FASHION

& LAND

Unravelling the Environmental

Impact of Fibres
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Lead author
Rebecca Jiménez (Zoï Environment Network)
Editor
Xenya Scanlon (UNCCD)
Graphic designer
Carolyne Daniel (Zoï Environment Network)
Contributors
Louise Baker (UNCCD), Paola Deda (UNECE), Liliana Annovazzi-Jakab (UNECE),
Florian Steierer (UNECE), Bettina Heller (UNEP), Claudia Giacovelli (UNEP), Rachel
Arthur (UNEP), Una Jones (Sustainable Fibre Alliance), Zara Morris-Trainor (Sustainable
Fibre Alliance), Natalie Ernst (Better Cotton), Alex Musembi (Africa Collect Textile), Julia
Kozlik (PEFC), Victoire de Pourtales (91530 LE MARAIS), Otto Simonett (Zoï Environ-
ment Network), Viktor Novikov (Zoï Environment Network)
Copy editor
Stephen Graham
Cover: Artwork created by Carolyne Daniel (Zoï Environment Network) with support of
Midjourney
Citation: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, 2024. Fashion & Land:
Unravelling the Environmental Impact of Fibres. UNCCD, Bonn.
ISBN online: 978-92-95128-04-0
ISBN print: 978-92-95128-05-7
This publication is available for download at:
https://www.unccd.int/resources/publications/fashion4land

© 2024 UNCCD. All rights reserved.

Disclaimer
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations
Convention to Combat Desertification or the authors concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, city, or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its fron-
tiers or boundaries.
Mention of a commercial company or product in this document does not imply en-
dorsement by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification or the authors.
The use of information from this document for publicity or advertising is not permitted.
Trademark names and symbols are used in an editorial fashion with no intention on in-
fringement of trademark or copyright laws. We regret any errors or omissions that may
have been unwittingly made.
Some visual design elements in this publication have been created by humans but en-
hanced using artificial intelligence.

2
 CONTENTS
CONTENTS
6 Letter from the editor

8 The impact of fashion on land – An introduction

Cotton
10 The ubiquitous natural fibre and largest land user

Wool
14 Luxury animal fibre with a deep connection to land

Linen and hemp

18 Plant-based fibres, a long-lived tradition of sustainability

Wood-based fibres
20 A deforestation risk or a sustainable solution to land degradation?

Oranges and Co.

24 Agricultural waste fibres turn trash into resource

Synthetics
26 Non-biodegradable fibres leave their footprint on land

29 Endnotes

3
4
 FIBRES, TEXTILE
FIBRES, TEXTILE AND
AND LAND
LAND
WORLD MAP OF FIBRE PRODUCTION,
TEXTILE TRADE AND LAND DEGRADATION

World map showing the connections between fibre production, land degradation and the international textile trade:
while trade and manufacturing is concentrated on5
the Asia-Europe-North Africa axis, fibre production and
land degradation is global.
 LETTER FROM THE
LETTER FROM THE T
EDITOR
EDITOR F
Dear Reader,
A
You are holding in your hands the publication solutions that can be
Fashion & Land: Unravelling the Environmental found in how various
Impact of Fibres produced by the United Nations fibres are produced,
Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). used and disposed
of, and the role of
You may wonder what a UN treaty to combat enabling policies and innovative approaches.
desertification, land degradation and drought
signed by 196 countries and the European Union Cotton, for instance, requires vast resources and
has to do with something seemingly as remote can be a significant contributor to soil and fresh-
— and, for some, as trivial — as fashion. water depletion, while wool production such as
cashmere is linked to overgrazing and desertifica-
The simple answer is that our clothes come tion. There are, however, notable multistakeholder
from the land. And, more often than not, they initiatives seeking to reduce these impacts and
return to the land. prioritize long-term sustainability of supply chains.

In recent years, an increasing level of atten- Wood-based textiles could inadvertently result in
tion has been given to fashion’s environmental deforestation, while synthetic fibres represent a
record, particularly this trillion-dollar industry’s major source of microplastic pollution. Voluntary
contribution to climate change. certification schemes and stricter regulations all
play a role in avoiding such collateral damage.
This is a much-needed reckoning; however, we
should look beyond the number of tons of car- Despite the promising potential of alternative
bon emitted during the making, wearing and materials, such as agricultural waste fibres, they
discarding of our clothes. remain a niche product and have yet to gain signif-
icant market traction. We need strong policy incen-
We must consider the varied and often over- tives and market signals to promote innovation
looked impacts of fashion on landscapes and and entrepreneurship in support of healthy land.
wildlife, waterways and forests, and more.
By focusing on fashion's impact on land, we can
And we must not forget the people who call promote more sustainable practices that protect
these landscapes home — farmers, herders, the environment, conserve biodiversity, gener-
Indigenous and local communities — who are ate sustainable livelihoods, and ensure that land
at the start (and often at the very bottom) of remains productive for generations to come.
many global fashion value chains.
We hope that this publication inspires government
This pioneering publication explores the role of and business decision-makers, as well as all of us
the fashion industry in driving environmental fashion lovers and consumers, to create a more
change, particularly in relation to land. sustainable and land-friendly fashion industry.

By focusing on the virtues and challenges of The answer to “who are you wearing”
selected fibres, many of which we are likely to is unequivocal: land.
wear every day, it underscores the crucial impor-
tance of fibre choice in reducing the industry’s Xenya Scanlon
land footprint and promoting more sustain-
able production and consumption patterns. At UNCCD Chief of Communications,
the same time, this publication also highlights External Relations and Partnerships

6
 THE IMPACT
THE IMPACT OFOF
FASHION ON LAND
FASHON ON LAND –
AN INTRODUCTION
AN INTRODUCTION
“By 2030, the fashion industry is expected to use
35% more land – much of it to grow materials for
cheap and throwaway fashion. But we can choose
that shirt or those jeans more carefully. Those
choices do not diminish our quality of life. On the
contrary, they improve it.”1

Ibrahim Thiaw

UNCCD Executive Secretary

Fashion is a constantly growing and evolving What is its impact on land?

industry – it thrives and relies on creativity and
innovation to propel itself forward. At the same
time, it has a serious environmental impact.
This often-overlooked
The clothing industry is a big polluter. It is also aspect determines how
one of the least regulated business sectors,
with complex supply chains and not much sustainable our
transparency.2 The scale of the industry, the
rise of “fast fashion” and its voracious appetite
clothes actually are
for natural resources are placing significant or can be.
pressure on the environment.

While the carbon and water footprints of fash- In terms of land use, the footprint of the global
ion are well documented, there is a question apparel value chain comes mainly from the
that should be asked as well: production of fibre.3

7
LAND USE IMPACT ACROSS THE GLOBAL APPAREL VALUE CHAIN

56% 6% 4% 10% 12% 0%

Fibre production Yarn & fabric Textile production Consu

production

Raw Raw Yarn Weaving, Bleaching,

Fibre Distrib
material material preparation knitting, dyeing and Assembly
preparation and re
production processing (spinning) bonding finishing

Source: Redrawn from UNEP (2020). Sustainability and Circularity in the Textile Value Chain: Global Stocktaking. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/34184

In the last two decades, global fibre produc- The production of raw materials for textiles
tion has more than doubled from 58 million carries the risk of significant negative impacts
tons in 2000 to a new record of 124 million on land, such as degradation, soil erosion,
tons in 2023.4 If business continues as usual, overgrazing, desertification, deforestation,
the fibre market is expected to continue freshwater depletion, pollution, waste, bio-
growing rapidly, reaching 160 million tons diversity loss, carbon emissions and climate
by 2030.5 Around 60% of all the textiles pro- change.
duced are used in clothing.6 Less than 1% of
all material used to produce them is recycled According to the UNCCD, up to 40% of the
into new clothing.7 world’s land is degraded, and degradation is
continuing at an alarming rate.9 An area equiv-
While most of the fibre produced is of syn- alent to four football fields of healthy land
thetic origin, a 2017 study estimated that, by becomes degraded every second, adding up
2030, the fashion industry will use 35% more to at least 100 million hectares each year.10
land for cotton, forest for cellulosic fibres, Generally, it is much more cost-effective to
and grassland for livestock, or a total of 115 prevent it from happening where possible
million hectares, an area almost the size of than to reverse the consequences. Restoring
South Africa.8 soil lost through erosion is a slow process.

FIBRES PRODUCED IN 2023 Animal fibres ~1%

Man-made
Plant fibres ~25% cellulosics ~6%

124 million tons

Global fibre production
(in 2023)

Cotton Other plant Viscose, Acetate, Lyocell,

(~20%) fibres (~5%) Modal, Cupro (~6%)

Wool ~0.9% Cashmere ~0.02%

Source: Redrawn from Textile Exchange (2024). Materials Market Report. https://textileexchange.org/knowledge-center/reports/materials-market-report-2024/

8
 13% 0%

umption End-of-life

Disposal,
Landfilling,
bution collection
Use waste to
etail and
energy
sorting

It can take 500 years for 2.5 centimetres of is presented. Further, the focus of the publi-
soil to form but only a few years to destroy it.11 cation lies firmly on clothes, leaving out other
fashion items such as shoes, handbags and
While the production of yarn, fabric and accessories.
finished items of clothing as well as the dis-
tribution and use of apparel take their toll on Finally, land impact can never be seen in
land and the environment too, this publica- a vacuum but as part of a broader picture,
tion focuses on the beginning of the lifespan linked to social, economic and environ-
of clothing, when the fibre is cultivated, and mental factors, especially since fibres are
on the end. Of all the fibre used for clothing, often closely linked to people and their
87% is landfilled or incinerated.12 livelihoods. As all fibres have their respec-
tive benefits and challenges, it cannot be
This publication provides a snapshot of the argued that one fibre should replace anoth-
impact of fashion on land and does not rep- er completely. Ultimately, producing and
resent a comprehensive study of interactions consuming less but better, and moving to-
between the textile industry and the environ- wards a more circular fashion industry can
ment. As not all fibres or fibre categories help ensure that fibre production does not
could be taken into account, only a selection literally cost the earth.

Synthetic fibres ~67%

Polyester Polyamide
(~57%) (Nylon) (~5%)

Other synthetic
fibres (~5%)

Mohair ~0.004% Alpaca ~0.005% Other animal fibres ~0.01%

9
COTTON
COTTON
The ubiquitous natural fibre
and largest land user

COT TON 10 UBIQUITOUS NATURAL FIBRE

 Cotton is the most used natural fibre in the world and the second
most produced fibre in the textile industry. The fabric is comfort-
able, breathable and hard-wearing. Yet its cultivation comes at a
cost to the land: large-scale cotton cultivation depletes the water
resources of drier regions, and the industry depends heavily on
chemical fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides.

Between 2 and 2.5m²

of land is needed to
grow the cotton for
one T-shirt in the US.13
→ 20% of global fibre production is
cotton.14

→ 2.5% of arable land worldwide is

used for cotton cultivation.15

→ 4.7% of pesticides and 10%

of insecticides sold worldwide go
into cotton farming.16

1,931 litres of irrigation water

and 6,003 litres of rainwater is
needed on average to produce
1 kg of lint, or raw cotton fibre,
roughly equivalent to one T-shirt
and one pair of jeans17

COT TON 11 UBIQUITOUS NATURAL FIBRE

 Conventional Cotton

While cotton is a practical, renewable, bio- cotton cultivation. This can take many forms,
degradable and recyclable source of fibre, with huge amounts of synthetic pesticides
growing and processing the crop has a and chemical fertilizers used, which seep into
hefty environmental impact. It needs a lot of soil and wash into waterways, harming both
water compared to flax (used to make linen) biodiversity and ecosystems, and the health
or hemp, for example. This can become of rural communities.19
problematic in water-scarce regions. Poor irri-
gation practices and water management add The cultivation of cotton as a monoculture
to the problem, with potentially long-lasting heavily dependent on irrigation and pesti-
impacts on people and the environment.18 cides can result in land degradation through
salinization and erosion.20 Furthermore,
Further, as cotton is highly vulnerable to pests cotton farming is sometimes linked to defor-
and weeds, crop protection is essential for estation to clear land for cultivation.

What are the alternatives to conventional cotton farming?

There are four main alternatives to conventional cotton:

1 Organic cotton. 3 Recycled cotton.

This avoids harmful pesticides and syn- Recycled cotton covers only about 1% of
thetic fertilizers, is often grown on rain-fed demand, however, this sector is expected
farms, but usually needs more land than to grow quickly in the coming years.22
conventional cotton due to lower yields.21
4 Other fibres.
2 Cotton licensed or certified under Volun- Alternative natural fibres such as hemp or
tary Standard Systems. flax have lower environmental impacts but
An example for this is Better Cotton, which their own sets of challenges, while synthet-
targets improvements across a range of ic fibres are non-biodegradable, and man-
issues associated with cotton farming. made cellulosic fibres are still an emerging
industry.23

WORKING WITH FARMERS TO IMPROVE COTTON

SUSTAINABILITY IN INDIA
India is the second largest producer of cotton in supporting farmers to understand the best
the world, cultivating over 12 million hectares of ways to use pesticides and fertilizers, rotate
cotton.33 As well as challenges related to climate crops, protect the environment, and improve
change, water scarcity and poor soil health, working conditions in their communities.
farmers face perpetual pressure from pests, Today, the organization collaborates with over
which often leads to an overuse of pesticides, 842,000 licensed farmers in India, covering
putting the health of both people and the envi- 1.3 million hectares of land and producing ap-
ronment at risk.34 proximately 917,000 metric tons of certified
cotton crops.35, 36 Since 2014, farms involved
Better Cotton is a global not-for-profit orga- in the programme have reduced pesticide use
nization supporting the production of more by 53% and water usage for irrigation by 29%.37
equitable and sustainable cotton at the farm Globally, about 22% of the cotton produced is
level. It has been working in India since 2011, now certified by Better Cotton.38

COT TON 12 UBIQUITOUS NATURAL FIBRE

© Tim Dirven / Panos Pictures, Aral Sea, 2015

COTTON AND THE ARAL SEA

Unsustainable cotton production can have seri- as fishing, and augmented health problems.26, 27
ous environmental, economic and social conse-
quences. An example is the Aral Sea in Central While the Aral Sea may never recover com-
Asia shared by Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. In pletely, policy reforms and more sustainable
the 1960s the fourth largest lake in the world, agricultural practices and irrigation techniques
by the 2000s it had lost around 90% of its water are being employed to restore the land.28 Cotton
volume due to unsustainable agricultural prac- is also substituted with less water-demanding
tices, mostly in cotton cultivation.24 crops.29 Further, countries plant drought and
salinity-tolerant trees and other plants to curb
During the Soviet Union, a lot of water from the sandstorms and stabilize the new ecosystem
Aral Sea’s inflowing rivers, the Amu Darya and across the former Aral seabed.30
Syr Darya, was diverted for cotton production,
which eventually led to significant water short- Central Asia still produces a lot of cotton – es-
ages and downstream pollution with pesticides timated 1.1 million tons/year in 2018/19 – and
and fertilizers.25 The retreating sea affected the its water footprint is 70% of water consump-
surrounding areas, where salt, sand and dust tion in irrigation in the Aral Sea basin.31, 32 There
storms and polluted water damaged soils. This is still room to improve irrigation efficiency and
led to lower crop yields, salinization, desertifi- make cotton cultivation less thirsty and more
cation, loss of biodiversity and livelihoods, such environmentally sustainable.

COT TON 13 UBIQUITOUS NATURAL FIBRE

WOOL
WOOL
Luxury animal fibre with
a deep connection to land

WOOL 14 LUXUR Y ANIMAL FIBRE

 Obtained primarily from sheep, which dominate this category, but
also from goats, yaks, camels and alpacas, wool enjoys the image
of a natural and environmentally friendly material.38, 40 The reality,
however, is nuanced.
Wool is a warm, breathable and highly durable systems, where animals are bred for fibre yield and
material, which are big benefits when being quality.43 Animal rights activists have raised con-
worn.41 It is also biodegradable and easily re- cerns over livestock welfare and fibre harvesting
cyclable due to its relatively long fibres.42 practices, and wool production can have negative
impacts on the environment if livestock are not
While often being seen as a by-product of meat managed sustainably.44 Wool clothing can also be
production, wool is a key focus of many production expensive.45

Negative land impacts of large-scale, unsustainable wool production can include:

→ Overgrazing, leading to land degradation.46 → Loss of biodiversity and

exclusion of wild grazing species that
→ Deforestation and habitat loss to compete with livestock for forage and
create more pasture for grazing animals.47 space.48

→ Water and soil pollution from pesti- → High emissions of methane,

cides to keep livestock parasite-free and a potent greenhouse gas, from ruminants
chemicals used to wash wool. such as sheep and goats.49

Through sustainable practices,

well-managed rangelands,
and the adaptation of
voluntary standards,
which bring transparency and Rearing livestock takes a lot of space, but many
assurance on animal welfare and rangelands around the globe where extensive
livestock production takes place would not be
environmental concerns, suitable to other forms of land use.52 They are
marginal areas where crops cannot be culti-
risks to land can be minimized, vated. Livestock rearing, in this cases, provides
avoided or even mitigated.50 a way for people to utilise this space, often by
moving between pastures with their livestock.53

Wool and synthetic fibres

A recent study finds, however, that livestock Alternatives to wool are often synthetics, such as
can support biodiversity, and sequester car- polyester, acrylic, and nylon which have their own
bon, helping with climate change, if grazing is environmental and land impact. Wool blended
managed properly and the number of livestock with synthetic fibres makes it harder to recycle
is moderate.51 and are more likely to end up as landfill.54

WOOL 15 LUXUR Y ANIMAL FIBRE

 CASHMERE WOOL AND ITS IMPACT ON LAND IN MONGOLIA

→ 24.6 million goats live in Demand for cashmere is on the rise with mar-
ket analysts estimating that the industry will
Mongolia, outnumbering the human
grow by more than 6% a year until 2030, by
population by more than 8 to 1.56 which time it will be worth $4.23 billion.58 In
Mongolia, the second largest producer of
→ 70% of pastureland in Mongolia cashmere in the world after China, this has
is estimated to have been degraded to led to a big increase of goats grazing on the
some extent through a combination of country’s rangelands. Cashmere is often the
climate change and overgrazing.57 primary source of income for nomadic herd-
er communities, making up almost 5% of the
country’s GDP.59 It also has a great societal
importance in preserving the cultural heritage
and traditional knowledge of nomadic and
pastoral communities.60

However, rearing cashmere goats can have a

negative impact as well. Goats may present
4-8 cashmere goats a threat to biodiversity as they compete for
space and forage with wild grazing species.61
are on average needed for In certain parts of Mongolia, they have led to
enough fibre to make one the degradation of ecosystems and damage
of pastureland where the grassland cannot
cashmere sweater.55 support the necessary fodder for the hungry
goats.62 Overgrazing together with extreme
weather and climate change has further also
led to desertification.63

© Horizon Images / Alamy Stock Photo, Mongolia, 2013

Improving the sustainability reduced water, energy and carbon consump-
of Mongolia’s cashmere tion, better animal welfare standard, support
for communities that depend on the cashmere
“Addressing sustainability challenges in the industry, higher consumer awareness about
global cashmere industry requires collab- the environmental and ethical issues asso-
orative efforts from various stakeholders ciated with cashmere production and more
– governments, fashion brands, consumers, certification and transparency in the global
and non-governmental organizations”, accord- cashmere value chain. Further, an integrated,
ing to the Sustainable Fibre Alliance (SFA).64 unifying approach to balance the health of peo-
The organization has identified the need for ple, animals and ecosystems, often known as
things like better grazing management, more One Health, is needed as the three are closely
efficient processing of livestock products, interlinked and dependent of each other.

THE GLOBAL RANGELAND CAMEL WOOL AND

STANDARD THE LUXURY MARKET

To make wool more sustainable it is import- Camel hair has not yet received much atten-
ant to consider it together with the rangelands tion from the global fashion industry. The
and other ecosystems in which it is produced. warm and waterproof fibre has only recently
The Global Rangeland Standard (GRS) devel- emerged on the luxury market. However,
oped by the non-profit Rangeland Stewardship according to a recent report of the Saudi
Council and partners* in 2024 aims to Arabian Fashion Commission, further growth
promote best practices worldwide for respon- is projected for luxury camel fashion products,
sible rangeland management. The standard, given the rapid growth of the luxury fashion
which is being developed in collaboration market in the Middle East and especially Saudi
with herders, will focus on traditional and cul- Arabia.66
turally attentive practices, human health and
well-being, animal welfare, traceability, gender While, as with all livestock, there are limits to
equality and effective land management.65 how many animals land can sustain without
negative impacts, camels present an interest-
*The GRS is developed in partnership with the UNCCD, the ing alternative to other animals as they are
SFA, and with the support of rangeland stakeholders. It is sup- perfectly adapted to arid environments.67 They
ported by the Global Environment Facility-funded STELARR
are natural foragers that can subsist on a
(Sustainable Investments for Large-Scale Rangeland
Restoration) Project, which is implemented by IUCN and exe- wider variety of plants, little water and on land
cuted by ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute) and that is not used for conventional agriculture.68
partners.

WOOL 17 LUXUR Y ANIMAL FIBRE

LINEN
LINEN &&
HEMP
HEMP
Plant-based fibres,
a long-lived
tradition of
sustainability

LINEN AND HEMP 18 PLANT-BASED FIBRES

 Plant-based fibres, including bast fibres such as jute, flax, hemp
and others, have a global market share of about 5% excluding
cotton and wood-based fibres.69 If farmed carefully, plant-based
fibres can be more environmentally sustainable than cotton, wool
or synthetics.
Clothes made with these fibres are quick to wrinkling. They are also generally more expen-
dry, durable and biodegradable.70 They might, sive to produce and more energy-intensive in
however, also be a bit coarse or prone to the spinning process.71

LINEN :
THE RESILIENT ONE

Linen is made of fibres won from the stem of

the flax plant.72 Based on estimates around
0.4 million tons of flax are produced each year,
equivalent to almost 0.3% of global fibre pro-
duction.73

Around 64% of the flax

used for fibres in 2023
was cultivated in Europe, the HEMP :
THE CONTROVERSIAL ONE
plant being grown along the
coast from northern France to Sharing many of the characteristics of flax,
including its resistance to disease and ability
Belgium and the Netherlands.74 to capture carbon, hemp can also be counted
as a more environmentally friendly crop.80 The
plant can support soil health and biodiversity,
Flax fibres are difficult to weave, and parts of suppress weeds and be part of a crop rotation
the production process must be done by hand.75 system that boosts yields.81
Compared to cotton, linen is therefore more labour
intensive and time consuming, and more costly. While tending to be a little scratchy on the
skin, hemp fabric is breathable, antibacterial,
It is, however, relatively sustainable. Flax is a thermoregulating and highly resistant.82 It also
carbon sink crop (meaning it absorbs more softens over time.
CO2 from the atmosphere than it releases) and
is naturally pest-resistant, drought-tolerant, An estimated 0.2 million tons of hemp were
and regenerative.76 Thus, production does not produced in 2023, representing 0.2% of the
need much chemical intervention.77 Flax also global fibre market.83 Cultivating hemp (Can-
has a short growth cycle, so is often cultivated nabis sativa) is illegal in some countries due
between the growing seasons of other crops. to its narcotic properties, even though the
As part of a regenerative system this crop concentrations of psychoactive constituents
rotation can increase soil health and support in hemp cultivated for fibre on an industrial
biodiversity.78 In Europe, flax grows primarily scale for are very low.84, 85 Production is, how-
in areas with enough rainfall to make irrigation ever, expanding as more authorities have le-
largely unnecessary.79 galized cultivation recently.86

LINEN AND HEMP 19 PLANT-BASED FIBRES

WOOD-BA
WOOD-BASED
FIBRES
FIBRES
A deforestation risk
or a sustainable solution
to land
degradation?

MMCFS 20 WOOD-BASED FIBRES

ASED
D Man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCFs), such as viscose, lyocell,
modal, acetate, and cupro are most commonly made from wood
pulp. Cellulose, a chief part of the cell walls of plants, is extracted
from the pulp of trees, such as beech, birch, eucalyptus, fir and
poplar, or from bamboo.87, 88 Fabric made from these fibres is often
soft, breathable and absorbent.
Over the past decade, MMCFs have received 2023, accounting for about 6% of global fibre
increasing attention as more environmen- market, production has more than doubled
tally friendly alternatives to other fibres, such since 1990 and is expected to continue to
as cotton or synthetics.89 At 7.9 million tons in grow in the coming years.90

The pros and cons of wood-based fibres

Because they are wood-based and renewable, biodiversity loss, as forest species lose their
MMCFs can have less of a negative environ- habitat, and contributes to climate change
mental impact when compared to any other through the release of carbon stored in trees
fibres.91 This is especially the case if the wood is and forest soils.
sourced sustainably, and proper management
of chemicals and water is in place during the However, if managed sustainably, the forests
manufacturing process as this is where MMCF can maintain or even enhance their biodiver-
can be most harmful for the environment.92 sity, make the forest ecosystems resilient
The technology used in milling and the asso- and preserve soil and water quality. It takes
ciated energy use should also be considered.93 less land, and generally no irrigation or fer-
tilizer, to produce a ton of wood-based fibre
If fibres come from forest sources that are which are key advantages over, for example,
not managed sustainably, where for example cotton.96
illegal logging is taking place, there is a risk
of forest degradation and deforestation.94
Deforestation damages ecosystems and In 2023 an estimated 60-65% of
all MMCFs were certified
heightens the risk of soil erosion, loss of fertil-
ity and increased flooding due to the removal
of trees that anchor the soil.95 It also results in
by at least one of the two leading
international organizations that
provide certification for forests and
forest product, the Programme for the
Endorsement of Forest
Certification Schemes (PEFC) or
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).97

MMCFS 21 WOOD-BASED FIBRES

 The future?

There is a growing trend

towards more wood-based fibres
and more certified
traceability of raw material
sourcing, which increases transparency
of the MMCF sourcing. Further, MMCFs can also be made from
non-wood/bamboo materials such as
waste textiles, agricultural food waste or
other plant-based materials.99 While the
According to a recently published survey, 71% technology is still much under develop-
of European consumers would like to see a ment, some latest innovations can, for
label certifying that the forest fibres in fashion example, turn old fabrics and waste (e.g.
collections come from sustainably managed old newspapers) into new fibres in sus-
forests.98 tainable patented processes.100

VISCOSE AND LYOCELL, THE MOST USED MMCFS FOR TEXTILES

→ Viscose (rayon) is the most used

manmade cellulosic fibre, having a market
share of roughly 80% of all MMCF.101

→ Lyocell is made from eucalyptus, beech,

oak or spruce trees. Tencel is the name
of the same fibre branded by the Austrian
company Lenzing, while Newcell and
Excel is lyocell manufactured by other
companies.102

MMCFS 22 WOOD-BASED FIBRES

© Chris Stowers / Panos Pictures, 2022

BAMBOO FIBRE

The use of bamboo fibres for clothing is, while has invasive tendencies and can inhibit growth
still modest, on the rise.103 It is strong, flexi- of other plants, which can lead to disrup-
ble, has antibacterial properties and provides tion of native vegetation and biodiversity.105
UV protection. While bamboo belongs to the Furthermore, like for all viscose a chemically
grass family, its woody, tall structure and rapid intensive process is needed to create bamboo
growth is similar to trees. Growing very quickly rayon, which can pose risk for human health.106
and in many areas of the world, bamboo is While this is not the only way to make fabrics,
often seen as a good renewable resource.104 It it is the one most often applied. It is important
does not need much water, pesticides or fertil- to know where the bamboo was grown and
izer and captures carbon. under which circumstances to determine if it
is sustainable.107 Certifications and standards
However, if not managed well and sustainably, exist for bamboo clothing, which ensure envi-
the aggressive growth of bamboo can also ronmental sustainability, ethical sourcing and
become the challenge. The resilient bamboo quality for certified items.108

MMCFS 23 WOOD-BASED FIBRES

ORANGE
ORANGES
AND CO.
AND CO.
Agricultural waste
fibres turn
trash
into
resource

OR ANGES AND CO. 24 AGRICULTURAL WASTE FIBRES

 Scientists and industry looking for a solution to the puzzle of sus-
tainable fashion are also looking to a new source of recyclable
materials: agricultural waste. Byproducts of the global agri-food
sector such as fruit peel, seed oil, plant leaves and biogas can be
used to make man-made cellulosic fibres (MMCFs) from mate-
rial that would otherwise have been burned or gone to waste.109
While research on some options is still at an early stage, others
are being pushed by startups and gaining traction.
The green credentials of agricultural waste the original crop, including inputs such as irri-
fibres depend on several factors. As byprod- gation or farm chemicals, needs to be taken
ucts, the production of these materials does into account. In addition, not all of the result-
not add to the pressure on land and other ing fibres may be biodegradable.
resources. Still, the environmental footprint of

Some newcomers to the fashion world

Oranges
Orange Fibre extracts cellulose from the peel
of oranges grown for their juice, which pro-
duces 700,000 tons of orange waste a year
in Italy.110, 111 The company, which began as
a university project, transforms the peel into
a silk-like fabric.112 The citrus cellulose has
also already been incorporated into a lyocell
fabric.113

Hemp seed oil, flaxseed oil, pineapple leaves, Coffee Ground Fibre
banana trees, rice straw and sugarcane bark To feed the world’s demand for caffeine,
Circular Systems has been producing fibres farmers produce more than 10 million tons
from hemp seed and flaxseed oil, pineapple of coffee beans every year.116 But once the
leaves, banana trees, rice straw and sug- roasting, grinding and brewing are done, we
arcane bark since 2019.114 The company are left with millions of tons of waste.117 Under
claims waste from these six crops could the name S.Café®, the company SingTex has
yield more than 250 million tons of fibre each been combining leftover coffee grounds with
year, which is more than current global fibre polyester from recycled plastic bottles since
demand.115 2009.118, 119

OR ANGES AND CO. 25 AGRICULTURAL WASTE FIBRES

SYNTHETI
SYNTHETICS
Non-biodegradable fibres
leave their footprint on land
SICS
The rise of synthetic fibre and fabric starting in the mid-1990s
has enabled the emergence of fast fashion, with cheap clothing
produced for the mass-market and styled according to the latest
trends.124 Today, more than two thirds of all clothes produced
are made from synthetic fibres, such as polyester or polyamide
(nylon), which are plastics derived from oil and gas.

67% of clothes are made

from polyester and
other synthetic fibres derived
from fossil fuels.120

→ 87% of the fibre used for clothing

is landfilled or incinerated.121 Circularity and other solution
approaches
→ EU consumers discard about
In order to solve the issue of pollution through
5.8 million tons textiles synthetics and plastic in general, two main
annually around 11 kg per person – challenges need to be overcome.129 Firstly, the
of which about two thirds consist of current system needs to be changed away
synthetic fibres.122 from cheap, quickly disposable clothing items,
overproduction and consumption. Secondly,
the caused pollution needs to be tackled.
→ 9% of the annual microplastic
losses to oceans is due to the textile Circular economy is often presented as a
sector (synthetic fibres).123 solution for both challenges.130 New business
models and product designs that lengthen the
lifespan of clothing, recycle, reuse or recover
them need to be established and scaled up.131
What is the link between land and Further, change requires new policies, and the
synthetics? industry to play an important part in reducing
the land impact of clothes. Alternative fibres
The land footprint of synthetics in the fibre and material innovation need to be incentiv-
production stage is indirect and small, related ized and recycling technologies advanced.132
to oil extraction, land degradation from drilling Also, consumers awareness should be
and refinery infrastructure. Synthetic fibres increased.
instead leave a much bigger imprint at the
end of their life. Effectively non-biodegradable There is, however, no single answer that can
(they take hundreds of years to break down), solve the transnational problem caused by the
huge quantities of synthetic fibres end up volumes of discarded clothing.
in landfills.125 They also often contain chem-
icals, which help the longevity of the clothes In terms of clothing waste, “a multi-level
but after being discarded leach into soil and approach, well-coordinated between export-
groundwater if improperly disposed of.126 In ing and importing countries and involving
addition, synthetics have an immense energy national and sub-national authorities along-
and carbon footprint incurred during both side affected communities, is needed”, accord-
production (being made from crude oil) and ing to United Nations Economic Commission
disposal, while microplastics seep into the for Europe (UNECE).133 “Implementing this mix
ocean and soil.127 All of these issues have of measures requires the engagement of mul-
long-term and largely unknown consequences tiple authorities and stakeholders concerned
on people and biodiversity.128 with local environmental and social issues”.

SYNTHE TICS 27 NON-BIODEGRADABLE FIBRES

THE LANDFILL IN THE ATACAMA DESERT,
CHILE AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY

The landfill in the Alto Hospicio Municipality issues: the high per capita consumption of
in the Chilean Atacama Desert has seen textiles and high imports of second-hand
enormous growth in the illegal dumping of clothing.
textile waste. Several tens of thousands of
tons of textile waste have been discarded In 2022 alone, 131,574 tons of second-hand
on around 300 hectares, some of which are textiles were brought into Chile, much of
burned on-site.134 To tackle such problems, which cannot be recycled and has little eco-
Chile, the 10th largest importer of used tex- nomic value. About 70% of these textiles
tiles, is trying to put its economy on a more end up in landfills or illegal dumps.138 The
sustainable footing.135 In 2021, it launched a textile strategy proposes 20 initiatives to
Roadmap for a Circular Chile by 2040136 and reduce overconsumption, add value to waste
followed it up three years later with the Draft streams, support enterprises with circular
Circular Economy Strategy for Textiles.137 business models and create green jobs, and
The latter publication identifies two major clean up illegal dumping sites.139

RECYCLING AND UPCYCLING IN KENYA

Africa Collects Textiles (ACT) is a social impact The organization has developed a model for
enterprise that collects used textiles and foot- kick-starting circularity in fashion in Africa,
wear for reuse and recycling in Kenya (Gikomba making sure more and more textiles are
market) and Nigeria.140 ACT collects, sorts, redis- diverted from the rivers and landfills, while
tributes and donates clothes, prepares sorted generating green and sustainable employ-
material of non-blended fabrics (e.g. acrylic, ment, mainly for youth and women.142
wool, cotton) for further use, and works with
local communities to make some of that mate- ACT is applying eco-innovation and the product
rial into new products. The aim is to promote environmental footprint methodology through
circular economy and to monetize used textiles UNEP’s InTex Project, which promotes innova-
and textile waste in order to expand operations tive business practices and economic models
and for charitable purposes. Material that can- in the textile value chain in Africa and else-
not be used – mostly blended material and where and is funded by the European Union.143
synthetics – is shredded.141 ACT says some of
it can find a use, for instance to stuff furniture,
while the rest is disposed of responsibly.

197.981 kg 1,200 tn 200 jobs

Textiles collected CO2 Saved Created144

SYNTHE TICS 28 NON-BIODEGRADABLE FIBRES

 © Tamara Merino, Atacama Desert, 2024

ENDNOTES
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