QUANTUM Series Pe ey Meee ea ead Data Communication Networks Re “gessiot verage of entire syllabus: Answer form. Gia as {2 Marks)QUANTUM SERIES TE For B.Tech Students of Fourth Year of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University, Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow (Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University) Data Communication Networks By Ankit Tyagi Ishita Singhal Manish Nagar , \ @ugntum QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD. Ghaziabad m New DelhiPUBLISHED BY: — ApramSingh Quantum Publications® (A Unit of Quantum Page Pvt. Ltd.) Plot No. 59/2/7, Site - 4, Industrial Area, Sahibabad, Ghaziabad-201 010 , Phone : 0120- 4160479 Email: [email protected] Website: www.quantumpage.co.in Delhi Office : 1/6590, East Rohtas Nagar, Shahdara, Delhi-110032 © Aw Ricuts Reservep [No part of this pubkcation may be reproduced or transmil in any form or by any means, without permission Information contained in this work is derived from sources | believed to be reliable. Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy, however neither the publisher nor the authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information Published herein, and neither the publisher nor the authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. Data Communication Networks (EC : Sem-7) 1* Edition : 2011-12 10 Edition : 2020-21 2™ Edition : 2012-13 3" Edition : 2013-14 4% Edition : 2014-15 5% Edition : 2015-16 6* Riition : 2076-27 _ ‘7 Edition : 2017-18 8" Edition : 2018-19 9" Editian : 2029-20 (Thoroughly Revised Edition) === CONTENS OO REC-701 : Data Communication Networks UNIT-1 : INTRODUCTION (1-1 Zto 1-242) Introduction to Networks and Data Communications, Goals and Applications of Networks, Network structure and architecture, The Internet, Protocols and Standards, Layered Tasks, The OSI reference ‘model, TCP / IP, Addressing, Line Coding Review. PHYSICAL & DATA LINK LAYER. (2-1 Zto 2-37 2) ‘Physical Layer, Transmission Media: Guided and unguided, Network ‘Topology Design, Data Link Layer: Error detection and Correction, Fozning How snd Err Control Protocol, Networking devices. UNIT: UNIT:3 : MULTIPLE ACCESS, WIRED & WIRELESS LAN (8-12 to 3-392) Multiple Access: Random Access Protocols, CDMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA CA, Controlled Access, Channelization Wired LANs IEEE Standards, Fast Ethemet, Gigabit Ethemet, Wireless LAN IEEE 802.11, Bluetooth TEE 802.16, UNIT-4: NETWORK LAYER & TRANSPORT LAYER (4-1 Zo 4-37 Z) Network Layer: Point-to-Point Networks routing, Congestion control Internetworking -TCP / IP IP packet, IPv4, IPv6, Transport Layer Protocol UDP and TCP, ATM, session Layer-Design issues, UNITS ; APPLICATION LAYER (6-1Zto 5-182) ‘Appligtion Layer: Fle Transfer, Electronic mail, Virtual Terminals, Gapprggjaphy, Network Security 1 gre! oF ee SHORT.QUESTIONS { ; SOWRD PAPERS (2019-20) (6Q-12 to $Q-182) (SP-1Z to SP-8Z)Introduction SS SS CONTENTS Introduction to Networks ... and Data Communication Goals and Applications.. of Networks Network Structure and Architecture ‘The Internet, Protocols. and Standards 1-12 (EC-Sem-7) 1-22 (EC-Sem-7) Introduction Introduction to Networks and Data Communication. aes | What is network ? What are the criteria to be meet by a network ? L Network: Anetwork is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. . ‘Anode can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending ‘and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. Network criteria : ‘Anetwork must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are performance, reliability, and security. Performance: Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. ‘Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. ‘Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. ‘The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Reliability: In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from @ failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe. Security: ‘Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access Protecting data from damage and development. ‘Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.Data Communication Networks 182 E0Sem.7 Or ike TA, |] Discuss the type of connections in computer networks, Answer. | Devices may use any of several diferent methods to connect to these eng other kinds of) networks. Three basic types of network connections an 1. Point-to-point connections : It allows one device to direct communicate with exactly one other device. For example, two phone, ‘may pair with each other to exchange contact information or picture 2 Broadcast/multicast connections : It allow a device to send one message out tothe network and have copies of that message delivereq tomultiple recipients 3. Multipoint connections : It allows one device to dire: deliver messages to multiple devices in parallel, Que13. | What is data communication ? Explain the basic components of communication network. Data communication is a process of transferring data electronically from one place to another. Data can be transferred by using different medium, ‘The basic components of data communications are as follows : tly connect and Source! Sender Host! Receiver Medium Fig. 1.3.1. Message : The message is the data or information to be communicated. It may consist of text, number, pictures, sound, video or any combination of these. ‘Sender : Sender is a device that sends message. Itis also called source or transmitter, Normally, computer is used as sender in information communication system: Receiver : Receiver is a device that receives message. It is also called sink. The receiver can be computer, printer or another computer related device. The receiver must be capable of accepting the message. ‘Medium : Medium is the physical path that connects sender and receiver. It is used to transmit data. The medium can be a copper wire, a fiber optic cable, microwaves ete. It is also called communication channel. Encoder and decoder : The encoder is a device that converts digital signals in a form that can pass through a transmission medium. The decoder is a device that converts the encoded signals into digital form. 14Z(EC-Sem-7) Introduction, ‘The receiver can understand the digital form of message. Sender and receiver cannot communicate successfully without encoder and decoder. ‘QueiA) | Write a short note on data representation. Data isa collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information. ‘There may be different forms in which data may be represented. Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows : i, Text: 1. Text includes combination of alphabets in lower case as well as upper case. Itis stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode Numbers: Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9. Itisstored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode Images : In computers images are digitally stored. A pixel is the smallest element of an image. ‘To putt in simple terms, a picture or image is amatrix of pixel elements. ‘The pixels are represented in the form of bits. ‘Depending upon the type of image (black and white or colour) each pixel would require different number of bits to represent the value of a pixel. The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution) and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel. iv. Audio: 1. Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and broadcasted. Audio datais continuous, not discrete. ¥. Video : Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie. Que 1.5. | How do two devices communicate with each other ? In how many ways data flow between two devices can occur? PR ORE ES PH EN -s communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. ‘The data can flow bétween the two devices in the following ways :Insimplex, communications unidirectional. Only one ofthe devices sends the data and the other one only rece the data. ve Example : In Fig. 15.1,a CPU send data while a monitor only recoj data. Toceiveal Half duplex: Direction of data at time TI, Station 1} Station 2| —_—_— Direction of data at time T2 Pig 1.5.3 Half duplex mode of communication, Inhalf duplex, both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not, at the same time, ‘When one device is sending other can only receive and vice versa (as shown in Fig. 1.5.2). Example :A walkie-talkie. Full duplex: Direction of data all times Station 1} Station 2| ‘of communication. a duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same Example : Mobile phones. Pere Goals of network are : Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources. High reliability by having multiple sources of supply. Greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices. Increase productivity by making it easier to access data by the several ‘To increase the systems performance, as the work load increases, by just adding more processors. Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. Applications of network are: Marketing and sales : ‘Marketing professional use to collect, exchange and analyze data relating to customer needs and product development cycles. or telephone connected to an order processing network, and online ceservation services for railways, hotels, *i-"'nes, restaurants, theatre ete. Financial services :It include credit history searches, foreign exchange ‘and investment services and Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT), which allow a user to transfer money without going to bank. Electronic messaging : ‘Emails transfer the messages between two and more users in a network. With this application user can transfer the information in the form of text, picture and voice. Directory services :It allows list of files to be stored in central location to speed up the world wide search operation. Information services : It includes bulletin boards and data bank. ‘A‘www site offering the technical specification for a new product in an information services.Data Communication Networks L1ZBO-Sem.p ———— ‘GasU|] What are the services provided by network 4 individual person ? * "The networks offer the following services to an individual person Access to remote information : 8 ‘Access to remote information involves interaction between a and a remote database. ‘Access to remote information comes in many forms like: 1. Home shopping, paying telephone, electricity bills, e-banking on ; share market ete. . online 2 Newspaperis on-line, digital library. east : ins Le : i Web which contains information about the arts, busin, Person to person communication : Person to person communication includes : Electronic-mail (e-mail) Real time e-mail i.e. video conferencing Worldwide newgroups. Interactive entertainment : Interactive entertainment includes : Person, ES ee 1. Multiperson real-time simulation games. 2. Video on demand. 3. Participation in live TV programmes likes quiz, contest, discussions ete. PART-3. q Network Structure and Architecture. a Questions-Answers | Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions ae ne Ss ‘QeeHR] Bxplain structure of communicat oll junication network with its 1. The application process AP); is tieends cat, of software such as a computer eee Teusually consists 1-8Z(EC-Sem-7) Introduction 18ZEC Sem) 2, Site A could execute an application process (AP,,) in the form of a software program to access an application process at site B (AP,,). Data 3. Site B program (AP,,) accessing a file at site A through an application program (APjs) 4, The application resides in the data terminal equipment, or DTE. DTE is aa generic term used to describe the end-user machine, which is usually a computer or terminal. 5. The function of a communications network is to interconnect DTEs so ‘they can share resources, exchange data, provide backup for each other, and allow employees and individuals to perform their work from any location. 6 Fig, 18.1, shows that a network provides logical and physical ‘communications for the computers and terminals to be connected. The applications and files use the physical channel to effect logical communications. _ 7. The data circuit-terminating equipment or DCE (data communications equipment) is used to connect the DTEs into the communication line or channel. 8, The primary function of the DCE remains to provide an interface of the DTC into the communications network. 9. Theinterfaces are specified and established through protocols. Protocols are agreements on how communications components and DTEs are to communicate with each other. Queis.] Describe network architecture and its types with their advantages and disadvantages. ‘Aawwer | Computer Network Architecture : Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware,Data Communication Networks of data. protocols, and media of the transmission ply We can, how computers are organized and how tasks are allcatey at computer. the ‘The two types of network architectures are used : Peer-To-Peer network: Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers linked together with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data. Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, us 10computers. “all wt Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server. Special permissions ere assigned to each computer for sharing the sources but this an led toa problem ithe computer with thereaars isdown. Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network: Itisless costly as it does not contain any dedicated server. fone computer stops working but, other computers will no stop woking Itis easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself, Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network : In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not ‘contain the centralized system. Therefore, it cannot back up the data as the data ‘is different in different locations. thas a security issue as the device is managed itself. Client/Server Network: Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, ete. from a central computer known as Server. ‘The central controller is known as a server while all other computersin the network are called clients, ‘server performs all the major operations such as security and network management, A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, } printer, etc. All the clients communicate with each other thro For; lient yugh a server. example, ifclient 1 wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the Tesponse to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2. Advantages of Client/Server network : A Client/Server network contains th i prefore we can beck upthe dates 1e centralized system. Ther A Client/Server networkhasadedi performance of the whole ee ‘server that improves he overall 1-102 (BC-Sem-7) Introduction 1102 EC Senha 3. 4. Security is better in Client/Server network asa single server administers the shared resources. It also increases the speed of the sharing resources. Disadvantages of Client/Server network: ; Client/Server network is expensive as it requires the server with large ame has a Network Operating System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high. It requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources Weed, Describe internet. Explants hierarchical organization. Interne ‘An internet is two or more networks that can communicate with each other. it is a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. tis made up of many wide-and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and switching stations. ‘Today most end users who want internet connection use the services of Internet service providers (ISPs). Hierarchical organization of internet : There are international service providers, national service providers, regional service providers, and local service providers.b. Interconnection of national ISPs Fig. 110. service providers : At the top of the hierarchy are the international service providers that connect national together. National internet service providers : ‘The national internet service providers are backbone networks created and maintained by specialized companies, ‘To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone network are connected by complex switching stations (normally run by a third arty) called network access point (NAPs). ral Sera! networks are also connected to one another by privat ing stations called peering points, These normally operate ‘at a high data rate (up to 600 Mbps). nee Regional internet service providers : Regional internet service Providers or regional ISPs are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs, in i with: tomaller dts {SPS They are atthe third level ofthe hierarchy Local internet service providers : i ce to the tad users Tee peervice Providers It provide direct serv to national ISPe SPS an be connected to regional ISPS ‘qaetdh| ‘What do you mean by protocol ? Discuss the elements of a protocol. aa o 1. Aprotocolis defined asa setof rules that governs data communications. Without protocol communication cannot occur. 3. A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be ‘communicated and when itis to be communicated. i. When the sender sends amessage it may consist of text, number, images, ete. i ‘These are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted and often certain additional information called control information is also added to help the receiver to interpret the data. iii, For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree upon certain rules called protocol. Elements of a protocol : There are three key elements of a protocol : Syntax: It means the structure or format of the data. tis the arrangement of data in a particular order. Semantics: Ittells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each section, talso tells what action/decision is tobe taken based on the interpretation. Timing: Ittells the sender about the readiness ofthe receiver to receive the data. Ittells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid overwhelming the receiver. Ppp ee So gr Que 1Ad)] Write a short note on standards in networking.” Taree | a 1. Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers venders to ensure national and international interconnectivity, x 2 Standards are necessary in networking to ensure in nana interoperability between various networking hardware add saftware components, 5 Without standards we would have proprietary product ering islands of users which cannot interconnect, peeda nt Communication Networks 1-182, ‘i ee ECG 1-142 (EC-Sem) Introduction Data communications standards are classified int er L Physoallayer: " : i, De facto standard : ‘The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit + These are the standard that have been traditionally used ang stream over physical medium. factor by convention. 7 hy 2. Itdeals with the mechanical: ‘and electrical specifications of the interface 2, These standards are not approved by any organized body but are, and transmission medium. it Wyre word: 3, It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and or jure: tylawer re jon. interface have to perform for transmission to occur: 2. ‘These standards are legislated and approved by a body that is off 4, Thus the physical layer is responsible forthe movements of individual recognized. fFcially bits from one node to the next. % ii, Data link layer : 1. Thedata link ayer transforms the physical layer, araw transmisstoe facility, to areliable Jink and is responsible for moving frames from one node to other node. 2. Ttmakes the physical layer appear error free to the upper layer (network layer). iii, Network layer: 1. The network layeris responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple networks (links). 2 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need gs] What do you mean by layered archit . fore network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to itecture ? Explain the Hifferent networks (links) with connecting devices between the role of each layer in OSI model. [Aico aoa, Mar hhetworks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to 7 = accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Torwer | iv, Transport layer : 1. Thele it 1, The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of the entire Thelayer architec mens the comple communication subyten from one process to another. ny ofthe entire meses 2 suet defined a ‘protocol layers each of which performs. 2 It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a E nO model ina layered framework forthe design ofthe network separate message, whether or not it does. 2 » systems poe ofseven separate but related layers, each of which 8, The transport ayer on the other hand ensures that the whole message process of moving information acron ee at arrives intact and in order overseeing both error control and flow 7 ‘Application control at the source-to-destination level. v. Session layer: + L_Presentation i i eal 1 Ledeitiped provided by the first three layer (physical, data link, and 5 — nel are not sufficient for som ses. si is oe Di neteork daloy contzllor Sn a ee 4(C Trang ; s sport 2 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction between f nmnceee communication systems. vi. Presentation layer : The presentation lay e ayer is concerned with the 2 ‘Data link syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. 1 Physical ‘Fig. 1.13.1, Seven layers of thevii. Application layer: 1. The application layer access the network. _ 2. Teprovides user interfaces and support for services uch as elec Mp remote file acess and transfer ehared database manages, si other types of distributed information services. ables the user whether human or softwar y EGG ist the layers in the TCPAIP model, oR Discuss the TCP/IP protocol suite on the basis of protocol principle. layering ‘The TOPAP protocol suite consists of five layers : physical, data link, network, transport, and application 2. The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the fist four layers of the OSI model. Application] elisa ‘Preveniatoo| SMTP FTP HTTP DNS SNMP TELNET Sesion ‘Tampon | SCTP = oP Network | [TOMP] [TGMP i P RARP] [ARP Data link Protocols defined by Physical underlying networks —— nee however, are represented in topmost layers in the OSI model, b e i * Tae by a single layer ‘called the application layer as shown in sternet working! 5 ‘protocol offering a best effort delivery service. 2 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) : It is used to associate an IP address with the physical address. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) :It allows a host to avoverits internet address when its physical addressis known. 4 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) : It is a mechanism aod by hosts and gateways to send notification of datagram problems back to the sender. & Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) : It is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients. i. ‘Transport layer : Transport layer is represented in TCP/IP by following three protocols: 1. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): It is a process-to-process protocol that adds only port addresses, checksum error control, and length information to the data from the upper layer. 2 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) : It provides full transport layer services to applications. 3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) : It provides support for newer applications such as voice over the internet. Application layer: The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation, and application layer in the OSI model. TERA wats the ditterence between TCPAP and OSI model? iv.Introduction "TOP/IP model Alcan Processes | [specific addresses layer 1 [TOPIP model contains five [OSI model has seven layer __[ layers. - Transport | [sore] [TOP UDP | |—>| Port addresses @ |i does not distinguish |It distinguishes between gag) yer Ibetween service, interface | interface and protocol, ; and protocol. Network IP and other protocols |—>| Logical addresses 3 [Protocol comes first and [Firstly description of model an description of model ater. | then protocol came next, pinta : 4 | TOPMPhas only one mode in |It supports connectionless fayer | | Underlying > [Physical addresses network layer but supports |connection-oriented ma oq. shri a bothmodesintransportlayer. | communication in network lay]! networks and only connection-orienteg| “Y" communication in transport layer, Fig. 116.2; 5. [Protocols in TCP/IP are not | Protocols in OSImodel are hidden] i. Physical addresses : hidden and thus cannot be |andean bereplacedeasily, 1 ‘The physical address, also known asthe link address, isthe address of a replaced easily. node as defined by its LAN or WAN. 6. _|Itistheimplemented model. | tis a reference model. 2. Ibis included in the frame used by the data link layer. It is the lowest- level address. 8, Thephysical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size and format of these addresses vary depending on the network. i, Logical addresses : 1. Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical network. A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network. A logical address in the internet is currently a 32-bit address that can ‘uniquely define a host connected to the internet. Port addresses : Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The end objective of internet communication is a process communicating with another process, For example, computer A communicates with computer C by using ‘TELNET. At the same time, computer A communicates with computer By using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method to label the different processes. In other words, they need addresses. In the TCP/IP architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port address in TCP/IP is 16-bits in length. GEETIE] wnat are the addresses in TCP/IP protocols ? L ss, Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing in the TTCPAP protocols: physical (link) addresses, logical (IP) addresses, por | addresses, and specific addresses. . Addresses, Physical addresses Logical Port Specific addresses [ addresses addresses Each address is related to a ‘ tecture, 5 shown in Fig. 116.2 toa specific layer in the TCP/IP archit ,3 FERRIED vtine connectionless and connection oriented, Explain header format of TCP protocol. [2 cre applications have user-friendly addresses that are dog: that specific address. ‘Examples include the e-mail address and the Universal Rtourgy (URL). ‘The firet defines the recipient of an email; the second is document on the World Wide Web. sed to fing Connectionless service : In a connectionless service, the packets are sent from one party another with no need for connection establishment or connection, ‘The packets are not numbered; they may be delayed or lost or m arrive out of sequence. There is no acknowledgment either. : Connection-oriented service : ‘Inaconnection-oriented service, a connection is first established the sender and the receiver. Data are transferred. At the end, the connection is released. ‘TCP/IP header format : ‘TCP segments are sent as internet datagram. The Internet Pi header carries several information fields, ‘including the source an destination host addresses. A'TOPheader follows the internet header, supplying information tothe TCP protocol. This division allows for the existence of host protocols other than TCP. ‘Transmission control protocol (TCP) header 20-60 bytes. ‘Soares port mamber on porta am Destination ort number 2byte 10. nL 1-20Z(EC-Sem-7) ‘ Introduction Source port : The port number of the host sending the data. Destination port : The port number of the application requested on the destination host. Sequence number : The sequence number of the first data octet in this segment (except when SYN is present). If SYN is present the sequence number is the initial sequence number (ISN) and the first data octet is ISN+1. It puts the data back in the correct order or retransmits missing or damages data, a process called sequencing. Acknowledgement number : Define which TCP octet expected next. If the ACK control bit is set this field contains the value of the next sequence number the sender of the segment is expecting to receive. ‘Once a connection is established this is always sent. Data offset : It stands for header length, which defines the number of 32 bit words in the header. This indicates where the data begins. Reserved field : Reserved for future use, it always set to 0. Flags : Control functions used to set up and terminate a session. Flags from left to right URG: Urgent pointer field significant ACK: Acknowledgment field significant PSH: Push function RST: Reset the connection ‘SYN : Synchronize sequence numbers FIN: No more data from sender Window size : The window size of the sender is willing to accept, in octet. The number of data octets beginning with the one indicated in the acknowledgment field which the sender of this segment is willing to accept. (Checksum : It is an error detection code. The checksum field is the 16 bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16 bit words in the header and text. If a segment contains an odd number of header and text octets to be checksummed, the last octet is padded on the right with zeros to form a 16 bit word for checksum purposes. The pad is not transmitted as part of the segment, While computing the checksum, the checksum field itselfis replaced with zeros. Urgent pointer : Indicates the ends of urgent data. This field communicates the current value of the urgent pointer as a positive offset from the sequence number in this segment. The urgent pointer points to the sequence number of the octet following the urgent data. ‘This field is only be interpreted in segments with the URG control bit Optional : Options may occupy space at the end of the TCP header and are a multiple of 8 bits in length. All options are included in the checksum. ‘An option may begin on any octet boundary.1-21, Data Communication Networks q Fea, Geiie| What are the similarities between OST ang TePnp models ? we ollowingare some ofthe similarities between OSI and TCPIP maja, 1, Inboth the models the functions of layers is approximately same, Me 2. Both models use the concept of layered architecture Introduction ing technique : Line coding is the process of converting vine nts tedigtal signal This technique conversa sequence obits adigital signal. ; ‘The line coding scheme is divided into following broad categories as given below : transport layers andthe layers below it provide trans . Unipolar scheme : ine ‘ Independeat fete. rer eit Ina unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of time axis, the models, the layers above transport layer are applica either above or below. ; ‘ tesa. .m aplication ‘A.unipolar scheme was designed as non-return to zero (NRZ) scheme in which positive voltage defines bit 1 and zero voltage defines bit 0. 1.18. forthe similarities of the two ref alien sesrenee model, Itis called NRZbecause the signal does not return to zero at the middle ‘Application ‘Application of the bit. s Amplitude — eae roto? have these layers vy? i Session from OST model 7 1 ‘Transport ‘Transport 11! time 1 ‘Fig: 1.19.1. Unipolar NRZ scheme. Network | | Internet Polar . Datalink | In polar schemes the voltages are on the both sides of the time axis. Physical er fnat rock Inpolar NRZencoding there are two versions: NRZ-L and NRZ-I. In the _ first version ie. NRZ-L (NRZ-level), the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In the second version, NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert), the change or lack of change in the level of voltage determines the value of the bit i.., if there is no change the bit is 0, if there is change the bit is 1. Fig. 1.181, Relationship between OSI and TCP/IP ‘modeli,) PART-7 Line Coding Review. olitototatititol He T18:| What is tine coding techni In polar return to zero (RZ) scheme three values are used i.., positive, ‘ique ? Explain and compare ative and zero. In RZ, the signal changes not between bits but during fe ' be Performance of different line coding techniques. the bit. AKTU 2017-18; aDat ta Communication Networks fe Bipolar scheme : - Inbipolar encoding there are three v zero, 2 The vol tage level fc for the ste evel for one data clement i element alternat is at zero, whil tes between pear hile the voltage level Positive and negati \egative, oltage level positive, negative Following questions are very Meee Bo eae talons ERSRIONAT! Te ae UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION. @.1. What do you mean by layered architecture ? Explain the role of each layer in OSI model. wma Refer Q. 1.13. @.2. List the layers in the TCP/IP model. mx Refer Q. 1.14. Q.3. Define connectionless and connection oriented services. Explain header format of TCP protocol. wma Refer Q. 1.17. Introduction 1-242 (EC-Sem-7) an Explain and co lin code techniqu' EePinniques. Q4. Wha a pes zum Refer Q. 1.19. Q.5. What is data comm’ components wun Refer Q. 1.3. @.6. Describe the mm Refer Q. 1.6. @.7. Describe internet. E: wus: Refer Q. 1.10. on ? Explain the basic nicat goals and applications of network. .xplain its hierarchical organization. ooo toPhysical and Data Link Layer 2-22, to 272, Part-2 : Network Topology Design son ATE, to 2-192, Part-3 : Data Link Layer : Error... 2-122 to 2-297, Detection and Correction Part-4 = - 2-222 to 2-247, . 2-240, to 2-337, . 2-882 to 2-957, 21ZEC-Sem-7) Physical and Data Link Layer Physical Layer, Transm! isslon Media : Guided and Unguided. quate] Define physical layer with its functions. Physical layer : 1. The physical layer coordinates t stream over a physical medium. / : It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium. / Fig. 2.1.1 shows the position ofthe physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and the data link layer. From data link layer ‘To data link layer data data he functions required to transmit a bit Physical layer Physical | 701000010. 101000010 layer T ‘Transmission medium ‘Specific services/functions of the physical layer are 1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media : The physical layer defines the characteristics of the interface between the devices nd the transmission medium, I als defines the type of transmission medium, Representation of bits: The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0's and 1’s are changed to signals) ofbit which is to be transmitted. Data rate: The transmission rate, the number of bits sent: ond, is also defined by the physical layer. Saatison The paysical layer is concerned neces. Ine pnt cnigaratgn Rg of devi together through a dedicated Link. tn ™° dey’ are eatin anki aared between Several devices, “uli ‘Transmission media is a pathway that carries the information sender to receiver. frog 1. Weuse different types ofeables or waves to transmit data, 2 Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electroma signals. 3. Anelectrical signal isin the form of current. ‘4. Anelectromagnetic signal is series of electromagnetic e ‘various frequencies. neray Pulsesat |, 5, These signals can be transmitted through copper wires, opti ‘atmosphere, water and vacuum. optical fiber, 6. Different media have different properties like bandwi 4. and ease of installation and maintenance. ah, deri 7. ‘Transmission media is also called communication channel. ‘Types of transmission media are : Wireless/Unguided] Radic Mi : (ire or guided media or bund transmission media: transmission media are the cables that are tangible or baw Psi erstenceandare limited by the physical geography. Pular guided transmission media in use are twisted pair cal: ors ale and optical ber able of them has its own characteristic like transmission speed, °B41 |) 5 of noi i noise, physical appearance, cost ete 6 it Win ny Tagult F wnguided media or unbound transmission =A using any : able so? media ae the ways of transmitting =t# ‘These media are not bounded by physical geography. ‘This type of transmission is called wireless communication. ‘This transmission uses microwave, radiowave, infrared which are some of popular unguided transmission media. | GagHA] What are the different types of guided media? ‘The wires are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of wire used for the positive data signal and a wire used for the negative data signal. Any noise that appears on positive/ negative wire of the pair would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of phase (180 degree phases or definition of opposite polarity) when the noise appears on both wires, it cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving used. ‘Twisted pair cables are most effectively used in a system that uses a balanced line method of transmission. ‘Twisted Pair Bare wire Jacket Jacket Cables with th shield are called shielded twisted pair and commonly Cables without a shield are called unshielded twisted pair or UTP. ‘Twisting the wires together results in characteristics impedance fr theion Networks es ir cable is used ‘gashielded twisted pair cable's ‘on Ethernet, A rman gee sdf Borel aling where fury, a aroused. ii Coaxial cable: Jacket Shield LO ‘fig. 284. Co-atial cable Tnsulated — Cenge conductor 1, Co-axial cable consists of two conductors. 1 The inner conductor is contained inside the insulator with ty conductor weaves around it providing a shield. 4 Aninsoating protective coating called a jacket covers the outer ‘tthe outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside signals 5, The distance between the outer conductor (shield) and inner plus the type of material used for insulating the inner determine the cable properties or impedance. iii, Optical fiber cable: Jacket Cladding Core Side View ‘Fig. 2.8.5. Optical fiber cable. 1. Optical fiber consists of thin glass fiber that can carry o eauencieinthe vsbelight spectrum Toe typical optical ier consists ofa very narrow strand ofa 3. Atypical core diameter is 62.5, {s 62.5 microns. - ‘Typically laddinghas a diameter of 125 microns. Coating the' ‘ price coating consisting of plastic, it is called the jacket ‘Pedeie generating the message has electromag form ee a ot be converted into light (.., optical signal) ‘asnscn ta on of converting light to elec percecsenn “intel RBI compre erste ps via and oe thre cae 5 F]] als : si i ii Hi gle afte [IE leleledaielgig [2 ask Ea) algal? : ata (As eee) a 7. ala (3 Bg 8 3 ia se | (887 et UE lg (Hd ls Seasls|S [El |se |e] 8) é | 23 gjaias|2 3 a/a/E4 |3))/29]22 di i i £ as 3 & A alg] a1 ijt ate | [2 elaa | [4/2 4 Vie (eGHRleH lalslb ld abe [a/szlalj2i |alald |2 3 2] | | |e 2 g |§] Slals F be Tt lisanle lle li ast |2lze]i\i|o3 |4)3[2 [EEE é a\ ai} |v[slo else |gil ‘Advantages of fibre optic cable: 1 Large capacity due to bandwidth. 2. Noclectrical or electromagnetic interference, 5 3, Easy availability and low cost. f 4, Small size and light weight. i 5. Fasttransmission rate, ‘ Disadvantages of fibre optic cable : Sophisticated plantsare required for manufacturing optic The intial cost incurred is high. bres, 3, Joining the optical fibres is a difficult job. ' PART-2 Network Topology Design. Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Que26, | Explain network topological design with neces and bris : diapren brief the advantages and disadvantages of variow ‘Answer | Network — ovology is the arrangement of the various elements a network and oe netOrk. Network topology i a topological structs Some sama bedepicted physically oF logically. 4 rork topologies are as follows : i. Bus topology : : 1 Inabus toy 2 tag otology al stations are attached to the same cable the bus net point, 'work, messages are sent in both directions from 3. Inabust topol 4 Bach cone Signals are broadcasted to all stations computer checks Passes along the bus, a the address on the signal (data fam) 2-82 (BC-Sem-1) Physical and Data Link Layer 's address matches that of the computer, the computer 5. If the sig the signal. Ifthe address does not match, the computer takes processes Pp action and the signal travels on down the bus. oretend ‘Advantages of bus topology.are = 1. Bus topologies are relatively easy to install. 2. Itrequires less cable length. 3. _Itis simple and easy to implement and extend. Disadvantages of bus topology are : . 1. Maintenance costs may be higher in the long ‘run. 2, More expensive cabling. ii, Star topology : 1. Inastar network, all the nodes (PCs, printers and peripherals) ere connected to the central server. Ithas a central connection point, like a hub or switch. 3. _Astar topology is designed with each node connected directly toa central network as shown in Fig, 2.6.2. Computer Computer Computer Computer Computer Fig: 262; Advantages of star topology are : 1, Easy to install and wire, 2. Itcan aécommodate different wiring.a 07 EC-Sem-D Physical and Data Link Layer ri 1 lis oy, Ring network topology, a More expensive cabling ii, Pee oo gy, every device has a dedicated Pitot 1, Ine device. Hub ee orks ald complet because between any a File server 2 tne and any on-edundan nay mesh network. 7 Advantages of ring topology are 1. Fault tolerance builds into the design (can bypass damaged nodes). 2 Datapackets travel at agreater speed. omaines, Disadvantage of ring topology are : 1. Expensive topology. * steinatndohcompser othe Sse) | EEE] cue sien newark, What ae the dierent Advantages of mesh topology are types of access network ? 1. Redundant links between devices, ‘aewer] 2 Easy fault identification and isolation, an unusable link does ath Local access networks (LAN) : ‘ncapacitate the entire system, 1, The access network is defined as the physical link which connects an Disadvantages of mesh topology are : end system to its edge router. An edge router is the first router met 1. Each node must have an interface for every other device. ‘hile travelling from one end system to the other. ® Thereis oly alimited amount of UO ports in a computer, % The Mess network thus provides the infrastructure to connect the . ase ; , cata The access network technology is closely tied to the physical media ring network are connected in a closed cirledf technology such as optical fibers, co-axial cables, twisted pair line radia teats tht are transmitted travel around the ing until thy equines links te, aa py that they are addressed to, the signal being: Different types of access network are: 3 Residential access : ‘The residential access refers to connecting a home et m The reve eeting a home end system to an Inari . commas eres very device has exactly two neighbours ft Access network is a pair of modems along with a point dial upline, ‘There are two types of broadband residential access: Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)requency Division Multiplexing (FD Dsbvepecl typeof modem called cable modem, " access network # + on the university campus, the a companies hd aystem to the edge router. TANS ar gl 2 ean echoaoges, the Bthemet technology sed gy ates at 10 Mbps of 100 Mbps or 1 Gbps and uses either ” 8 Roper oss cble fr connecting & number fg sirheach other and with the edge router. Wireless acces 1L_ Inawireless LAN, the wireless users will transmit andreciye toand from the base stations (also called as wireless access pine {eatationed within aradius of afew meters, 2, The IEEE standard works in two different modes : ‘a. Inthe presence of a base station : In the network with bases all the communication is passed through the base station, Th Station (BS) is also called as the Access Point (AP) in 802.11 terminal b. Inthe absence »: base station : In the network without base ta the computers communicate among each other. This modes called as adhoc networking. Que28. | Discuss backbone LAN. Explai backbone LAN. a alternative of using a single LAN is to use low cost, low capa LANsineachbuldingor department and then to interconnect alt TAL ih hither capacity LAN, Such a network is called ‘The backbone network allows several LANs to be interconnedtl Inthe hackbone network, no station is directly connected tothe instead | i pee station is a part of LAN, and the LANs are © different Bal eckimne itselfis @ LAN. It uses a LAN protocol such a*P nection to the backbone is itself another LAN: ‘Types ofbackbone LAN: i. Busbackbone: : ‘ : Inab "s backbone, the backbone of topology is bus. 2-127, BC-Sem- ae re re Physical and Data Link Layer ‘Bus backbones are normally used asa distribution backbone to connect different buildings in an organization. Each building can comprise either a single (normally a star backbone). ‘The backbone iteelf can use one of the protocols that support bus topology such as 10Base6 or 10Base2. spr example ofa bus backbone is one that connects single or multiple- floor buildings on a campus. Bach single-floor building usually has asingle LAN. Each multiple-lor building has a backbone (usually a star) that connects each LAN on a floor. Star backbone: Inastar backbone, sometimes called a collapsed or switched backbone, the backbone of topology is a star. In this configuration, the backbone is just one switch that connects ‘the LANs. ‘Star backbones are mostly used as & distribution backbone inside a building. In a multi-floor building, we usually find one LAN that serves each particular floor. ‘A star backbone connects these LANs. ‘The backbone network, which is just a switch, can be installed in the basement or the first floor, and separate cables can run from the switch toeach LAN, If the individual LANs have a physical star topology, then either the hubs (or switches) can be installed in a close to the corresponding floor, or all can be iustalled close to the switch. LAN or another backbone PART-3 Data Link Layer : Error Detection and. Correction. Questions-Answers og Aspe ry eu Madictt a wer'Typa Guoddlnae ‘Que'29, "| Explain data link layer with its function. =a Data link layer :tink layer transforms the physical layer, a raw Te at i eine no reponse for node 2. takes the physical layer appear error free to the upper ayer layer). From network layer 2, That meansonly one bit ina Physical and Data Link Layer 2-142 EC-Sem-7) Tube signalia carrying enended binary data such changes can ltr the ‘meanings of the dats. This condition results in error. Depending onthe number obits in errorwe canclassify the errors into two types a8: Single bit error: A - 1 ‘Theterm single bit error suggests tat only one bitin the givendsta unit such as byte is in error. transmitted byte will change from 1 to0 or Oto 1, as shown in Fig, 2.10.1. 1010100000010 From physical layer Specific services/functions of the data link layer include following : 1. Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received the network layer into manageable data units called frames. 2 Physical addressing : If frames are to be distributed to dif systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header tothe to define the physical address of the sender (source address) receiver (destination address) of the frame. 3, Flow control: Ifthe rate at which the data are absorbed by the: is less than the rate produced by the sender, the data link layer a flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming the receiver 4. Errorcontrol: The data link layer adds reliability tothe physical by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lot Ttalso uses a mechanism to prevent duplication of frames. 5 Access control : When two or more devices are connected tothe: link, data link layer protocols are necessary to determine which has control over the link at any given time. ‘Answer 1. Whenever an electrom: nt to a agnetic signal flows from one Point is subject to unpredictable interference from heat, magne forms of electricity. 2 This interference can change the shape or timing ofthe TEEPE E wesee_—foh EDTA ited Received byte ‘Transm byte Bloor Ittwo or more bits from a data unt suchas a byte change from 1 40 0 or from 0 to 1 then burst errors are said to have occurred. ‘Thelength ofthe burst error extends from the first erroneous bit ¥ the ie eneneous bit. Bven though some of the bits in between have not san corrupted the length of the burst error is shown to be 5 bits. ii, Burst errors: 3, Burst errors are illustrated in Fig. 2.10.2, Length of burst error (6 bits) a Medi a aa opofa ap} oT a oT Received byte 1. The parity checking at the receiver can detect the presence of an error ifthe parity ofthe received signal is different from the expected parity. 2. That means if itis known that the parity of the transmitted signal is ‘always going to be even" and the received signal has an odd parity then the receiver can conclude that the received signal is not correct. This is shown in Fig. 2.11.1. 3, Ifa single error or an odd number ofits change due to errors introduced during transmission the parity of the codeword will change. 4. Parity ofthe received codeword is checked at the receiver and ifthere is change in parity then itis understood that error is present in the received ‘word. This is shown in Fig. 2.11.15. _Ifpresence of error is detected [Gao BAD] Exptain the concept of ch : ecksum. How error is using the checksum byte ? eee ES Data Communication Networks Mores then the receiver wll ignore n nd Fequest for the Tetranmnission of te pes fe same byte to ‘Transmitted code : FETs Parity Receivers, *[0110010110] Even Gecision orrect: Received code wth] Ee a one error I@oo1o110) ova o Paper correct wor ee omer thes oroy A@DoOo Tro} ows In wor Fig. 2.11.1. The receiver detects the presence i the | tror if the number of errors is odd i, 1, 3, ee It is a sort of two dimensional parity. Aseach word is transmitted, word is is added to the previous! the sum is retained at the transmitter as, shown in, ie 21 a1 Theta carry is ignored. Word A: po1ri08111 Word B: oo100010 Sum Tioiioo01 212.11 Concept of checksum. in this manner to the previous sum. At Each successive word is added um (called a checksum) upto that time the end of the transmission the is transmitted. ‘The errors normally occur in burst. In this method a ‘checksum’ is transmitte« data bytes. Inthis method an eight bit accumulator is used to add 8 bit ofa block of santo find the ‘checksum byte’. Hence the carries of the MSB are {ignored while finding out the checksum byte. ‘After transmitting a block of data bytes (considering S-data bytes) ‘checksum’ byte is: ited. The ‘hocksum byte is regenerated also transmitt at the receiver separately 1d along with every block of by adding the received bytes. Physical and Data Link Layer 9-162, (EC-Sem- byteis then compared with the transmitted ited checksum identical then there is sent in the block Sometimes the 2's complement of the checksum is of the checksum itself. trcjuding 2's complement of the checksum transmitted after the data bytes. Ifthe contents of complement of the error. Fae] write as Bal ‘This is a type of polyno! no error. If they are different of received data bytes. transmitted instead sumulation of the 2's ‘the accumulator is zero after acct there is no » ‘checksum byte then it indicates that ort note on Cyclie Redundancy Check (CRC). rial code in which a bit string is represented in the form of pol ‘with coefficients of 0 and 1 only. 2, Polynomial arithmetic uses a modulo-2 arithmetic i.e., addition and ‘subtraction are identical to EX-OR. For ORC code the sender and receiver should agree vf a generator al Giz). A codeword can be generated for a given data word [message) polynomial M() with the help of long division. ‘Asequence of redundant ‘CRC works on the principle of binary division. CR ied ORC or CRC remainder is appended at the end ofthe message ‘This word is called appended message wor 5. The appended word thus obtained becomes exactly divisible by the generator word corresponding to Gtx). CRC generator = 1. ‘The CRC generator is shown in Fig. 2.19.1. “Message a bits ‘Appended message word Binary division * Divisor [Divisor CRC n bits Codeword Message G1: Append than @ train of Trae eet Tita en AE Shon gr tong thn wen ee (Generator) Tair em enerated data ve re Step3: The remarq on vision. instep 1 byt Step 4: This 1st get he ada ela then spend ate checker : nse as shown in Fig nt Fig. 2.13.2 shows the ORC checker. Received codeword : _ division Divisor Remainder | If remainder is 0 then —SE no errors Fig. 218.2, CRC checker ‘The codeword received by receiver consists of message and CRC. ‘The receiver treats it as one unit and divides it by the same (n+) divisor (generator word) which was used at the transmitter. ‘The remainder of this division is then checked. If the remainder is zero, then the received codeword i error free a hence should be accepted. ‘mainder indicates presence of errors hence th jord should be rejected. (01 is transmitted using ne stam Cc The generator polynomial is3"+ Lshow theactal cre ieee jtted. Suppose the third bit from left isin on show that thie error is detected at receiver® But a non-zero re! corresponding codew Abit stream 100111! Data word Bit string): 10011101 Physical and Data Link Layer ‘The dividends as follows: pomp Data word “4 additional zeros Step 2: Carry out the division + 100011001 700111010000 1001 5 doooi1i0l 1001 —_————; 1000 1001 1001 000 9: Obtain the actually transmitted bit stream * Seer oeted wordis obtained by writing the data word followed by the remainder as follows : ‘Transmitted word = ->[L oo 01 ‘Remainder ToOTiiol Data word Error detection : Step 4: Write the erroneous received word : ‘The received word=1 0@)1 11010001 Error ‘At the receiver, this word is divided by the same divider used at the transmitter i-e., 1001. 101010000 1001)101 Tro 1c oat eared word 100 Ooi0ddi 1001 oo 1001 1001 000000 0 1~Remainder precy remainder indicates that there is an error in the receivedData word : 110010101, Divisor : 10101 ‘The number of data bits = m = 9 ‘The number of bits in the codeword = N Dividend = Data word + number ‘of zeroes (equal to number of bts di 110010101;00000 4,5 Data word 5 additional Carry out the division asfollows: AL11101111 + Quotient [771910111 001010100000<—Dividend Divisor A0201— 00011 Remainder yord: rene the required codeword is obtained by writing the data inder. followed by theremainder. ss y000 . + oul Codeword= 1100101010001 GHBAG] Write a short note on block coding. Physical and Data Link Layer ssonccseey _TiiDuiitiew tothe technique of adding extra bits to a digital word the reliability of transmission. ‘ the message bits (often called information, or data) 1. Block coding refers in order to improve 2, The word consists of and code bits, ne i ization bit. contain a frame synchronization i ; ee ‘adds bits to existing message bits (or blocks), independently of adjacent blocks. Block code format : ; ‘The block code encoder module is designed to expect input blocks of length eight slots, where some of these slots are empty. 2 Theincoming data frame is illustrated in Fig. 2.16.1. — aframe ~~ ial C2] G | % | Ps} De} Mr] Po} FS bit 7 ae MSB 158 ‘Fig. 2.16.1. A data frame of eight alts, one per eat pera, 3. Themessage bits are shown as D,,D,,D,, and D,, where D, is the most significant bt of the message. 4. The frame synchronization bit is shown as FS. 5. The slots marked C,, C,, and C, will be used by the block encoder for code bits, ‘QieRAR] Describe hamming code. How it is used for error detection and correction ? Illustrate with the help of suitable example. 1. Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that can be used to detect and correct bit errors that can occur when computer data is moved or stored. 2. Hamming code makes use of the concept of parity ity bits, whi e ty and parity bits, which are bits that are added to data so that the validity of the data can be checked ce it is read or after it has been received in a data; the ati bt ea “hit hamming codeword received by a receiver jg ie Panne rhe caved dO Asswong. if wrong, leat the bitin error. DLDiBOnDARD AR PR Received codeword: (7 70] 11] 01] 1] Step 1: Analyze bits 4,5, 6and 7: P,D,D,D, 1101-> Odd parity. =. Brrorexists here. | Put P,=1inthe 4's position of the error word. Step 2: Analyze bits 2,3, 6 and 7: 1. P,D,D,D,=100 1 Even parity s0 no error. Hence put P, = 0in the 2's position of the error word. ‘Step 3: Check the hits 1, 3, 5, 7: :, P,D,D,D,=1011- Odd parity so error exists. Hence put P, = 1in the 1's position of the error word. Step 4: Write the error word : Error word E = py | Py Ty bee ost va tains Position Le, baa Substituting the values of P,, P, and P, obtained in steps 1, 2and3 eet | =O, Hence bit 5 of %9 + nsmitted codeword is in error. E=-| 1 | 0 ine 54 3 2 1 ana 1 jo aft 1 : Step 5: Correct the error: " Invert the incorrect bit to obtaii follows: C obtain the correct codeword 38 codeword = 1001011] 2-227 (EC-Sem-7) Physical and Data Link Layer Gap seven bi Hamming codes received is 111101, Checkit itis correct or not. Find the correct code if even parity is used. [ARTO 2018-19, Marks 05 1 Received code [m[ [lr] m |e 1A (>t Piel te 1 Bits 1, 3, 6, 7 have even number of 1's, Hence no error. Bits 2, 3, 6,7 have odd number of I's. Hence error. Bits 4 ,6,7 have even number of I's, Hence no error. Evidently the error isin it 2(0010) position. Hence, the correct code is 1111111. oa h ep PART-4 Framing. ee ever—_—_—O— Questions-Answers Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions ‘Quea.i9,| What do you mean by framing ? Explain bit oriented [AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10 framing and character oriented framing. Framing : 1. Framing in the data link layer separates a message from one source to destination, or from other messages to other destinations, by adding a sender address and a destination address. 2, The destination address defines where the packet is to go. The sender address helps the recipient acknowledge the receipt. Character-oriented framing Inacharacter-oriented protocol, data to be carried are &-bit characters from a coding system such as ASCII.