E diancld Mathematical canes Logic 2.0 Introduction Logic is the discipline that deals with the methods of f thods of reasoning. The a logic 0 rules by which we can determine whether a particul nF tatid topical easing ‘ar reasoning or argument is valid. Logical reasoning is used in many disciplines to establish vi ical reasoning, lid 1 es of logic si enabli lid results. Rules of logic are used to provide proofs of theorems in mathematics, to verify the correctness of computer programs and to draw conclusions from scientific experiments. In this chapter we will discuss the elements of mathematical logic 2.1 Proposi A declarative sentence which is either true or false, but not both, is called a proposition, Sentences which are exclamatory, interrogative or imperative in nature are not propositions, Lower case letters such as p,q, ». are used to denote propositions, For example, we consider the following sentences, New Delhi is the capital of India. How beautiful is Sruti? 2423 What time is it? xtysz 6. Take a cup of coffe. In the given statements, (2), (4) and (6) are obviously not propositions as they are not declarative in nature, (I) and (3) are propositions, but (5) is not, since (1) is true, (3) is false and the values of x, y,z are not assigned. Ifa proposition is true, we say that the truth value of that proposition is true, denoted by T or 1. Ifa proposition is false, the truth value is said to be false denoted by F or O. ‘A table that displays the relationships between the truth values of sub-propositions and that of compound proposition constructed from them. Proposition which do not contain any of the logical operators or connectives are called atomic propositions. Many mathematical statements which can be constructed by combining one or more atomic statements using connectives are called molecular or compound propositions. The truth values of a compound proposition depends on those of sub propositions and the way in which they are combined using connectives. weeneAls 22 Bebra “The area of logic that deals with propositions is called propositional logic or propositional caleulys or mathematical logic. 2.2 Connectives 2.2.4 Conjuction When p and q are any two propositions, the proposition ‘p and q° denoted by p 4» called the conjunction of p and g, is defined as the compound proposition which is true when both p and q are tg and is false otherwise. Table 2.1 is the truth table for the conjunction of two propositions p and q viz., ‘p and q”. Table 2.1 gq P 3|> alala|a}o ala|ala a|a|o 2.2.2 Disjunction When p and g are any two propositions ‘p or q’ denoted by p v g, called the disjunction of q and gis defined as the compound proposition that is false when both p and q are false and is true otherwise. Table 2.2 is the truth table of the disjunction of two propositions p and g, viz., ‘pv q’ ‘Table 2.2 P 4 pya i T T T F T F T T e F F 2.2.3 Negation The negation is a preposition which is obtained by denying a given proposition by the use of the connective “NOT” and denoted by -p."p is also denoted as p, p and ~p. If p is tue,, then vp is false and if p is false, then >p is True Table 2.3 is the truth table for the negation of p. For example, if p is the statement. ‘New Delhi is in India,’ Then 7p is any one of the following statements, (a) tis not the case that New Delhi is in India. (b) tis false that New delhi is in India (c) New delhi is not in India.3 ‘ mathematical Logic 23 ‘The truth value of p is T and that of ~p is F. Table 2,3 Be a T F F T 2.3 Conditional and Biconditional Propositions 2.3.1 Conditional Proposition Ifpand are propositions, the compound proposition “if, then q’, that is denoted by p > q is called ‘a conditional proposition, which is false when p is true and q is false and is true otherwise. In this conditional proposition, p is called the hypothesis or premise and q is called the conclusion or consequence. For example, Let us consider the statement ‘If I get up at 5 a.m. I will go for a walk,’ which may be represented as p -> q and considered as a contract. Ifp is true and q is also false, the contract is voilated and so ‘p —> q’is false. Ifp is false and whether q is true or false the contract is not violated and so ‘p > q’ is true Accordingly, the truth table for the conditional proposition p > g will be as given in Table 2.4. Table 2.4 Pp 4 Pp iP T T F >4 f F F T T r F F The alternative terminologies used to express p > g are the following. () pimplies g (i ponly if [‘Ifp, then q’ formulation emphasises the hypothesis, whereas ‘p only q’ formulation exphasizes the conclusions the difference is only stylistic. (itl) qifp or q when p (iv) q follows from p. (») pis sufficient for g or a sufficient condition for q is p. (vi) q is necessary for p or a necessary condition for p is q. 2.3.2 Biconditional Proposition Ifp and q are propositions, the compound proposition ‘p if and only if q’, that is denoted by P © gis called a biconditional proposition, which is true when p and q have the same truth values and is false otherwise,4 Algebra tis easily verified that ‘p © q’ is true when he conditionals p > q and q —> p are true. This is the reason for the symbol «> which is a combination of > and =. ; Alternatively, ‘p «> q° is also expressed as ‘p ift'q’ and p is necessary and sufficient for q. The truth table for ‘p <> q’ is given in Table 2.5. The notation p = ¢ is also used instead of p and <> have lower precedence than other operators. Among them ~> has precedence over ¢>. 2.5 Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive For any proposition P -> Q. Converse: Q>P Inverse: ~P>~Q Contrapositive: ~Q->~P For example: Let P and Q are two propositions such that P : Rosy is hungry Q : She eats more Then, Converse: If Rosy eats more, then she is hungry. Inverse: If Rosy is not hungry, then she does not eat more Contrapositive: If Rosy does not eat more, then she is not hungry.Mathematical Logic a 2.6 Tautology and Contradiction Acompound proposition p = p(p,, Pay «. p,), Where p), Pay «Py» ate Variables, is called a tautology, if it is true for every true assignment for p,, Py» Pp is called a contradiction if it is false for every true assignment for p,, P>, Py: For example, p v -p is a tautology, whereas. p A “p is a contradiction, as seen from the table 2.6 given below: Table 2.6 P ? py? PAM r F T. F T. T F 1. The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and the negation of a contradiction is a tautology. 2. Ifp(p,. Ps, P,) is a tautology, then p(q,, 4, »-q,) is also a tautology, where q,, 4-4, are any set of propositions. This is known as the principle of substitution, For example, since p vp is a tautology, ((p v g) Ar) v-U(p v q) Ar) is also a tautology. 3. Ifa proposition is neither a tautology nor a contradiction, itis called a contingency. 2.7 Equivalence of Propositions Two compound propositions A(p,, py... p,) and B(p,, Py... ,) are said to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent, if they have identical truth tables, if the truth values are assigned to p,, Ps. Py The equivalence of two propositions and B is denoted as A <> B or A = B. © or = is nota connective For example, let us consider the truth tables of (pv q) and 1p 07g. The final columns in the truth tables for (p v g) and -p A 7g are identical Hence (pv q)= "pay. Table 2.7 Pp q pyq “pv @ ?P 4 pA “al 1 T T F F F F T F T F F T F F T mn F q F FE FE F F i i T T Note: We have already noted that the biconditional proposition 4 ¢> B is true whenever both 4 and B have the same truth value, viz., A ¢+ B is a tautology, when A and B are equivalent. Conversely, 4 = B, when 4 ¢ Bisa tautology, for example (p > g) = (7p vq), since (p > q) «> (7p vq) isa tautology, as seen from the truth Table 2.8 given below:2.6 Algebra Table 2.8 P 4 poa ? pa | edo R® | T T t F T T T F F F F rT F T Tr T T T F F T T T Li 2.8 Algebra of Propositions A proposition in a compound proposition can be replaced by one that is equivalent to it without changing the truth value of a compound proposition. By this way, we can construct new equivalences For example, we have proved that p —> q “p vq. Using this equivalence, we get another equivalence P> (q>1) =p (qv 7). Some of the basic equivalence and their duals which will be of use later are given in Tables 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11. They can be easily established by using truth tables. @ Law of Algebra of Propositions Table 2.9 [___Name of the law Primal form Dual form 1, | Idempotent law PYP=p PAP=P 2. | Identity law pvFep pal=p 3. | Dominant law pyT=T pVF=F 4. | Complement law pvYp=T paper 5. | Commutative law pyq=qvp PAG=qAp 6. | Associative law @vavr=pv(qvn @agar=pr@an 7, | Distributive law PYGAN=@vOarwbvr) |pa@vn=Prgdvpan 8, | Absorption law PY(pAg=p PAWYD=P 9. | De Morgan's law WV Q=ypayp Wwagepyva @ Equivalence Involving Conditions Table 2.10 l|poag=pvg P>4q=4q>p PVI=P>q PAG= pq) Wp > 4)=p rw) > QAG>"=p>@Garn P>NaAGg>n=~pvgor efelafatelaleys b> 9vV~>h=p>qQvn PI NVG>N=~rgor *Mathematical Logic 25 2.6 Tautology and Contradiction Acompound proposition p = p(p,, py, p,). Where py, Pry »- Pyy Are variables, is called a tautology, if it is true for every true assignment for py, py, pis called a contradiction if iti is false for every true assignment for p,, Py. -~ Py For example, p v 7p is a tautology, whereas. p A "pis a contradiction, as seen from the table 2.6 given below: Table 2.6 _ P 2 py? Paw F T F 2 * F i. The negation of a tautology is a contradiction and the negation of a contradiction is a tautology. 2. IfPD,, Py ~ P,) is a tautology, then p(q,, 93 ...q,) is also a tautology, where q,, 43 .. J, are any set of propositions. This is known as the principle of substitution. For example, since p v 7p is a tautology, ((p vg) Ar) v (pv q) Ar) is also a tautology. 3. Ifa proposition is neither a tautology nor a contradiction, it is called a contingency. 2.7 Equivalence of Propositions ‘Two compound propositions A(p,, p>, ..?,) and B(p,, py, P,) are said to be logically equivalent or simply equivalent, if they have identical truth tables, if the truth values are assigned to p,, p>, . Py The equivalence of two propositions 4 and B is denoted as A ¢> B or A= B. <> or = is not a connective. For example, let us consider the truth tables of (pv q) and 1 p 0 y. The final columns in the truth tables for (p v g) and -p aq are identical Hence 1p v g) =p A-W. ‘Table 2.7 z 4 BY a ava) 1 D. | *. RAM Zi T 7 F EU Soe F tT /] F T F Bee ave F lf {ree 7 F fol el ee F Aes || aoe F T to ft T Note: We have already noted that the biconditional proposition 4 «> B is true whenever both 4 and + Bhave the same truth value, viz., A «> B is a tautology, when 4 and B are equivalent. Conversely, A = B, when 4 > Bisa tautology, for example (p> 9) "(PY @)» since (p > q) + (7p v 4) is a tautology, as seen from the truth Table 2.8 given below:; wo Table 2.8 P 4 pa » pya_ | P>*9oOPva) T T T F ¥ t T F F F F T F T T T T Tr F F v T T T 2.8 Algebra of Propositions ‘A proposition in a compound proposition can be replaced by one that is equivalent to it withou changing the truth value of a compound proposition. By this way. we can construct new equivalences, For example, we have proved that p > q = "p v 4. Using this equivalence, we get another equivalence p> (g>1) =p (4 v7). Some of the basic equivalence and their duals which will be of use later are given in Tables 2.9, 2.10 and 2.11. They can be easily established by using truth tables. @ Law of Algebra of Propositions Table 2.9 ‘Name of the law Primal form Dual form 1 1. | Idempotent law PYP=P PAp=P 2, | Identity law |pat=p 3, | Dominant law pvF=F 4. | Complement law pyp=t paper 5. | Commutative law pvq=qyp [pag=qap 6. | Associative law (pygvr=pyqvn (paqgar=paqan 7. | Distributive law PY QrAn=Ppygrawpvyn |pagvn=~rgv@rn 8. | Absorption law PY (pAg=P PAY =P 9, | De Morgan's law APVQD=PAv Wwagaypyg @ Equivalence Involving Conditions Table 2.10 i jpngepve. ‘| p>g=4>P pod page) Wy>g=Pra) e2DrAg>n=P> Gr prInaq@>N=ovarr ergy e>N=P> gv" Ponvg>n=ersg>r vele|alalefa}elrMathematical Logic 2.7 © Equivalence Involving Biconditional Table 2.11 1 P4q=(P>qgAqG>p) 2 |poq=pow 3. | peg=pagv(pay) 4 | weg=poy Example 1. Construct a truth table for each of the following compound propositions. (@ @Pvg>Prq) @) @79>G>~) © a@>Vpeeeg @ CONEO@ADYYA®D) © Peweoved Solution. (a) ‘Truth Table (p v q) > (p Aq) P 4 pya pag @vd> ra T T T T T T F T F F ¥ T iT F F F F F F T () Truth Table For (p > q) > (q> p) P q P>4 g>P @>9>@>P) T T T T T T F F T T F T T F F F F T T T © Truth Table for (q > “p) © (P © 4) Fp q » q>Pp | Pea | @>DeePo” T T F F T T F F T F F a T T T F F F F a ToT Boe Algebra @ Truth Table for (p< q) © (Pp 4.4) v Gp 474) | pa [ Plajplalrol | paqeng] v q|a4 TY) T]eE; Fe] Tt] F T T T| Fl] F{[ Tt] FF F F rT F/ T/T]FI] FF F F T FL Fe |t]/Tt{] Tt] F T T ft © Truth Table for (1p v 7g) < (Pp + 4) P q Pi @i@e! ©e9 | @eWeerD T/T ]FIF T T T tT) FF] T F F T F]/ tT |T|eF F T Fl) Fit] Zz = T Example 2. Determine which of the following compound propositions are tautologies and which of them are contradictions, using truth tables: @ (qa~rg)>y ©) (79AG>n) 90>” © @rnaraprg @ @vNAPFINAG>N)>r Solution. (a) Truth Table for Gq 4 (p> q)) > 7p P 4 | P| a | eo | qr@~>ao Cana) >| T[ TIFF T F T t[Frf[Frlt F F T F[tf[tfie © F T Fle f[3r[t r T T Since the truth value of given compound proposition is T for all combinations of p and q itis tautologyMathematical Logic 29 (6) = Truth Table For ((p > q) 4 (q> 9) > (p> 8) piaj ft {poa|por| aor] @s@rasn | @>aAG>0) > 0 >) Dit rr T T T T T[T|F € F F F tTlFlr F T T F T TL FI] F F F T F T F[t|T ir T T T T F[T[F T T F F T Fl[F[t T T T T T F[FI[F r T T T T Since the truth value of the given statement is T for all combinations of truth values of P.q and r, it is tautology © Table Truth Tables for (q — r) Ar A (p>q) P q r p>a [aor] won Wonar ra(>q = T T 7 ze Ff F F e ed ey F x r | T F | F i F T F a a FE [ F ti F F F T F F I F a T T T F F F F T F T F rT F FE FF T T iE F F F F IF F T T F F F The last column contain only F as the truth values of the given statement, Hence it is a contradiction. @ Truth Table For ((p vq) A(P>NAq> Nn) or p [a [Tr [pvqea [poreb] ab | qoree | anbac[@nba dor] Tit? T T i T T T Tl? )F T F F F F T TLF TY T T a iz T im Tl Fle - FE E T F T El Tt |? T o m T T © Fl tyr T im i F F 2 Fo) Pal oD F im EX T E us FF LF F ae T x T ‘Since all the entries in the last column are T's, the given statement is a tautology.Example 3. Without using truth tables, prov Solution. e the following GD) PYDACAPADEPAT Wi) pPIGrPeyre7” (ili) Po gavgar Ov Dzergv Prd @ CPVODAPAPAD)= (PYDAPAPIAT @) pe @>p=Pya>p) yprerg =Pve>9 By associative lay =(pYDrAPrD By idempotent lay =PADAPYD (PARAM VIPADAT =(PAP)ADYOAGAD By commutative law By commutative lay By associate law =(FYg)V@rg By complement idempotent law =Fv(pag) By dominant law =paq Hence Proved By dominant law [Refer to table 2.10) =pv (pv Pp) [Refer to table 2.10} =uvvy) By commutative and associative laws =pyt By complement law =T a) By dominant law By (i) of table 2.10 By (i) of table 2.10 =pv(pvq) =@vpvg By associative law =Tvq By complement law =r Q) By dominant law From (1) and (2), the result follows (ii) WO” =(~>9rG>P) From table 2.11 aUpygaaavg) From table 2.10 =Upvgawy (pv agarl By distributive la = UCP A) VGA) v (CHAP)) V GAP) By distributive Jaw =UpawvAv (Fy aay] By complement la” =Upr@y Grrrl By identity a¥ i =bevavanr)l By De Morgan's a” hsMathematical Logic 211 Zz foo = (vg) Agar) By De Morgan's law =v gacav yp) By De Morgan's law = (vq) Aq) V(pv gap) By distributive law =(PA@VGay™)V(pAp)y(ga-p)) By distributive law = (PA) VF) Vv (FV qa) By complement law @WAagv Gay) By identity law =(PAq)v (pag) wily By commutative law From (1) and (2), the result follows Example 4. Without constructing the truth tables, prove the following @ PIG>)=¢> vn @) PI@>N=p>(qQvn=~rqg)>r Gi) (BY) A7GR A OG VY) v Cp 7g) v Op AW) is a tautology. Solution. (i) p3QG>r) =pvigr) From table 2.10 =pvcqvn) From table 2.10 =(pv-q)vr By associative law =Cavp)vr By commutative law =yvipvn By associative law =q>vn From table 2.10 (1) Hence Proved. Gi) p2qQ>n =p>cavn From table 2.10 Nowp > (gvr)=-pyv(yvn) From table 2.10 (pvigyr By associative law aApagyr By De Morgan's law @agor Hence Proved Q) Gil) (PY a AR ACG YW) v CPAG) v Op Aw) = (By g\arpargar)) VPYDY Vr) By De Morgan's law =(PYga(Pv@Gan)v vagy wyr By De Morgan's law =(Pvg)AlIPYDAGYNDY ORY a) vevr) By distributive law = [Pv a) PVN] VUWY a) AVP] By idempotent and De Morgan's law The final statement is in the form of p v-p. LHS. =T Hence the given statement is tautology.ny Algebra a mr SO Exercise 1. Classify the following as propositions and not propositions. (a) Four is even. (b) Se {1,6,7} (c) What a hit! (d) Answer this question. (© 5+6=12. (f) Buy two cinema tickets for Friday. (g) May god bless you. 2, Whaat is negation of each of the following propositions? (a) Today is Tuesday (6) Acow is an animal (©) No one wants to buy my house (@) 5+1=6 (&) Some people have no scooter. () Every even integer greater than 4 is the sum of two primes, 3. Write the negation of the following (a) If she studies, she will pass in exam. (6) If it rains, then they will not go for picnic. (©) If the determinant of a system of linear equations is zet or it has an infinite number of solutions, 4. Consider the following ro then either the system has no solution P= Anilis rich q: Kanchan is poor Write each of the following statements in symbolic forms, (a) Anil and Kanchan are both rich. (8) Anil is poor and Kanchan is rich (©) Anil is not rich and Kanchan is poor (d) Neither Anil nor Kanchan is poor (e) It is not true that Anil and Kanchan are both rich () Either Anil is poor or Kanchan is poor (g) Either Anil or Kanchan is rich. SeMathematical Logic 2.13 5. Consider the following p :Itis cold day q: The temperature is 5°C. Write the simple sentences for meaning of the following @~p O)pva (Oparq @~@rg) (e)~(@vq) ~py~q (g)~ (pv ~q) 6. Restate each proposition in If Then form. (a) Manju will pass in history exam, if she studies hard (5) The program is readable only if itis well structured (©) A sufficient condition for Sita’s team to win the championship is that it wins the rest of its games. (@) Payment will be made on the fifth unless a new hearing is granted. 7, Find the truth table of the following propositions. (@) ~paq (®) py~q © ~pa~q @ @y~gaP (©) ~@vayv~pr~q) O paq@vn @) © PAHarAnvG@anvGarn A) PAgdvePAgdy PA~gy~Pra~g } 8. Given p and are true and r and s are false, Find the truth value of the following expression. @ pvavy @) AMNY~(Pvgatrvs) © (Agy~nNv(~pagy~nas 9. Consider the following p:xiseven q:xis divisible by 2 Write in simple sentences the meaning of the following: (@) ~p (b) ~pa~q © pyvq @ pq () ~p>~q 10. Construct the truth table for the following: @) ~pvq>~q @ pa~qrr © ¢q7~P)70>913. Algebra (a) (~p3anr(e7g7e>”) (© ~@rg v~ GOP) — e>2av-eerd (@) [eagdvener Which of the following propositions are tautologies? (@) pv~P () ~@vavicPadyP (©) @rg>P @ ~p7 > © Pawrgra 0 er.N70>9 @) p>P (i) p>G>p) @ @>P)>P — CF @7)N7@79D7 07) . Show that the following pairs of propositions are logically equivalent. (@ ~(@rqand~pv~q (0) pA@avaandp (© py a~qandp (@) paqandgap (e) pyPagqandq Establish the equivalences @ ~Po)=P—r~gveqna (6) pa Gvn=P79ve>9 © @v¥)>r=e>NAG>” @) p>s~@Pvgv(Prg) |. Using laws of algebra of propositions, show that (@) @AS)vp=p () PAgvPr~g=p ©) ~@vVO~PAge~Prgq @ PrOATOD=Z0OYN>g © CP>ePrePrag))=pva A ~(P~AgvPr~DvergepSats ‘Mathematical Logic 2.15 15. State the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the followings. (a) If today is easter, then tomorrow is Monday. (6) Iftriangle ABC is a right triangle then | 4B |? + | BC | (©) If Pisa square, then P is rectangle. =l4cP (@ Ifnis prime, then n is odd or 5 is 2, (e) Ifa triangle is not isosceles, then it is not equilateral 16, Show that each of the following statements is a contradiction. @ (~PaA~Q)a(PvQ) (b) ~(PAQ) > P) Answers. 1. Nota proposition; (¢), (a), (/), (g) Proposition ; (a), (b), (e) 2. (a) Today is not Tuesday (6) Acow is not an animal. (©) Some one wants to buy my house (d) S+146 (©) Every person has a scooter. (f Some even integer greater than 4 is not be the sum of two primes 3. (a) She studies and she will not pass in exam, (6) Itrains and they will go for picnic. (c) The determinant of a system of linear equation is zero and the system has a solution and does not have infinite number of solutions. 4. (@) p~aq (b) (~p)a(~q) () (~p)aq (d) (~p)aq () ~bPacal pve (@) pvc 5. (a) Itis not a cold day. (b)_ Itisa cold day or temperature is 5°C. (©) Itis a cold day and temperature is 5° C. (d) Itis false that it is cold day or temperature is 5° C. (©) Itis not true that it is cold day and temperature is 5° C. (A) Itis neither a cold day nor temperature is 5° C. (g) Itis false that it is not a cold day or temperature is not 5° C. 6. (a) If Manju studies hard, then she will pass in history Exam. (b) If the program is readable, then it is well structured. (© If sita’s team wins the rest of its games, then it will win the championship. (@ anew hearing is not granted, then payment will be made on fifth.Algebra 2.16 u. 15. (a) T (b) T () T (a) xis not even (b) xis neither even nor divisible by 2 (c) xis even or divisible by 2. (@ Ifxis even, then its divisible by 2. (€) If-xis not even, then it isnot divisible by 2 (a) Tautology (5) Tautology (c) Not Tautology (d)_ Tautology (©) Tautology —() Tautology (g) Tautology (A) Tautology () Tautology —(/) Tautology (a) (i Iftomorrow is Monday, then today is easter. (ii) If today is not easter, then tomorrow is not Monday. (iii) Tf tomorrow is not Monday then today is not easter. (6) @ If |ABP +|BCP=|ACP, then the triangle ABC is a right triangle. (ii) Ifthe triangle ABC is not a right triangle then \aBP+|BCcP4|AcP (iii) 1f |ABP +| BCP 4| ACP, then the triangle ABC is not a right angle. (c) ( Ifpisarectangle, then p is a square. (i#) Ifp is not a square then p is not a rectangle. Gif) Ifp is not rectangle, then p is not a square. (@) (i Ifnis odd or nis 2. Then n is prime. (i) If nis not prime then n is not odd and mis not 2. Giii) If nis not odd and n is not 2, then n is not prime. ©) (@ Matriangle is not equilateral, then it is not isosceles. (ii) Ifa triangle is isosceles, then it is equilateral. (iii) Ifa triangle is equilateral, then itis isosceles. a tl ta a