of ki­
nematic viscosity into the abo­ F i g . 21.10. V a r i a t i o n of s l i d i n g speed, a t
ve relationships. Knowing the /max» w i t h c o n t a c t pressure (y ?lü =
absolute value of sliding =l _ 800 cm/s) for i n i t i a l c o n t a c t
at a point contact; and 2—along a linear
speeds for definite contact contact
conditions the specific sliding
(in percent) can be found at the occurrence of the maximum coeffi­
cient of friction:
η 1 = _^.100%
v
sf
where v8f = surface velocity for one of the test specimens fa or v2)
or the sweep velocity (vsw).
HA
\>=S0cSt 20
ri p ,
P=J0cSt
20
Ib 16

1
16
/k
12 12
4
Kz 8
8 ^
1*
4 , '////
4
3 ' '////
0 200 400 600 800 /?, rpm 0
200 400 600 SOOa.rpm
I I I I I I I J I I I I I
120 240 360 480 y„cm/s 120 240 360 480 uncm/s
{a) (à)

F i g . 2 1 . 1 1 . V a r i a t i o n of specific s l i d i n g w i t h surface speed of t h e leading body

a t initial· contact
<a) at a point contact and (b) along a linear contact; 1 — P m a x = 45· 103 kgf/cm S
— p m a x = 25.10 3 kgf/cm2, 3 — p m a x = 15-103 kgf/cm8, 4 — p m a x = 5-103 kgf/cma

Figure 21.11 shows the region of variation of the experimental

values of r^ = ^ - 1 0 0 fa = surface speed of the leading specimen)

247
at different contact pressures and at a definite viscosity taken as
a function of surface velocity fa) and rotational frequency (n).
The occurrence of an extremum point on the curve / = / (usì)
can be explained in various ways depending on the assumed premises:
for instance, whether the oil in the contact area is regarded as vis­
cous-plastic body or whether shear in the oil film at the point A
(see Fig. 21.6) is accounted for by the thermal effect due to dissipation
of mechanical energy inside the oil film.
The formula for calculation of the coefficient of friction in the
region of its maximum value has the form
C(P)
/max — va(p)vb(p)
V V
C t\D

where v c = oil viscosity at the temperature the mating surfaces

come into contact, cSt; c (p), a (p), b (p) = Quantities depending on

a,ò,c
0.22\
0.18
m
0.10Ì <j \*

OM N ^
a V.
OM
10 15 20 /7/0,kgf'/cm2 3 -2.5 K

Fig. 21.12. Variation of parameters Fig. 21.13. Comparison between

a, b and c with contact pressure design and experimental data on
coefficient of sliding friction at

K=\g pHB
^c VsiReffEeff

the contact pressure (Fig. 21.12). The region of the experimental

testing of the formula: v c = (2 to 300) cSt; vsw = (100 to 5000) cm/s;
Pmax = (5000 to 45 000) kgf/cm 2 .
The formula for calculation of the coefficient of friction is present­
ed most generally in the following form [11]

/=
-s·· [ > + . * & > ]
' 0.07 , (21.5)
Vc (vi + v^'ifa-vj0.35 RDeli
0.25

where A = 0.09 is a dimensional factor; Pn = load per unit length,

kgf/cm; HB = hardness of the softer contacting body, kgf/cm 2 t
Ra, cm. The formula is applicable at v > 1 cSt; P n > 300 kgf/cm;
P o > 4 0 0 0 kgf/cm 2 ; vsw^ 100 cm/s; z ; s Z > 2 0 cm/s; R > 0.5 cm;
Ra > IO" 5 cm; HB > 5000 kgf/cm 2 .
248
 The coefficient of sliding friction for run-in lubricated bodies
that roll with sliding varies, on the average, from 0.008 to 0.1 over
a speed range of 100 to 10 000 cm/s.
The analytical relationship for determining the coefficient of
sliding friction, which applies to sliding bodies, makes allowance
for variation of load, sliding speed, oil viscosity, hardness of the
softer material, effective curvature radius, and the materials' elastic
moduli
p
/ = 0.021g j?Bv +0-14

The formula ensures an accuracy of 10 to 15 percent for me taf

bodies with contact characteristics of 3 0 ^ HRC^ 62; 5 ^ v c ^
< 6 0 0 cSt; 5 0 < y s i < 4 5 0 cm/s; and 1 . 0 < P < 5 0 kgf, which
corresponded to the initial stresses of pmax = 3500 to 15 000 kgf/cm*
calculated for experiments by the Herz formulas; after the experi­
ments, the compressive stresses decreased to pm&x = 50 to
3000 kgf/cm2 because of wear of the contact sphere.
The coefficient of friction as a function of the dimensionless com­
plex is graphically represented in Fig. 21.13; the main relationships
are given in [8].

21.4. LOAD-CARRYING CAPACITY OF

SOLID LUBRICANT COATINGS
The rupture of the solid lubricating film in a heavily loaded con­
tact leads to a higher coefficient of friction, to intensive wear, and,
in vacuum, to welding. So, the need arises for study of conditions
that result in the loss of load-carrying capacity of the lubricant film
and for determining the factors that affect the breaking load. The
minimum load leading to severe rupture of solid lubricating film and
to direct contact of the rubbing surfaces is taken as the indicator
of the load-carrying capacity of the contact operating with a solid
lubricant.
The load capacity of a thin plastic film pressed between rigid
plates, that is, the load that results in squeezing the film out, rapidly
grows with reducing the film thickness and increasing the extension
of the contact and can exceed substantially the yield limit of harden­
ed steels.
The application of shearing force markedly reduces the film load
capacity by diminishing the normal load which squeezes out the
lubricant. The plastic flow of the film is attended with elastic and r
in some cases, plastic deformation of the surfaces pressed together;
the magnitude of the deformation grows, with increasing load capac­
ity of the oil film and decreasing stiffness of the bodies in contact.
The critical load destroying the lubricant film is largely deter­
mined by the mechanical properties of the coating and the substrate
material, by the film thickness, the geometric characteristics of the
249*
♦contacting surfaces, their temperature, and speed of relative motion.
It is known that the material structure factors, the temperature
and speed conditions of deformation, and the stress diagram affect
the behaviour of the material in deformation significantly. The
«character of destruction of one and the same material can vary from
brittle to plastic depending on the conditions of deformation. In
a loaded direct contact under an indenter the lubricant film retains
integrity, decreasing in thickness with growing load and penetra­
tion, which is determined from the value of electrical resistance at
the contact, whereas the lubricant film outside the loaded contact
area comes off in the form of brittle flakes. Thus, the solid lubricant
film is capable of being deformed plastically together with the
underlying metal.
At the initial stage of deformation, the softer coating is deformed
first because its strength characteristics differ from those of the
backing. However, the film flow pressure grows rapidly as the film
thickness decreases and the contact area expands. Further increase
in load causes growth in the deformation of the underlying material.
At a certain thickness of the film, called the critical thickness, si­
multaneous plastic flow of the surface layer and the underlying
material occurs. This deformation stage is of particular interest be­
cause, as experiments show, it is precisely the plastic deformation
of the backing that finally squeezes the lubricant out of the con­
tact.
The load causing the plastic flow of the material significantly de­
pends on the character of pressure distribution. During the plastic
flow of the softer surface film the normal pressure on the backing
material shows a markedly non-uniform distribution. The highest
pressure acts at the centre, and the lowest on the periphery of the
contact area. Under such conditions local plastic flow can occur,
the load that causes this flow proving lower than the load that leads
to the flow of the material under a rigid plunger. The zone of plastic
flow if focused at the centre of the contact area, where the condition
of equality between the pressure in the lubricant and the yield limit
of the backing materials applies. A photograph of a cross-section
of a coated specimen (Fig. 21.14) shows the character of combined
deformation of dissimilar materials impressed with a spherical
indenter. A combined flow of the solid lubricant and the backing
material is identifiable.
The mechanics of film rupture during compression with shear is
revealed most clearly by the process of the initial tangential motion
of an indenter located in an impression made in a coated surface.
It is assumed that the operative surface of the indenter is fully load­
ed. Initially, the central area of the contact spot is subject to plastic
deformation. The hard zones at the inlet and the outlet are retained
until the appropriate change in the geometry of the boundary causes
the yield-limit condition to emerge. Thereby, the soft layer is ex­
truded partially or completely from the inlet or the outlet zone.
250
During the experiment, the spherical indenter was slowly passed
along the metal surface coated with a solid-lubricant film, and the
load was increased gradually. With the growing load the resistance
a t the contact dropped down to the value of contact resistance of
«metal bodies and the coefficient of friction rose owing to the absence
Of lubricant in the contact area. The load corresponding to this con­
tact condition was taken as the ultimate load P [9].
The relationship between the ultimate load P and the hardness of
the backing, obtained in the experiment with an indenter having

Tig. 21.14. Cross-section of coated specimen with indentation and shear of

material

a radius R = 200 μπι, is shown in Fig. 21.15. The relationship

between the same load P and the lubricant film thickness (the in­
denter radius R = 1.15 to 2.37 mm) is shown in Fig. 21.16. The
backing material was copper. The load rises with the film thickness
reaching the limit at some thickness value dependent on the radius
of the indenter. Analysis of theoretical assumptions and experimen­
tal results has made it possible to set out the factors having the
major effect on the design load limit Pd. Among these are: ay =
= yield limit of the backing in undirectional compression; xsh =
= yield limit of the coating in shear; E = elastic modulus of the
hacking; R = indenter radius; and Δ = coating film thickness.
Combinations of the dimensionless parameters t h a t affect the
process under investigation can be obtained with the theories of
similarity and dimensional analysis. It proved to be possible to
iind the value of the coefficient and the exponents for the dimension-
less parameters:

or, in a form more suitable for calculation;

Pdœ 145σΐ· 1 5Λ 1 .7Δ°. 3 τ° ή ,3 £- 0 · 45
251
 The obtained expression makes it possible o assess the effect of
each of the geometric and strength factors on the load carrying
capacity of solid-lubricant coating. Experiments at low and elevated

Mgf
20

f
15 o£%

iXn
10 >rS

U*
5 ^
P*

100 zoo 300 HB 150 Δ,μπι

Fig. 21.15. Variation of load limit Fig. 21.16. Variation of load limit
with hardness of backing material with coating film thickness (lubricant
(lubricant BHHH ΗΠ-230; £ = 2 . 2 · 1 0 4 BHHH ΗΠ-212; E = 1 -IO4 kgf/mm 2 ;
kgf/mm2) #£50)

temperatures revealed a marked decrease in the load capacity of

solid lubricant films with rising temperature.
A comparison of the load limits calculated by formula (21.6)
with experimental data is presented in Table 21.2.

Table 21.2
Results of calculation and experimental finding
of load limits

Material T R Δ JM0-4,
°y sh ksf/mm2 p exp p
backing d'pexp.
backing coating kgf/mm2 mm

Steel 20X13 BHHH ΗΠ-212 1.575 126 1.01

60 0.8 1.18 0.03 85 0.91

Steel 3 BHHH ΗΠ-230 39 1.2 1.18 0.05 2.1 80 0.84

Steel BHHH ΗΠ-212 65 0.8 1.25 0.03 140 0.8
08X18H9T
Steel 45* 180 1.2 0.2 0.01 20 1.1
Alloy AMr-6 BHHH ΗΠ-212 30 1.2 1.18 0.025 0.7 60 1.02:
Titanium 86 0.8 1.18 0.03 1.2 145 1.08

* Heat-treated.

252
21.5. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
WEAR CALCULATION
In order to extend the service life of engineering equipment under
abrasive-wear conditions* it is necessary to provide protection against
the ingress of dust, to remove abrasive particles from lubricant, to
improve the hardness of the bodies in contact, and to increase the
lubricant film thickness in the sliding-contact areas [22, 23].
The measures towards the desired results may include increasing
the viscosity of oil, improving the physico-mechanical properties
of the contacting materials, strengthening the contacting surfaces
and changing the surface geometry, using the appropriate filtration of
lubricant and optimum lubricating systems, sealing the rubbing
surfaces and, if required, reducing the acting load.
Because of plastic deformation during compression and shear,
protective surface films can be ruptured in the real contact areas
of rubbing surfaces. For decreasing the rate of adhesive wear, it is
essential to provide protective covering of friction surfaces, and to
«nsure the formation of physical and chemical protective adsorption
layers as well as lubricant films and coatings. Tool marks on the
machined surface and the structure of the material should make for
rupture of welded junctions, that is, for secure contact at separate
points. The surface lay should not be parallel to the vector of motion
for the sliding bodies. Adhesive wear is most typical for dry-rubbing
joints or those with solid lubricant coatings, especially during
operation in vacuum or inert-gas environments. Good performance
under such conditions can provide composite materials with a com­
plex surface structure including binding components and reinforced
polymers; special lubricating methods can also be helpful.
The experience of operation of lubricated tribological joints in­
dicates the feasibility of controllable chemical interaction of the
surfaces with the ambience: oxygen, chemically active oil additives,
surfactants, or acid oil compounds. As a result of these processes,
a weak surface layer emerges on the rubbing surfaces, which is de­
stroyed by friction and periodically recovers. This layer reduces
the friction force and increases the temperature resistance of the
frictional contact, but is subject to intense wear.
In order to control the process of wear, the conditions need to be
established that favour the occurrence of the desired chemical reac­
tions with the view of adjusting the temperature, concentrations,
and interaction times; the optimum choice of the rubbing materials
and the lubricant is also essential.
During chemical and mechanical wear the rubbing surfaces re­
main relatively smooth and destruction of the materials is "soft".
This type'of wear is complex by nature and is associated with many
chemical, physical, and mechanical factors that characterize the
* The mechanism of wear in abrasive interaction is described in Chap­
ter 12.
253
 materials, lubricant, operating conditions, environment, tempera­
ture conditions and interaction time.
The method of calculation of wear life by contact strength (ab­
sence of pitting) has found a wide recognition. For some mechanisms,.
anti-scoring resistance (absence of seizure) is estimated. However,
no reliable calculating method for "soft" wear, (wear-away) can be·
found in literature at present because the attending physico-chemical
processes are complicated, and the factors that influence the wear
of surfaces are diverse. Taking as an example gear wheels, we shall
illustrate below the principle of calculation of various mechanism»
for wear life. The structure of this calculation method little depends
on the nature of wear process because the intensity of physico-
chemical processes in the frictional contact is allowed for by a special
component found experimentally.
The calculating method to be disclosed makes it possible to find
the service life of a transmission by the specified wear rate, or, con­
versely, the average wear rate by the specified service life for dif­
ferent types of gear transmissions. The accuracy of the calculation
by the obtained formulas depends primarily on the correct assess­
ment of the wear rate, which even in stationary external condition*
is often variable.
The calculation for wear and service life is advisable to make for
a characteristic (the most critical) point on the tooth flank, for
which the wear rate under the given operating conditions must bfr
known. If it is established that during operation of the tooth the*
wear rate is variable, this fact can be allowed for by calculating thfr
life span at different wear rates and subsequently adding together
the obtained values.
Comparison of wear rates obtained on various testing machines
and on actual gear transmissions (by calculation with the formulas-
given below) allows optimum laboratory test techniques to be chosen
for gear materials.
The linear wear rate is convenient to use for the analysis. A large
body of experimental data examined in the process of deriving the
main equation has given reasons for the assumption that slip in the-
contact area is largely responsible for destruction of the tooth flank
surface. This conclusion is also confirmed by the field practice for
gear transmissions made from a wide variety of materials. It i s
known that the linear wear rate* is characterized by the ratio Ih =

* This formula applies essentially to the sliding distance traversed by

a rectangular contact spot over the tooth flank on the assumption that wear per
unit contour area is uniform; the value of / in this formula can only be valid for
particular conditions because the amount of wear is dependent on surface rough­
ness, load and the coefficient of friction.
At present, a broader approach to the calculation is possible, in which the
effect of surface roughness, mechanical properties, and contact fatigue characte­
ristics can be regarded. This approach is discussed in Chapter 3, where calcula­
tion formulas for the assessment of wear rate are given. Editors.
254
= -jj- Ä y , where h = depth of the worn layer, and S = sliding-
distance. The use of the parameter / is advisable for many reasons.
The main of them are: (1) the relationship for / as a function of
rolling and sliding velocities, load, temperature and other variables,
established for some models in laboratory conditions or for a parti­
cular gear transmission, can be extended to^other operating condit-

A
Fig. 21.17. Types of gear tooth wear

ions; (2) the wear rate can be used for the assessment and specifica­
tion of materials from the standpoint of their suitability for the give»
rubbing conditions.
Severe wear in a large number of gears in average unlubricated
conditions has been found to be of two main types (Fig. 21.17).
The most typical type of wear for heavily loaded gears, illustrated
in Fig. 21.17a, is characteristic of both slow- and high-speed^ trans­
missions. Its peculiarity is in that the volume
of the worn material grows from the pitch point
to the tip, that is towards the area where sliding
is more intense. The other type of wear
(Fig. 21.176) is characterized essentially by
uniform wear of the tooth flank and applies
to lightly loaded gears used in instrument
applications and to transmissions with solid
lubricant coatings. In high-speed transmissions
small indentations can develop on the tooth
flanks where the teeth come into engagement·
The thickness of the layer worn from the
tooth flank is h « IS. The sliding distance S Fig. 21.18. Distribu­
for one mesh cycle over a contact spot cal­ tion of pressure in
culated according to Hertz, will be found from contact [area of [gear-
the following considerations: the contacting teeth
time for the solid 1 (Fig. 21.18) is
t = 2blv1 , for the solid 2, t = 2b/v2. The distance traversed by a
point of the solid 1 during the time in which the contact with the
solid 2 is made over the area 26 is St = 2bv1/u2. Hence, the sliding
distance over the time a single contact is made will be 1 S =
= 26 (vt — v2)/v2. The relationship between the sliding distance
and the position of a point in contact will be expressed by the equa­
tion S = (x + 6) (vx — v2)/v2.
255*
 After simple transformations we have the formula for 'calcula­
tion of the worn-layer thickness for the retarding flank
h2 = 2.25/ 2 VPn(®i + ®2)Iieff -^- n2z2t2
■and for the leading flank
ht = 2.257, Ι ^ Μ Θ , + Θ ^ , -ÛL ηΛίι

where Pn = load per unit length of contact line, kgf/cm; vst =

= sliding velocity, cm/s; υ2Λ = surface velocities for the retarding
and the leading tooth flank, cm/s; Λ 1Ι2 = rotational frequency of
the gears, rpm; z1>2 = number of gears in mesh with the given gear
{for instance, for a pair of gears z = 1, and in a planetary gearing,
usually, z = 3 if or sun and crown gears, and z = 2 for a satellite);
and t = operating time, min.
Minor transformations will give the wear life of a pair of gears
t = IHi
2.25Μ/>ηΑβ//(θ1+θ,)]ν» (| l t l -jjl-l) n%z2
where | h \ = permissible amount of wear for gear teeth, cm;
Reft = effective curvature radius of tooth flanks, cm.
For identical materials, with μχ = μ2 = 0.3, the expression will
take the form

3It(PnReff)W ( | l f t i J L - . l ) n2za
The permissible amount of wear | h \ is generally a specified pa­
rameter except for a critical case in which the solid lubricant coat­
ing is worn away or the tooth bending strength is determined by
wear. Experiments show that as gear teeth wear, the transmission
efficiency drops and, because of growing dynamic loads, noise in
the gearing increases. For this reason, the life of a gear pair is determ­
ined by assigning the permissible amount of wear \ h \. The follow­
ing suggestions concerning the use of the above formulas seem ap­
propriate. If the initial values of the transmission parameters are
substituted into the formulas, the obtained wear life will be a mi­
nimum. The reason is that the effective curvature radius in the
dedendum increases as the tooth wears away, with the result of high­
er rolling velocities and lower contact pressures. It should be borne
inljmind, however, that in the process of wear the dynamic load
changes. For this reason, the calculation method should be refined
so as to take into account the kinetics of wear of the teeth and its
influence on the actual contact geometry, speed and force character­
istics of the transmission. Of vital importance is experimental and
theoretical determining of wear over a wide range of contact para­
meters and environments. Unfortunately, differences in data process-
256
ing methods lead in many cases to losses of valuable information.
For mechanisms working without lubrication, particularly in va­
cuum, adhesive wear of the operating surfaces is typical. Here, wear
is due to contact of compressed surfaces and diffusion of wear de­
bris, which occurs, for instance, in pure rolling of bodies with solid-

Fig. 21.19. Distribution of pressure Fig. 21.20. Distribution of pressure

in sliding bearing during pure rolling
I—sliding zone; II—engagement zone

lubricant coatings. In this case, the wear rate is found by the formula
h = 2.25/ yPn{ei + @2)Reffnzt
The average wear rate for the teeth of each of the gears are cal­
culated by the formula obtained after transformation of the above
expressions:

2.25 YPn&i + *àReff Vsinzt

where h = amount of wear obtained experimentally, cm; v12 =
—surface velocity, for instance, of the retarding tooth flank portion
(dedendum); vsp = <x)pRdpi v8Wh = (owhRdwh. Here vsp and vswh =
= surface velocities of tooth dedendum for the pinion and the wheel,
cm/s; ω ρ and ω ^ = angular velocities of the pinion and the wheel,
1/s; and Rdp and Rdwh — dedendum curvature radii for the pinion
and the wheel, cm.
Let us quote some average wear rates for gear wheels operating
without lubrication in high vacuum (p = 10~8 mm Hg). The module
is 0.5 to 2 mm, maximum Hertzian contact pressures up to
10 000 kgf/cm2, teeth sliding speed in contact up to 200 cm/s, rolling
speed up to 500 cm/s, and temperature up to 200°C. The wear rate
I of solid lubricant coatings BHHH ΗΠ-212, BHHH ΗΠ-213, and
BHHH ΗΠ-229 is from 10~5 to 10"6. In such conditions special com­
posite materials normally have a wear rate of 10"5 to 10~8; this rate
depends on many factors, the degree of vacuum included.
A sliding bearing, a hinge joint, and other shaft-sleeve-type joints
are preferable to calculate, in our opinion, in the following sequence.
Referring to Fig. 21.19, we determine the sliding distance from the
V 2 17-01156 257
contact arc length obtained experimentally or theoretically by the
solution of the contact problem for elastic solids outlined by cylin­
drical surfaces with slightly differing radii. Over one revolution,
the sliding distance for the points located on the rotating component
is equal to the contact length. For the points of the stationary com­
ponent, the sliding distance is equal to the perimeter of the con­
tact surface on the moving component, that is 2nR2 for a sliding
bearing. Over an operating time £, the sliding distance is Sx =
= 2nR2nt; S2= In t. The initial contact zone depends on the elastic
properties of materials of the contacting bodies, the geometric cha­
racteristics, and the load, and can be determined from the solution
of the contact problem in the theory of elasticity.
By the value of angle φ 0 , we find the contact arc and the amount
of wear for the mating components 1 and 2:
Si S.
Ä 1=s Ç ItdS; h2=\ I2dS
o o
where 5X and S2 = sliding distances for the components 1 and 2.
If the wear rate does not change over the sliding distance, these equa­
tions can be readily transformed into the form hx = I1S1 and h2 =
= I2S2. The allowed amount of wear | h | being known, we find
the service life (t):

\h\ = (Ri+hi)-(R2-h2y, t- \Ì£d?17j!Ì

Experimental studies of/plain bearings conducted in air and
in vacuum (p = 10"8 mm Hg) showed that with decreasing the
sliding speed down to 50 cm/s, specific load to 200 kgf/cm2 and tem­
perature to 100°C, the wear rate / for various types of solid lubricant
filntö usually varied in the range of 10 ~7 to 10 "8.
Experiments with oscillatory-motion joints in vacuum
(p == 10~"8 mm Hg) at specific loads up to 150 kgf/cm2, temperatures
up to 100°C, low sliding speeds, and calculation of these joints by
the disclosed method gave wear rates / of 10 ~6 to 10~7. The experi­
ments revealed a substantial growth in wear rate with load; this
relationship, however, was not always linear. It should be noted
that the existence of two different sliding paths in the shaft-sleeve
joint leads to an important conclusion, namely, that for higher wear
life the solid lubricant coating should be applied to the component
having the shorter sliding path. Experiments have confirmed this
conclusion.
Rolling with a tangential force acting in the contact plane is
encountered in cams, friction drives, road rollers and other mechan­
isms. The contact area generally consists of an engagement section
and a sliding section (Fig. 21.20). The coordinate of the point that
separates these sections can be determined from the equation c =

358
 = 6 ί1 — 2 | / 1 r ) i where b = half the width of the contact
area, calculated according to Hertz; / = coefficient of sliding fric­
tion; and k = coefficient of engagement, equal to the tangential-to-
normal-load ratio. The wear of solids during the passage of the con­
tact length 2b can be expressed as
c b

A = \ Iengdy+ \ I sidy

where Ieng and Isi = wear rates over the engagement and sliding
sections. Difference in wear rates over these sections is difficult to
assess experimentally, because it is the total resulting wear only
(change in mass or dimension) that is commonly followed in experi­
ments rather than the whole picture of wear kinetics and the place
of formation of each wear particle. For this reason, in the case of
pure rolling (without sliding) it is convenient to use an experimental,
summarized rate of wear. Here, it should be noted that sliding ve­
locity is not always the main factor to affect the wear rate; for in­
stance, with the use of some types of solid-lubricant coatings, wear
due to rolling has turned out to be worse than due to sliding.
The foregoing method of calculation for wear is helpful in many
instances and for a wide variety of mechanisms; it allows experi­
mental data to be assessed and the service life to be predicted. Em­
phasis shouldj-be placed on the need to regard the actual contact con­
ditions, which tend to change as the mating parts wear away.
Example 2. An unlubricated gear transmission is made from a special grade
of metal-ceramics (E1%2 = 1.6 X 106 kgf/cm2). It has the following dimensions
and operating conditions: m = 1, zp = 22; zw = 74, A = 48 mm, a = 20°
of arc, 6 = 3 mm, dp = 22 mm, dw = 74 mm, Mt = 3.5 kgf-cm, and np =
= 4000 rpm.
According to the results of tests, the amount of wear for the pinion and the
wheel was hp = 0.31 mm, and hw7= 0.2 mm, respectively;7 the number of load­
ing cycles was Np = 4.15 X 10 and Nw = 1.24 X 10 .
Let us find the wear rate for the teeth. The character of the wear correspond­
ed to Fig. 21.1a. The formula for determining the wear rate, derived from the
above equations, has the form

2.25 V Pn (θχ + θ 2 ) Reîf vsinzt

The values of the quantities entering into the formula are found in the follow­
ing way: h, from the results of the experiment; v8 = surface velocity, for
instance, of the retarding portion (dedendum) of the tooth flank
l>sp = G>pi? i Îpî Vsw = (ùwRriw

where vsp and vsW — surface velocities of the dedendum in the pinion and the
wheel, respectively; ωρ and ω^ = angular velocities of the pinion and the wheel,
1/s; Rdp and Rdw = dedendum curvature radii in the pinion and wheel teeth,
respectively, cm; here Rdp = Rp — lw\ Rdw = Rw — lp\ Rp and Rw — curva-

17* 259
ture radii of the pinion and the wheel at the pitch point, cm
_ A sin a m

A = centre distance, cm; i = transmission ratio; a = pressure angle; lp and

lwh = distances along the path of contact, traversed by the teeth contact point
over a period of engagement of the pinion and wheel in the addendum, cm;

<^[i/iI~-'"«r+'(f+')-iH
h'p and h'w = pinion and wheel tooth addendum, respectively; dp and dw = pitch
circle diameters for the pinion and the wheel, cm; Pn is determined by the for­
mula
p 2Mtk
n
bdp cos a
here Mt = torsional moment on the wheel shaft, kgf-cm; k—coefficient allow­
ing for dynamic loads; b = face width, cm; Reff is given by
RpRw
R
°"= Bp + Rw
The sliding speed vsi for the pinion and the wheel is found by the formulas
Vslp = (top + (ùw)lw
ν
8ΐω=(ωρ-\-ωιυ) lp
here vstp and vslw = sliding velocities in the dedendum of the pinion and
wheel teeth, cm/s.
The number of meshing cycles
N = nzt
Using the given formulas, we have

Parame­ C O, R
efp
ters e-i cm cm cm cm/s kgf/cm cm/s
cm

Pinion 418.67 0.38 0.23 0.11 46.06 146.65

19.75 0.29
Wheel 124.47 1.27 0.27 1.04 129.45 124.9

The wear rate of the pinion teeth /„ = 4.1 -IO" 8 , and that of the wheel teeth
4 , = 29.5.10-8.

21.6. FATIGUE PITTING OF

SURFACES IN CONTACT
This type of surface destruction arises as a result of repeatedly
deforming micro-volumes of the material, which has the effect of
producing cracks and tearing away material particles. Pitting occurs
in well lubricated mechanisms under the action of contact stresses
260
during pure rolling and rolling with sliding (for instance, in gear
transmissions, rolling bearings, friction drives, cam drives, and
compactors).
The fatigue strength of a thin surface layer 15 to 25 μηι thick de­
pends on its stress and deformation conditions, physico-mechanical
properties of the material, physico-chemical properties of the lubric­
ant, thickness of the lubricant layer, and kinematics of the contact.
Among the factors to affect fatigue resistance are the condition of
the surface layer (chemical and mechanical properties and residual
stresses, which depend on the part's manufacturing technology),
surface quality (microgeometry), stress concentration and degree of
running-in, service conditions (loading frequency, temperature, chem­
ical environment), and scale factor.
Rise in the coefficient of friction favours the emergence of pitting;
therefore, all other things being equal, the area of the minimum con­
tact strength corresponds to the area where maximum contact forces
arise. For example, pitting in gear transmissions commonly begins
near the pitch point at sliding speeds of 2 to 50 cm/s which bring
about maximum coefficients of friction. It should be noted that the
use of a sliding velocity producing the maximum coefficient of fric­
tion is essential for experimentally determining the fatigue curves
on roller-type testing machines.
Pitting due to fatigue leads to the formation of cavities with
diameters of hundredths of a millimetre which grow in size with
time. The usual results are noise and vibration, decrease in bearing
area, growth in load concentration, contact stresses and plastic
deformation; the rate of wear increases and scoring is poss ble. Pitt­
ing can be limited in extent. It occurs during the initial period of
service and depends on the concentration of load on small areas or
separate irregularities. Here, the cause is usually the inaccuracies
of manufacturing and assembly. As running-in is in progress, the
action of the load extends to a larger area, and pitting ceases. The
intensity of pitting and the time it originates are determined primarily
by the magnitude of contact pressures, the number of loading cycles,
the material hardness, the surface geometry and the thickness of
the lubricant film. The concept of pitting as a fatigue process is
supported by its kinetics, which can be described by an equation of
the amN = const type, where σ = maximum magnitude of the
contact compressive stress; N = number of loading cycles; and m =
= exponent.
Studies of the resistance of materials to loading during sliding
contact give a fatigue curve, which is plotted in the σ — N, σ — lgiV,
or lg σ — lg N coordinate systems (Fig. 21.21a and b). The equations
of the fatigue curves have the form [19]
o0+ k\gN = a + klgN0; omN = σ™Ν0
where σ0 = fatigue limit, whichl is the maximum compressive
stress that a test specimen can sustain without rupture at a specified
261
basic number of cycles Nh (normally Nh = 107); N0 = number of
cycles corresponding to the break point on the fatigue curve; k and
m = fatigue curve parameters; σ = acting stress amplitude; N =
= number of cycles up to the specimen rupture.
Design values of contact compressive or shear stresses arising at
an angle of 45° to the direction of normal pressure at a depth of
0.786& and equal to 0.3a com should not exceed the allowable value
found experimentally. If the equivalent number of loading cycles
(Ne) equals or exceeds the basic cycle number, then the fatigue limit
is taken as the basis for determining the allowable stress; if the

! I
igty Ig/V
W («
Fig. 21.21. Fatigue curve
(a) in conventional coordinates; (b) in semilogarithmic coordinates

equivalent number of cycles is smaller than the basic number, the

m
/~~N~
allowable stress is found from the fatigue strength [σ] = σ0 y JT *
The magnitude of the fatigue limit is essentially a function of the
material hardness, that is σ0 = kHB.
The method of determining the allowable contact stresses in the
design for pitting resistance and the methods for improving the
fatigue resistance of surfaces are discussed in detail in [16, 21, and
24].
The conditions of lubrication and thickness of the lubricant film
have a marked effect on the development of pitting. The film-thick­
ness influence manifests itself both through the tangential stresses
arising in the contact area (specific friction forces) and through chang­
es in the character and number of interactions of surface asperities on
the contacting bodies. Increasing thickness of the lubricant film
reduces the number of the interacting asperities, the time taken by
their deformation, the adhesion interactions, the dynamic contact
loads, and the arising friction forces. The influence of the film thick­
ness on the life of the rubbing pair is convenient to express as the
relationship of the loading cycle number or the allowable stress and
the dimensionless (effective) film thickness — where
YRal + Ral
Rax and Ra2 respective values of the arithmetic mean deviation
262
of the profile for the contacting surfaces. Experimental results in­
dicate that the value of the above ratio must be at least 3 or 4 if
fluid friction in the contact area is to be ensured.

21.7. TEMPERATURE CRITERION OF

SCUFFING
Increase in force and temperature loading of mechanisms gives
rise to dangerous rupture of contacting surface known as scuffing,
or scoring. The indications of scuffing are deep scratches, torn-away
material, dents, bulges, or melted spots formed on the contacting
surface. Scuffing is often characterised by severe wear of the mating
parts and can bring about the failure of the mechanism. In solids
sliding at low and medium speeds, scuffing causes normally a
sharp rise in the coefficient of sliding friction, and rise in tempera­
ture of the mating surfaces; moreover, dynamic processes arise that
result in mechanical oscillations and noise. In high-speed mechanisms,
the growth in the coefficient of friction is not imminent. Scuffing is
encountered in heavily loaded gear transmissions, cams, hinge joints,
bearings, piston-and-cylinder joints, valves, machine-tool guide-
ways and other tribological components.
The development of scuffing is greatly affected by load, sliding
and rolling velocities, roughness of the mating surfaces and their
material, physico-mechanical properties of the lubricant, quantity
and quality of additives to the base oil, lubrication method, and
other factors.
In lubricated mechanisms, scuffing starts to develop with the
desruption of the thin oil film that separates the solids in contact.
Such disruption can be caused by plastic deformation, wear of in­
dividual asperities of the contacting surfaces in a cold state or loss
of the lubricating properties of oil at high contact temperatures.
These processes are usually referred to as cold and hot scuffing. The
factors of primary importance for cold scuffing are the degree of
contact density, the wear resistance of separate irregularities, their
plasticity and the tendency to form adhesive bonds. Among the
vital external parameters are the load at which scuffing is likely to
emerge, the rolling and sliding velocities, and the temperature.
Cold scuffing is typical of low-speed and stationary contact me­
chanisms. The occurrence of hot scuffing is greatly affected by all the
factors that lead to increase in actual temperatures and to reduction
in the oil-film thickness.
The necessary conditions for the emergence of scuffing are the
removal of the adsorbed and oxide surface films, and the plastic
deformation that brings the clean ("juvenile") surfaces into direct
contact. The main factors to influence scuffing are the temperature
of the solids, deformation, stress conditions, and physical properties
of the materials and environment. At low contact temperatures and
work-hardening of the material, the welded junctions originating
263
because of plastic deformation may have higher strength than the
bulk material. In this case, the surface ruptures in the weaker-
material region, giving rise to scores and faster wear.
Oxide films and impurities on the surface impede the formation
of welded junctions. With rising surface temperature, the metal
becomes softer, the surface films are partially removed, the real
area of contact grows, and, as a result, the tendency of the surfaces
to scuff sharply increases. Scuffing or, rather, scuff resistance is de­
termined by mechanical, thermal, and chemical processes. The
welded junctions generally arise at separate points of real contact.
The intensity and kinetics of this process depend not only on extern­
al factors, such as load, temperature, and physico-chemical propert­
ies of environment, but also on the physical, chemical, and struc­
tural properties of the contacting materials and the rate of forma­
tion and destruction of the protective layers, which is governed by the
kinematics of sliding contact as well as by the properties of the
surface layers and environment. The temperature criterion of scuff­
ing suggested by Blok is based on the hypothesis that there is a critic­
al temperature of oil-film disruption for each material-lubricant
combination. The critical scuffing temperature for straight oils is
assumed to be constant and independent of speeds, load, and bulk
temperature. The contact temperature is represented as the sum of
the bulk, or rather, surface temperature, θ 0 , before the solids come
into contact, and the momentary temperature rise d. The tempera­
ture θ 0 is found experimentally or calculated from the joint's thermal
balance. The temperature rise for cylindrical bodies that execute
the rolling motion with sliding is determined by the Blok formula
d = 0.83 fPn(»i-»l
(V λ ι γ ι ^ Η - y X2y2c2v2) y b
where vx and v2 = surface velocities of the solids, cm/s; Àj and
λ2 = coefficients of thermal conductivity for the materials of the
surfaces, kgf-cm/^cm-s-Ti); γ χ and γ 2 = density of the materials,
kgf/cin 3 ; cx and c2 = specific heat values for the materials,
kgf-cm/(kg-°C); b = half the width of the contact strip, cm.
The scuffing absence condition is expressed as the inequality
Θ | Q.tofPn(vi-vJ _ <Θ ^Γ
(YhiyiCiVi+Yh2y2c2v2) Yb
0 2 c r = total critical temperature at which scuffing arises. The
use of this criterion requires the knowledge of the absolute values
of 6s c r and of whether the temperature remains invariable as the
main frictional factors change [2, 4, 51. Analysis of a large num­
ber of experiments conducted by various investigators shows that
the critical temperature is not constant; its range for straight oils
is 6 2 c r = 120 to 250°C.
Oscillograms of torsional moments, surface temperatures, and oil-
film thickness, taken simultaneously from test specimens, have made
264
it possible to follow the moment of the emergence and the subsequent
development of scuffing [4]. If the contacting components operate
under safe conditions which involve no hazard of oil film disruption,
then the frictional force relationships are essentially similar to
those given by the elasto-hydrodynamic theory of lubrication. The
generalized frictional force applied to one of the rubbing components
will in this case be expressed as F = \ I xlb dS, where xlb = tan­
gential shear stress in the oil film; and S = shearing area. More in­
tensive sliding and increased load or coefficient of friction (which
can occur because of rising temperature or reduced rolling velocity),
that is, change in contact parameters towards increased contact tem­
perature will produce reduction in the oil-film thickness. All other
things being equal, the protective film breaks and local scuffing
of the surfaces in contact takes place where heat generation is at a
maximum or stress concentration occurs (for instance at an individ­
ual asperity). Owing to disruption of thè oil film at one or several
points, the friction force at this moment increases; it can be repres­
ented by two components
n I

where xkdr = tangential stress on the dry surface.

If the area of the oil film rupture is insigniiicantv tjien the total
frictional force (or the coefficient of friction) changes little despite
the fact that the tangential stresses in the two considered instances
are unequal (/τ / ìh <C Ιτ Idr). At the moment of film disruption,
the local coefficient of friction between metal surfaces sharply rises;
calculations and experiments show, however, that intense heat evo­
lution (a momentary temperature rise) leads to local softening of the
metal, and, subsequently, to reduction in the local coefficient of
friction. Metal fusion in micro-contact spots will originate hydrody-
namic friction, and in the welded junctions the tangential shearing
stress xWj will sharply increase. In the general case, the friction force
at the contact under scuffing conditions may be represented as con­
sisting of the following components (Fig. 21.22):
n l m
T= 2jxilb&Silb+ ^ j Xkdr&Skdr+ 2 tdfus&Sdfus
i^l Ä=l d=l
P
+ 2J tvwjASvwj = Tib + Tdr + TfUS + Twj

where Γ ί 6 , Tdr, TfU8, and Twj = tangential forces arising in the

lubricant, on the dry surface, in the fused metal, and in the
welded junctions, respectively. The initial destruction of the surface
usually occurs at a single or several contact points. In roller speci­
mens, for instance, the specific features of scuffing development are
18-01156 265
 as follows: the depth of the surface damage when scuffing initially
emerges depends primarily on load and rolling velocity, the rupture
being more severe with heavier loads and lower speeds; the rate of
expansion of the damage out of a single junction is determined by
the degree in which the surface is prepared to scuffing. For instance r
during the running-in period, welded junctions originate at indivi­
dual asperities; the initial light scuffing does not worsen, however,.
because the whole contact area is not thermally prepared for the
process to occur.
The grade of oil is a major factor to hold back the development
of scuffing. The main characteristics determining the load capacity
of the oil film are the viscosity of
oil at the temperature the surfaces
come into contact, the physico-che­
mical properties, and the content
of anti-scuff additives. The oil-film
thickness in the contact depends
on the viscosity of oil and on the
value of the piezo-coefficient of
viscosity. The higher the viscosity,.
the lower the coefficient of sliding
friction and the larger the oil-film
thickness. As a result, the growth
in oil viscosity reduces the con­
tact heat evolution due to sliding
friction, and the separation of the
Fig. 21.22. Diagram of multi-com­ contacting surfaces by the oil
ponent friction film becomes more reliable, which»
on the whole, contributes to in­
crease in the load-carrying capacity of the contact with respect
to scuff resistance. The anti-scuffing properties of oils are improved
by phosphorous, chlorous, and sulphurous additives.
At elevated contact temperatures and pressures, phosphorus, chlo­
rine, and sulphur react on the surface layer and form protective com­
pounds that prevent metal surfaces from welding together. As a
certain temperature level is reached, the destruction and re-formation
of the protective layers proceeds continuously. The influence of
the bulk temperature on the oils containing S, Cl, and P, in con­
trast to straight mineral oils, can be favourable because it intensif­
ies the chemical reactions of the additives with the metal surfaces.
It has been established experimentally that in these conditions the
allowable scuffing load grows, and the design critical temperatures
can be very high (0 c r « 250 to 350°C).
The general expression for the scuffing criterion, obtained by the
author, is
OJSfVPn^-Vt)
K.
(YX1y1c1v1+YX2y2c2v2) Vw e (Θι + Θ )
R
* eif 2
(21.7)

266
 The condition of absence of the scuffing risk has the form of
K < KCT. The critical value of the scuffing criterion, found experi­
mentally for a variety of materials and lubricants combinations [5,6] t
is normally close to 2.
The structure of the equation (21.7) confirms the basic mechanism of
scuffing for solids that roll with sliding, which involves the thermal
destruction of the lubricant in micro-contact areas [6].
Substituting the expression for the coefficient of friction into the
equation (21.7), one can derive the relationship between the limiting

P
ncr\ RZ;
Pncr I Rz=1fun
P
ncr\*i
Pn„ \\>=10cSb 0.8 ? ·
l__J_l__i_J \^°\
0.6 M (i t- !k
l·

OA
—tì
0.2
0
10 JO 50 70 30110 i>5QicSt 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 Rz,fun

Fig. 21.23. Effect of oil viscosity Fig. 21.24. Effect of surface geometry on
on scuffing load scuffing load (design curve); the points
I—curve calculated by formula (21.7); correspond to data from [27] at peripheral
2, 3, and 4—approximation of experi­ speeds · —8.6 m/s, A —17.2 m/sr
mental data according to [25], [26],
and [27], respectively + — 34.4 m/s and to data from [25] at
rotational speeds O —3300 rpm and
□ — 10 000 rpm

load or sliding velocity and the pil viscosity, surface geometry, roll­
ing velocity, and other parameters.
The effect of oil viscosity on scuffing load, determined by calcula­
tion and experimentally, is illustrated in Fig. 21.23, and the effect.
of surface roughness, in Fig. 21.24.
In toothed gearing, the effect of gear parameters on the load-
carrying capacity (with regard to scuffing) has been found to be like
this. With increasing module the absolute and the relative sliding
velocity grows, with the result of rising contact temperature. As
is seen from the obtained equations, the ultimate load capacity of
the contact in respect of scuffing is bound to diminish with the in­
creasing module; this conclusion is confirmed by experiments con­
ducted on product-gear transmissions. For the stated reasons, the
load capacity of toothed gearing must increase with the reduced ad­
dendum of the tooth. A larger pressure angle causes a higher rolling
velocity, which reduces the coefficient of sliding friction and en­
larges the effective contact curvature radius. The experimental
studies conducted so far give but rough estimation of the influence
the effective curvature radius has on the scuff-load capacity. The
ultimate load per unit tooth length varies inversely with the gear

18* 26T
 facewidth despite the increase in the total load. This effect is ex­
plained in [4].
Increase in facewidth-to-diameter ratio can be conducive to load
concentration on the extremes of the tooth. Surface geometry has
a marked effect on the scuffing load limit. A coarser roughness in­
creases the coefficient of friction, local temperatures, and plastic
contact deformations, that is, increases the tendency to oil film dis­
ruption and formation of welded junctions. The manufacture of
parts with a better surface finish and
^*gf/cm a preliminary running-in operation can
1100
improve the load carrying capacity of
teeth with respect to scuffing. Surface
lay is also important, namely, the con­
tact must be intermittent.
The rolling and sliding velocities rise
with the gear rotational frequency.
A higher sliding velocity increases the
oil-film thickness and reduces the coef­
δΟΟ
ficient of friction and the contact tem­
perature of the solids in spite of some
60v ,m/s temperature rise in the oil film. In­
crease in sliding velocity reduces the
Pig. 21.25. Variation of coefficient of friction; however, the total
«cuffing load with rotation­
al frequency (or peripheral heat generation and contact temperature
«peed vpr) go up, and the oil film thickness decre­
A — scuffing region ases. Thus, the general influence of the
rolling and the sliding velocity is oppo­
site, that is an increase in rolling velocity raises the scuffing load,
and increase in sliding velocity leads to its reduction.
The initial thermal action brings the scuffing load down as the
rotational frequency grows. The form of the curve Pn = f (n), with
its steep fall, is typical (Fig. 21.25). Some rise in scuffing load in
the region of high rotational frequencies is explained, in our view,
b y the formation of tribochemical protective films (frictional poly­
mers) on the surfaces at elevated temperatures and by decrease in
the intensity of action of the heat source; specifically, the thickness of
the boundary heat layer diminishes and so does the wear rate in
scuffing conditions at high speeds, which is found experimentally
in gear transmissions. This effect is made clear by the thermal ana­
lysis of scuffing [6].
Some investigations have revealed a relationship between the
amount of residual austenite in the metal and the scuffing load.
With increased amount of residual austenite, the contact load ca­
pacity diminished. No perceptible effect on material hardness on
scuffing load has been detected experimentally; however, with a
lower hardness, gear teeth become more prone to pitting and plastic
deformation. On the whole, hard steels are more preferable as far
as the wear resistance, contact strength, and anti-scuffing proper-
268
ties are concerned. The contact load capacity with regard to scuff-
resistance can be increased by nitriding and phosphatizing the tooth-
flank surfaces. The theoretical concepts of scuffing lead to the con­
clusion that the materials with high thermophysical parameters and
hardness as well as those which lend themselves to thermochemical
strengthening, carbonitriding, and other surface-strengthening pro­
cesses hold a potential for heavily loaded transmissions.
The contact load-carrying capacity is not so much affected by the
temperature of the lubricant being fed (or oil bath) as by the bulk
temperature of the gears in mesh, which governs the "inlet" viscosity
of the thin oil film directly on the teeth surfaces. This temperature
influence on oils of different chemical compositions and on those
with anti-scuff additives is variable.
It has been shown experimentally that the running-in process has
effect on the formation of the boundary lubricant film, increasing
its thickness and stability [17]. Thin lubricant films have been found
to increase their thickness at low rolling velocities as compared with
the design values. The formation of the oil film is also affected by
the environment, the chemical activity of the metal, and the time
during which rubbing occurs. Adsorption processes, high contact
pressures, and the stress and deforming conditions of metal surfaces
contribute to the formation of structurally-organized layers [17].

21.8. MAGNETIC-POWDER
LUBRICATION
Intense wear of parts is in many cases the chief cause that pre­
vents the development of high-performance machinery and equip­
ment for operation in vacuum, inert and aggressive ambiences, and
under radiation. The traditional lubricating methods and materials
are ineffective at temperatures over 250 to 300°C and at temperatures
under — 100°C. Extended service life of tribological components can
be achieved by developing new structural and lubricating materials
and lubrication methods operative in extreme conditions.
Promising are solid lubricants, which are capable of reducing
friction forces and sustaining high contact loads, are stable in va­
cuum and inert environments, and show good resistance to radioact­
ivity. Their engineering applications, however, are restricted ta
tribological units having short service life. The cause of this limitat­
ion is that no methods have been so far available for long-term supply
of lubricant to the frictional surface by circulation. Solid lubricants
are commonly used as coatings; they are incorporated into self-
lubricating composite materials or fed to the rubbing surfaces by the
transfer method.
The useful volume of lubricant coatings is limited by the thickness
of the film, which, for a number of reasons, cannot exceed 20 t a
30 μπι. With self-lubricating composites, lubrication is effected
through their wear. Solid lubricants are, as a rule, diamagnetic: they
269
are, virtually, insensitive to magnetic field. However, if some amount
of special ferromagnetic substances is added to them, they acquire
ferromagnetic properties without any appreciable loss of lubricat­
ing capability. For instance, mixing molybdenum disulphide and
nickel powders together in volume contents of 80 percent MoS2 and
20 percent Ni imparts magnetic properties to the lubricant, and the
mixture is attracted to the mating parts at magnetic inductions from
300 G and higher [10, 15]. Other additives may also be introduced.
Solution to the problem of placing the lubricant proves to be fairly
simple. In gearing applications, the gears are located in a closed
casing at the bottom of which the lubricant is placed and activated
by a magnetic field. It is exactly this mode of placing a magnetically
active lubricant—beyond the contact area, but near the rubbing
surface—that allows the use of a considerable amount of lubricant.
The potential of the magnetic method of lubricant supply is pri­
marily determined by the following advantages: (a) service life of
a mechanism can be extended by increasing the volume of lubricant
circulating in the tribological unit as it operates; (b) the lubricant
holds better on the rubbing surface under the action of magnetic
field; and (c) the same lubricant particles can be repeatedly
fed to the rubbing surface after they have been thrown away from
it. A rational forming of the magnetic field in the area of location
of the operating components offers the possibility of supplying the
lubricant to the components continuously. In these conditions, every
ferromagnetic particle, tied with the lubricant particles by mole­
cular forces, is acted upon by a magnetized part with the attraction
force Φ = χονΗ-τ—, where χ0 = magnetic sensitivity of a ferro-
magnetic particle; V = volume of the particle; H and —r- — intens­
ity and the gradient of intensity of the magnetic field within the lo­
cation of the particles.
Modern mechanisms generally operate in variable load and kine­
matic conditions, which require adjustment of lubricant supply.
The magnetic method offers a solution to this complicated problem.
Increase or decrease in magnetization of the mating components de­
pending on the operating conditions causes changes in the amount
of lubricant fed to these components. The lubricant should be used
in a powdered aggregate state so that its separate particles are loosely
connected with the whole mass of the mixture and are located along
the magnetic lines. To introduce the lubricant into the contact area,
its particles must be at least 1/2-1/3 of the permissible size dictated
by the jamming-free condition for the between-parts clearance.
The magnetic activity of the mixture is affected by the shape of
ferromagnetic particles. An elongated shape improves the ability
of the lubricant to adhere to the rubbing components and increases
the lubricants' content in one and the same volume of the mixture.
As a rule, the mixture is obtained by mechanically mixing the start-
270
ing components. This operation is not always sufficient, and the
obtained mixture should be processed additionally, in the presence
of magnetic field, for instance by squeezing between rollers that
rotate with sliding. This operation will strengthen the adhesion
between the particles of the lubricant and the ferromagnetic substance.
The presence of the magnetic field provides for simultaneous
orientation of ferromagnetic particles. After the operation, in­
dividual particles of the original components combine to form larger
flake-shaped particles with a size depending on the pressure of the
rollers and the intensity of the magnetic field. The magnetic1 lubrica­
tion method can be used in many tribological applications, for

Fig. 21.26. Magnetic-powder lubrication of

toothed gearing
I—magnetically active lubricant

instance, in gear transmissions, plain bearings, or cam mechanisms.

The ways of application may also vary. Thus, for example, gears
can be magnetized by an external magnet placed outside the lubric­
ant housing or by magnets located on the rotating gears. In both in­
stances, the gears should be mounted in a closed housing of a non­
magnetic material, which should also contain a magnetically active
lubricant.
The essence of the adjustable lubricant supply is in the correspond­
ence between the intensity of magnetization of the rubbing com­
ponents and the amount of the lubricant supply. The magnetiza­
tion intensity can be adjusted by varying the current in the solenoid
of an electric magnet or by displacing a permanent magnet relative
to the components. An electric supply source is required in the for­
mer case, and a device to move the magnet in the latter. The choice
of the particular design solution is dependent on the general layout
of the mechanism. A speed reducer employing the magnetic lubrica­
tion method is diagrammatically shown in Fig. 21.26. The perform­
ance of magnetically lubricated tribological units was tested on roller
specimens and on a three-step four-shaft speed reducer. The lubricant
used in all the tests was a mixture with a volume content of 80 percent
MoS2 and 20 percent Ni. In the starting conditions, the level of the
lubricant was close to the rubbing surfaces, without touching them.
The service-life tests were conducted without replacement of the
lubricant. The roller specimens were made from steel 20X13 (HRC 45)
with a diameter of 44 mm, a width of the operating strip of 5 mm,
and a surface roughness of 1.25 to 2.5 μπι Ra. The operating condit­
ions were: the load 8 to 75 kgf, the Hertzian maximum contact
stresses up to 7100 kgf/cm2, the roller peripheral speeds 10 to 300 cm/s;
271
the sliding speeds in the contact were varied within the range of 0
to 290 cm/s. The gear wheels were made from steel 30XTCA, with
a hardness of HRC 35 and a surface roughness of 1.25 to 2.5 μιη Ra.
The number of teeth in gear pairs was: zx = 104; z2 = 64; z3 = 104;
z4 = 64; z5 = 84; z6 = 84; the module was 0.5 mm, and the width
of the operating strip was 5 mm. The testing conditions were: the
rotational frequency of the input shaft 200 rpm, and that of the
output shaft 530 rpm; the torque Mt on the input shaft 36 kgf-cm.
With these parameters, the Hertzian maximum contact stresses at
the first step were 7450 kgf/cm2, and the sliding speed was 7.3 cm/s.

f
f r/ |
0.3 W'3tefcfe.
\
0.10\
6
0.2 w \
7 0.05\
0.1 w \
^ O"

tjUJdL^y
J_0 0
0 f0~8 :
2 3 4 S 6 &fir* kgf/cm2

Fig. 21.27. Variation of coefficient Fig. 21.28. Variation of coefficient of

of friction and wear rate with num­ friction with compressive stress in
ber of loading cycles magnetic-powder lubrication

The amount of the magnetic induction measured in the middle of

the clearance between the magnet and the rubbing-part surface was
from 200 to 500 G.
The experiments produced the following results. Bringing the
magnet closer to the rubbing parts intensified the lubricant supply
and reduced the coefficient of friction /, the wear rate / , and noise.
As the magnet was moved away and lubricant films became dis­
rupted, these characteristics returned to the initial values. Fig. 21.27
illustrates the variation of the coefficient of friction (curve 1) and the
wear rate (curve 2) with the number N of loading cycles for roller
specimens at a contact stress pmax = 4100 kgf/cm2 and a sliding
speed of 125 cm/s. The points A and B mark the moments of time
the magnet was brought closer to and moved away from the housing.
The following average values were established for the roller specim­
ens run in unlubricated conditions: / « 0.3; I = 2 X 10""5; and
with lubrication / « 0.05 to 0.065; / « 6 x 10~8. Thus, the appli­
cation of the magnetic lubrication method has given in this instance
a reduction in wear by a factor of 3 and in the coefficient of friction,
by a factor of 4 to 5.
Increased hardness of the specimens produced still better results.
Fig. 21.28 shows the coefficient of friction as dependent on the con­
tact stress when lubricating with a mixture of molybdenum disulph-
ide and nickel, the data being obtained experimentally. By the
character and the absolute values, the curve / = φ (pmax) is similar
272
to that effective for lubrication with pure molybdenum disulphide-
The service-life tests were conducted to investigate the feasibility
of the magnetic lubrication method with transmissions consisting of
several gear pairs. A speed reducer was tested under the above con­
ditions for 115 h with 1.38 X 106 cycles of the driving gear. After
the test run, the reducer was taken apart and inspected. The gears
were found to be in a good order; insignificant evidence of wear was
detected on the addendum of the teeth only. The reducer was quite-
suitable for further operation [10]. The magnetic-powder lubrication.
method has the potential for use in gaseous environments and in va­
cuum.

21.9. TRANSFER LUBRICATION

This is one of the methods of supplying a solid lubricant to the
friction area by small portions. Transfer of the lubricant is
feasible even with very light loads. The allowable wear of lubricat­
ing elements may, without any harm, greatly exceed that of the·
principal rubbing parts that sustain and transmit load [20].

Fig. 21.29. Design of lubricating gear for transfer lubrication

j—lubricating gear; 2—work gears; 3—springs

As a result, the useful life is substantially increased. In gear trans­

missions, the lubricating element is made in the form of a special
gear which meshes with a work gear. The lubricating gear carries
no work load and, as it wears away, transfers the solid lubricant to·
the rubbing surfaces of the gears under load. The lubricating gear
can be held against its mating work gear by two methods: radially
(Fig. 21.29a), with the lubricating gear secured on a lever and spring-
pressed to the work gear, and tangentially (Fig. 21.296), with th&
lubricating gear consisting of two halves and having its teeth spring-
pressed against the work gear teeth.
An experimental transfer-lubricated reducer was operated in a
10~7 to 10"9 mm Hg vacuum at temperatures from 20 to 250°C [13].
The characteristics of the lubricating gears were: the number of
teeth 110 and the diameter of the reference circle 66 mm.
273<
 During the experiments, the rotational frequency at the input of
the reducer was varied over a range of 1500 to 4500 rpm and torque
Mu from 0.5 to 5.0 kgf·cm; the pressure P of the lubricating gear
against the work gear was from 0.05 to 3 kgf. The peripheral speed
of the working and the lubricating gears reached 330 cm/s, and the
sliding speed of teeth at the contact, 110 cm/s; the contact stresses
in work gears reached the magnitudes Pmax = 10 000 kgf/cm2.
The materials used for the lubricating gears were BAMK-1, BAMK-21,
and BAMK-22. The work gears were made from steel 20X13, with
a hardness of HRC 48 to 51; the module was 0.6 mm, and the press­
ure angle a = 20°. Trial tests and calculations showed that the
power required to rotate the lubricating gears was very low, namely
from 1 to 2 percent of the power being transmitted. The efficiency
of lubrication at pressures of the lubricating gears ranging from 0.05
to 3 kgf showed no significant change because the reducer's efficiency
remained constant. With increase in the transmitted torque and
power, the efficiency of the reducer rose on the average from 45 to
90 percent. The amount of wear of the lubricating gear was propor­
tional to the number of loading cycles and increased with radial
load. Experiments with the transfer lubrication method have in­
dicated that a slight pressure on the lubricating gear was sufficient
to keep it in mesh with the work gear. Gears produced from nitrided
titanium BT-14 were tested for performance without transfer lubri­
cation. The experiment was conducted in a vacuum of 8 X 10~6 mm
Hg at a temperature of 110°C. The rotational frequency of the reducer
was 4000 rpm, with an input torque of 3.0 kgf-cm. The reducer was
run for 3 h and 5 min and was stopped because of severe scuffing
of the gears. Inspection revealed traces of scuffing on the driving
and driven tooth flanks over the whole working depth. Welded par­
ticles of metal from the mating gear were detected in tooth spaces.
Scuffing in the form of scores, cavities, traces of plastically deformed
or torn-away material was the most dangerous and typical surf ace
damage in the experiments. For the chosen materials, the intensity
of scuffing increased with growth in contact pressure, speed, and
temperature. The life of the reducer in the experiments was limited
mainly by the life of the lubricating gear and accidental ingress of
foreign particles—fragments of the lubricant and wear debris—into
the rolling bearings. It was demonstrated experimentally that under
the above conditions an irrecoverable failure of the reducer due to
severe scuffing of unlubricated gears made from steel 20X13 hardened
to HRC 50, occurred in 2 to 3 h. At the same time a reducer with
transfer lubrication was capable of operating for 100 h. Depending
on the operating conditions and gear materials, the efficiency of
the reducer could vary from 50 to 90 percent. The optimum radial
pressure of the lubricating gear made from BAMK-22 was maintained
at about 100 gf. It should be noted that at least one lubricating
gear is necessary for each pair of work gears.

274
21.10. CALCULATION OF TRANSMISSION
EFFICIENCY
An experimental and theoretical analysis of the power balance
in a dry-running reducer has shown that the sliding friction losses
in gears, idle-running losses, and losses in rolling bearings account
for the main fraction of the energy lost. The power transmitted by
a mechanism consisting of a pair of gears and rolling bearings is
Ntn = Nout + Ngt9l + Ng%rl + Nb
where Nin and Nout = input and output power of the gearing, res­
pectively; Nçi8i and Ng%ri = power expended on sliding and rolling
friction in the gearing; Nb = power expended on friction in the
bearings.
The accuracy of calculation of the efficiency is determined pri­
marily by the correct choice of the coefficient of sliding friction,
which depends on pressure, temperature, type of lubricant, slid­
ing and rolling velocity, and other conditions.
The analytic expression for the efficiency of the reducer will take
the form
1
N N
A . ir i Pl
NUj> Nup

where Nir = power spent on idle rotation; Nup = useful power;

JVpi = power losses in transmitting the work load. From this ex­
pression it follows that with increase in useful power (torque), the
relative fraction of the idle-running losses (NirINup) will diminish,
•and the total efficiency will grow accordingly. Experiments indicated
that the idle-running power increases approximately in a direct pro­
portion to rotational frequency; for this reason, the NirINup ratio
can be replaced by the MirIMup function. The friction torque in
rolling bearings varies directly with load, and, hence, with the mass
of the gears and shafts at idle running; the useful power is propor­
tional to the peripheral force on the gear. For the convenience of
further assessment of idle-run losses, let us introduce a criterion
/Of #

^iTi~ -p1* where Gt = mass of the components supported by bear­

ings (shafts, gears, and the like); and Pt = peripheral force. For
«a single gear, after substitution of the expressions for determining
mass (G) and peripheral force (P) arising in the first meshing pair,
we shall have
n y shi
ygidgi \hi+lshi d
K ygj h
Ui
where γ ^ , and yshi = density of the gear and shaft materials, res­
pectively, kg/cm3; dgi = ge^r reference circle diameter, cm; dshi =
275
= mean diameter of the shaft, cm; Mti = torque transmitted by
the gear, kgf-cm; lgi and lshi = effective lengths of the gear and
the shaft, respectively, cm. The idle-run criterion for the whole re­
ducer (that is, for all the gears) will be
n

where n = number of gears. The given method of energy calculat­

ion for reducers running dry, for instance in space, leads to the con­
clusion that the efficiency will rise with the diminishing value of
Kzir, that is with the reduced mass of parts supported by bearings.
All other things being equal, the reducer's efficiency with a change
in the gravity force will be variable because of varying K^iT
yshi dlh% \
n ygiKd*. (lgi + hhi . d2

ge ~ SAitt
2=1

where ge — gravity force in earth conditions; gt = gravity force in

particular space conditions. For instance, on the moon surface, the
value of K^.iT should be one-sixth that on the surface of the earth;
hence, with other conditions being identical, the gear-transmission
efficiency must be higher. It should be kept in mind that, with low
powers transmitted, the energy lost in idle running of a reducer made
from conventional materials will be relatively high. The above
analysis points to some ways of increasing the total efficiency of
a speed reducer and enables the designer to allow for its changes de­
pending on the bearing friction losses, to which no proper considera­
tion has been given so far.

REFERENCES

1. ApTo6ojieBCKHH H. H. Teopna MexaHH3MOB. M., «HayKa», 1965, 776 c

2. ΓΘΗΚΗΗ M. fl-, Ky3bMHH H. Φ., MnniapHH K). A. BonpocH 3aeflaHHÄ
3y6HaTMX KOJiec. M., H3fl-BO AH CCCP, 1959, 147 c.
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4. flp03flOB K ) . H . HOBHH ΜΘΤΟβ HCCJieflOBaHHH H paCHeTa npOTHB03aAHpHOÎi
CTOHKOCTH KOHTaKTa.— TpyßBi HayHHO-TexHHHecKoro coBemaHHH n o MeiO^aivi
ΟΠ,ΘΗΚΗ npOTHBOH3HOCHLIX H ΠρθΤΗΒΟΒβ,Π,ΗρΗΗΧ CBOHCTB CMa30HHHX MaTepna-
jiOB. M., «Hayna», 1969, c. 153-168.
5. ,H,p03AOB K ) . H . ΥΐΌΗΗΘΗΗΒΙΗ ΜΘΤΟβ paCHeTa Ha 38LRllip n a p ΤρβΗΗΗ B THJKeJIO
Harpyn«eHHBix MexaHH3Max.— «ΒΘΟΤΗΗΚ MamnHOCTpoeHHH», 1971, N2 4, c. 25-29.
6. ,3,po3,n;oB K). H. TenjiOBoâ acneKT npoöjieMH 3ae,naHHH KaTHmnxcn CQ
cKOJibHieHHeM Teji.— «ManuraoBeflemie», 1972, N2 2, c. 71-79.
7. ,D,P03ÄOB JO. H . , PemHKOB B. Φ. 0 κοθφφιιηιιβΗΤΘ τρβΗΗΗ H TOJimime
MacjiHHOii njieHKH B ΤΗΪΚΘΠΟ HarpyîKeHHOM KOHTaKTe.— «BecTHHKManiHHOCTpoe-
HHH», 1968, No 2, c. 9-12.
8. ,ΙΙ,ΡΟΒ,Π,ΟΒ K). H., ApneroB B. Γ. Pac^eT κοθφφηυ,ΗθΗΤα Tpemia B THH^JIO
Harpy>KeHHOM KOHTaKTe πρη cKOjibjKeHHH.— «ManiHHOBenemie», 1975, Ν? 6„
e. 81-83.

276
 9. ,Π,ρο3ΑθΒ Κ). H . , riyiKOB B. H. MeTOßHKa ΟΗΘΗΚΗ Hecymen cnocoÖHOCTH
^ΓΒβρΑωχ cMa30K π ρ π BUCOKHX ßaBnemrax H ΠΟΒΜΙΙΙΘΗΗΒΙΧ TeMnepaTypax. Tpenne
H H3HauiHBaHHe npn BHcoKHX TeMnepaTypax. M., «HayKa», 1973, c. 11-14.
10. J\J)03ROB IO. H . , IlaBjiOB B . Γ., PoManiKHH 0 . Γ. ΤΘΠΠΟΟΤΟΗΚΗΗ pe^yK-
TOp C MarHHTHHM CnOCOÔOM nO^aHH ΤΒβρΑΟΗ CMa3KH.— «BeCTHHK MainHHO­
CTpoeHHH», 1 9 7 6 , JSTo 8 , c . 1 8 - 2 2 .
11. flposflOB K). H . , GMHPHOB B . H. HccjieflOBamie κοθφφπη,ΗβΗΤα τρβΗΗΗ
<îKOJib>KeHHH πρπ BEicoKHx napaMeTpax KOHTaKTa.— «ΒΘΟΤΗΗΚ MainHHOCTpoe-
ΉΗΗ», 1977, No 6, c. 19-23.
12. ,3,po3AOB K). H . , TyMaHHHiBHJiH Γ. H. Tojimima CMa30<raoro CJIOH nepefl
3aeAaHneM Tpymnxca Teji.— «BecTHHK MannraocTpoemiH», 1978, N° 2, c. 8-10.
13. ÄP03AOB K). H . , OßceeHKO Γ. P . , IlaBJiOB B . Γ. PoTanpHHTHWo cnocoô
<îMa3KH B cyxHX 3yÖHaTHx pe^yKTopax.— «BecTHHK ManiHHOCTpoeHHH», 1973,
«N° 7, c. 26-29.
14. KparejibCKHH H. B . Tpemie H H3HOC. H3#. 2-e. M., «ManiHHOCTpoeHHe»,
1968, 480 c.
15. IlaBJiOB B . Γ., ,D,po3AOB K). H . ΠθΒΜπιβΗΗβ ΑΟΠΓΟΒΘΗΗΟΟΤΗ y3jiOB cyxoro
TpeHHH.— «BecTHHK MamHHOCTpoeHHH», 1975, JMs 1 1 , c. 34-37.
16. IleTpyceBH^ A. H. 3y6iaTbie nepe^ann. fleTajin MainnH. CnpaBOHHHK,
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17. PaËKO M. B . CMa3Ka 3yÔHaTbix nepe^an. KneB, «TexmKa», 1970, 194 c.
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$ 7 4 c.
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21. YCTHHeHKO B . JI. O BJIHHHHH OKpynCHOH CKOpOCTH Ha KOHTaKTHyiO
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1970, 252 c.
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