Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Unit- 5
Electromagnetism
By the end of this unit students should be able to:
 Define the term magnetism and when it was known
 Describe how the name “Magnet” is derived?
 Investigate the domain theory of magnetism.
 Describe how electromagnet works and how it exist.
 Describe a magnetic field.
 Calculate the magnetic field strength at different situations.
 Calculate the magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire and on a
moving charge in a uniform magnetic field.
 Define what mean by magnetic field strength and calculate it in different
situations
 Describe the magnetic flux and derive its formula and its SI-unit
 Draw diagrams to show the action of a force on a simple d.c. motor and a
moving coil galvanometer.
 Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on a rectangular current carrying
wire in a uniform magnetic field.
 State Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws of induction.
 Describe the factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor.
 Apply Faraday’s law to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
 Distinguish between self- and mutual inductance.
 Draw a diagram of a transformer and describe how it works.

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Introduction
Electromagnetism is a branch of Physics that deals with the electromagnetic force that
occurs between electrically charged particles. The electromagnetic force is one of the four
fundamental forces and exhibits electromagnetic fields such as magnetic field, electric
fields, and light. It is the basic reason electrons bound to the nucleus and responsible for the
complete structure of the nucleus.
Electromagnetism is a process where a magnetic field is created by introducing the current
in the conductor. When a conductor is electrically charged it generates magnetic lines
around the conductor. Therefore, electromagnetism refers to the phenomena associated with
both magnetic field and electric field.
In the previous unit, you have thought that electric charges exert forces on one another. In
this unit, you will study about the emergency of magnet, what mean that magnetism, what
things make it a magnet and magnetic force and its interaction. Modern civilization depends
on a great extent on efficient magnets, some permanent and others temporary, and on
magnetic material. A magnetic force may generated by electric charges in motion, by an
electric current flow in a wire and it may be generated by a magnetic field in motion. A
magnet and a magnetic martials play an important role in the operation of electric motors,
generators, transformers, circuit breakers, television, radio, communication phones,
computers and most electric meters depends upon the relationship between electric and
magnetic forces. We shall begin this unit by studying the magnetic effects associated with
materials and conclude with a discussion of the magnetic effects of charges in motion.

5.1 Magnetism

By the end of this section students should be able to:

 Define the term magnetism and when it was known
 Describe how the name “Magnet” is derived?
 Investigate the domain theory of magnetism.
 Describe the different types of a magnet
 Describe how electromagnet works and how it exist.
 Determine the polarity of electromagnet using Right-Hand Rule or clock rule.
 Describe the magnetization and demagnetization of a magnet
 Define what mean by magnetic shielding.
 Describe how “keepers” protect a magnet from demagnetization.

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Magnetism has been known since the time of the ancient Greeks, but it has always been a bit
mysterious. In ancient time, the first magnetic phenomena to be observed were associated
with rough fragments of Loadstone (an oxide of iron) found near the ancient city of
Magnesia before 2000 years ago (the name of this region is the sources of a word
like magnetic).
A lodestone, also known as Magnetite, is a naturally
occurring rock that is a magnet. It is an extremely rare
form of the mineral magnetite (Fe3O4) that occurs
naturally as a permanent magnet. This natural magnet
was first discovered in a region known as magnesia
and was named “Magnet” after the area in which it was
discovered. This natural magnet was observed to attract
bits and pieces of unmagnetized iron or iron filings.
The force of attraction and repulsion that occurs when
the molecules in a material align is known as Magnetism.
In ancient time, people were used this Loadstone as compass
for navigation. After that a device which exerts magnetic
force is called a magnet.
A magnet is any object that produces its own magnetic
field that interacts with other magnetic fields and which Figure 5.1.1: A loadstone attracts
has two poles, a north pole and a south pole. pieces of irons or iron filings.

Now a day, magnets are commonly found in everyday objects, such as in toys, hangers,
elevators, doorbells, televisions, radios, telephones box, computer devices and so on. It either
pulls or repels certain materials such as nickel and iron.
The mysterious is what makes a magnetic material to be a magnet? How magnetism is
occurs? To get a brief idea on these phenomena, let us see the domain theory of magnetism.

Domain theory of magnetism

What are magnetic domains?
Magnetism in matter is currently believed to result from the movements of electrons in the
same atom of substances. If this is true, magnetism is a property of charge in motion and
is closely related to electrical phenomena. Individual atoms of a magnetic substance are to be
made up of a huge number of invisibly tiny magnets with north and South Pole. This does
not explain what magnetism is, It just replaces the question ―What is a magnet?‖

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By the question, so ―What are those

tiny magnets in magnetic materials?‖
The magnetic polarity of atoms stems
primarily from the spin of electrons
and is due to partially rotating to their
orbital molecules around the nucleus.
Figure 5.1.8: illustrates the two types
of electron motion.

1. Orbital Motion:
Electrons revolve around the
Figure 5.1.2: Two kinds of electrons
nucleus of the atom. This is
motion responsible for magnetic
called electron orbital motion.
properties.
2. Spin Motion:
Electrons rotate on their own
axis. This is called electron spin.
It is usually agreed that the magnetism in a specimen is due to the electrons surrounding the
nucleus of the atom, which carry a quantity of electricity and move and spin inside the atom.
These moving and spinning electrons constitute tiny circular electric current, which together
produce the magnetism in a magnet.
Let us start with an arbitrary unmagnrtized piece of steel. The little magnets are there, but
they are in clusters rather than aligning themselves orderly like you would get a large
number of small bar magnets into a box (Fig.4.1.9 (a)). The atoms in a magnetic material are
grouped into microscopic magnetic region called Domains. All the atoms within the
domains are believed to be magnetically polarized along a crystal axis.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

S N

Figure5.1.3:
Figure 4.1.9:(a)(a)Magnetic
Magneticdomains
domainsare
arerandomly
randomlyoriented
orientedininananunmagnetized
unmagnetized
material.
material.(b)
(b)InIna amagnetized
magnetizedmaterial
materialthe
themagnetic
magneticdomains
domainsare areoriented
orientedoror
aligned
alignedupupininthe
thesame
samedirection.
direction.
Those large numbers of domains have a large number of North poles at one end of a tiny
magnet, and the same number of South poles at the other end. Magnetic poles are always in

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pair; never exist a magnet that had a north pole unless it also had a corresponding south pole
somewhere else.
In unmagnetized material, these domains are oriented in random direction, as indicated by
the arrow, a dot and cross signs in Fig.5.1.9 (a). A dot sign is used to indicate an arrow
directed out of the paper and a cross sign used to indicate a direction into the paper.
In unmagnetized material, the resultant magnetism of all the domains is zero because the
domains oriented randomly in different directions and cancel out to each other. If a large
number of domains become oriented in the same direction, as in Fig.5.1.9 (b), the material
will exhibit strong magnetic properties and the material becomes a magnet.
The domain theory states that inside a magnet there are small regions in which the
magnetic directions of all the atoms are aligned in the same directions. These regions are
known as domains. Within a domain, the alignment of the magnetic direction is the same.
This theory of magnetism is highly believable in that it offers an explanation for many of the
observed magnetic effects of matter. Look at and discuss on activity 4.3, to investigate
magnetic domains and magnetism mainly.

Activity 5.1: To investigate magnetic domains, magnetization and demagnetization

Figure 5.1.5 Angle that needs to be recorded

Figure 5.1.4 procedure for investigation

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Explaining the results

In the first situation, the magnetic domains in the tube were arranged randomly so the end of
the tube was not strongly magnetized. When the tube was stroked by a permanent magnet,
the magnetic domains inside the tube arranged themselves so that they were lined up. The
end of the tube was magnetized and so the compass needle deflected to a greater angle.
Shaking the tube vigorously disturbed this arrangement and demagnetised the end of the
tube. If the steel is weakly magnetized, this means that some of its domains are lined up but
some are still in clusters. This picture is supported by experiments that show there is a limit
to how strongly a given bar can be magnetized (‗magnetic saturation‘ has been reached).
This occurs when all those tiny magnets are in lines and there are no more domains left to
break up.
Types of a magnet

All magnets are not composed of the same elements, and thus can be broken down into three
categories based on their composition and source of magnetism.
Commonly they are permanent magnets, temporary magnets, and electromagnets.

Permanent magnet and Temporary magnet

Permanent magnets remain magnetized even without the influence of the external magnetic
field for a long time. While, temporary magnets are magnets that lose their magnetism when
removed them from the external magnetic field, such as an iron pin, paper clip. Therefore,
Temporary magnets are magnets that perform like permanent magnets when in the presence
of a magnetic field, but lose its magnetism when not in a magnetic field.
Electromagnet
Electromagnets are wound coils of wire that function as magnets when an electrical current
is passed through. Electromagnets require an electric current to work as a magnet. By
adjusting the strength and direction of the current, the strength of this magnet is also altered.
Electromagnets are made by winding a wire into multiple loops around a core material this
formation is known as a solenoid. It is an example of a temporary magnet. So why is an
electromagnet classified as a temporary magnet? Because when the power from the battery
ceases, so does the current and the magnetic field disappears and it loses its magnetism.
The polarity of the electromagnet
The polarity of the electromagnet is determined by the direction the current flows. There are
some simple rules to find out which end of an electromagnet is North and which is South

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pole.
a) Clock rule B A

When we observe the flow of

current through the coil from the
two ends of the coil, the direction Figure 5.1.6: Clock Rule
of the current round the ends of the
coil of wire is either clockwise or anti-clockwise.
In the diagram given above, look at the ends of the coil from the outside, we have seen that
the current flows clockwise when we viewed from end A and Anticlockwise when we
viewed from end B. Then from simple ‗Clock‘ rule the polarity of the induced poles are
determined as follow.
Clockwise current South Pole

Anticlockwise current North Pole

Therefore, the end of the bar at with current enters in clockwise direction becomes South
pole (S) and the other end of the bar becomes North pole (N).
b) Right-Hand Rule
The north pole of the electromagnet is
determined by using your right hand.
Wrap your fingers around the coil in
the same direction as the current is
flowing (conventional current flows
from + to -). The direction your thumb
is pointing is the direction of the magnetic
field, so North would come out of the
electromagnet in the direction of your thumb. Figure 5.1.7: Right-Hand Rule
Properties of a magnet
All magnets exhibit the following properties:
1. The poles of a magnet are always in pairs. the North Pole and the South Pole
2. Magnets attract ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt.
3. The magnetic force of a magnet is stronger at its poles than in the middle.
4. A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in the North-South direction.
5. Like poles of the magnet repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.

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The two common types man made magnets in shape are Horse shoe magnet and Bar magnet.

(b)
Figure 5.1.8: (a) Horse shoe magnet and (b) Bar magnet.
(a)

Fundamental observations
Suppose a bar magnet is dipped into a pa
of iron filings and removed, experiment
shows that:
i) the tiny pieces of irons or iron filings are
observed cling mainly or more strongly around
the end of a bar magnet.
The regions where the magnet‘s
strength appears to be concentrated (the ends
of the magnet) are called Magnetic poles.
ii) the bar magnet, suspended so as to swing Figure 5.1.9: Iron filings cling round the ends.
freely in a horizontal plane, always comes to
rest with its axis pointing itself in a
North-South direction.
The pole which points towards the
North is called the North-seeking pole
or the North (N) pole of the magnet and
the other end is referred to as the
South(S) pole of the magnet.

Figure 5.1.10: A suspended magnet aligns

itself in the North-South direction.

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iii) If N-pole of a magnet is brought near to

N-pole of a suspended magnet, repulsion
occurs and if the N-pole is brought near to
the S-pole, attraction occurs.

Thus the two electrostatic laws are stated as: Figure 5.1.11: The attraction and repulsion
between two magnets.
Like or similar poles repel each
other (two N- or two S-poles).
Unlike poles attract each other
(an N- and S-poles).

A compass needle is like a small suspended bar magnet.

Its North-seeking pole will point to the Earth‘s North Pole.
Figure5.1.12: A compass
If you know which direction is north, then you can line
needle.
up a map correctly to find your way through unfamiliar
areas. If you bring two bar magnets towards each other, then you will feel either a force of
attraction or repulsion between them. Try to do the following activity 4.1

Activity 5.2: The force between two bar magnets

Figure 5.1.13

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Does a broken magnet be again a magnet?

A bar magnet has a north and a south pole. When we break a bar magnet into two pieces, the
bar magnet does not lose its properties. The new pieces now behave as individual magnets,
each having a north and a south pole.
The north and the south poles of the two
magnets have their north and south poles
at the same side as that of the original
magnet. Therefore, if the magnet is broken
into six pieces, there will be six north poles
and six south poles. No matter how small
the broken parts may be, each of them
is a magnet.

Figure 5.1.14: Small pieces of magnets are

themselves magnets
Any two broken parts of a bar magnet are always oppositely polarized. Since the north and
the south poles of the broken pieces are on the same side as the original piece, the north pole
of one piece faces the south pole of another and vice versa.
Generally, when a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will behave as an individual
magnet. Therefore, every broken piece will have a north pole and a south pole.

Magnetization, Induced magnetization and Demagnetization

In this sub-section we shall study the methods of magnetization, induced magnetization and
demagnetization. Magnetization is the process of converting magnetic materials, iron or its
alloys into a magnet. The process of removing the magnetic properties from a magnet is
known as demagnetization.
Magnetization
Magnetization, as mentioned above, is the process by which a magnetic substance attains
magnetism temporarily or permanently. A magnetic material like a piece of iron or steel can
be magnetized and becomes a magnet by different methods such as: a single touch method, a
double touch method, divides touch method and an electrical method of magnetization.

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a) A single Touch Method

Take a strong permanent magnet and
bring one of its poles (say North Pole) to
one end of the rod and gently rub the
magnet on the rod from one end to the
other. When the other end is reached, lift
away the magnet from the rod and
bring back to the starting end. Figure 5.1.15: Single Touch Method
Repeat the process several times.
Rub to one side gently as Fig.5.1.
The rod will get magnetized such as its starting end will act as the North Pole and the other
end as the South Pole. If the South Pole of the magnet is used for magnetization, then the rod
will get magnetized such that its starting end will act as the South Pole and the other end as
the North Pole.
A cork
b) A double Touch Method
Keep the bar which is to be magnetized on a
top of two permanent magnets (Iron rod) Fig 5.1.9. N S
Two permanent magnets separated by a piece of
wood or cork are held together such that their
opposite poles are together. This combination is
placed on the rod at the center and then moved to
and fro without lifting it. The rod gets magnetized
such that the opposite pole that to the nearest S N
stroking magnet is created on its ends. The use N Iron Rod S
of supporting magnets increases the strength
of magnetization. N S N S
Figure 5.1.16: A double Touch
Method

c) Divide Touch Method

Keep the bar, Iron rod, which is to be

magnetized on a top of two permanent
magnets as Fig. 5.1.10.
Take another two strong permanent
magnets and bring their opposite poles N S Iron Rod N S
and touch them in the middle of the
rod and gently rub the two Figure 5.1.17: Divide Touch Method

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magnets on the rod moving away from each other towards the end. When ends are reached
lift away the magnets and bring back them again at the starting position. Repeat the process
several times.
The rod will gets magnetized such that the end where the South Pole leaves the rod becomes
North Pole and the end where the North Pole leaves the rod becomes South Pole. The use
of supporting magnets increases the strength of magnetization.

d) Electrical Method

Wound an insulated copper wire around the rod

forming a coil. Pass a strong direct electric current
through the coil for some time. The rod gets S N
magnetized such magnets are called Electromagnets.
The end of the rod at which current enters in clockwise
direction becomes South Pole and the other end of the Steel bar
rod becomes North Pole (Clock rule).

Figure 5.1.18: Electromagnet

Note:
To magnetize electromagnets, an electrical current is passed through the solenoid to create a
magnetic field. The field is strongest on the inside of the coil, and the strength of the field is
proportionate to the number of loops and the strength of the current. The electromagnet core
inserted in the coil (the solenoid) can also affect the strength of an electromagnet. If a wire
is wrapped around a non-magnetic material, such as a piece of wood, the overall magnetic
field will not be very strong. However, if the core is composed of ferromagnetic material,
such as iron, the strength of the magnet will significantly increase.

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Activity 5.3: Magnetization by heating and cooling

Figure 5.1.19: Set up for investigation

Explaining the results in terms of magnetic domains

The tiny magnets, or domains, of the nail are the individual atoms that make up the nail,
though what makes them behave in that way is a question we cannot answer at this stage.
These atoms will be moving slightly from a given position, and as the nail is heated they
will move more and more. You might expect that this movement is likely to encourage them
to jump round out of line (think of a box containing a lot of bar magnets all nicely lined up,
and imagine giving it a good shake). By heating the nail until it is red hot, you cause all the
domains to jumble up. As the nail cools on a permanent magnet, the jumbled up domains line
up again and the nail becomes magnetized once more.

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Induced magnetism

When a permanent magnet is brought near a magnetic material like an iron nail without
touching, the iron nail behaves like a magnet, temporary magnet, and attracts iron filings and
clips towards itself. The field of the permanent magnet causes the dipoles in the iron nail to
align, momentarily. When the magnet is removed away, the iron nail loses its magnetic
property and the attracted iron filings and clips fall down. The iron nail behaves as a magnet
so long as it is kept near the magnet.
The magnetism acquired by a magnetic material when it is kept near a permanent magnet is
known as Induced magnetism. Induced magnetism is often only temporary, and when the field is
removed the domains gradually become disoriented. The process in which a piece of magnetic
material acquires the magnetic properties temporarily due to the presence of another magnet
near it is called Magnetic induction. It is illustrated in Fig. 5.1.10:
If we brought the North Pole of inducer magnet near to one of ends of unmagnetized iron rod, then
the end of the rod near to the North Pole becomes South Pole and the far end of the rod becomes
North Pole. Thus magnetic pole induces an opposite polarity on the near end and similar polarity on
the farther end of the iron rod.

Iron Rod Becomes an induced magnet

Unmagnetized magnetic material
N Iron Rod S N S
N S Figure 5.1.20: When unmagnetized magnetic
Permanent magnet material is brought near to the magnet, the
magnetism is induced in the magnetic material.

When a magnetic material is magnetized by an external field, the domains lined up or aligned in the
same direction and then it becomes a magnet.

Left for the students: 1) Write the characteristics of Induced magnetism.

2) Write some factors that affecting magnetic induction.

Methods of Demagnetization

The process used to destroy the magnetic properties of the material is called
Demagnetization. When a piece of iron becomes demagnetized, its aligned dipoles or
domains return to random directions. Rough handling of the magnet, continuously dropping
it from a height, hammering it, heating it to a high temperature, allowing high frequency of

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AC to pass through it or keeping a magnet near another magnet of similar strength with their
like poles facing each other, both get demagnetized due to induction in few days. All these
things break the orderly alignment of molecules or domains of the magnet. Some materials,
such as pure iron, return to random alignment as soon as they are removed from the
magnetizing field. Substances that become demagnetized spontaneously and instantly are
called soft ferromagnetic materials. Iron may be alloyed with certain materials, such as
aluminum and silicon that have the effect of keeping the dipoles or domains aligned even
when the magnetizing field is removed. These alloys are used to make permanent magnets
and are referred to as hard ferromagnetic materials.
Keepers for Bar Magnets
In time, a bar magnet will become weak or demagnetized as the poles at its ends begin to
reverse the polarity of the atomic dipoles inside it. To prevent this bar magnets are stored in
pairs with unlike poles opposite and pieces of soft iron across the ends.
If bar magnets are stored in pairs with their opposite poles adjacent and with small pieces of
soft iron (called "keepers") across the ends, demagnetization does not occur because the
keepers become induced magnets and their poles neutralize the poles of the bar magnets.
The keepers themselves become strong induced magnets and form closed loops of magnetic
dipoles, thus preventing demagnetizing poles from forming.

(a) Keepers (b)

Figure 5.1.21: (a) Bar magnet, and (b) Horseshoe magnet with keeper stock.

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Magnetic shielding
Sometimes you may not want a piece of equipment
to become magnetized as it could be damaged as
a result. A magnetic shield stops the equipment from
being affected by a magnet. Magnetic shielding is the
way to protect some sensitive equipment from the
influence of an external magnetic field by limiting it. (a)
Magnetic shielding comes in various forms depending
on the equipment that needs to be protected. The inside
part of a hollow spherical conductor can be used to
shield equipment from an external electric fields. (b)
Some materials used as magnetic shields to protect Figure 5.1.22: (a) Mu-metal
equipment from becoming magnetized are: and (b) Aluminum foil
sheet metal, metal foam, aluminum foil, plastic sheet, plasma … etc.

Activity 5.4: Magnetic Activity 5.5: Which material makes the best
shielding magnetic shield?

Figure 5.1.24: How to set up activity

Activity 5.1

Figu5.1.23: Set up for activity

Fig. 5.1.25: Shielding the compass

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Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
*The Earth has a magnetic field that can be detected using a compass.
*Magnetic materials have atoms that act as tiny magnets which we call domains.
*When the domains are lined up, then the material is magnetic.
*If the domains are arranged randomly, then the material loses its magnetism.
*Some materials can be used as magnetic shields to protect equipment from becoming
magnetized. Typical materials used are sheet metal, metal foam and plasma (ionised gas).

Review questions

1. Explain why a compass will show you which direction is magnetic north.
2. a) What is a magnetic domain?
b) How can domains be used to explain what happens when a piece of steel becomes
magnetized?
3. Describe how you could demonstrate magnetization of iron filings or shredded steel wool.
4. Describe how demagnetization of a magnet is accomplished.
5. What happens to the domains when a magnetic material is heated?
6. Describe how a nail can be magnetized.
7. Describe how you could find out which of a selection of materials was the best magnetic
shield.
8. In general magnetic materials with high permeability have low retentively. Why do think
this is true?

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9. If an iron bar is placed parallel to a North-South direction and is hammered on one end,
the bar becomes a temporary magnet. Do you agree with this statement? If so, explain it.
10. When a bar magnet is broken into several pieces, each part becomes a magnet with a
North and a South pole. Apparently, an isolated pole cannot exist. Explain this, using the
domain theory of magnetism.
11. Why would you use a magnetic shield?
12. Explain why some materials are better magnetic shields than others.
13. Explain the magnetization of a nail in terms of what happens to the domains.
14. A magnet attracts a piece of iron. The iron can then attract another piece of iron. On the
basis of domain alignment, explain what happens in each piece of iron.

5.2 Concepts of magnetic fields

By the end of this section you should be able to:

 Describe a magnetic field.
 Perform and describe an experiment to demonstrate the existence of a
magnetic field around a current-carrying wire.
 Sketch the resulting magnetic field lines pattern of a current-carrying wire.
 Apply the right-hand rule to determine the direction of magnetic field lines
around a straight current-carrying wire.
 Calculate the magnetic field strength at a point due to a straight current-
carrying wire.
 Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a current loop.
 Sketch the magnetic field lines pattern of a solenoid.
 Specify the polarity of a solenoid using the right-hand rule.
 Calculate the magnetic field strength at the centre of a solenoid.

5.2 Magnetic Field and magnetic field lines

Every magnet is surrounded by a space in which its magnetic effects are present. Such
regions are called Magnetic field. Just as electric field lines were useful in describing electric
field, magnetic field lines are useful for visualizing magnetic fields. Magnetic field lines are
imaginary line that drawn around a magnet and current carrying wire.
Magnetic field is not only generated by magnet itself but also the modern theory of

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magnetism holds that magnetic field results from electric current running through a wire and
moving charged particles. Therefore, magnets are not the only sources of magnetic fields.
Properties of magnetic field lines
1) Magnetic field lines never cross or intersect each other
2) Magnetic field lines leave the North Pole of the magnet and enter the South Pole
outside the magnet and run from South Pole to North Pole inside the magnet to make
a closed loop.
3) Magnetic field lines do not have origins or terminating/ending points.

Magnetic fields in the vicinity of a magnet

Every magnet is surrounded by a space in which its magnetic effects are present. Magnetic
fields, like gravitational fields, cannot be seen or touched. We can feel the pull of the Earth‘s
gravitational field on ourselves and the objects around us, but we do not experience magnetic
fields in such a direct way.
We know of the existence of magnetic
fields by their effect on objects such as
magnetized pieces of metal, naturally
magnetic rocks such as lodestone, or
temporary magnets such as copper
coils that carry an electrical current.
If a small compass needle is placed
at a point near to one end of a bar
magnet, the needle immediately
swings round on its support and
settles in a definite direction Fig.5.1.19).
Figure 5.2.1: A compass needle at different points
N in the field aligns itself along the field lines.
S
A compass needle
At other points near the magnet, Fig.5.2.1, the needle again settles in a difference directions.
Any compass needle placed in the gap will feel a force turning it into the direction shown Figure 5.2.1. The
arrow at the dark red represents the north end of the compass needle (that is, the end which normally points
away from the North Pole of the magnet). This observation shows that the compass needle placed
in this area or region will experience a magnetic force which makes it to align itself in a
particular direction. Such region is called a magnetic field.

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(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.2.2 Magnetic field lines (a) in the vicinity of a bar magnet, between
(b) unlike poles, and (c) like poles
A magnetic field can be defined as a region in which a magnetic force may be exerted or
detected. Magnetic field can be produced by a magnet itself, a current carrying wire or an
electric current and a moving charge. The existence of the magnetic field can be described by
the magnetic field lines or magnetic lines of force or lines of magnetic flux. Look at the
patterns of magnetic field lines in Fig.5.2.2 above.
In Fig.5.2.2 (a), the lines are oval in shape and come out of the N-pole into the air and enter
the S-pole. The lines are continuous and passing from South- pole to North-pole in the
magnetic material.
In Fig.5.1.2 (b) and (c), the field between the N-and S-poles has many lines and strong
strength. In contrast, there are no lines round point P between N-and N-poles facing each
other, and hence there is no magnetic force or field here. This point is a neutral point.
A neutral point is a point where the combined or resultant magnetic field is zero.

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Activity 5.6: Magnetic field in two dimensions

Figure 5.2.3

Figure 5.2.3 Exploring magnetic field in

two dimensions Figure 5.2.2a

Activity 5.7: Magnetic field in three dimensions

Figure 5.2.4 Exploring
magnetic field in three
dimensions

Figure 5.2.4

Magnetic effect of current

In 1819/20 a Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted set up an experiment and discovered
that a current through a wire causes a nearby compass needle to deflect. The deflection of the
needle indicated that a current flowing in the wire is capable of generating a magnetic field.
In terms of charges this means that there is a magnetic field or magnetic field is produced
when charges are in motion but not when they are at res or stationary.
Oerested investigated the nature of the magnetic field produced by a long, straight current

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

carrying wire. His experiment is represented in Figure 5.2 5.

Oersted‘s 1819 discovery about deflected compass needles demonstrates that a current-
carrying conductor produces a magnetic field. Figure 5.2.5(a) shows how this effect can be
demonstrated in the classroom. Several compass needles are placed in a horizontal plane near
a long vertical wire. When no current is present in the wire, all the needles point in the same
direction (that of the Earth‘s magnetic field), as expected. When the wire carries a strong,
steady current, the needles all deflect in a direction tangent to the circle, as in Fig.5.2.5(b).

Figure 5..2 .5

Active Figure 5.2.5 (a) when no current is present in the wire, all compass needles
point in the same direction (toward the Earth‘s north pole). (b) When the wire carries
a strong current, the compass needles deflect in a direction tangent to the circle, which
is the direction of the magnetic field created by the current. (c) Circular magnetic field
lines surrounding a current-carrying conductor, displayed with iron filings.
These observations demonstrate that the direction of the magnetic field produced by the
current in the wire is consistent with the right-hand rule described in Figure 30.4. Or the
direction of the magnetic field is determined by observing which way the north poles of the
compass needles point. The direction of the lines of force depends on the direction of the
current flow. When the direction of the current is reversed, the compass needles orient
themselves in a direction opposite to their orientation before the current was reversed (Figure
5.1.21(b)). This is because the compass needles point in the direction of the magnetic field
generated by the current in the wire, then we conclude that the lines of the magnetic field
form concentric circles around the wire. In Figure 5.1.21(c), when iron fillings are sprinkled
on a card board around a current carrying wire and are stricken it, the iron fillings will also

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

be oriented in concentric circle around the wire. This implies that reversing the current,
reveres the direction of the field.

The pattern of magnetic field lines round a current carrying wire

As mentioned previously, an electric current can produce a magnetic field. The magnetic
field lines around a current carrying wire can be represented by concentric circles centered
round the wire.

a) Anticlockwise
b) Clockwise
Figure 5.2.6: Magnetic fields around current-carrying wires.

This means that the field is symmetrical round the wire, as we may expect when there are no
other magnetic influences. The gap between them increases with distance as the field gets
weaker. The magnetic field liens pattern of a current- carrying wire is plotted as shown
below.

In physics, the cross and dot symbols

indicates the direction of a magnetic field
or current into and out of the page
respectively

(a) Anti-clockwise (b) Clockwise

Figure 5.2.7: The direction of the magnetic around current
caryying wires (a) when the current flows Out of the page,
(b) when the current flows into the page.
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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

The same effect is shown by placing compass needles all rounds and near to the wire. At
first, with no current flowing, they all point in the North-South direction. When the current is

Figure 5.2.8: The same effect is shown by placing compass

needles all round and near to the wire.

The direction of magnetic lines and force can be determined using Right-Hand Rule.
The direction of the magnetic field lines around a current-carrying wire can be determined by
the Right Hand Rule (RHR).
Hold the wire with your right hand in such a way that your thumb indicates the flow of the
convectional current (I) through the conducting wire and the four curled fingers circle in the
direction of the magnetic fields (B) around the wire.

Your four fingers Your thumb

Figure 5.2.9

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The pattern of magnetic field lines of a current loop and solenoid

A solenoid is a current carrying coiled wire. It consists of many circular turns of wire wound
in the forms of a helix as shown below. The magnetic field produced in and around a
solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet. The current in each side of the coil has
contribution to the overall magnetic field. The magnetic field is uniform at the center of the
coil and the field strength is stronger at the center and weaker outside the coil.

Weak
Current out of the page

Weak Weak

Strong magnetic field Current into the page

region (b) Weak
(a)

(c)

Figure 5.2.10: (a) The magnetic field lines pattern of a current loop, (b) The magnetic
field lines pattern of a solenoid, (c) Magnetic field of narrow circular coil.

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Activity 5.8: Plotting the magnetic field lines around a current-

carrying wire

Figure 5.2.11: How to set up the

apparatus.

Activity 5.9: Finding the magnetic field of a current loop.

Figure 5.2.12: Apparatus to find the magnetic field of a current loop

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

The Earth’s Magnetism

Centuries ago it was known that a pivoted or suspended magnetic needle came to rest
pointing nearly in the North-South direction. The magnetic compass is still used for
navigation purposes with this property. Do you know the reason, why a suspended bar
magnet always pointing in the
north-south direction? a
A
The reason is because of the Magnetic South Pole
influence of earth‘s huge
magnetic field. It is believed Fictitiou
that the electric currents s magnet
circulating from earth‘s core
to space give rise to the earth‘s
magnetic field, but some of the
common observations may be
explained by imagining a
fictitious magnet at the Magnetic
middle of the Earth, as shown North Pole
in Fig. 5.2.4. But no actual B b
magnet could exist, as the
Figure 5.2.13: Earth‘s magnetic field
enormously high temperature
inside the Earth would destroy its Activity 5.10: Using a compass
magnetism.

It follows, from the fundamental law of

magnetism, that the Earth acts like a
magnet with a Magnetic South pole “A”
located near the Geographic North pole “a”
of the globe and a Magnetic North pole “B”
located near the Geographic South pole “b”
of the globe (Fig. 5.2.4). The Earth‘s magnetic
field lines run from Geographic South Pole
to Geographic North Pole.

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Summary
In this section you have learnt that:
• A magnetic field is a region in which a
magnetic force may be exerted. If you put
a compass down in a magnetic field, it will
experience a force that makes it set in a
particular direction.
• You can demonstrate the existence of a Figure 5. 2. 14
magnetic field around a current-carrying
wire using the apparatus shown in Figure 5.2.14
Switch on the current and then use a
compass to plot the field lines.
• The magnetic field lines pattern of a
current-carrying wire is as shown in Figure 5.2.15
• You can apply the right-hand rule to Figure 5. 2.15
determine the direction of magnetic field
lines around a straight current-carrying wire.
Take your right hand (and not your
‗left‘ one) and hold the wire with your thumb
going in the direction of the
conventional current. The way your fingers
Figure 5. 2. 16
then wrap round the wire is the way the
field lines go.
• The magnetic field lines pattern of a
current loop is as shown in Figure 5.2.16
• The magnetic field lines pattern of a
solenoid is as shown in Figure 5.2.17
• You can work out the polarity of a
solenoid using the right-hand rule and
Figure 5. 2.17
also remember that when you look at the
solenoid from one end, a current flowing
in a clockwise direction will behave like a
south pole so a current flowing in an
anticlockwise direction will behave like a
north pole Figure 5.2.18.
Figure 5. 2.18

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Review question

1. a) What is a magnetic field?

b) Describe an experiment that would demonstrate the existence of a magnetic field around
a current-carrying wire.
2. Sketch the magnetic field patterns for:
a) a straight current-carrying wire
b) a current loop
c) a solenoid.
3. Copy and complete the diagram in Figure 5.2.1
to show the direction of the field lines around
the current-carrying wire.
4. Draw the patter of the electric field lines for a Figure Q 5.2.1
current carrying wire when the current in the wire
flows (i) from left to right. (b) into the page. (c) out of the page.
5. Copy the diagram in Figure 5.2.2 Use the right-hand
rule to work out which pole is which in the solenoid.
6. The Earth acts like a huge magnet with one
pole in the Arctic Circle and the other in the
Antarctic region. Can you justify the following
statement: The Geographic North pole is actually
near a Magnetic South pole? Explain.
7. A wire lying along a North-South direction
Figure Q 5.2.2
supports an electric wire from South to North.
What happen to the needle of a compass if the compass is placed
(a) below the wire. (b) on the right side of the wire.
8. Draw the patter of the electric field lines for a solenoid wound on the iron core and
indicate the induced pole of the solenoid at each end.
9. A current-carrying conductor experiences no magnetic force when placed in a certain
manner in a uniform magnetic field. Explain how it could be.
10. Is it possible to orient a current loop in a uniform magnetic field such that the loop does
not tend to rotate? Explain.
11. How do keepers prevent demagnetization of a magnet?

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5.3 Magnetic Force

By the end of this section students should be able to:

 Calculate the magnetic field strength at the centre of a solenoid.
 Describe the factors on which the force on a moving charge in a magnetic
field depends.
 Demonstrate the relation B = mvqR from the fact that the centripetal force
is provided by the magnetic force.
 Calculate the magnetic force acting on a moving charge in a uniform
magnetic field.
 Determine the direction of a force acting on a moving charge using the left-
hand rule.
 Demonstrate the existence of a force on a straight current-carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.
 Derive the expression F = BIlsinθ from F = qvBsinθ.
 Apply the left-hand rule to determine what will happen when current flows
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
 Calculate the magnitude and direction of force between two parallel current-
carrying conductors in a uniform magnetic field.
 Define the SI unit ampere.

In section 5.1 you have studied that a current produces a magnetic field. This means that if a
magnet is placed near a current carrying wire, the magnet experiences a force due to the
magnetic field caused by the current. By Newton‘s third law, the action force of the wire on
the magnet is opposed by the reaction force of the magnet on the wire. The magnet interacts
with the magnetic field of the wire to experience the force. Similarly, the current carrying
wire experiences a magnetic force since it is immersed in the magnetic field of the magnet.
On the other hand, a magnetic force can also be exerted on a charged particle which passes
through the field. Therefore, the charged particle would experience a magnetic force when it
passes through a region where there is a magnetic field.

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Magnetic force on a current carrying wire

When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field it experiences a magnetic force
(F), because the magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying wire in a direction given
by the right hand rule. How can you show the existence of this force on a current carrying
wire immersed in the magnetic field?
One can demonstrate the effect of the
magnetic force acting on a
current-carrying wire by hanging the
wire in a magnetic field, as shown in
Figure 29.7a. Suppose the magnetic
field is directed out of the page and
covers the region within the shaded
squares.

Figure 5.3.1 (a) When there is no

current in the wire, then it remains
vertical. (b) When the wire carries a
current directed upward, then it
deflects to the right. (c) If we
reverse the direction of the current
(downward) in the wire, then it
deflects to the left.
Q: If both the current and the field are (a) (c)
(b)
simultaneously reversed, what will
happen to the direction of the force? Figure 5.3.1: Illustration when a magnetic exerts on
a current carrying wire.

Consider a current carrying wire placed in a uniform magnetic field directed from left to
right. Where is the angle between the current carrying wire and the magnetic field.
The magnetic force exerted on a current carrying wire depends the
 current flowing through the wire (I)
 length of the wire (L)
 magnetic field strength(B)
 angle between the conductor and the magnetic field( )

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

F θ 𝐁
θ
𝑩

B11= Bcos
B11 =Bsin
B
Figure 5.3.2: Magnetic force exerted
on a current carrying wire.

The magnetic field has two components, which are parallel (B11) and perpendicular( ) to
the conducting wire. When the component is parallel to the flow of current no magnetic force
is exerted on the wire due to this component. Therefore, the magnetic force that exerted on
the current carrying wire is due to the perpendicular component of the external magnetic
field and the current flow.
The magnetic force on a current-carrying wire through a magnetic field is given by
F = B IL

= Bsin IL

F =BILsin ------------------------------------- (5.3.1)

When a current is passed through a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a force on
the wire in a direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field.
In figure 5.2.8, based on the Right Hand Rule, the direction of the resulting force is into the
page. Where B is the magnetic field strength measured in N/Am. Show it!

Right Hand Rule

The direction of the magnetic force exerted on a current carrying wire placed in a magnetic
field can be determined by the Right Hand Rule (RHR).
The right hand rule states that as: (a) Make your right hand Flat in such a way that your
thumb indicated in the flow of conventional current(I) through the conducting wire and your

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

four fingers indicate in the direction of the external magnetic(B), then a perpendicular to
your palm points in the direction of the magnetic force(F).

(b)
(a) Figure5.3.3: Right Hand Rule
To determine the direction of the magnetic force on a positive moving charge, the right hand
rule states that as: (b) Point your right thumb in the direction of the velocity (v), your index
finger in the direction of the magnetic field (B), and then your middle finger will point in the
direction of the resulting magnetic force (F). Negative charges will be affected by a force in
the opposite direction. A positive charge moves in the same way as the conventional current
flows.

Fleming’s Left-hand Rule

Fleming's Left-Hand Rule is a simple and accurate way
to find the direction of magnetic force/motion of the
conductor in an electric motor when the magnetic
field direction and the current direction are known.
He stated as: Hold the thumb and first two
fingers of your left hand at right angles to
each other. If the First finger points along the
magnetic field and the Second finger shows
the conventional current, then the Thumb points
in the direction of thrust (movement).
Figure 5.3.4: Fleming‘s Left-Hand Rule

What will happen to the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on a current carrying wire
if the angle between the conducting wire and the magnetic field is varied?

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Worked Example
1. Consider the following three cases such as when the conducting wire is parallel to the
magnetic field, placed at an angle with the field and perpendicular to the magnetic field.

I I
θ
I

a) No magnetic
a) F=BILSin 𝜃 a) F=BIL
Figure 5.2.14: The effect of angle on the magnitude of the magnetic
force.
(a) When the angle between the conducting wire and the magnetic field is zero, then no
magnetic force is exerted on the conductor.
F=BILSin
=BILSin0
= BILx0
= 0(No magnetic force is exerted on the wire if the current flow sin the same direction of
the magnetic field)
(b) When the angle between the conducting wire and the magnetic field is an acute angle,
< 900, then the magnetic force exerted on the conductor is given by
F=BILSin
(c) When the angle between the conducting wire and the magnetic field is at right angle, =
900, then the magnetic force exerted on the conducting wire is reduced to
F = BILSin
= BILSin900
= BILx1
= BIL
This is the maximum magnetic force exerted on the current carrying wire.
2. What will happen to the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on a current carrying
wire if the angle between the conducting wire and the magnetic field increases from 0 0 to
1800? Illustrate it by drawing the Force versus angle graph.

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Magnetic force on a moving Charge

Previously we have studied that a current carrying wire immersed in a region of magnetic
field experiences a magnetic force. Similarly, a charged particle also experiences a force
when moving through a magnetic field. Why? What happens if this field is uniform over the
motion of the charged particle? What path does the particle follow? In this section, we
discuss the circular motion of the charged particle as well as other motion that results from a
charged particle entering a magnetic field.
To answer the question why, you know a current is the result of the motion of charged
particles. It is not necessary that these charged particles be in the wire to experience the
force. They would experience a magnetic force even in open space in a region where there is
a magnetic field.
Consider a particle having a positive charge ―q‖ and moving with a velocity ―V‖ enters into a
uniform magnetic field directed as shown in Fig.5.2.9b.
We know, the force exerted on a wire of length L carrying a current I when it is placed in a
magnetic field B is F= BILsin .
In order to determine the magnetic force exerted on a charged particle, what must be done is
to replace I and L in the above Eq. with the appropriate quantities for the moving charges.

v v

L= vt

𝐪
v
(a) (b)
I=
𝐭

Figure 5.3.5: Magnetic force exerted on a current carrying wire (a) and a moving
charge(b) is the same.

A force on a charge ―q‖ moving with velocity ―v‖ in the magnetic field is the same as that
on a wire of length L and carrying a current I.

F= BILsin

= B (vt) sin

F =Bqvsin ------------------------------------------------ (5.3.2)

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Where is now the angle between V( the direction of the motion of the particle) and B ( the
magnetic field).
The direction of F is perpendicular to both V and B, as 𝑭
shown in Fig.5.2.10. If V is reversed the force direction
will also be reversed. The direction of this force can be
determined by the Right-Hand-Rule

When the particle‘s velocity vector makes any angle

𝒗
0 with the magnetic field, the magnetic force acts
in a direction perpendicular to both v and B; that is, F
is perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B
𝑩
(Fig. 5.3.7a).
Figure 5.3.6: Right-Hand _Rule
The magnetic force exerted on a positive charge is in the
direction opposite to the direction of the magnetic force
exerted on a negative charge moving in the same direction (Fig. 5.3.7b). The magnitude of
the magnetic force exerted on the moving particle is proportional to sin where is the
angle the particle‘s velocity vector makes with the direction of B vector.

(b)
(a)

Figure 5.3.7: The direction of the magnetic force F acting on a charged

particle moving with a velocity v in the presence of a magnetic field B.
(a) The magnetic force is perpendicular to both v and B. (b) Oppositely directed magnetic
forces F are exerted on two oppositely charged particles moving at the same velocity in a

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magnetic field. The dashed lines show the paths of the particles, in the field.
To answer the question ―what path does the particle follow?‖, let us discus three special
cases for a positively charged particle moving through a magnetic field directed into the page
as shown in Fig.. i) When the particle moves parallel to the magnetic field (when = 0 and
sin0 = 0), then no magnetic force is exerted on the particle. As a result the particle moves
along a straight line as initially moving.
ii) When a charged particle enters perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field (Figure 5.3.8),
then it follows a circular path of radius “r” because the magnetic force FB is perpendicular to
both v and B and has a constant magnitude qvB. The particle continues to follow this curved
path until it forms a complete circle.

.
Q: Does the magnetic force exerted on a moving
charged particle do work on the charged particle?

We know that the magnetic force is always

perpendicular to velocity of the moving particle,
so that it does no work on the charged particle.
The particle‘s kinetic energy and speed thus
remain constant. The direction of motion or
velocity is affected but not the speed.

However, the magnetic force does not do work on

the moving charge, it continuously changes the
Figure 5.3.8: A positively charged direction of the motion of the particle. If V and B
particle moves in a region where the are perpendicular to each other, the charged
magnetic field is perpendicular to or particle will follow a circular path.
into the paper.

As Figure 5.3.8 illustrates, the rotation is counterclockwise for a positive charge. If q were
negative, the rotation would be clockwise.
As you could recall from unit one, a body making a circular motion has a centripetal force to
keep it motion in a circle. In this situation, the centripetal force (Fc) is provided from the
magnetic force exerted on the moving charge.
Fc = mv2/r
Noting that the velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field, the magnitude of the magnetic
force is reduced to F = qvB.
Since the magnetic force F supplies the centripetal force Fc, we have

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Centripetal force = Magnetic force

Fc =F

= qvB

= qB

Solving for r yield

r= ------------------------------------------ (5.3.3 )

The radius of the path followed by the charged particle is directly proportional to the linear
momentum of the particle and inversely proportional to the product of the quantity of charge
and the magnitude of the field strength.
The angular speed of the particle from uniform circular motion and from Eq. 10.10) is
= , but v =

= = --------------------------------------- (5.3.4)

The period of the motion or the time interval the particle requires to complete one revolution
is equal to the distance traveled (the circumference of the circle) divided by the linear speed
of the particle. Based on this and Eq.4, we can derive the period of motion as:
Period = Circumference/ Speed of the particle
T=

Solve for v from Eq.(4) or Eq. (5) then we have v = and v = r , substitute this in period
equation.

T= = =

T= ----------------------------------- (5.3.5)

In terms of , it can be express as follow:

T= = =

T= ----------------------------------------------- (5.3.6)

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These results show that the angular speed of the particle and the period of the circular
motion do not depend on the linear speed of the particle or on the radius of the orbit.

iii) If a charged particle moves in a uniform magnetic field with its velocity at some arbitrary
angle with respect to B (Fig.5.3.9 (a) below, its path will be a helix path or spring like
path. For example, if the field is directed in the x direction, as shown in Figure 5.3.9, there is
no component of force in the x-direction. As a result, ax = 0, and the x- component of
velocity remains constant. However, the magnetic force qvB causes the components vy and
vz to change in direction in time, and the resulting motion is a helix whose axis is parallel to
the magnetic field. If the velocity is not perpendicular to the magnetic field, then we can
compare each component of the velocity separately with the magnetic field. The component
of the velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field produces a magnetic force perpendicular
to both this velocity and the field:
vper = vy= vsinθ, vpar= vy= vcosθ. ------------------------------- (5.3.7)
Where θ is the angle between v and B. The component parallel to the magnetic field creates
constant motion along the same direction as the magnetic field. The parallel motion
determines the pitch p of the helix, which is the distance between adjacent turns. This
distance equals the parallel component of the velocity times the period:
p = vpar T -------------------------------------------- (5.3.8)
The result is a helical motion, as shown in the following Fig5.3.9 (b).

𝑣𝑦
𝑣

𝜃 B

(a) 𝑥 (b)

𝑧
Figure 5.3.9.: A charged particle enters at an angle 𝜃(b)
with the field
follows a helical path in the field.

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The projection of the path onto the yz plane (as viewed along the x axis) is a circle. The
projections of the path onto the xy and xz planes are sinusoids.

Worked example
1. A proton having a speed of 105m/s from right to left enters at right angle to a uniform
magnetic field of intensity 0.8T directed into the page.
a) Describe the path followed by the proton in the field.
b) What is the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the proton?
c) Describe the direction in which the particle rotates
d) Determine the radius of the path that followed by the proton if its mass is 1.67x10 -27 kg.
e) What is the period of the motion of the particle? Do it by yourself.
Given Required
V=105m/s b) F=?
B=0.8T c) R=?
m=1.67x10-27 kg
q =1.6x10-19 C
Solution
a) It follows a circular path
b) F=Bqv sin where =900 and sin900 = 1

F=Bqv =0.8Tx1.6x10-19 Cx105m/s

=1.28x10-14 N

c) Anticlockwise direction
d) The particle that follows a circular path has a centripetal force that keeps it in a circular
motion. This centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force exerted on it. That is:-
Magnetic force= Centripetal force
BqV =

Bq =

R= = m

=1.3x103

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Magnetic force between two parallel current-carrying wires

Consider two long, straight, parallel wires separated by a distance r and carrying
currents I1 and I2 in the same direction, as in Figure 5.3.1.8.. Each wire produces a magnetic
field at the site of the other wire and both wires exert magnetic forces on each other. The
forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. They satisfy Newton‘s third law. The
two wires experienced equal force through a distance ‗r‘ between them. The forces can be
either attractive or repulsive depending on the current flow direction. If the currents in the
two wires are in the same direction, the wires attract each other. On the other hand, if the
wires carry currents in the opposite direction, they repel each other. Look at in Fig.5.3.10.

1 1 2
2

Q I2
I1
I2 I1 R F
F F
p C
B
A

(a) Attractive Force (b) Repulsive force

Figure 5.3.10: (a): The magnetic force between two wires carrying current in
the same direction. (b) ) The magnetic force between two wires carrying
current in the opposite direction.

The direction of the magnetic field due to current in each wire is determined by the principle
of the Right-Hand-Rule. For the wire carrying the current I1, for instance, the application of
the right hand rule shows that there is an out ward field ( ) to the left of the wire, and an
inward field ( ) to the right of the wire. This means that the second wire, which lies to the
right of the first wire, is immersed in the inward field caused by the first wire.

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As a result, as shown in the diagram the second wire experiences a magnetic force directed
to the left. Using a similar analysis, it can also be seen that the magnetic force on the first
wire is directed to the right.
Note:
i) Regions labeled by letters P, Q and R represent the regions where strong resultant
magnetic field due to I1 and I2 exist. This is because of the magnetic fields created by the
current in each wire have the same directions out ward, inward and inward
respectively in these regions.
ii) On the other hand, regions labeled by letters A, B and C represents the regions where
weak resultant magnetic field due to I1 and I2 exist. We know magnetic field is a vector
quantity which has both magnitude and direction. In these regions, the magnetic fields
created by the current in each wire have opposite directions. Therefore, there is a
possibility of cancelation when the inward and out ward direction of magnetic fields
are add up. So for this reason the resultant magnetic field in these regions becomes
weak.
Attractive: If the currents flow in the same direction.
Repulsive: If the currents flow in opposite direction.
The strength of the magnetic field created due to I1 at the location of wire-2 is given by
1 = --------------------------------------------- (5.3.9)

The strength of the magnetic field produced due to current in wire I2 at the location of wire-1
is given by

2= --------------------------------------------- (5.3.10)
The magnetic force on a length of wire- 1 is F1 = I1 B2 .

F1= I1 B2 = I1 ( )=

F1 =

The magnetic force on a length of wire- 2 is F2 = I2 B1 .

F2= I2 B1 = I2 ( )=

F2 =

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From the above calculations we have seen that the magnitude of the magnetic force exerted
on wire-1 due to I2 and the magnetic force exerted on wire-2 due to I1 is the same in
magnitude and given by
𝐹 ------------------------------------- (5.3.11)
The force between two parallel wires is used to define the ampere as follows:
Defining the ampere
This is the way that the size of a standard ampere has been fixed (you may well think of a
current of 1 ampere as meaning that 1 coulomb of charge is flowing past every second, but in
reality that is the way the coulomb is
defined − an ampere is one of the
fundamental units of SI-system).
Andre‘-Marie Ampere stated as:
If one ampere is flowing in each of
two parallel wires 1m apart in a
vacuum, then the force on each wire
due to the other will be exactly 2 × 10–7 N
on every meter length.
This rather strange figure was chosen
Because the ampere existed before the
SI system was introduced, and this kept
it the same size. It means that in a
standards laboratory, electric currents French Physicist (1775–1836)
can be ‗weighed‘ with a current balance. Ampère is credited with the discovery of
One of the wires is a circular coil held in electromagnetism— the relationship between
a horizontal position. The other coil, just electric currents and magnetic fields.
above it, takes the place of one of the pans
Ampère‘s genius, particularly in mathematics,
on a pair of sensitive scales. When the
current flows the same way in both coils, became evident by the time he was 12 years
they attract. More weights have to be old; his personal life, however, was filled with
placed in the other pan of the scales to tragedy. His father, a wealthy city official, was
balance this – the current has been guillotined during the French Revolution, and
‗weighed‘. his wife died young, in 1803. Ampère died at
The value 2 x 10-7 N/m is obtained from the age of 61 of pneumonia. His judgment of
Equation 3 above with I1 = I2 =1 A and
his life is clear from the epitaph he chose for
r =1 m. Because this definition is based
on a force, a mechanical measurement his gravestone: Tandem Felix (Happy at Last).
can be used to standardize the ampere. (Leonard de Selva/CORBIS)
For instance, the National Institute of

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Standards and Technology uses an instrument called a current balance for primary current
measurements. The results are then used to standardize other, more conventional
instruments, such as Ammeters.
The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined in terms of the ampere.

From equation (5.3.11) above 𝐹 , we can rearrange it as force per unit length to
illustrate Ampere‘s law:

𝐹/

𝐹/ = = 2x10-7 N/m

= 2x10-7 N/m

Activity 5.11: Demonstrating the

force between two parallel current-
carrying conductors

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Summary
In this section you learnt that:
• The factors on which the force depends on a moving charge in a magnetic field depend are:
the size of the magnetic field (B) the size of the charge ( q) and its velocity( v). Therefore, for
a single charge, the force is given by:
F = Bqv
• The centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force and so you can equate the
centripetal force equation and the magnetic force equations to give the relationship:
B=
• You can determine the direction of a force acting on a moving charge using right-hand
rule.
• You can derive the expression F = qvBsinθ from F = BIlsinθ.
• Apply the left-hand rule to determine what will happen when current flows
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field.
• The magnitude and direction of force between two parallel current-carrying
conductors in a uniform magnetic field can be calculated when you know that the force
on a wire in a magnetic field is F = BILsinθ
• The SI unit ampere is defined as follows: if one ampere is flowing in each of two
parallel wires 1 m apart in a vacuum, then the force on each wire due to the other
will be exactly 2 × 10 –7 N on every metre length.

Review Questions

1. Explain the factors on which the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field depends.
2. A particle of mass m carries a charge q and is travelling with a velocity v. It enters a region
where there is a perpendicular magnetic field of flux density B.
a) State the magnitude and direction of the motor effect force that will act on the particle.
b) Explain fully why the path of the particle due to this force will be a circle.
c) Show that the particle will be deflected into a circle of radius r = 41
d) Work out this radius for an electron in a vacuum entering a magnetic field of 0.02 T at a
speed of 4.5 × 107 m/s. (The mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg and it carries a charge of –
1.6 × 10–19 C).
3. Explain the basic motor effect.
4. Explain Right-hand- rule.

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5. What are the factors that determine the size of a force on a current-carrying conductor?
6. Describe a demonstration of the force between two parallel current-carrying conductors.
7. Define an ampere.
8. a) What is the formula to find the force on a rectangular current-carrying coil?
b) What is the force on a coil in a magnetic field of 0.2 T, with a current of 1A, an area of
0.025 m2 and 100 turns?
9. Describe how a basic electric motor works.
10. Describe how a moving coil galvanometer works.
11. A uniform magnetic field cannot exert a magnetic force on a particle in which of the
following circumstances? (There may be more than one correct statement)
(a) The particle is charged. (b) The particle moves perpendicular to the field.
(c) The particle moves parallel to the field.
(d) The magnitude of the magnetic field changes with time. (e) The particle is at rest.
12. A charged particle is traveling through a uniform magnetic field. Which of the following
statements are true of the magnetic field? (There may be more than one correct statement.)
(a) It exerts a force on the particle that is parallel to the field.
(b) It exerts a force on the particle along the direction of its motion.
(c) It increases the kinetic energy of the particle. (d) It exerts a force that is perpendicular to
the direction of motion.
(e) It doesn‘t change the magnitude of the momentum of the particle.

5.4 Magnetic field strength and magnetic flux

By the end of this section students should be able to:

 Define what mean by magnetic field strength
 Describe the SI-units of magnetic field strength
 Identify factors affecting the magnitude magnetic field strength
 Describe the magnetic field strength created by solenoid, current carrying
long straight wire and circular loop.
 Calculate the magnetic field strength at a point around current carrying
wire, at the center of a solenoid and circular loop.
 Define magnetic flux and its SI unit.
 Relate the SI-unit of magnetic flux and magnetic field strength
 Calculate the magnetic field flux using the given formula of magnetic flux.

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5.4.1 Magnetic field strength

In our study of electricity in unit 4, we have defined the electric field and electric field
strength E at a point in space as:
Electric field strength = Electric force/ Charge moved

E=
In the case of magnetism, a magnetic field is a region with the lines of force generated by a
magnetic, current carrying wire and a moving charge. Similarly, the corresponding quantity
that describes a magnetic field is called magnetic field strength. The magnetic field strength
is determined by the number of field lines passing a unit area. If the numbers of magnetic
field lines are dense, the strength of the magnetic field is strong and weak if they are rare or
less dense. It is also known as magnetic flux density and denoted or symbolized by B.
Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field (B) produced by a current-carrying wire when
the field is perpendicular to the conducting wire is given by
B= ---------------------------------------------- (5.4.1)

Where L is the length of the wire in meter (m) and I is current flows through the wire in
Ampere (A).
Since force is a vector quantity, then magnetic field strength is also a vector quantity
The SI-unit of B can be derived from Eq.(2) and it is Newton per Ampere-meter (N/Am)
A magnetic field having a magnetic field strength (flux density) of one N/Am will exert a
force of one Newton on a charge of one coulomb moving perpendicular to the field with a
velocity of one meter per second.

When the conducting wire is placed in the field at an angle with the field, the magnetic
field strength can also be defined as:

B= ----------------------------------------- (5.4.2)

and the magnetic force also described as F = BILsin

Worked Example
1. A wire 2m long is perpendicular to a magnetic field of 5x10 -2T. What is the force exerted on the
wire when it carries a current of 2A?

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Given Required solution
L=2m F=? F= BIL = 5x10-2Tx2Ax2m
B=5x10-2T = 0.2N
I= 2A
2. A wire of 1m long and carrying a current of 5A is perpendicular to the magnetic field
directed along the y-axis. The current flows along the +x-axis. (a) Determine the magnitude
of the magnetic field strength if the wire experiences a force of 2.4x10-2N.
(b) Describe the direction of the magnetic force y
that exerted on the conducting wire. B-field
I

F x
Solution

(a) Since the B-field and the conducting wire are perpendicular to each other, then
sin = sin900 =1. Therefore, the magnitude of the magnetic field strength is

B= = N/Am =

(b) The direction of the magnetic force exerted on the wire can be determined by the Right-
Hand-Rule. So its direction is out of the page.
Magnetic field strength at a point due to a current carrying wire
The strength of the magnetic field (B) at a point due to
a long straight wire a carrying current I depends on p
i) The current flows through the wire (I)
ii) The perpendicular distance from the wire (d) d
I
iii) The permeability of the medium ( )
Figure 5.4.1: Magnetic field
strength at perpendicular distance d
from a long current carrying wire.

The strength of the magnetic field (B) at a point perpendicular to the wire produced due to a
current carrying wire can be expressed as
B= ----------------------------------------------- (5.4.3)

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Where is the permeability of the medium and is the permeability of free space or
vacuum.
= 4 x10-7Tm/A and = where is the relative permeability of the medium.

Worked Example
Determine the magnetic field strength at a point 5cm from a long wire carrying a current of 10A.
Given Solution p
d=5cm B=
d
-5
I=10A B= = 4x10 T
-7
= 4 x10 Tm/A
Required: B=? I
From Right-Hand-Rule, the direction of the magnetic induction or magnetic field strength at a point
p is into the page. If the point below wire, then the magnetic field directed out of the page.

The magnetic field strength inside a solenoid

A solenoid is a current carrying coiled wire. It consists of many circular turns of wire wound
in the forms of a helix as shown below. The magnetic field produced in and around a
solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field strength at the center of a solenoid depends on the
i) Number of turns of wire per unit length (n)
ii) Prefeasibility of medium ( ) inserted in the solenoid
iii) Current flowing through the wire (I)
Material inserted insde a solenoid (iron core)
n=
Where N is number of turns of a wire
N S

Figure 5.4.2: Magnetic fields of a solenoid

The magnetic field strength at the center of a solenoid is nearly uniform and it is given by

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B = I -------------------------------------------------- (5.4.4)

B = nI ------------------------------------------------------ (5.4.5)
When iron core or material is inserted in the solenoid. Where is the permeability of the material
inserted in the solenoid. But =

B= nI --------------------------------------------------- (5.4.6)
For vacuum or free space ( ), we have
B= nI ------------------------------------------------- (5.4.7)

Worked Example
1. A solenoid has 800turns per meter and carrying a current of 5A. What is the magnetic field
strength at the center of the solenoid? Assume there is no any core inside the solenoid.
Given Required
n =N/L=800turns/m B=?
I= 5A
= 4 x10-7Tm/A and =1
Solution
B= nI =(4 x10-7Tm/A)( 800turns/m)(5A)
= 16 x10-4T
2. A solenoid is constructed by winding 400turns of wire on a 20cm iron core. The relative
permeability of the iron is 12000. What current is required to produce a magnetic induction of 2 T in
the center of the solenoid?
Given Solution
=12000 B= nI
= 4 x10-7Tm/A I = BL/ N
N=400turns I= (2T)(0.2)/ (48 x10-4Tm/A)(400)
I= 2A I= 0.00000667A
L= 20cm I= 6.67x10-6 A
=
= 48 x10-4 Tm/A
=1.5x10-2 Tm/A

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Magnetic field strength of circular loop

If a wire is bent into a circular loop of radius r and connected

to a source of current as shown in Fig.5.3.2.3, a magnetic
field similar to that of bar magnet will be set up.
The right hand rule will still serve to give the field direction
in rough manner, but now the field lines no longer circular.
The magnetic field strength varies considerably from point to
point. At the center the magnetic field is nearly uniform.
The magnitude of the magnetic field strength at the center of a
circular loop of radius r carrying a current I is given by
I
B= -------------------------------------------- (5.4.8) Figure 5.4.3: Magnetic
field of circular loop

If the wire consists of a coil having N-turns of wire, the above equation becomes

B= ------------------------------------------- (5.4.9)

Worked Example
1. A circular coil having 800 turns of wire in vacuum has a radius of 10cm. If 5A of current
sent into the coil, what will be the magnitude of the magnetic field strength at its center?
Given Solution

N= 800 turns B=

R= 10cm = T
I = 5A = 0.025T
= 4 x10-7Tm/A
Required: B=?

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2. A circular coil having 40 turns of wire in air has a radius of 6cm. What current must exist
in the coil to produce a flux density of 2x10-3T?

B=

I= = A

= 4.8A

5.4.2 Magnetic Flux

A magnetic field can be represented by magnetic
field lines, such that the direction of a line through
a given point indicates the direction of the
magnetic field strength B at that point.
A uniform magnetic field has a constant magnitude
and direction at every point in the region. The filed
lines representing a uniform field are evenly spaced,
straight, and parallel.
The magnetic flux across a surface is defined as
the number of magnetic field lines crossing a
given surface area(A) perpendicularly. Figure 5.4.5: Uniform magnetic field
lines are evenly spaced and parallel.

Mathematically magnetic flux is equal to the

product of the magnitude of magnetic field
strength (B) and the area(A) the area of the
𝐵∥
surface that is perpendicular to the field (Fig.5.4.6)
Magnetic flux is denoted by Greek letter (Phi).
=BA -------------------------------------- (5.4.10)
The SI unit of B is the Tesla, then the SI- unit of 𝐵
Magnetic flux is Tesla. Square meter (Tm2)
[ = Tm2 or Weber (Wb)
From this equation, we have got the SI-unit of B.
[B] = [ ] = weber per square meter or Tesla (T) Figure 5.4.6: When the magnetic field
makes an angle 𝜃 with the Normal

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In Fig.5.3.18, the magnetic field makes an angle with a direction normal to the surface of area
A. It has two components parallel to the surface ( ∥ ) and perpendicular to the surface ( )
= Bsin and
∥ = Bcos
Magnetic flux is proportional to both the strength of the magnetic field passing through the
plane of the surface and the area of the surface.
The magnetic flux through the given area of the surface is defined by
= A
= BAcos --------------------------------------------- ( 5.4.11)
The component of B parallel to the surface has no any contributions to calculate the
magnetic flux because this component does not pass through the given cross sectional area.
Consider the following different illustrations when the magnetic field is directed in two
different ways.

Line normal to the surface

B
Figure (a)
Figure 5.4.7: Magnetic flux Figure (b)

In Figure (a), the field lines are parallel to the rectangular surface or no magnetic field lines
are passing through the given cross sectional area. Therefore, the angle between the magnetic
field and the line normal to the surface is 900. So that;
= BAcos
= BAcos900 , but cos900 = 0
=0
In Figure (b), the field lines are perpendicular to the rectangular surface or all magnetic field
lines are passing through the given cross sectional area. Therefore, the angle between the
magnetic field and the line normal to the surface is 00. So that;
= BAcos
= BAcos00, but cos00 = 1
= AB ( Maximum magnetic flux can be obtained)
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Generally, the value of the magnetic flux is proportional to the total number of lines passing
through the loop.
Worked Example
1. A uniform magnetic field intensity of 3x10-3T is crossing across a 20cmx50cm rectangular
card board which is held with its face a) perpendicular to the field direction. b) at an angle of
370 with the line perpendicular to the surface.
Line normal to the
What is the magnetic flux through the surface? surface
A= 0.2mx0.5m=0.1m2
B= 3x10-3T
=0 and cos0= 1

a)
a) = ABcos
= 0.1m2x3x10-3Tx1
=3x10-4Wb
b) = ABcos =370 and cos370 = 0.8
= 0.1m2x3x10-3Tx0.8 B 𝜃
=2.4x10-4Wb b)
A

Summary
• The magnetic field strength at a point due to a straight current-carrying wire may be
calculated using the formula: force = magnetic field strength × current flowing through the
wire × length of wire
F=B×I×L
B=

•The SI-unit of B can be derived from B = and it is Newton per Ampere-meter (N/Am)
•A magnetic field having a magnetic field strength (flux density) of one N/Am will exert a
force of one Newton on a charge of one coulomb moving perpendicular to the field with a
velocity of one meter per second.

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•The magnetic force acting on a current carrying wire depends on the: the current flows
through the wire (I), the perpendicular distance from the wire (d), and the permeability of the
medium ( ).
•The strength of the magnetic field (B) at a point perpendicular to the wire produced due to a
current carrying wire can be expressed as B= .
•The magnetic field strength at the center of a solenoid depends on the: number of turns of
wire per unit length (n), prefeasibility of medium ( ) inserted in the solenoid, and current
flowing through the wire (I)
•The magnetic field strength at the center of a solenoid at its center is given by B = nI.
•The magnitude of the magnetic field strength at the center of a circular loop of radius r
carrying a current I is given by B=
•The magnetic flux across a surface is defined as the number of magnetic field lines crossing
a given surface area (A) perpendicularly. Generally it is given by = BAcos

Review Questions
1. What is a magnetic field strength?
2. What will happen to the magnetic field strength of a current carrying wire as we go away
from the wire?
3. Why do you insert an iron core inside a solenoid?
4. A 6m long wire carrying a current of 5A experiences a force of 2.4x10-2N when it lies
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. Find the magnitude of the magnetic field
strength?
5. How do you determine the direction of the magnetic field of a circular current loop and a
solenoid?
6. How do you increase the strength of the magnetic field of a current loop and a solenoid?
7. A uniform magnetic field of strength 1.2T is passing through a 20cm by 40cm rectangular
card board. What will be the magnetic flux through the card board if it is held with its face
(a) perpendicular to the field direction? (b) at an angle 370?
8. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the core of a 120 turn solenoid of length
2.0 m carrying a current of 2.0A?

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5.5 Some Applications of Electromagnetism

By the end of this section students should be able to:

 Draw diagrams to show the action of a force on a simple d.c. motor and a
moving coil galvanometer.
 Describe how electric motor and moving coil galvanometer works.
 Draw diagrams to show the action of a force on a simple DC-motor and a
moving coil galvanometer.
 Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on a rectangular current carrying
wire in a uniform magnetic field.

Many practical devices including motors, moving coil meters and generators make use of the
force that a current carrying conductor or a loop experiences when the conductor is placed in
a magnetic field. The current carrying loop that immersed in the magnetic field is
experiencing a torque that has a rotational effect. As a result the loop rotates in the magnetic
field. This fact is used in order to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Can you
give a practical example of this? To answer this question let us see the following discussions.

Force and Torque on a rectangular Current-carrying Loop

In the preceding section, we showed how a magnetic force is exerted on a current carrying
conductor placed in a magnetic field.

(b)
(a)

Figure 5.5.1 (a) Overhead view of a rectangular current loop in a uniform

magnetic field. (b) Edge view of the loop sighting down sides 2 and4.

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With this sub-section as a starting point, we now show that a torque is also exerted on a
current loop placed in a magnetic field. The results of this analysis will be of great value
when we discuss motors in next.
Consider a rectangular loop carrying a current I and having N-turns of coil placed in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field directed parallel to the plane of the loop, as shown in
Figure 5.5.1(a).
No magnetic forces act on sides 1 and 3 because these wires are parallel to the field; hence, L
x B = 0 for these sides. However, magnetic forces do act on sides 2 and 4 because these sides
are oriented perpendicular to the field. The magnitude of these forces is, from Equation 29.3,
F2=F4= IaBNsin , but =900 and sin900= 1
F2=F4= IaBN
The direction of F2, the magnetic force exerted on wire 2 is out of the page in the view
shown in Figure 5.5.1(a), and that of F4, the magnetic force exerted on wire 4 is into the page
in the same view. If we view the loop from side 3 and sight along sides 2 and 4,
we see the view shown in Figure5.5.1(b), and the two magnetic forces F2 and F4 are directed
as shown. Note that the two forces point in opposite directions but are not directed along the
same line of action. If the loop is pivoted at ‗o‘, so that it can rotate about point O, these two
forces produce a torque about O that tends to twist the loop clockwise.
In Fig 5.5.1 (b), the purple dot in the left circle represents current in wire-2 coming toward
you; the purple cross in the right circle represents current in wire-4 moving away from you.

When the coil rotates the plane of the coil makes an angle θ with the magnetic field. If the
current in the left-hand side of the coil is coming up out of the paper and that in the
right-hand side is going down, the forces will be in the directions shown.

F2
The magnitude of each force F will be BILN.
These two forces provide a torque, a turning effect,
on the coil.
The total torque is the sum of the two moments. x
The distance the left-hand force acts from the
pivot is d, which is cosθ (where b is the full B
width of the coil). Figure 5.5.2: Torque
acting on the coil F1

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Therefore its moment is F x cosθ. The two forces combined give double this moment, which
is Fb cosθ. Now put in the size of force F (= BIaN) and we get the torque to be BIaN b cos θ.
Finally, note that a x b = A, the area of the coil. Therefore we end up with:
Torque on the coil = BIAN cos θ
= BIAN cos θ --------------------------------------------- (5.5.1)
When θ = 0 the torque is a maximum. When θ = 90o the torque drops to zero − the two sides
of the coil are still being pushed up and down, but the distance between those forces has
fallen to 0.
The maximum magnitude of this torque max is

max = F2( ) + F4( ) = (IaBN) ( ) + (IaB) ( ) = IabBN

= IabBN
max
The moment arm for each force about O is b/2. Since the area enclosed by the loop is
A = ab, we can express the maximum torque as
max = IabBN= IABN
max = BIAN ----------------------------------------------- (5.5.2)

This maximum-torque result is valid only when the magnetic field is parallel to the plane
of the loop. The sense of the rotation is clockwise when viewed from side 3 as indicated
in Figure 5.5.1b. If the current direction were reversed, the force directions would also
reverse, and the rotational tendency would be counterclockwise.

Magnetic moment
The quantity is defined as the magnitude of a vector called the magnetic moment of the coil.
Mathematically, it can be defined as the product of current, area of the loop and number of turns of
the coil.
= IAN--------------------------------------------------- (5.5.3)
The vector always points perpendicular to the plane of the loop(s) and is such that if the thumb of
the right hand points in the direction of , the fingers of the right hand point in the direction of the
current. The angle lies between the directions of the magnetic moment and
the magnetic field B. The magnetic torque can then be written as
= B sin ------------------------------------------- (5.5.4)

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Motor effect

A current-carrying wire or coil placed between two I

magnets can exert a force on the magnet. The wire
could also exert a force on another nearby current-
carrying wire or coil. This is called the motor effect.
The force increases if the strength of the magnetic
field and/or current increases. If the current-carrying
wire is placed in a magnetic field (whose lines of F
force are at right angles to the wire) then it will Figure 5.5.3: Motor effect
experience a force at right angles to both the
current direction and the magnetic field lines.
This will be the maximum force.

Figure 5.5.4: A different way of explaining the motor effect

From the diagram, you have seen that when the current in a conductor placed between the
magnets flows out of the page, both magnets pushed downwards but it doesn‘t show any
movement since it is fixed. At the same time the current carrying conductor will experience
an equal sized push upwards (Figure 5.5.4b). This can be seen when the current-carrying
wire bent upward. The conductor moves or bent from the strong to the weaker part of the
field. The resultant fields due to the interaction of the two magnetic fields become weak
above the conductor and strong below the conductor. Why? Draw the electric field lines
created by both the external magnet and the current carrying wire and observe the interaction
between them. This will give you the answer for the question.

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Activity 5.10: Demonstrating the motor effect

Figure 5.5.6: The wire moves at right angles

to the direction of the magnetic field
Figure 5.5.5: The U-shaped copper wire can
swing freely

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The electric Motor

Now a day, it is hard to imagine life without electric motor. The electric motor is widely
used for deriving electric cars, trains and many machines in industry. Some appliances that
contain motor include computer disk drive, CD-player, VCR and DVD-players, food
processer and blenders, car starters, furnaces, air conditioners, and so on.
The motor converts electrical energy to
kinetic energy of rotation and consists
of a rigid current carrying loop that
rotates when it placed in the magnetic
field. In simple form it consists
essentially of:
i) a coil of wire called the armature, A
which is free to rotate between the
poles of a magnet.
ii) a powerful magnetic field in
which the coil turns.
iii) a commutator, in its simplest form, B
is a split copper ring whose two halves
A and B are insulated from each other.
Figure 5.5.7: A DC electric Motor
As we have just seen in Fig. 5.5.8 below, the torque on such a loop rotates the loop to
smaller angle until the torque becomes zero, when the magnetic field is perpendicular to
the plane of the loop and = 0. If the loop turns past this angle and the current remains in the
direction shown in the figure, the torque reverses direction and turns the loop in opposite
direction, that is, counterclockwise. To overcome this difficulty and provide a continuous
rotation in one direction, the current in the loop must be periodically reversed in every half
revolution. In direct current (DC) motor, such the reversal is accomplished mechanically
with the help of split-ring contacts ( commutators) and brushes as shown in Fig5.5.8.
The commutator reverses the direction of the current through the coil every half-revolution.
Although actual motors contains many current loops and commutators, for simplicity
Fig.5.5.8 shows only a single loop and a single set of split-ring contacts rigidly attached to
and rotating with the loop. Electrical stationary contacts called brushes are maintained in
electrical contact with the rotating split-ring. These brushes are usually made of graphite
because it a good electrical conductor as well as a good lubricant.

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F F
b
b b
c b c
c
c F
a a
F
a

(a) At start (b) 900 (c) 900<𝜃 <1800 (d) 3600

Figure 5.5.8: The action of a simple electric Motor

The torque due to the couple on the coil in Fig.5.5.8 is maximum when the coil is in a
horizontal plane and minimum when the coil is in a vertical plane as in Fig.5.5.8 (b). Just as
the loop becomes perpendicular to the magnetic field (Fig.5.5.8 (b) and the torque become
zero, inertia carries or pushes the loop forward in the clockwise direction and the brushes
cross the gap in the ring, causing the loop current to reverse its direction. This reveres
provides another pulse of torque in the clockwise direction for another 1800 turn, the current
reverse, and the process repeats itself.
A current application of motors in automobiles is seen in the development of hybrid drive
systems. In these automobiles, a gasoline engine and an electric motor are combined to
increase the fuel economy of the vehicle and reduce its emissions. Figure 5.5.5 shows the
engine compartment of the Toyota Prius, which is one of a small number of hybrids available
in the United States. In this automobile, power to the wheels can come from either the
gasoline engine or the electric motor. In normal driving, the electric motor accelerates the
vehicle from rest until it is moving at a speed of about 15 mi/h (24 km/h).

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During this acceleration period, the

engine is not running, so that gasoline
is not used and there is no emission.
When a hybrid vehicle brakes, the
motor acts as a generator and returns
some of the kinetic energy of the
vehicle back to the battery as stored
energy. In a normal vehicle, this
kinetic energy is simply lost as it
is transformed to internal energy
in the brakes and roadway.
. Figure 5.5.9: The engine compartment of the
Toyota Prius, a hybrid vehicle.

Moving coil galvanometer

An instrument which will detect a small current is known as a galvanometer. The most
common type is the moving coil galvanometer Fig.5.5.6 (a). A coil of wire is pivoted
between the poles of a magnet. The greater the current flowing around the coil of an electric
motor, the more strongly it will try to turn.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.5.10: Moving coil galvanometer

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This suggests a way to measure the size of a current: let it flow through a motor, and make
the coil try to turn while it is held back by a spring. The bigger the current, the further the
coil will manage to stretch the spring.
This is the basis of the moving-coil galvanometer. The coil of the instrument is drawn in
Figure 5.5.6 (a). The current can be fed into the coil and out again via the hairsprings at top
and bottom; no commutator is needed because the rotation of the coil is restricted to just a
fraction of a turn. Figure 5.5.6 (b) shows a view of the complete arrangement from above.
The coil can rotate inside the gap of a steel horseshoe magnet whose pole pieces are curved.
The soft iron cylinder which sits in the middle of the coil (but does not rotate with it) itself
gets turned into a magnet because of the presence of the permanent magnet; one of its effects
is to increase the strength of the field within the gap. Its other effect is to give the instrument
a linear scale. In the gap there is a radial field (think of how a small compass would set at
that point), so as the coil rotates within the gap it always stays along the field lines. The
‗cosθ‘ term does not appear in the torque, so the torque remains proportional to the current.
A galvanometer thus measures an electric current – ‗galvanism‘ being an old name for
current electricity. The greater the current round the coil, the more marked the motor effect is
and the further the hairsprings are wound up.
A typical instrument is so sensitive that its pointer will be moved to the end of the scale by a
current of perhaps 5 × 10–3 A; we say that it has a full-scale deflection of 5 mA. Even though
copper is used for the windings of its coil, it consists of such a long length of so very thin
wire that it may have a resistance as high as 50 ohms or more.

Summary
In this section you learnt that:
.Torque is the turning effect of force and its SI-unit Nm.
.The magnitude of torque depends on the moment arm or the perpendicular distance from the
axis of rotation, the magnitude of the force that the body experienced and the point of
application of the force.
.Torque exerted on a current carrying loop is given by = BIAN cos θ,
.A torque enables us to open or closed a door by rotating it either clockwise or
counterclockwise.
.The maximum torque can be obtained when the magnetic field is parallel to the plane
of the loop. That is when θ =0 and max = BIAN

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.The commutator reverses the direction of the current through the coil in every half-
revolution.
.The greater the current round the coil, the more marked the motor effect is and the further
the hairsprings are wound up.
. An instrument which will detect a small current is known as a galvanometer.
• You can draw a diagram to show the forces
acting on a rectangular current-carrying F
wire in a uniform magnetic field, as shown
in Figure 5..3.10
• You can draw diagrams to show the
action of a force on a simple D.C. motor,
as shown in Figure 5.3.12.
F
• You can draw diagrams to show the action
of a force on a moving coil galvanometer in Figure 5.3.11
a similar way.

Figure 5.3.12

Review questions

1. What happens to the magnitude of the torque if the angle increases toward 90°? Goes
beyond 90°? Assume that is the angle between the normal to the plane of the loop and the
magnetic field.
2. What is magnetic moment and derive its SI-unit?
3. What is the purpose of Split-ring (commutator) and brushes in DC-motor?
4. How can you obtain maximum torque acting on a rectangular current loop?
5. Write down some appliances that use electric motor.

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5.6 Electromagnetic induction

By the end of this section students should be able to:

 State Faraday’s law and State Lenz’s law of induction.
 Indicate the direction of induced currents, given the direction of motion of the
conductor and the direction of a magnetic field.
 Describe the factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor.
 Describe the link between electricity and magnetism.
 Apply Faraday’s law to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.
 Define inductance and its SI unit.
 Distinguish between self- and mutual inductance.
 Apply the definition of inductance to solve simple numerical problems.
 Give a simple explanation of the principles on which a transformer operates.
 Identify that, for an ideal transformer, Pout = Pin.
 Show that, for an ideal transformer, Vs/Vp = Ns/Np.
 Apply the transformer formulae to solve simple problems.
In the previous section, you have studied that an electric current produces magnetic field.
Obviously, this is Oersted‘s finding and this discovery led scientists to question whether the
reverse might be true; whether a magnetic field might give rise to an electric field. Does an
electric field produce a current? This effect was first discovered in 1831 by a scientist
Michael Faraday. He conducted experiments and showed that a changing in magnetic field
could induce an electric current in a circuit. The results of these experiments led to a basic
and important law known as Faraday’s law. The process is called Electromagnetic
induction. This indicates how current is produced by a magnetic field. His discovery
provides the operating principle behind many modern electrical devices. For example,
electric generator and transformers use electromagnetic induction to produce and distribute
electric power economically. In this section we will discuss Faraday‘s law and some
practical applications.

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Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s Law
An experiment first conducted by Michael
Faraday demonstrates that a current can be
produced by a changing magnetic field.
The apparatus shown in Figure 5.6.1 consists
of a coil connected to a switch and a battery.
We call this coil the primary coil and the
corresponding circuit is called the primary
circuit and a second coil which is connected
Michael Faraday
to an ammeter at the right is called the British Physicist and Chemist
secondary coil and its corresponding circuit (1791–1867)
is called the secondary circuit. Both coils are Faraday is often regarded as the greatest
wrapped around an iron ring to intensify the experimental scientist of the 1800s. His many
magnetic field produced by the current in the contributions to the study of electricity include the
invention of the electric motor, electric generator,
coil. It‘s important to notice that no battery is
and transformer, as well as the discovery of
present in the secondary circuit, and the it electromagnetic induction and the laws of
is not electrically connected to the primary coil. electrolysis.

At first glance, you might guess

that no current is ever detected
in the secondary circuit. However,
something amazing happens when
the switch in the primary circuit is
suddenly either opened or thrown
closed. At the instant the switch is
closed, the galvanometer needle
deflects in one direction and then
returns to zero. At the instant the
switch is opened, the needle
deflects in the opposite direction Figure 5.6.1: Apparatus to demonstrate Faraday‘s Experiment
and again returns to zero.

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Finally, the galvanometer reads zero when there is either a steady current or no current in the
primary circuit. The key to understanding what happens in this experiment is to note first that
when the switch is closed, the current in the primary circuit produces a magnetic field that
penetrates the secondary circuit. Furthermore, when the switch is closed, the magnetic field
produced by the current in the primary circuit changes from zero to some value over some
finite time, and this changing field induces a current in the secondary circuit.
As a result of these observations, Faraday concluded that an electric current can be
induced in a circuit (the secondary circuit in our setup) by a changing magnetic field.
The induced current exists for only a short time while the magnetic field through the
secondary coil is changing. Once the magnetic field reaches a steady value, the current in the
secondary coil disappears. Any current detected in the secondary circuit must be induced by
some external agent.
Now let us describe another simple experiment to illustrate further Faraday‘s induction as in
Fig 5.6.2. To see how an emf can be induced by a changing magnetic field, consider a loop
of wire connected to a galvanometer, as shown in Figure 5.6.2.
1) When a magnet is moved toward the loop, the galvanometer needle deflects in one
direction, arbitrarily shown to the right in Figure 5.6.2(a).
2) When the magnet is brought to rest and held stationary relative to the loop Fig. 5.6.2(b),
no deflection is observed. No induced current in the loop, even when the magnet is inside the
loop.
3) When the magnet is moved away from the loop,
the needle deflects in the opposite direction, as
shown in Figure 5.6.2(c).
4) Move the coil & magnet together at the same
speed. No induced current is obtained.
5) Finally, if the magnet is held stationary and
the loop is moved either toward or away from it,
the needle deflects.
From these observations, it can be concluded that
a current is set up in the circuit as long as there
is relative motion between the magnet and the
loop.

Figure 5.6.2

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The same experimental results are found whether the loop moves or the magnet moves. We
call such a current an induced current because it is produced by an induced emf. Changing
the direction of the magnet‘s motion changes the direction of the induced current. Therefore,
Electromagnetic induction is the process of inducing an emf or current without any source
or voltage, but due to a relative motion between a magnet and a coil.
This experiment is similar to the Faraday experiment discussed Figures 5.6.1.
In each case, an emf is induced in a circuit when the magnetic flux through the circuit
changes with time. It turns out that the instantaneous emf induced in a circuit equals the
negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux with respect to time through the circuit.
This statement is known as Faraday’s law of magnetic induction. In general,
The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit and it can be written as follow.
If a circuit contains N tightly wound loops and the magnetic flux through each loop changes
by the amount during the interval , the average emf induced in the circuit during time
is
= N -------------------------------- (5.6.1)
The size or magnitude of the emf is proportional to the rate at which the conductor is cutting
through flux liens. For instance, to generate double emf, the conductor must cut through
twice as many flux lines each second. One way to do this is to move the magnet or the coil
through the field at twice the speed. On another way is keeping the speed of the magnet or
the coil constant but doubling the strength of the magnetic field by closing together the flux
liens as twice.
The dynamo effect means that a voltage will appear whenever a conductor cuts through a
magnetic field.

Since = BAcos , a change of any of the factors B, A or with time produces an emf. In
Faraday‘s law, the minus sign is very important. This means that the emf creates a current I
and magnetic field that opposes the change in magnetic flux ( ). It is known as Lenz’s
law since it is first stated by Heinrich Lenz. The magnitude of the induced emf depends on:
 The speed (v) of the conductor cutting the flux lines
 The magnetic field strength (B)
 The number of turns of the wire (N)

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Activity 5.12: Demonstration of

dynamo effect

Figure 5.6.3

Figure 5.6.3: How to demonstrate

the dynamo effect.

Activity 5.13: Faraday’s Law

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Lenz’s law
Faraday‘s law refers to the magnitude of the induced emf. A general law which gives the
direction of the induced emf and current was first expressed by Lenz‘s Law in 1834.
Lenz’s law states that the induced electromotive force and current are in such a direction as
to oppose the motion producing them. Therefore, Lenz’s Law tells us about the direction of the
induced emf or induced current.
Illustration of Lenz’s Law
Take a coil whose direction of windings from its terminals is clearly visible. To better
understand Lenz‘s law, let us consider two cases:
Case 1: When a magnet is moving towards the coil.
A B

Motion

Figure 5.6. 4 (a): Lenz‘s Law

When the North pole of the magnet is approaching to the coil, the magnetic flux linking to
the coil increases. According to Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction, when there is a
change in flux, an emf, and hence current is induced in the coil and this current will create its
own magnetic field.
Now according to Lenz’s law, this magnetic field created will oppose its own or we can say
opposes the increase in flux through the coil and this is possible only if the approaching coil
side attains north polarity, as we know similar poles repel each other. Once we know the
magnetic polarity of the coil side, we can easily determine the direction of the induced
current by applying right-hand rule. In this case, the current flows in the anticlockwise
direction as view from side A.
Case 2: When a magnet is B
A
moving away from the coil.

Motion

Figure 5.6.4 (b): Lenz‘s Law

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When the North pole of the magnet is moving away from the coil the magnetic flux linking
to the coil decreases. According to Faraday‘s law of electromagnetic induction, an emf and
hence current is induced in the coil and this current will create its own magnetic field.
Now according to Lenz‘s law, this magnetic field created will oppose its own or we can say
opposes the decrease in flux through the coil and this is possible only if the approaching coil
side attains south polarity, as we know unlike poles attract each other.
Once we know the magnetic polarity of one end of the coil, we can easily determine the
direction of the induced current by applying right-hand rule. In this case, the current flows in
a clockwise direction as view from side A.
Conclusion
In Figure (a), the induced current acts to repel the N-pole of the magnet, that is, to oppose its
movement. Similarly in Figure (b), the induced current acts to repel the S-pole of the
magnet, that is, to oppose its movement. Both show the truth of Lenz‘s Law.

Inductor and Inductance Inductor

Inductor
An inductor is an energy storage device which stores energy in form of magnetic field. In an
electric circuit the main function of such device is to produce inductance.
All types of electrical coil in the circuit can be referred as inductor. An inductor is
essentially an electromagnet. The dynamo effect comes into play whenever the magnetic flux
through it is changing. All electromagnets possess inductance.

a)Air-core Inductor

a) Inductor with iron

core Symbols

Figure 5.6.5: Variety of inductors

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Inductance
Inductance is defined as the property in an electrical circuit where a change in the
electric current through that circuit induces an e.m.f. that opposes the change in current.
It is the property of an electric conductor or circuit that causes an electromotive force to be
generated by a change in the current flowing.
Inductance, property of a conductor (often in the shape of a coil) that is measured by the
size of the electromotive force, or voltage, induced in it, compared with the rate of change
of the electric current that produces the voltage.

Activity 5.14: Lenz’s Law in action Activity 5.16: Factors that

affect the magnitude of
induced current in a
conductor
Figure 5.6.6

Figure 5.6.6: Apparatus set up

Activity 5.17: The

Activity 5.15: Magnets producing movement relationship between the
motor effect and the
dynamo effect

Figure 5.6.7: Apparatus set up

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Mutual and Self-inductance

Mutual inductance
Mutual inductance is the main operating principle of generators, motors, and transformers.
Any electrical device having components that tend to interact with another magnetic field
also follows the same principle. The interaction is usually brought about by a mutual
induction where the current flowing in one coil generates a voltage in a secondary coil.
Let‘s consider the following situations of two coils are placed side by side as shown in
Fig.5.6.4. Coil-1 has current passing through it, provided from external battery, and
coil two is not connected to any
battery source. When the two coils are
brought in proximity with each other
the magnetic field created in coil-1
tends to link with the secondary coil.
This further leads to the generation of
voltage in coil-2. This property of a coil
which affects or changes the current
and voltage in a secondary coil is called
mutual inductance.

Figure 5.6.8 Changing current in coil-1 produces

changing magnetic flux in coil-2.

The first coil has N1 turns and carries a current I1 when the switch is closed which gives rise
to a magnetic field . Since the two coils are close to each other, some of the magnetic
field lines generated through coil- 1 will also pass through coil- 2. Hence, the flux through
coil-2 will change with time. Let Φ21denote the magnetic flux through one turn of coil- 2 due
to I1 in coil-1. Now, by varying I1 in the primary coil with time, there will be an induced emf
associated with the changing magnetic flux in the second coil or coil-2 and given by:

= −N2 -------------------------------------- (5.6.2)

The time rate of change of magnetic flux Φ21 in coil-2 is proportional to the time rate of
change of the current in coil-1:
−N2 = −M21 ---------------------------------- (5.6.3)

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Where the proportionality constant M12 is called the mutual inductance. It can also be written
as:
M21 = N2 ------------------------------------- (5.6.4)
The SI-unit of inductance is the Henry (H). 1H= 1T.m2/A = 1Wb/A
The emf generated in the secondary coil will depend on the geometrical properties or factors of the
two coils such as number of turns of the wire on each coil, their cross-sectional area, relative
orientation and so on.
Suppose the above situation is changed, that is, if the secondary coil was the coil with a
battery circuit and generating current I2 and coil-1 is without source, then an induced
electromotive force is generated in coil-1 due to the variation of current with tine in the
secondary coil. Then the emf in coil-1 due to the variation of current in coil-2 becomes

= −N1 -------------------------------------- (5.6.5)

Figure 5.6.9 Changing current in coil-2

produces changing magnetic flux in coil-1.

This changing flux in coil-1 is proportional to the changing current in coil-2,

−N1 = −M12 ------------------------------------------ (5.6.6)

Where the proportionality constant M12 is another mutual inductance and can be written as

M12 = N1 -------------------------------------------- (5.6.7)

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The mutual inductance of the pair coils depends on the geometrical factors of the two coils
and indicates the amount of emf induced in a coil following a change in the current of a
nearby coil. The larger the number of turns and size of cross-sectional area of either coil are,
the greater will be the mutual inductance of the pair of coils. Therefore, the constant
proportionalities are equal:

M12 = M21= M -------------------------------------------- (5.6.8)

From equations (1) and (4) the emf induced in coil-2 and coil-1 due to the current change in
coil-1 and coil-2 respectively are:

= −M ------------------------------------------ (5.6.9)

= −M ----------------------------------------- (5.6.10)
Worked Example-1

1. The mutual inductance of an electromagnet is 8H. If the current in the second coil changes
at a rate of 4A/s, what is the induced emf in this coil?

Given Solution

M=8H = -M

=4A/s =-8Hx4A/s

Required: emf=? =-32v

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Worked Example-2
Consider two single-turn co-planar, concentric coils of radii R1 and R2, with R1>R2, as shown
in Figure 5.6.6. What is the mutual inductance between the two loops?

Figure 5.6.10: Two concentric current

loops
Solution:
The mutual inductance can be computed as follows. In section 5.4 we have seen that the
magnetic field at the center of the ring due to I1 in the outer coil is given by
B1 =

Since R1 > R2, we approximate the magnetic field through the entire inner coil byB1. Hence,
the flux through the second (inner) coil is
= B1A2

=( )( )=

=
Thus, the mutual inductance is given by

M= ==

The result shows that M depends only on the geometrical factors, R1 and R2, and is
independent of the current I1 in the coil.

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Self-Inductance
Faraday‘s law also tells us that any change in the magnetic flux through a coil, causing by a
change in its own current, will induce emf in the coil itself. This mean that when a current
through a coil changes, the coil induces an emf that opposes the change.
Consider again a coil consisting of N turns and carrying current I in the counterclockwise
direction, as shown in Figure 5.6.7. If the current is steady, then the magnetic flux through
the loop will remain constant. However, suppose the current I changes with time, then
according to Faraday‘s law, an induced emf will arise to oppose the change. The induced
current will flow clockwise if > 0, and counterclockwise if < 0. The property of the
loop in which its own magnetic field opposes any change in current is called ―self-
inductance,‖ and the emf generated is called the self-induced emf or back emf, which we
denote as Lε. All current-carrying loops exhibit this property. In particular, an inductor is a
circuit element which has a large self-inductance.

Figure 5.6.11 Magnetic flux through

the current loop
Mathematically, the self-induced emf can be written as

= −N ---------------------------------- (5.6.11)

and if is the rate of change of current through the coil, then the average induced emf can
be related to the self-inductance L by
= −L ------------------------------------ (5.6.12)

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The two expressions can be combined to yield

−L = −N

L= N --------------------------------------- (5.6.13)

The constant of proportionality L in the above equation is called the Self-inductance of the
coil. Physically, the inductance L is a measure of an inductor‘s ―resistance‖ to the change of
current; the larger the value of L, the lower the rate of change of current. Inductive coils are
useful to protect a sudden increase or decrease of current in a circuit. The SI-unit of self-
inductance is volt-second per ampere (vs/A).
1vs/A = 1Henry (H) = 1H named after the scientist Joseph Henry.
Note
The magnitude of the induced emf in both mutual and self-induction depends on the
geometry and kind of core material introduced in the coil. Some of the geometrical factors
are:-
 the number of turns (N)
 the cross-sectional area (A)
 the length of the coil ( and so on.

Worked Example -3
The current in a solenoid of self-inductance 0.6H is increasing at rate of 2A/s. How large is
the induced emf in the solenoid?

Solution
If L=0.6H and = 2A/s, then =?

= −L
= - (0.6H)(2A/s)
= -1.2V

Worked Example-4
Compute the self-inductance of a solenoid with
N turns, length l, and radius R with a current I Figure 5.6.12: A solenoid
flowing through each turn, as shown in

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Figure 5.6.8.
Solution:
From the previous discussion, the magnetic field inside a solenoid is given by

B=
Where n=N/ is the number of turns per unit length. The magnetic flux through each turn is
Φ = BA
Φ= nI)( )
Thus, the self-inductance is given by
L=N = N( nx ) =n ( n )

L=
From N ( N/ x ), then we have another expression for L as:

L=
We saw that L depends only on the geometrical factors (n, R and ) and is independent of the
current I.
Worked example-5
An emf induced in a solenoid of self-inductance of 4H is found to be 12v. At what rate will the
current be decreasing during this time?

Solution
If L = 4H and =12v, then =?
= −L

= /L = (12v)/(4H) = 3A/s. Show that vH=A/s!

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A simple AC generator
An AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into alternating electrical
energy for appropriate use. Based on the type of power input, there are two types of
generators – AC generator and DC generator. In this section we are going to discuss only
about AC generator. The construction of a simple AC-generator is shown in Fig.5.6.13.
The essential parts of AC generator are a coil or armature, slip rings, brushes, and a
strong magnetic field. The field magnet may be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
The armature is any number of conductive wires wound in loops which rotates through the
magnetic field. For simplicity, the generator in Fig.5.6.13 consists of a single loop of wire
suspended between the poles of field magnet. Pair of slip rings is fused to each end of the
loop and rotate with the loop as it is turned in the magnetic field. Induced current is led away
from the system by graphite brushes, which ride on each slip ring. Mechanical energy is
supplied to the generator by turning the armature in the magnetic field. In turn, electrical
energy is generated in the form of an induced current. The direction of the induced current
can be determined by Lenz‘s law.
“The induced current must be in such a direction that it produces a magnetic force which
opposes the force causing the motion”.

Figure 5.6.13: The construction of a simple AC-generator

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Working Principle of AC generator

A simple AC generator works on the principle of Faraday‘s Law of Electromagnetic

Induction. It has a coil of wire or armature that rotates at a steady speed in a magnetic field.
The movement of a conductor or a coil in a uniform magnetic field changes the magnetic
flux linked with the coil, thus inducing an emf. As the coil rotates, the magnetic flux through
it changes continuously. This changing magnetic flux induces an emf in the coil, and the
emf causes current through the coil in the direction induced.
As a coil on one side moves up through the magnetic field, an emf is induced in one
direction. As the rotation of the coil continues and this side of a coil moves down and
another side of the coil moves up, an emf is induced in the reverse direction. This process
repeats for every cycle and the emf produced is of alternating type.
In order to understand the operation of an AC-generator, let us follow the loop through a
complete rotation in Fig.5.6.14, observing the current generated throughout the rotation.

F
P P F
F P

(a) I P
F I B
P

A B C D E
emf
(b)

00 900 1800 2700 3600 𝜃

Figure 5.6.14: Production of an alternating current

Figure 5.6.14 illustrates the complete positions of the rotating coil and shows the direction
of the current delivered to the brushes in each case. Suppose that the loop is turned
mechanically in a clockwise direction. In Fig. 5.6.14, at the starting position (A) the loop is
vertical, with F directed to the right.

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At this position the angle between the coil and the magnetic field is zero, =0, because the
coil moves parallel to the direction of the magnetic field and no flux lines are being cut, and
the induced current drops to zero.
When the armature turns from 00 to 900 the conductor cuts through more and more lines of
magnetic flux and the emf increases from zero to maximum in the positive direction at the
instant just when the loop becomes in a horizontal position with F directed vertically
downward as in Fig.5.6.14 position (B). At this position, a maximum emf is induced to
deliver maximum current in the positive direction shown.
The armature continues to rotate from 900 to 1800 through the magnetic field by cutting less
magnetic lines of flux. The induced emf drops from a maximum positive value to zero jus
when the loop becomes Vertical gain, with F directed to the left as in Fig.5.6.14 position (C).
The coil again moves parallel to the magnetic field and no flux lines are being cut, and hence
the induced emf and current drops to zero.
The loop continues to rotate from 1800 to 2700 through the magnetic field by cutting again
more and more magnetic lines of flux in the opposite direction. The loop again comes in a
horizontal position, with F directed vertically upward as in Fig.5.6.14 position (D). At this
position, a maximum emf is induced in the negative direction to deliver maximum current to
the load. Here, the induced emf is opposite to that of position (B).
The loop continues to rotate from 2700 to 3600 through the magnetic field. The induced emf
decreases from a maximum negative value to zero as in Fig.5.6.14 position (E).At this
position, the loop return to vertical again, with F directed to the right as in Fig.5.6.14
position (A) and the coil has completed one rotation or cycle. The cycle repeats itself
periodically as long as the coil rotates continuously. Thus the current delivered such a
generator alternates periodically, the direction changing twice each rotation.
To determine the value of induced electromotive force consider the rotation of the coil
shown in Fig.5.6.14. Suppose the rectangular coil with ‗N‘ turns each enclosing an area A
rotates in a uniform magnetic field ‗B‘ with an angular velocity ‗ω‘. The maximum induced
emf can be obtained when the position of the loop is in a horizontal position. This situation
happens twice in every complete revolution. The magnetic flux when the loop turns by 900
each turn cuts (BA) magnetic field lines. During every revolution each, two opposite sides
cut twice per cycle, coil cuts 4(BA) magnetic field lines. If the coil makes ―n‖ revolutions
per unit time, magnetic field lines are cut at a rate:

N = 4NBA ω --------------------------------- (5.6.14)

Where ω =2 n and n is in rev per second or cycle per second and then ω is in rad per second.

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The average induced electromotive force in volt is

= 4NBAω ---------------------------------------------------- (5.6.15)

Where B is expressed in Tesla, A in m2 and n in cycle per second.
When a coil of simple generator rotates at a constant angular speed, the electromotive force
varies with time as shown in Fig.5.6.14 (b). Such electromotive force is called alternating
electromotive force and gives rise to an alternating current in a resistor. is zero when
the coil is at right angles to the field and rises to maximum when the coil turned
0 0
through 90 . Then V decreases or drops to zero at 180 , then reaches to a negative maximum
at 2700 and finally goes back to zero at 3600, completing one cycle. This curve is repeated
for each complete revolution of the coil. The curve is called a sine curve because its
equation is = Sin , where θ = ωt and ω is the angular speed of the coil.
But = NBAω, where n is number of revolutions per unit time (n =2 )
= Sinωt --------------------------------- (5.6.16)

V(v)

t(s)

Figure 5.6.15: One compete cycle

Worked example

1. An alternating current generator contains 5 rectangular loops of conducting wire with

side lengths 15cm and 25cm, the ends of which form terminals. The sides of the loops
with the same lengths as each other are parallel to each
other. The loops rotate at15 revolutions per second within
a 620mT uniform magnetic field. What is the peak
potential difference across the terminals? Give your
B
answer to two decimal places.

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Given Solution
N=5 = Sinωt
2
A= 0.15x0.25m Sinωt =1, when
2
= 0.0375m = NBAω
B = 0.62T = (5)(0.62)(0.0375)(30 ) volt
ω = (15rev/sx2 rad/s)/rev =10.95v
ω =30 rad/
2. The dimensions of a rectangular coil are 80cm by 20cm and it has 200 turns of wire. The
coil is mounted on axle at right angles to a magnetic field of 0.15Wb/m2. At what speed must
it rotate in order to generate an average emf of 0.50v during each half revolution?

A= 0.8mx0.2m = 0.16m2 = 0.50v, generated during each half rev.

N= 200 =|( 4NBAω)/2|= 2NBAω
B=0.15Wb/m2 ω= /2NBA
ω= /2NBA
= 0.5v/2x200x0.15x0.16
= 0.052rad/s

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Transformer

What is a Transformer?
A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers electrical energy from
one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic induction. It is most
commonly used to increase (‗step up‘) or decrease (‗step down‘) the voltage levels between
circuits.

A simple transformer that illustrated in Figure 5.6.10, consists of three essential parts: (1) a
primary coil connected to an AC-source, (b) a secondary coil, and (3) a soft iron core.
Working Principle of Transformer
The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction between two or
more windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be transferred between
circuits. Consider the following simple transformer.

Voltage

Output
Time
Input
a) AC source

Figure 5.6.9: Transformer b)

Let‘s you have one winding (also known as a coil) which is supplied by an alternating
electrical source. The alternating current through the winding produces a continually
changing and alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If another winding is brought close
to this winding, some portion of this alternating flux will link with the second winding. As
this flux is continually changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a changing flux
linkage in the second winding or coil.
According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, there will be an emf induced in
the second winding. If the circuit of this secondary winding is closed, then a current will
flow through it. This is the basic working principle of a transformer. Transformer does not
operate by DC-source.

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The winding which receives electrical power from the source is known as the
‗primary winding’. In the diagram above this is the ‗First Coil‘.
The winding which gives the desired output voltage due to mutual inductance is
commonly known as the ‗secondary winding’. This is the ‗Second Coil‘ in the diagram
above.
A transformer that increases voltage between the primary to secondary windings is defined
as a step-up transformer. Conversely, a transformer that decreases voltage between the
primary to secondary windings is defined as a step-up transformer.
Whether the transformer increases or decreases the voltage level depends on the relative
number of turns between the primary and secondary side of the transformer.
If there are more turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil than the voltage will
decrease (step down).
If there are less turns on the primary coil than the secondary coil than the voltage
will increase (step up).
The transformer consists of an iron core onto which are wound two coils, the primary (with
Np loops) and the secondary (with Ns loops) coils. The primary coil is connected to the AC-
power source as shown in the above diagram.

Figure 5.6.10: Types of

transformerthe
1. Step up transformer
If the number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the
secondary coil, then the transformer is called step up transformer. (Np < Ns)
The output voltage of the transformer is greater than the input voltage of the transformer is
called step down transformer (Vs.< Vp)
2. Step down transformer
If the number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in the secondary
coil then the transformer is called step down transformer ( Np> Ns)
The output voltage of the transformer is less than the input voltage of the transformer is
called step down transformer (Vs<Vp)

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Power transmission

220v

Figure 5.6.11: This figure shows how the required electric power is transmitted with the
help of step-up and step-down transformer from power plant to home.

As an alternating current is sent through the primary coil Fig.5.6.9, magnetic flux lines
move back and forth through the iron core, inducing an alternating current in the secondary
coil.
The constantly changing magnetic flux is established through the core of the transformer and
passes through both primary and secondary coils. The emf induced in the primary coil is
given by
= Vp = Np )p ------------------------------------(5.6.14)

Where Np= number of primary turns and )p is rate at which flux changes in the primary
coil.
Similarly, the emf induced in the secondary coil is given by

=VS = NS )S ------------------------------------(5.6.15)
Where Ns is number of secondary turns
Transformation Ratio
A transformer ratio is an expression that shows the relationship between the ratios of primary
and secondary voltages to the number of primary and secondary turns.
Since the same flux changes at the same rate through each coil, that is = .,

we can divide Eq.(1) by Eq.(2) to obtain:

= ------------------------------------------ (5.6.16)

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This implies that the induced voltage is directly proportional to the number of turns of the
coil.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input.
Recalling the electric power is equal to the product of voltage and current, we can write the
efficiency E of a transformer as:

E= =

E= x100% ---------------------------------------- (5.6.17)

Where IP and IS are the currents in the primary coil and in the secondary coil
respectively. In real case there is no 100% efficient transformer and there is no
power gain as a result of transformer action. When the voltage is stepped up, the
current must be stepped down, so that the product does not increase.
The diagram of the transformer above is theoretically possible in an ideal
transformer. In a real transformer, it is not very practical. This is because in the open
air or real world only a very tiny portion of the flux produced from the first coil will
link with the second coil. So the current that flows through the closed circuit
connected to the secondary winding will be extremely small (and difficult to
measure).
The rate of change of flux linkage depends upon the amount of linked flux with the
second winding. So ideally almost all of the flux of primary winding should link to
the secondary winding. This is effectively and efficiently done by using a core type
transformer.
For ideal transformer, 100% efficient, we have
Power output = power input

VSIS = VpIp -------------------------------------------- (5.6.18)

= --------------------------------------------- (5.6.19)

From Eq.(5.6.16), we have another relation:

= -------------------------------------------- (5.6.20)

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Worked Example-1

1. The input coil of a transformer has 1000turns whereas the output coil has 200tirns. If the
input voltage is 220v, what is the output voltage of the transformer?

Given Solution

Np=1000turns =

NS=200turns VS = Vp

Vp=220v = x220v

Required: Vp=? = 44v

2. A step up transformer has 400 secondary turns and 100 primary turns. An alternating
voltage of 120v is connected to the primary coil. What is the output voltage?
Solution
Np=100, NS = 400 and VP = 120v VS=?
VS = Vp

= x120V = 480V
3. A step-up transformer has 80 primary and 640secondary turns. The efficiency of the
transformer is 80%. If the primary draws a current of 20A at 120V, what are the (Is) current
and voltage (Vp) for the secondary?
Solution
Np=80, NS=640, Ip=20A, Vp=120v and E= 0.8
a) =

Is = Ip = (80/640)(20A) = 2.5A

b) =

Vs = Vp = (640/80)(120V) = 960v

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

Figure 5.6.9

Figure 5.6.11

Review questions

1. Define magnetic flux and give its SI unit.

2. State Faraday‘s law of induction.
3. Describe a simple experiment that demonstrates an induced e.m.f. caused by changing
magnetic flux.
4. State Lenz‘s law.
5. Describe how you could find the direction of induced currents, given the direction of
motion of the conductor and the direction of a magnetic field.
6. State the factors that affect the magnitude of induced e.m.f. in a conductor.
7. Describe the link between electricity and magnetism.
8. What law can be used to calculate the magnitude of induced e.m.f.?
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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

9. Define inductance and give its SI unit.

10. What are the differences between self-inductance and mutual inductance?
11. Describe and explain the action of the simple D.C Motor
12. Draw a diagram of a transformer.
13. Give a simple explanation of the principles on which a transformer operates.
14. State the ideal transformer equations.

End of unit questions

1. What name is given to materials that are strongly attracted by a magnet? Name two such
materials, other than iron and steel.
2. Describe how a nail could be magnetized. What might happen if the nail was heated or
dropped? Explain your answer.
3. What name is given to the region in which a magnet influences other magnetic materials?
How far does this region extend?
4. Describe two ways in which you could detect the presence of a magnetic field. Does any
magnetic field exist in the spaces between the lines of iron filings around a magnet? Explain
your answer.
5. Is the magnetic pole area in the northern hemisphere an N-pole or an S-pole? Explain.
6. Describe what would happen to a magnetic compass if it is placed (a) at the magnetic
North pole, and (b) at the equator.
7. Using the domain theory, explain the difference between soft iron and steel, and indicate
which you would select for use as (a) a compass needle, and (b) keepers for a pair of bar
magnets.
8. A proton moving horizontally enters a x x x x x x x
uniform magnetic field perpendicular to
x x x x x x x
the its velocity, as shown in Figure Q 5.1.
x x x x x x x
Describe the subsequent motion of the
proton in the field. How would an +q v x x x x x x x
electron behave under the same x x x x x x x
circumstances? x x x x x x x
B
x x x x
9. (a) If the speed of the proton described in Figure Q5.1
question # 8 is 2x105m/s, what is the magnetic
force exerted on the proton? Assume that B = 1.2T and the mass of proton is 1.67x10-27kg.

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

(b) What is the radius of the path followed by the proton in the field?
10. A proton moving at 4x106 m/s through a magnetic field of 1.70T experiences a magnetic
force of magnitude 8.2x10-13 N. What is the angle between the proton‘s velocity and the
field?
11. An electron moving along the positive x- axis and perpendicular to a magnetic field
experiences a magnetic force deflected in the negative y direction. What is the direction of
the magnetic field?
12. A wire 2.80 m in length carries a current of 5A in a region where a uniform magnetic
field has a magnitude of 0.390 T. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic force on the wire
assuming the angle between the magnetic field and the current is:
(a) 53°, (b) 90° and (c) 127°.
13. A circular coil of wire of radius 5cm has 20 turns and carries a current of 2A. The coil
lies in a magnetic field of magnitude 0.50T that is directed parallel to the plane of the coil.
(b) What is the magnetic dipole movement of the coil? (c) What is the torque on the coil?
14. Determine the initial direction of the deflection of charged particles as they enter the
magnetic fields as shown in Figure Q 5.2.

x x x x x x
Bin B up v
+q
v x x x x x x v
x x x x x x
x x x x x x -q

a) b)

B Right
v

+q

0
c) d) v B at 45
Figure Q5.2
+q

15. An electron moving at 4× 103 m/s in a magnetic field of 1.25T experiences a magnetic
force of 1.4 × 10−16 N. What angle does the velocity of the electron make with the magnetic
field? There are two answers.

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16. A rectangular coil ABCD consists of N=100 closely

wrapped turns and has dimensions AD = 0.40 m y
and CD = 0.30 m. The coil is hinged along the y- axis,
and its plane makes an angle = 37° with the x -axis
A
(Fig. Q 5.3). a) What is the magnitude of the torque B
exerted on the coil by a uniform magnetic field B = 0.80T
directed along the -x axis when the current is I =1.20A B
in the direction shown? b) What is the expected
direction of rotation of the coil? D
C x
𝜃
Figure Q 5.3
z

17. What is the direction of the magnetic force on a positively charge that moves as shown in
each of the six cases?

𝑣
x x x x x 𝑣
x x x x x
x x x x x
x x x x x

a) c)
𝑣 b) a)

𝑣
𝑣

d) 𝑣 e) f)

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

18. A wire of 6m long carries a current is placed in an external

magnetic field in the plane of this paper toward the top
I=5A
of the page (Fig.Q5.4). The wire experiences a magnetic force toward
the right edge of the page. The direction of the external
magnetic field that causing this force is: F
(a) toward the left edge (c) toward the bottom edge
(b) upward out of the page (d) downward into the page.
Figure Q 5.4

19. A wire bent into a semicircle of radius R forms a closed circuit and carries a current I.
The wire lies in the xy plane where there is a uniform magnetic field directed along the
positive y- axis, as shown in Figure Q.5.6. (a) Find the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic force acting on the straight portion of the wire and on the curved portion of the
wire. (b) What is the net force acting on the loop?

B-field
y

o
x

Figure Q 5.6
20. What is the direction of the velocity of a negative charge that experiences the magnetic
force shown in each of the three cases, assuming it moves perpendicular to B?
F

a) Bout b) Bin b) Brigh

Figure Q 5. 7
F

18. Repeat previous exercise for a positive charge.

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21. An electromagnet produces a magnetic field of magnitude 1.5 T throughout a cylindrical

region of radius 6cm. A straight wire carrying a current of 25 A is passing through the field
as shown in the figure Q 5.8 (a). What is the magnetic force on the wire?
2R

Figure Q 5.8 (a)

(a)

22. The current loop shown in the figure Q 5.8(b) lies in the plane of the page, as does the
magnetic field. Determine the net force and the net torque on the loop if I = 10 A and
B = 1.5 T.
23. A circular coil of radius 5cm is wound with sixty turns and carries a current of 5A. If the
coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field of strength 5T, what is the maximum torque on it?
24. Estimate the magnitude of the magnetic force per unit length between a pair of parallel
wires separated by 2 m if they each carry a current of 3 A.
25. i) Two long, parallel wires each carry the same current as in Figure Q 5.9. Is the total
magnetic field at the point P midway between the wires (a) zero, (b) directed
into the page, (c) directed out of the page, (d) directed
to the left, or (e) directed to the right? I
ii) What about if the same currents flow in
opposite direction? P
I

I
Figure Q 5.9
26. Two long, straight wires cross each other at right
angles, and each carries the same current as in Figure Q5.10. Which of the following
statements are true regarding the total magnetic field at the various points due to the two
wires?

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 Unit 5 Electromagnetism

(There may be more than one correct statement.)

(a) The field is strongest at points B and D.
B A
(b) The field is strongest at points A and C.
(c) The field has the same magnitude at all four points.
(d) The field is out of the page at point C and D.
(e) The field is out of the page at point B and into
the page at point D. C D
27. A circular wire loop of radius 1.0m is placed in a
magnetic field of magnitude 0.50T. The normal to the Figure Q5.10
plane of the loop makes an angle of 30° with the magnetic
field (Fig. 19.16a). The current in the loop is 2.0A in the direction shown.
(a) Find the magnetic moment of the loop and the magnitude of the torque at this instant.
(b) The same current is carried by the rectangular 2.0m by 3.0m coil with three loops shown
in Figure 19.16b. Find the magnetic moment of the coil and the magnitude of the torque
acting on the coil at that instant.

N N

Figure Q 5.11

28. a) A particle carrying a charge of 1.5x10-20 C projected from right to left into a B-field
of 0.4T directed vertically upward. If the velocity of the particle is 2x106 m/s, a) what is the
magnetic force exerted on the particle? b) If the radius of the path it follows is 1.2x10 3m,
what is the mass of the particle?
29. An AC- generator consists of a rectangular coil with dimensions 15cm×60cm and 250
turns that rotates through a magnetic field of density 0.15 T with an angular velocity of 600
rad/min. Calculate the maximum value of induced emf across the coil.

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30. An armature in AC-generator consists of 800turns, each having an area of 0.25m2.

The coil rotates at 600rpm in a field of flux density 100mT. (a) What is the maximum
induced emf? (b) what is the instantaneous emf 0.3s after the coil passes a position of
zero emf?

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