Experiment 1

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL BAR

1
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL BAR

1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the heat transfer through conduction in metal rod.

2. AIM:
2.1 To calculate the thermal conductivity of metal rod.
2.2 To plot the temperature distribution along the length of rod.

3. INTRODUCTION:
Thermal conductivity of substance is a physical property, defined as the ability of a substance
to conduct heat. Thermal conductivity of material depends on chemical composition, state of
matter, crystalline structure of a solid, the temperature, pressure and weather.

4. THEORY:
The heater will heat the rod on its one end and heat will be conducted through the rod to the
other end. Since the rod is insulated from outside, it can be safety assumed that the heat
transfer along the brass rod is mainly due to axial conduction and at steady state the heat
conducted shall be equal to the heat absorbed by water at the cooling end. The heat
conducted at steady state shall create a temperature profile within the rod. (T = f (x)). The
steady state heat balance at the rear end of the rod is:
Heat absorbed by cooling water,
Q = MCp ΔT
Heat conducted through the rod in axial direction:
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
𝑑𝑋
At steady state;
𝑑𝑇
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴 = 𝑀𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑑𝑋
So thermal conductivity of rod may be expressed as:
𝑀𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇
𝑘=
𝑑𝑇
−𝐴 ( )
𝑑𝑋

2
5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a metal rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heater while
the other end of the rod projects inside the cooling water jacket. The middle portion of the
rod is surrounded by a cylindrical shell filled with the glass wool. Six temperature sensors are
provided to measure temperature of rod at different section. The heater is provided with a
dimmer stat for controlling the heat input. Water under constant head conditions is circulated
through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise are noted by two temperature
sensors provided at the inlet and outlet of the water.

6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp combined socket with
Earth connection.
6.2 Water Supply: Continuous at 2 LPM at 1 Bar.
6.3 Floor Drain Required.
6.4 Stop watch.

7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE

7.1.1 Close all the valves V1 – V2.
7.1.2 Connect continuous water supply to the inlet of water chamber.
7.1.3 Ensure that mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position and
dimmer stat is at zero position.
7.1.4 Connect electric supply to the set up.
7.1.5 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.1.6 Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 V.
7.1.7 Open the valve V1 and start the flow of water.
7.1.8 Start the stop watch and collect the water in measuring cylinder.
7.1.9 Note down the time and volume of water.
7.1.10 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and
temperature sensors at every 10 minutes (till observing change in consecutive
readings of temperatures).

3
 7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE
7.2.1 When experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
7.2.2 Stop the water supply by closing the valve V1.
7.2.3 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.2.4 Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.
7.2.5 Drain the water by open the valve V2.

8. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:

Specific heat of water Cp = 4186 J/kgoC

Density of water ρw = 1000 kg/m3

Diameter of rod d = 0.020 m

Distance of first temperature sensor (T1) from the one end point of pipe = 0.040 m
X1

Distance of second temperature sensor (T2) from the one end point of = 0.066 m
pipe X2

Distance of third temperature sensor (T3) from the one end point of pipe = 0.092 m
X3

Distance of fourth temperature sensor (T4) from the one end point of = 0.118 m
pipe X4

Distance of fifth temperature sensor (T5) from the one end point of pipe = 0.144 m
X5

Distance of sixth temperature sensor (T6) from the one end point of pipe = 0.170 m
X6

4
 8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE

V = _______ Volts I = ______ Amp.

Sr. F t1 t T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
No. (ml) (sec) (sec) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

8.3 CALCULATIONS
𝐹×𝜌×10−6
𝑀= 𝑡1
(𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐)

Q = MCp (T8 – T7) (W)

𝜋
𝐴 = 4 𝑑2 (𝑚2 )

Plot a graph of temperature (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6) vs. length (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6)
and find slope (dT/dX).
𝑄
𝑘= 𝑑𝑇 (𝑊/𝑚𝑜 𝐶)
−𝐴×( )
𝑑𝑋

CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. Q(W) K(W/moC)

5
9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type

A Cross-sectional area of the metal rod m2 Calculated

Cp Specific heat of water J/kgoC Given

d Diameter of rod M Given

o
dT/dX Slope of graph temperature (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6) vs. C/m Calculated
length (X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6)

F Volume of water collected for flow measurement ml Measured

I Ammeter reading Amp Measured

k Thermal conductivity of metal rod W/moC Calculated

M Mass flow rate of cooling water kg/sec Calculated

Q Heat gained by water W Calculated

t Time sec Measured

o
T1-T5 Temperature of metal rod along the length from C Measured
heater to cooling jack

o
T7 Inlet temp of cold water C Measured

o
T8 Outlet temp of cold water C Measured

t1 Time taken to collect volume of water sec Measured

V Volt meter reading volts Measured

X1 Distance of first temperature sensor (T1) from the one m Given

end point of pipe

X2 Distance of second temperature sensor (T2) from the m Given

one end point of pipe

X3 Distance of third temperature sensor (T3) from the m Given

one end point of pipe

6
 X4 Distance of fourth temperature sensor (T4) from the m Given
one end point of pipe

X5 Distance of fifth temperature sensor (T5) from the one m Given

end point of pipe

X6 Distance of sixth temperature sensor (T6) from the m Given

one end point of pipe

ρw Density of water Kg/m3 Given

10. PRECAUTION AND MAINTNANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230
volts.
10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
10.3 Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING
11.1 If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main supply.
11.2 If voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not, check
the connection of heater in control panel.

12. REFERENCES:
12.1 D.S. Kumar,” Heat and Mass Transfer”, 7th ed., S.K. Kataria and Sons, ND, 2008.

7
8
 Experiment 2

HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH

COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

1
 HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH COMPOSITE WALL

1. OBJECTVE:
To study the heat transfer conduction in composite wall.
2. AIM:
2.1 To calculate total thermal resistance of composite wall.
2.2 To calculate total thermal conductivity of composite wall.
2.3 To calculate thermal conductivity of one material in composite wall.
2.4 To plot the temperature profile along the composite wall.
3. INTRODUCTION:
When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy transfer from the high
temperature region to the low temperature region. Energy is transferred by conduction and
heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient.
𝑞 ∆𝑇
𝛼
𝐴 ∆𝑋
When the proportionality constant is inserted.
∆𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑋
Where q is the amount of heat transfer and ΔT/ΔX is the temperature gradient in the direction
of heat flow. The constant k is called thermal conductivity of the material.
4. THEORY
A direct application of fourier’s law is the plane wall.
Fourier’s equation:
−𝐾𝐴
𝑄= (𝑇 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝑋 2
Where the thermal conductivity is considered constant. The wall thickness is ΔX, Q, A are
amount of heat transfer and heat transfer area respectively. T1 and T2 are surface
temperature. If more than one material is present, as in the multiplayer wall, the analysis
would proceed as follows:
The temperature gradients in the three materials (A, B, C) the heat flow may be written
∆𝑇𝐴 ∆𝑇𝐵 ∆𝑇𝐶
𝑄 = −𝐾𝐴 𝐴 = −𝐾𝐵 𝐴 = −𝐾𝐶 𝐴
∆𝑋𝐴 ∆𝑋𝐵 ∆𝑋𝐶
𝑄
𝑞=
𝐴

2
 For material A thermal conductivity can be calculated as following:
𝑞∆𝐴𝐴
𝐾𝐴 =
∆𝑇𝐴
5. DESCRIPTION
The apparatus consists of a heater sandwiched between two asbestos sheets. Three slabs of
different material are provided on both sides of heater, which forms a composite structure.
A small press frame is provided to ensure the perfect contact between the slabs. A variac is
provided for varying the input to the heater and measurement of input power is carried out
by a digital voltmeter & digital ammeter. Eight temperature sensor are embedded between
inter faces of the slab, to read the temperature at the surface.
6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 6-15 Amp combined socket with earth
connection.
6.2 Bench Area Required: 1m x 1m
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:
7.1.1 Ensure that mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position & dimmer stat
is at zero position.
7.1.2 Connect electric supply to the set up
7.1.3 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch
7.1.4 Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 volt.
7.1.5 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and temperature
sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till observing change in
consecutive readings of temperatures.
7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:
7.2.1 When experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
7.2.2 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.2.3 Switch OFF the power supply to the set up.

3
8. OBSERVATION & CALCULATIONS:
8.1 DATA:
Thermal conductivity of cast iron k1 = Cast iron thickness X1 = 0.02 m
52W/moC

Thermal conductivity of Bakelite k2 = 1.4 Bakelite thickness X2 = 0.015 m

W/moC

Diameter of slab d = 0.25 m Press wood thickness X3 = 0.012 m

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
(Amp)
No. (Volt) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

8.3 CALCULATIONS:
W = V x I (W)
𝑊
𝑄= (𝑊)
2
𝜋 2 2
𝐴= 𝑑 (𝑚 )
4
𝑄
𝑞 = (W/m2)
𝐴
(𝑇1 − 𝑇7 ) + (𝑇2 − 𝑇8 )
∆𝑇 = (℃)
2
∆𝑇
𝑅1 = (℃𝑚2 /𝑤
𝑞
ΔX = X1 + X2 + X3 (m)
𝑞 × ∆𝑋
𝐾𝑒𝑓𝑓 = (𝑊/𝑚 ℃)
∆𝑇
𝑋3
𝑘3 = ∆𝑇 𝑋 𝑋 (W/moC)
[ −( 1 + 2 )]
𝑞 𝐾1 𝐾2

XA = 0 (m)
XA1 = XA + X1 (m)

4
XA2 = XA + X1 + X2 (m)
XA3 = XA + X1 + X2 + X3 (m)
(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
𝑇𝐴1 = (℃)
2
(𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
𝑇𝐴2 = (℃)
2
(𝑇5 − 𝑇6 )
𝑇𝐴3 = (℃)
2
(𝑇7 − 𝑇8 )
𝑇𝐴4 = (℃)
2

CALCULATION TABLE
Sr. Q DT Rt Keff K3 TA1 TA2 TA3 TA4
No. (W/m2) (oC) (oCm2/W) (W/moC) (W/moC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

To plot the graph of length (XA, XA1, XA2, XA3) vs temperature (TA1, TA2, TA3, TA4).

9. NOMNCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type

A Area of heat transfer m2 Calculated

D Diameter of slab M Given

I Ammeter Amp measured

Keff Total thermal conductivity of composite wall W/moC Calculated

k1 Thermal conductivity of cast iron W/moC Given

k2 Thermal conductivity of Bakelite W/moC Given

5
 k3 Thermal conductivity of press wood W/moC Calculated

Q Amount of heat transfer W Calculated

q Heat flux W/m2 Calculated

o
R1 Total thermal resistance of composite wall Cm2/W Calculated

o
T1-T2 Interface temperature of cast iron and heater C Measured

o
T3-T4 Interface temperature of cast iron and bakelite C Measured

o
T5-T6 Interface temperature of bakelite and press wood C Measured

o
T7-T8 Top surface temperature of press wood C Measured

o
TA1 Average temperature at the interface of cast iron slab C Calculated
and heater

o
TA2 Average temperature at the interface of cast iron slab C Calculated
and bakelite slab

o
TA3 Average temperature at the interface of bakelite slab C Calculated
and press wood slab

o
TA4 Average temperature at the surface of press wood C Calculated
slab

V Voltmeter reading Volt Measured

W Heat supplied by the heater W Calculated

X1 Cast iron thickness m Given

X2 Bakelite thickness m Given

X3 Press wood thickness m Given

X4 Reference point to measure distance m Calculated

XA1 Distance of reference point to cast iron slab m Calculated

XA2 Distance of reference point to bakelite slab m Calculated

XA3 Distance of reference point to press wood slab m Calculated

6
 o
ΔT Overall temperature difference C Calculated

ΔX Total thickness of wall M Calculated

10. PRECAUTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230
volts.
10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
10.3 Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently
10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING
11.1 If electronic panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main supply.
11.2 If voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not, check
the connection of heater in control panel.
12. REFERENCES:
12.1 Holman, J.P. (2008), Heat Transfer 9th Ed. ND. McGraw Hill pp. 23-24.
12.2 Kern, D.Q. (2007), Process Heat Transfer 16th Ed. ND, McGraw Hill pp. 14-15.
12.3 Domkundwar A. (2003), A Course in Heat and Mass Transfer, 6th Ed. NY, S C Dhanpat
Rai and Co. (P) Lt. pp A4-A5.

7
8
 Experiment 3

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF
INSULATING POWER

1
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWER

1. OBJECTIVES:
To study the heat transfer conduction in insulating powder.
2. AIM:
To calculate the thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
3. NTRODUCTION
In many heat transfer equipments, heat loss to surroundings is to be maintained to achieve
maximum economy in such cases they are tagged by materials of lower thermal conductivity,
which are referred as insulators. Because of demand of such insulating materials, many
industries have come up to produce such material. Preference is given to procedure materials
having lower thermal conductivities. Also, these materials are available in different shapes,
sizes and forms of powders. Powders have the advantage that they can take any complicated
shape between any two confirming surfaces. In addition, its conductivity will be much lower
than that of the Basic solid from which the powder has been made. This is because of a very
large number of air spaces in between particles, which have much lower thermal conductivity
values. Thermal conductivity of such materials is a complicated function of the geometry of
the particles, the nature of heat transfer, conduction, convection and radiation in air spaces,
which is determined by the air space size and temperature level etc. Thus, it is very difficult
quantity to estimate and almost in all practical cases it is measured experimentally.

4. THEORY:
Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of hollow sphere formed by the
insulating powdered layer packed between two thin copper spheres.
Let:
ri = radius of inner sphere in m
ro = radius of outer sphere in m
Ti = average temperature of the inner surface in oC
To = average temperature of the outer surface in oC

From the Experimental values of q, Ti and To, the unknown thermal conductivity k can be
determined by following formulae.
𝑄(𝑟𝑜 − 𝑟1 )
𝑘=
4𝜋𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜)

2
5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of two thin-walled concentric spheres of copper of different size. The
small inner copper sphere is provided with the heater. The insulating powder (Asbestos) is
packed between the two spheres. The temperature sensors at proper positions are fitted to
measure surface temperature of spheres. Voltmeter and ammeter is provided with dimmer
stat and variac to measure the heat input.

6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp combined socket with
earth connection.
6.2 Bench Area Required: 1m x 1m

7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE:
7.1.1 Ensure that mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position and dimmer
stat is at zero position.
7.1.2 Connect electric supply to the set up.
7.1.3 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.1.4 Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 volt.
7.1.5 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and temperature
sensors at every 10 minutes interval (till observing change in consecutive readings of
temperatures).

7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE:

7.2.1 When experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
7.2.2 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.2.3 Switch OFF the power supply to the set up.

8. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:

Inner radius ri = 0.05 m

Outer radius ro = 0.1 m

3
 8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10
No. (volt) (Amp) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

8.3 CALCULATIONS:
Q = V x I (W)
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 +𝑇3 + 𝑇4
𝑇𝑖 = (℃)
4
𝑇5 + 𝑇6 +𝑇7 + 𝑇8 +𝑇9 + 𝑇10
𝑇𝑜 = (℃)
6
𝑄(𝑟𝑜 −𝑟1 )
𝑘 = 4𝜋𝑟 (W/moC)
𝑜 𝑟𝑖 (𝑇𝑖−𝑇𝑜)

CALCULATION TABLE:

Sl.No. K(W/moC)

9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type

I Ammeter reading Amp Measured

k Thermal conductivity of insulating powder W/moC Calculated

Q Amount of heat transfer W Calculated

ri Inner radius m Given

4
 ro Outer radius m Given

o
T1-T4 Temperature of temperature sensors embedded on C Measured
the inner sphere

o
T5- Temperatures of temperature sensos embedded on C Measured
T10 the outer sphere

o
Ti Inside surface temperature C Calculated

o
To Outside surface temperature C Calculated

V Voltmeter reading Volts Measured

10. PRECAUSTION AND MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230
volts.
10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
10.3 Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently
10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING
11.1 If electric panel is not showing the input on the mains light, check the main supply.
11.2 If voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not, check
the connection of heater in control panel.

12. REFERENCES:
12.1 Holman, J.P. (2008), Heat Transfer 9th Ed. ND. McGraw Hill pp. 25-27.
12.2 Coulson, J.M. Richardson, J.F. (1996) Chemical Engineering Volt. 1, 5th Ed. ND: Asian
Books Ltd. Pp 349-350.

5
 VOLTMETER
AMMETER
SHELL
TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR

SELECTOR
SWITCH

POWER SWITCH

HEATER SWITCH

HEATER CONTROL

T6

T1
T5
T2
N

HEATER
SUPPLY
T7

P
T10
T4 T3 T1 TO T10 THERMOCOUPLE
SETTING

T8
T9

6
 Experiment 4

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS

1
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUIDS

1. OBJECTIVE:
To study the heat transfer through liquids.

2. AIM:
To calculate the thermal conductivity of a liquid.

3. INTRODUCTION:
When a temperature gradient exists in a body, there is an energy transfer from the high
temperature region to the low temperature region. Energy is transferred by conduction and
heat transfer rate per unit area is proportional to the normal temperature gradient.
𝑞 ∆𝑇
𝛼
𝐴 ∆𝑋
When the proportionality constant is inserted.
∆𝑇
𝑞 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑋
When q is the amount of heat transfer and ΔT /ΔX is the temperature gradient in the direction
of heat flow. The constant k is called thermal conductivity of the material.

4. THEORY:
For thermal conductivity of liquids using fourier’s law, the heat flow through the liquid from
hot fluid to cold fluid is the heat transfer through conductive fluid medium.
Fourier’s equation:
−𝑘𝐴
𝑞= (𝑇 − 𝑇1 )
∆𝑋 2
Fourier’s law for the case of liquid
At steady state, the average face temperatures are recorded (Th and Tc) along with the amount
of heat transfer (Q) knowing, the heat transfer area (Ah) and the thickness of the sample (ΔX)
across which the heat transfer takes place, the thermal conductivity of the sample can be
calculated using fourier’s law of heat conduction.
(𝑇𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑇𝑐 )
𝑄 = −𝑘𝐴
∆𝑋

2
 𝑄 × ∆𝑋
𝑘=
𝐴 × (𝑇ℎ − 𝑇𝑐 )

5. DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a heater, it heats a thin layer of liquid. Funnel is provided with valve
for fill the liquid. Drain valve is given for maintain the liquid level. Plat is for circulation of
water. Flow control vale is provided for control the flow of water. Six temperature sensors are
provided to measure the temperature across the liquid layer.

6. UTILITIES REQUIRED:
6.1 Electricity Supply: Single Phase, 220 V AC, 50 Hz, 5-15 Amp combined socket with
Earth connection.
6.2 Water Supply: Continuous at 2 LPM at 1 Bar.
6.3 Floor Drain Required.
7. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:
7.1 STARTING PROCEDURE
7.1.1 Close all the valves V1 – V3.
7.1.2 Connect continuous water supply to the inlet of water chamber.
7.1.3 Connect outlet of chamber to drain.
7.1.4 Open the valve V2.
7.1.5 Fill the liquid (whose thermal conductivity have to be measure) through funnel till
the liquid retain in funnel.
7.1.6 Adjust the valve V3 to keep the liquid at axis level.
7.1.7 Ensure that mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel is at OFF position and
dimmer stat is at zero position.
7.1.8 Connect electric supply to the set up.
7.1.9 Switch ON the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.1.10 Start the water supply and adjust the flow of water by valve V1.
7.1.11 Set the heater input by the dimmer stat, voltmeter in the range 40 to 100 V.
7.1.12 After 1.5 hrs. note down the reading of voltmeter, ampere meter and
temperature sensors in the observation table after every 10 minutes interval till
observing change in consecutive readings of temperatures.
7.1.13 Repeat the experiment for different liquids.

3
 7.2 CLOSING PROCEDURE
7.2.1 When experiment is over set the dimmer stat to zero position.
7.2.2 Switch OFF the mains ON/OFF switch.
7.2.3 Switch OFF electric supply to the set up.
7.2.4 Stop flow of water by closing the valve V1.
7.2.5 Drain the liquid by open the valve V3.

8. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

8.1 DATA:

Thickness of liquid ΔX = 0.018 m

Diameter of plate D = 0.160 m

8.2 OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T8
No. (volts) (amp) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

8.3 CALCULATIONS
Q = V x 1 (W)
𝜋 2 2
𝐴= 𝐷 (𝑚 )
4
𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3
𝑇ℎ = (𝑜𝐶 )
3
𝑇4 + 𝑇5 + 𝑇6
𝑇𝑐 = (𝑜𝐶 )
3
∆𝑋
𝑘=𝑄 (𝑊/𝑚𝑜 𝐶
𝐴(𝑇ℎ− 𝑇𝑐 )

4
 CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. No. K(W/moC)

9. NOMENCLATURE:
Nom Column Heading Units Type

A Heat transfer area m2 Calculated

D Diameter of plate M Given

I Ammeter reading Amp Measured

k Thermal conductivity of liquid W/moC Calculated

Q Heat supplied by heater W Calculated

o
T1-T3 Temperature of the temperature sensors on the hot C Measured
side

o
T4-T6 Temperature of the temperature sensors on the cold C Measured
side

o
Tc Cold face average temperature C Calculated

o
Th Hot face average temperature C Calculated

V Volt meter reading volts Measured

ΔX Thickness of liquid m Given

10. PRECAUTION AND MAINTNANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

10.1 Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 200 volts and more than 230
volts.
10.2 Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.

5
 10.3 Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
10.4 Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

11. TROUBLESHOOTING
11.1 If electric panel is not showing the input on the panel, check the main supply.
11.2 If voltmeter showing the voltage given to heater but ampere meter does not, check
the connection of heater in control panel.

12. REFERENCES:
12.1 Cengel, Y.A. (2007), Heat and Mass Transfer, 3rd Ed. ND: Tata McGraw Hill, pp. 17-19.
12.2 Kern, D.Q. (2007), Process Heat Transfer, 16th Ed. ND: McGraw Hill, pp. 6-9.

6
7
 Experiment 5
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH PIN FIN APPARATUS

1. AIM:- To study the temperature distribution along a length of the pin fin and
to find rate of heat transfer and effectiveness.

2. INTRODUCTION :-
Extended surfaces or fins are used to increase the heat transfer rates
from a surface to the surrounding fluid wherever it is not possible to increase
the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient or the temperature difference
between the surface and the fluid. Fins are fabricated in variety of forms. Fins
around the air cooled engines are a common example.
As the fins extend from primary heat transfer surface, the
temperature difference with the surrounding fluid diminishes towards the tip
of the fin. The aim of the experiment is to study the temperature distribution
and the effectiveness of the fin, which plays an important role in fin design.

3. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS :-
The apparatus consists of a simple pin fin which is fitted in a
rectangular duct. The duct is attached to suction end of a blower. One end of
fin is heated by an electrical heater. Thermocouples are mounted along the
length of fin and a thermocouple notes the duct fluid temperature. When top
cover over the fin is opened and heating started, performance of fin with
natural convection can be evaluated and with top cover closed & blower
started, fin can be tested in forced convection.

4. SPECIFICATIONS:-
1) Fins – 12 mm O.D., effective length 102 mm with 5 Nos. of thermocouple
positions along the length made of brass, Mild steel and aluminum - one each.

Fin is screwed in heater block which is heated by a band heater.

2) M.S duct connected to suction side of blower.

3) F.H.P. centrifugal blower with orifice and flow control valve on discharge
side.

1
 4) Orifice - dia. 14 mm, coefficient of discharge Cd = 0.64.

5) Measurements and controls-

a) Dimmerstat to control heater input, 0 - 230 V, 2 amp.

b) Voltmeter 0 - 250 V, for heater supply voltage.

c) Ammeter 0 - 2 amps. for heater current.

e) Multichannel digital temperature indicator.

f) Water manometer connected to Orificemeter.

5. THEORY:-
Let A = cross sectional area of the fin, m2.

P = perimeter of the fin, m.

L = length of the fin = 0.115 m.

T1 = Base temperature of the fin.

Tf = Duct fluid temperature ( channel No. 6 of temperature indicator)

ϴ = Temperature difference of fin and fluid temperature

= T - Tf .

h = heat transfer coefficient, w / m2 oC.

Kf = Thermal conductivity of fin material.

= 110 W / m K for brass.

= 384 W / m K for Copper.

= 232 W / m K for aluminum.

Heat is conducted along the length of fin and also lost to surroundings.
Applying first law of thermodynamics to a control volume along the length of
fin at a station which is at length ‘x’ from the base,

d2T h.P

------ - ------- ϴ = 0 ----------- 1

2
 d x2 kf . A

∴ ϴ = ( C1 . e mx
) + ( C2 . e-mx ) - - - - - - - - 2

h.P

where, m = ----------- ---------3

kf . A

with the boundary conditions of ϴ = ϴ 1 at x = 0.

Where ϴ 1 = T1 - Tf , assuming tip to be insulated.

dϴ

----- = 0 at x = L

dx

Results in obtaining equation (2 ) in the form

ϴ T - Tf cosh m ( L - x )

---- = --------------- = ------------------------ ------- (4)

ϴ 1 T1 - Tf cosh m.L

This is the equation for temperature distribution along the length of

the fin. Temperatures T1 and Tf will be known for the given situation and
the value of ‘h’ depends upon mode of convection i.e. natural or forced.

6. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:-
A) NATURAL CONVECTION:-

Open the duct cover over the fin. Ensure proper earthing to the unit and
switch on the main supply. Adjust dimmerstat so that about 80 volts are
supplied to the heater. The fin will start heating. When the temperatures
remain steady, note down the temperatures of the fin and duct fluid
temperature. Repeat the experiment at different inputs to heater.

OBSERVATIONS -

3
 Sr. No. Input Fin Temperatures0c Duct fluid temp. 0c

V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

B) FORCED CONVECTION :-

Close the duct cover over the fin. Start the blower. Adjust the
dimmerstat so that about 100 - 110 volts are supplied to the heater. When
the temperatures become steady, note down all the temperatures and the
manometer difference.

Repeat the experiment at different inputs and at different air flow rates.

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Sr. Manometer difference Fin Temperatures 0c Duct fluid

No. temp.0c

H ( m of water ) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

7. CALCULATIONS:-
NOMENCLATURE -

Tm = Average fin temperature = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4+ T5 ) / 5

ΔT = Tm - Tf

Tmf = mean film temperature = (Tm + Tf ) / 2

ρa = Density of air, kg / m3

ρw = Density of water, kg / m3 = 1000 kg / m3

4
 D = Diameter of pin fin = 12 ⋅ 10-3 m.

d = Diameter of orifice = 14 x 10-3 m.

Cd = coefficient of discharge of orifice = 0.64

μ = Dynamic viscosity of air, N-s /m2.

Cp = Specific heat of air, kJ /kg 0C.

ν = Kinematic viscosity, m2 / s.

kair = Thermal conductivity of air, w / m 0C

β = volume expansion coefficient = 1 / (Tmf + 273 )

H = manometer difference, m of water.

V = velocity of air in duct, m /s.

Q = volume flow rate of air, m3 /s.

Vtmf = velocity of air at mean film temperature.

All properties are to be evaluated at mean film temperature.

a) NATURAL CONVECTION :-
The fin under consideration is h orizontal cylinder loosing heat by
natural convection. For horizontal cylinder, Nusselt number,

Nu = 1.10 ( Gr . Pr ) 1/6
------- for 10-1 < Gr . Pr < 104.

Nu = 0.53 ( Gr . Pr ) 1/4
------- for 104 < Gr . Pr < 109 .

Nu = 0.13 ( Gr . Pr ) 1/3
------- for 109 < Gr . Pr < 1012 .

where, Gr = Grashof number,

g . β . D3 . ΔT

Gr = ------------------

ν2

Pr = Prandtl number

5
 Cp . μ

Pr = -----------

kair

Determine Nusselt number.

Now, Nu = ( h . D ) / k air.

∴ h =

From h, determine ‘m’ from equation ( 3 )

Using h and m , determine temperature distribution in the fin from

equation (4).

The rate of heat transfer from the fin can be calculated as

q = √ h . P . kf . A ⋅ ( T1 -Tf ) tanh mL -------5

and effectiveness of the fin can be calculated as,

tanh mL

ε = --------------- -------6

mL

b) Forced Convection:-
As in natural convection, for horizontal cylinder loosing heat by forced
convection,

Nu = 0.615 ( Re ) 0.466
----- for 40 < Re < 4000

Nu = 0.174 ( Re ) 0.618
----- for 4000 < Re < 40000

Where,

Vtmf . D

Re = ------------
ν

V . ( Tmf + 273 )

6
 Vtmf = ----------------------------------------------

( Tf + 273 )

Velocity of air is determined from air volume flow.

π

Q = Cd --------- d2 √ 2 . g . H ( ρ w / ρa ) m3 / s.

Where ,

ρa= Density of air at atmospheric temperature = kg/m3

Density can be found out from following relation,

ρa = (1.293×273)/(273+T3) kg/m3.

V = Q / Duct cross sectional area

= Q / ( 0.15 x 0.1 ) m/s.

From Nusselt number,

If ReD < 2000 , flow is laminar.

h.D
NuD = ---------
kair

= 0.615 ( Re ) 0.466

7
 If Reynoulds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow,

h.D
NuD = ---------
kair

= 0.174 ( Re ) 0.618

Now, Nu = ( h . D ) / k air.

∴ h =

From h, determine ‘m’ from equation ( 3 )

Using h and m , determine temperature distribution in the fin from

equation (4).

The rate of heat transfer from the fin can be calculated as

q = √ h . P . kf . A ⋅ ( T1 -Tf ) tanh mL -------5

and effectiveness of the fin can be calculated as,

tanh mL

ε = --------------- -------6

mL

Now temperature distribution, heat transfer rate and effectiveness of the fin
can be calculated using equations 4, 5 and 6 respectively.

8. CONCLUSION:-
1) Comment on the observed temperature distribution and calculation by
theory, it is expected that observed temperatures should be slightly less
than their calculated values because of radiation and non-insulated tip.

8
 2) Plot the graphs of temperature distribution in both natural and forced

convection.

9. PRECAUTIONS:-
1) Operate all the switches and controls gently.

2) Do not obstruct the suction of the duct or discharge pipe.

3) Open the duct cover over the fin for natural convection experiment.

4) Fill up water in the manometer and close duct cover for forced convection
experiment.

5) Proper earthing to the unit is necessary.

6) While replacing the fins, be careful for fixing the thermocouples.

Incorrectly fixed thermocouples may show erratic readings.

9
 PROPERTIES OF AIR

T ρ Cp μ x 106 k Pr v x 10
6

0
C kgm/m3 kJ/kgm- N-Sec / W/m-K m2 /Sec
K m2

0 1.293 1.005 17.2 0.0244 0.707 13.28

10 1.247 1.005 17.7 0.0251 0.705 14.16

20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259 0.703 15.06

30 1.165 1.005 18.6 0.0267 0.701 16.00

40 1.128 1.005 19.1 0.0276 0.699 16.96

50 1.093 1.005 19.6 0.0283 0.698 17.95

60 1.060 1.005 20.1 0.0290 0.696 18.97

70 1.029 1.009 20.6 0.0297 0.694 20.02

80 1.000 1.009 21.1 0.0305 0.692 21.09

90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313 0.690 22.10

100 0.946 1.009 21.9 0.0321 0.688 23.13

120 0.898 1.009 22.9 0.0334 0.686 25.45

140 0.854 1.013 23.7 0.0349 0.684 27.80

10
 Experiment 6

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HEAT TRANSFER IN FORCED CONVECTION

1. Introduction:
Whenever a fluid is being forced over the heated surface, forced

convection heat transfer occurs. The apparatus consists of a circular pipe,

through which cold fluid, i.e. air is being forced. Pipe is heated by a band

heater outside the pipe. Temperature of pipe is measured with

thermocouples attached to pipe surface. Heater input is measured by a

Voltmeter and Ammeter. Thus, heat transfer rate and heat transfer

coefficient can be calculated.

2. SPECIFICATIONS -

1. Test pipe - 28 mm I.D. & 400 mm Long.

2. Band heater for pipe.

3. Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator 0 - 300 0C using

Chromel / Alumel thermocouples.

4. Dimmerstat 2Amps. 240 Volts. for heater input control.

5. Voltmeter 0- 200 volts

6. Ammeter 0- 2 Amps.

7. Blower to force the air through test pipe.

8. Orificemeter with water manometer.

11
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -

1. Put 'ON' mains supply.

2. Adjust the heater input with the help of dimmerstat.

3. Start the blower and adjust the air flow with valve.

4. Wait till steady state is reached and note down the reading in the
observation table.

4. OBSERVATIONS:-

Sr. Volt Amp Temperatures o c Manometer

No . Difference(h
V T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
w)
I

5. CALCULATIONS –

1. Air inlet temp. T1 = 0

C

2. Air outlet temp. T6 = 0

C

3. Density of air at atmospheric temperature = kg/m3

(Density can be found out from the chart of properties of

air.)

4. Diameter of orifice = 14 mm.

12
 Manometer difference = Water head = hw mtrs.

Air head, ha = hw ( ρw / ρa )

Where, ρw = Density of water = 1000 Kg / m 3

∴ Air volume flow rate,

Q = Cd x ao x 2 g ha m 3
/Sec.

Where, Cd = 0.64

ao = c. s. area of orifice= 1.54 x 10-4 m2

5. Mass flow rate of air ,

ma = Q x ρa Kg /sec.

Velocity of air ,

V = ------ m /sec.

ap

Where ,

a p = Cross sectional area of pipe

= 6.15 x 10 -4
m2

6. Heat gained by air, q = ma x Cpa x ( T6- T1 ) ---------W

Where, Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1 kJ / Kg K. OR 103 J / Kg K.

7. Average inside surface temperature,

T2 + T3 + T4 + T5

Ts = -------------------------------------- O
C

8. Bulk mean temp. of air ,

T1 + T6

13
 Tm = --------------- 0
C

9. Average surface heat transfer coefficient , -

Actual Heat Loss Due To Forced Convection = q - Heat Loss Due To

Radiation

∴ Heat Loss Due To Radiation ( q1 ) , -

q1 = 0.06 x A x ( Ts4 - Tm4 ) x σ -------- (σ - Stefan Boltzmann

Constant )

∴ Actual Heat Loss = q - q 1

q-q 1

∴ h expt = ---------------------- W / m2 k

A x ( T s - Tm )

where, A = Inside surface area of the pipe = π x di x l

= π x 0.033 x 0.5

= 0.0518 m 2.

di = Inside dia. Of pipe = 0.033 mtrs.

10. Reynolds number-

VxD

ReD = -----------
ν

ν = Kinematic viscosity at Tm.

D = 0.033 m.

If ReD < 2000 , flow is laminar.

h. D

For laminar flow --------- = 4.36.

kair

If Reynoulds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow,

14
 h.D
NuD = ---------
kair

= 0.023 ( ReD ) 0.8 ( Pr.) n

Where, n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.

Or n = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled.

Determine htheo from Nu.

6. NOTE :-

The calculated values and actual values may differ appreciably

because of heat losses. The heat loss through natural convection,
conduction and heat loss through insulation over the heater is not
considered, but they are present. Also, the heat flux is not uniform
practically, as assumed in theory, which gives difference between actual
& theoretical value .

7. PRECAUTIONS :-

1. While putting 'ON' the supply, keep dimmerstat at zero position

and blower switch 'OFF'.

2. Operate all the switches and controls gently.

3. Do not obstruct the flow of air while experiment is going on.

*******

15
 SAMPLE CALCULATION:

1. OBSERVATIONS:-

Sr. Volt Amp Temperatures o c Manometer

No . Difference(h
V T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
w)
I

1 85 0.48 42.6 54.6 55.5 62.4 61.5 47.5 65 mm

2 . CALCULATIONS –

1. Air inlet temp. T1 = 42.6 0

C

2. Air outlet temp. T6 = 47.5 0

C

3. Density of air at atmospheric temperature = 1.14 kg/m3

(Density can be found out from the chart of properties of

air.)

4. Diameter of orifice = 14 mm.

Manometer difference = Water head = hw mtrs.=65 mm

Air head, ha = hw ( ρw / ρa )

Where, ρw = Density of water = 1000 Kg / m 3

∴ Air volume flow rate,

Q = Cd x ao x 2 g ha m 3
/Sec.

=0.64 × 1.54 × 10-4 × ( 2 × 9.81× 0.065 × (1000/1.27))0.5

= 3.123× 10-3 m3/sec .

Where, Cd = 0.64

16
 ao = c. s. area of orifice= 1.54 x 10-4 m2

5. Mass flow rate of air ,

ma = Q x ρa Kg /sec.

= 3.29× 10-3 x 1.14 × 3600

= 14.27 Kg /hr

=3.750 × 10-3 Kg /sec

Velocity of air ,

V = ------ m /sec.

ap

3.123× 10-3

V = ------------- m /sec.

6.15 x 10 -4

V = 5.349 m /sec

Where ,

a p = Cross sectional area of pipe

= 6.15 x 10 -4
m2

6. Heat gained by air, q = ma x Cpa x ( T6- T1 ) ---------W

=3.750 × 10-3 x 1000 x ( 47.5- 42.6)

= 18 W

Where, Cpa = Specific heat of air = 1 kJ / Kg K. OR 103 J / Kg K.

7. Average inside surface temperature,

T2 + T3 + T4 + T5

17
 Ts = -------------------------------------- =58.5 O
C

8. Bulk mean temp. of air ,

T1 + T6

Tm = --------------- =45.05 0
C

9. Average surface heat transfer coefficient , -

Actual Heat Loss Due To Forced Convection = q - Heat Loss Due To

Radiation

∴ Heat Loss Due To Radiation ( q1 ) , -

q1 = 0.06 x A x ( Ts4 - Tm4 ) x σ -------- (σ - Stefan Boltzmann

Constant )

q1 = 0.06 x 0.0518 x ( (58.5+273.15)4 – (45.05+273.15)4 ) x

5.667×10-8

q1 = 0.3252 W

∴ Actual Heat Loss = q - q 1

q-q 1

∴ h expt = ---------------------- W / m2 k

A x ( T s - Tm )

18 – 0.3252

∴ h expt =---------------------------------------------- W / m2 k

0.0518 x ((58.5+273.15) - (45.05+273.15)

h expt =25.8337 W / m2 k

where, A = Inside surface area of the pipe = π x di x l

= π x 0.033 x 0.5

= 0.0518 m 2.

18
 di = Inside dia. Of pipe = 0.033 mtrs.

10. Reynolds number-

VxD 5.349×0.033

ReD = -----------= ------------------- = 10115.52

ν 17.45× 10-6

ν = Kinematic viscosity at Tm.

D = 0.033 m.

If ReD < 2000 , flow is laminar.

h. D

For laminar flow --------- = 4.36.

kair

If Reynoulds number exceeds 2000, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow,

h.D
NuD = --------- =
kair

= 0.023 ( ReD ) 0.8 ( Pr.) n =31.84

31.84× 0.02795
h = -------------------- = 26.96 W / m2 k
0.033

Where, n = 0.4 when fluid is being heated.

Or n = 0.3 when fluid is being cooled.

19
 Determine htheo from Nu.

░░░

FORCED CONVECTION APPARATUS

Calculations

Ta = ave air Temp.

T1 + T6 34 + 42

= --------------- = ----------------- = 380C.

2 2

T2 +. . . . T5 63 + 65 + 59 + 56

= --------------- = -------------------------

4 4

= 60.750C.

Discharge of air Q = Cd X π/4d2 2 gj sw/sq

2 x 9.81x 0.1 x 1060

= 0.84 x π/4(0.014)2 ---------------------------

1.28

= 4.10 x 10-3 m3 /Sec.

m = 4.10 x 10-3 x 1.128 x 3600 kg/hr.

= 16.68 kg/hr.

qa = heat carried away by air

= mCm ΔT

20
 = 16.68 x 0.240 x (42 – 34)

= 32.03 Kcal/hr.

Average heat Transfer coefficient.

qa 32.03

ha = -------------------------- = ----------------------------

A (Ts - Ta) 0.035 (60.75 – 38)

= 40.42 Kcal/hr. m2 0 C.

A = π di L = π x 0.028 x 0.04 = 0.035 m2.

Ha di

Nu = -------------

40.22 x 0.28

= --------------------

0.0237

= 47.52

Now, Renold's number

Vdi

Re = ---------

4.10 x 10-3

V = Q/A = ----------------- m/sec.

π/4 (0.028)2

= 6.65 m/sec.

21
 6.65 x 0.028

Re = --------------------

16.96 x 10-6

= 10978.77

Nu = (Re)0.8 (Pr)0.4

= (10978.77)0.8 (0.699)0.4 x 0.023

= 34

Observations V = 85,

l = 1.00 amp. Orifice dia. 14.00Φ

Manometer = 100 mms

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

35 63 65 59 56 42

░░░

22
 PROPERTIES OF AIR

T ρ Cp μ x 106 k Pr vx

106

0
C kgm/m3 kJ/kgm- N-Sec / W/m-K m2

K m2 /Sec

0 1.293 1.005 17.2 0.0244 0.707 13.28

10 1.247 1.005 17.7 0.0251 0.705 14.16

20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259 0.703 15.06

30 1.165 1.005 18.6 0.0267 0.701 16.00

40 1.128 1.005 19.1 0.0276 0.699 16.96

50 1.093 1.005 19.6 0.0283 0.698 17.95

60 1.060 1.005 20.1 0.0290 0.696 18.97

70 1.029 1.009 20.6 0.0297 0.694 20.02

80 1.000 1.009 21.1 0.0305 0.692 21.09

90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313 0.690 22.10

100 0.946 1.009 21.9 0.0321 0.688 23.13

120 0.898 1.009 22.9 0.0334 0.686 25.45

140 0.854 1.013 23.7 0.0349 0.684 27.80

23
 Experiment 7

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION

1. AIM:- To determine the surface heat transfer coefficient for a

vertical tube losing heat by natural convection.

2. INTRODUCTION:-
In contrast to the forced convection, natural convection
phenomenon is due to the temperature difference between the surface and
the fluid and is not created by any external agency.

The present experimental set up is designed and fabricated to study

the natural convection phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of the
variation of local heat transfer coefficient along the length and also the
average heat transfer coefficient and its comparison with the value
obtained by using an appropriate correlation.

3. APPARATUS:-
The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in a rectangular vertical
duct. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and
serves the purpose of undisturbed surrounding. One side of the duct is
made up of Perspex for visualization. An electric heating element is kept in
the vertical tube which in turn heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from
the tube to the surrounding air by natural convection. The temperature of
the vertical tube is measured by seven thermocouples. The heat input to
the heater is measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter and is varied by a
dimmerstat. The vertical cylinder with the thermocouple positions is shown
in Fig.The tube surface is polished to minimize the radiation losses.

4. SPECIFICATIONS:-

1. Diameter of the tube ( d ) = 32 mm.

2. Length of tube (L) = 450 mm.

3. Duct size 200 mm. x 200 mm. x 750 mm. Length

4. Multichannel Digital Temperature Indicator 0 - 300 0C using Chromel /

Alumel thermocouple.

5. Ammeter 0- 2 Amp. and Voltmeter 0 - 300 Volts.

6. Dimmerstat 2 Amp. 240 Volts.

5. THEORY :-

When a hot body is kept in still atmosphere, heat is transferred to the

surrounding fluid by natural convection. The fluid layer in contact with the
hot body gets heated, rises up due to the decrease in its density and the
cold fluid rushes in to take place. The process is continuous and the heat
transfer takes place due to the relative motion of hot and cold fluid particles.

The heat transfer coefficient is given by :

q - q1

h = ------------------------ ------------------ ( 1 )

As x ( Ts - Ta )

Where, h = Average surface heat transfer coefficient ( W / m2 0

C)

q = Heat Transfer rate ( Watts )=V× I

As = Area of the heat transferring surface = π.d.l (m 2

)

Ts = Average surface temperature

( T1 + T 2 + T 3 + T 4 + T 5 + T 6 + T 7 )

= ------------------------------------------------ 0 C

Ta = Ambient temperature in the duct = T8 0

C

q 1 = Heat loss by radiation = σ . A . ε . ( Ts4 - Ta4 )

Where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.667 x 10 -8 W / m2. K4

As= Surface area of pipe. = 0.045 m2

2
 ε = Emissivity of pipe material = 0.4

Ts & Ta = Surface and ambient temperatures in K respectively .

The surface heat transfer coefficient, of a system transferring

heat by natural convection depends on the shape, dimensions and
orientation of the fluid and the temperature difference between heat
transferring surface and the fluid. The dependence of ‘h’ on all the above
mentioned parameters is generally expressed in terms of non-dimensional
groups as follow:

hxL g. L 3 .β . Δ T Cp μ

-------- = A x ------------------- x --------- ....(2 )

k ν 2
k

hxL

Where, ---------- ---------- is called the Nusselt number,

g. L 3
.β . Δ T

------------------- ------- is called to Grashof Number

2
ν

Cp μ

and ----------- ------------- is the Prandtl Number.

A and n are constants depending on the shape and orientation of the heat
transferring surface.

3
 Where, L = Characteristic dimension of the surface.

K = Thermal conductivity of fluid of air.

ν = Kinematic Viscosity of fluid of air.

μ = Dynamic Viscosity of fluid of air .

Cp = Specific heat of fluid of air.

β = Coefficient of volumetric expansion for the fluid.

g = Acceleration due to gravity.

ΔT = [ Ts - Ta ]

For gases, β = --------------- / k

( Tf + 273 )

( Ts + T a )

Tf = -----------------

For a vertical cylinder losing heat by natural convection, the constants A

and n of equation (2) have been determined and the following empirical

correlation's obtained.

hxL

------ = 0.59 ( Gr. Pr. ) 0.25

For 104 < Gr.Pr. < 108 .........(3)

hxL

------ = 0.13 ( Gr. Pr. ) 1/3

For 108 < Gr.Pr. < 1012
.........(4)

L = Length of the cylinder.

4
All the properties of the fluid are determined at the mean film
temperature (Tf).

6. PROCEDURE : -

1. Put ON the supply and adjust the dimmerstat to obtain the required
heat input - ( Say 40 W, 60 W, 70 W etc )

2. Wait till the steady state is reached, which is confirmed from

temperature readings - ( T1 to T7 ).

3. Measure surface temperature at the various points i . e. T1 to T7.

4. Note the ambient temperature i . e. T8 .

5. Repeat the experiment at different heat inputs

( Do not exceed 80 w ).

7. OBSERVATIONS :-

1) O.D. Cylinder = 38 mm.

2) Length of Cylinder = 450 mm.

3) Input to heater =VxI Watts.

5
 TEMPERATURE , 0 C
Sr. Volt Amp

No.

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

8. CALCULATIONS -

1) Calculate the value of average surface heat transfer coefficient,

neglecting end losses using equation (1).

2) Calculate and plot (Fig.1) the variation of local heat transfer coefficient
along the length of the tube using :

q-q1

T = T1 to T7 and h = ----------------

As.( T - Ta )

3) Compare the experimentally obtained value with the predictions of the

correlation equations (3) or (4).

NOTE - The heat loss due to radiation and conduction is not

considered, but they are present, which give difference between
actual and theoretical values .

9. PRECAUTIONS :-

1) Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.

2) Keep dimmerstat to ZERO volt position before putting on main switch and
increase it slowly.
3) Keep at least 200 mm. space behind the equipment.

4) Operate the change-over switch of temperature indicator gently from one

position to other, i.e. from 1 to 8 position.

5) Never exceed input above 80 Watts.

10.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS :-

Some typical results are shown in Fig.1 for heater inputs. The

heat transfer coefficient is having a maximum value at the beginning as

expected because of the just starting of the building of the boundary layer

and it decreases as expected in the upward direction due to thickening of

layer and which is laminar one. This trend is maintained up to half of the

lengths (approx.) and beyond that there is little variation in the value of

local heat transfer coefficient because of the transition and turbulent

boundary layers. The last point shows somewhat increase in the value of

heat transfer coefficient which is attributed to end loss causing a

temperature drop.

The comparison of average heat transfer coefficient is also

made with predicted values are somewhat less than experimental

values due to the heat loss by radiation.

∴ Heat loss by radiation = σ . As. ε . ( Ts4 - Ta4 )

Where

σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.667 x 10 -8 W / m2. K4

2
 A= Surface area of pipe. = 0.04523 m2

ε = Emissivity of pipe material = 0.4

Ts & Ta = Surface and ambient temperatures in K respectively .

REFERENCES:-

A text book of Heat Transfer by Dr. S. P. Sukhatme.

*******

NATURAL CONVECTION CALCULATIONS

1. OBSERVATIONS :-

1) O.D. Cylinder = 38 mm.

2) Length of Cylinder = 510 mm.

3) Input to heater =VxI Watts.

Sr.No. Volts Amp Temperature, 0

c

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8=Ta

1. 70 0.68 96 99 107 114 112 106 94 28

2. CALCULATIONS :

i) The heat transfer coefficient is given by :

q - q1

h = ------------------------ --------( W / m2 0
C)

As x ( Ts - Ta )

3
 Where,

1) q = Heat Transfer rate ( Watts )= V x I

= 70 x 0.68

= 47.6 watts.

2) q 1 = Heat loss by radiation = σ . A . ε . ( Ts4 - Ta4 )

Where,
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.667 x 10 -8 W / m2. K4

As= Surface area of pipe. = 0.05125 m2

ε = Emissivity of pipe material = 0.4

∴ q1= 5.667 x 10 -8
x 0.05125 x 0.4 ( 377.15 4
–301.15 4)

q1 = 13.95 watts.

3) As = Area of the heat transferring surface = π.d.l (m 2

)

As = x 0.038 x 0.5

As = 0.05125 m 2

4) Ts = Average surface temperature

( T1 + T 2 + T 3 + T 4 + T 5 + T 6 + T 7 )

= ------------------------------------------------= -----0 C

96+99+107+114+112+106+94

Ts = ___________________________ = 104 0
c =104+273.15

7 = 377.15 K

4
5) Ta = Ambient temperature in the duct = T8 0
C

Ta = T8 = 280 c =28+273.15=301.15 K

∴ The heat transfer coefficient

q - q1

h = ------------------------ ------------------ ( 1 )

As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 8.639 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (377.15 – 301.15 )

ΔT = (377.15-301.15 ) = 76 0
c

104+28

TF = --------------- = 66 0 c

β = -------------------- = 2.94 Χ 10 –3

66 + 273

5
 g. L 3.β.Δ T 9.81 x 0.51 3
x 2.94 x 10-3 x 76

∴ Gr = ------------------- = ------------------------------------- = 7.6309 x 10

8

v 2
( 19.52 x 10 –6
) 2

∴ Pr = 0.695 ∴ Gr Pr =5.303 x 10 8

hxL

------- =0.13 ( Gr Pr )0.33

0.13 (5.303 x 10 8
) 0.33
x 0.0294

h= -----------------------------------------------

0.51

= 5.6720 watts / m2 k

ii) Calculate and plot (Fig.1) the variation of local heat transfer
coefficient along the length of the tube using :
q-q1

T = T1 to T7 and h = ----------------

As.( T - Ta )

1) T=T1=96 0
c=96+273.15=369.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

As x ( Ts - Ta )

6
 47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 9.65566 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (369.15 – 301.15 )

2) T =T2=99 0
c=99+273.15=372.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 9.2476 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (372.15 – 301.15 )

3) T =T3=107 0
c=107+273.15=380.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 8.31120 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (380.15 – 301.15 )

4) T =T4=114 0
c=114+273.15=387.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

7
 As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 7.6347 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (387.15 – 301.15 )

5) T =T5=112 0
c=112+273.15=385.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 7.8164 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (385.15 – 301.15 )

6) T =T6=106 0
c=106+273.15=379.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 8.41776 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (379.15 – 301.15 )

6) T =T7=94 0 c=94+273.15=367.15 k

q - q1

h = ------------------------

8
 As x ( Ts - Ta )

47.6 – 13.95

h = -------------------------------------- = 9.94826 watts/ m 2k

0.05125× (367.15 – 301.15 )

PROPERTIES OF AIR

T ρ Cp μ x 10-6 k Pr vx

10-6

0
C kg/m3 kJ/kg °K Kg / m W/m- m2

sec. °K /Sec

0 1.293 1.005 17.2 0.0244 0.707 13.28

10 1.247 1.005 17.7 0.0251 0.705 14.16

20 1.205 1.005 18.1 0.0259 0.703 15.06

30 1.165 1.005 18.6 0.0267 0.701 16.00

40 1.128 1.005 19.1 0.0276 0.699 16.96

50 1.093 1.005 19.6 0.0283 0.698 17.95

60 1.060 1.005 20.1 0.0290 0.696 18.97

70 1.029 1.009 20.6 0.0297 0.694 20.02

80 1.000 1.009 21.1 0.0305 0.692 21.09

90 0.972 1.009 21.5 0.0313 0.690 22.10

100 0.946 1.009 21.9 0.0321 0.688 23.13

120 0.898 1.009 22.9 0.0334 0.686 25.45

140 0.854 1.013 23.7 0.0349 0.684 27.80

9
 Experiment 8
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PARALLEL-COUNTER FLOW TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER

1) AIM: - To find out the effectiveness of Heat Exchanger.

2) INTRODUCTION -
Heat exchangers are the devices in which the heat is transferred from
one fluid to another. Exchange of heat is required at many industrial operations
as well as chemical processes. Common examples of heat exchangers are
radiator of a car, condenser of a refrigeration unit or cooling coil of an air
conditioner.
Heat exchangers are of basically three types –

i ) Transfer type - in which both fluids pass through the exchanger and

heat gets transferred through the separating walls between the fluids.

ii ) Storage type - in this, firstly the hot fluid passes through a medium

having high heat capacity and then cold fluid is passed through the

medium to collect the heat. Thus hot and cold fluids are alternately

passed through the medium.

iii) Direct contact type - in this type, the fluids are not separated but they mix
with each other and heat passes directly from one fluid to the other.

Transfer type heat exchangers are the type most widely used. In transfer
type heat exchangers, three types of flow arrangements are used, viz. parallel,
counter or cross flow. In parallel flow, both the fluids flow in the same direction
while in counter flow; they flow in the opposite direction. In cross flow, they flow
at right angles to each other.

3) DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS :-
The apparatus consists of two concentric tubes in which fluids
pass. The hot fluid is hot water which is obtained from an electric geyser. Hot
water flows through the inner tube, in one direction. Cold fluid is cold water which

10
flows through the annulus. Control valves are provided so that direction of cold
water can be kept parallel or opposite to that of hot water. Thus, the heat
exchanger can be operated either as parallel or counter flow heat exchanger. The
temperatures are measured with temperature indicator. Thus, the heat transfer
rate, heat transfer coefficient, L.M.T.D. and effectiveness of heat exchanger can
be calculated for both parallel and counter flow.

4) SPECIFICATIONS:-

1) Heat exchanger - a) Inner tube - Φ 12 mm O.D., Φ11 mm I.D.

copper tube.

b) Outer tube - Φ 25 mm O.D., Φ23 mm I.D.

copper tube.

c) Length of heat exchanger is - 1.675 m.

2) Electric heater - 3 kw capacity to supply hot water.

3) Valves for flow and direction control - 5 Nos.

4) Temperature Indicator to measure temperatures -10 to 110 0C -6 Nos.

5) Measuring flask and stop clock for flow measurement.

5) EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:-

1) Start the water supply. Adjust the water supply on hot and cold sides.
Firstly, keep the valves V2 and V4 closed and V1 - V3 opened so that
arrangement is parallel flow.

2) Switch 'ON' the geyser. Temperature of water will start rising. After
temperatures become steady, note down the readings and fill up the
observation table.

3) Repeat the experiment by changing the flow.

4 ) Now open the valves V2 and V4 and then close the valves V1 & V3. The
arrangement is now counter flow.

5) Wait until the steady state is reached and note down the readings.

11
6) OBSERVATION TABLE:-

HOT WATER COLD WATER

TIME FOR TIME

TYPE OF TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURES
FOR
1 Litre
FLOW S 1LIT.WA
WATER
TER

IN OUT Xh Sec IN OC OUT OC Xc Sec

O O
C(T2 C
(T1)

)
(T3)

PARALLEL

FLOW Thi= Tho= Tci= Tco (T4)=

COUNTER

FLOW Thi= Tho= Tci= Tco (T5)=

Where;

T1=Cold Water Inlet Temperature

T2= Hot Water Inlet Temperature

T3= Hot Water Outlet Temperature

T4= Parallel Flow Cold Water Outlet Temperature

T5= Counter Flow Cold Water Outlet Temperature

7) CALCULATIONS:-

1) Hot water inlet temp. thi = C

o

Hot water outlet temp. tho = o

C.

2) Hot water flow rate, mh -

Let time required for 1 lit. of water be xh sec.

12
 Mass of 1 lit. water = 1kg.

∴ mh = 1 / xh kg/s.

3) Heat given by hot water (inside heat transfer rate)

qh = mh . cp . ( thi - tho ) watts.

Where, cp = Specific heat of water = 4200 J/kg . K .

4) Similarly, for cold water,

Heat collected by cold water ( outside heat transfer rate )

qc = mc . cp . ( tco - tci ) watts.

5) Logarithmic mean temperature difference ( LMTD )

Ti - To

LMTD = ΔTm = ---------------------

ln ( Ti / To )

Where,

For parallel flow, for counter flow,

Ti = thi - tci Ti = thi - tco

To = tho - tci To = tho - tco

6) Overall heat transfer coefficient, U -

a) Inside overall heat transfer coefficient, Ui -

Inside diameter of tube = 0.011 m

∴ Inside surface area of the tube,

Ai = π . di . l = π x 0.011 x 1.675 = ----- m2.

Now, qh = Ui . ΔTm . Ai

∴ Ui = qh / (ΔTm . Ai ) w / m2 oC

b) Outside overall heat transfer coefficient, Uo -

Outside diameter of tube = 0.012 m.

13
 Outside surface area of the tube,

Ao = π . do . l

= π x 0.012 x 1.675 =---------m2.

Similarly, qc = Uo . ΔTm . Ao.

∴ Uo = qc / ΔTm . Ao

7) Effectiveness of heat exchanger -

Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger

ε = --------------------------------------------------

Maximum possible heat transfer rate

mh . cp . ( thi - tho )

ε = ---------------------------------

( m . cp )s ( thi - tci )

Where, ( m. cp )s is smaller of two capacity rates of mh or mc.

8) RESULTS:-

HEAT TRANSFER RATE LMTD

Inside Outside (watts) o

C Ui Uo
(Watts)
w /m2OC w /m2OC

PARALLEL

FLOW

COUNTER

FLOW

9) PRECAUTIONS:-

14
1) Never switch on the geyser unless there is water supply through it.

2) If the red indicator on geyser goes off during operation, increase the water
supply, because it indicates that water temperature exceeds the set limit.

3) Ensure steady water flow rate and temperatures before noting down the
readings, as fluctuating water supply can give erratic results.

4) Proper earthing is necessary for the equipment.

5) Operate all the switches and controls gently.

6) Don’t increase voltage above 120 Volts.

*******

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

(P.F. & C.F HEAT EXCHANGER )

OBSERVATION TABLE : -

HOT WATER COLD WATER

TIME FOR TIME FOR

TYPE OF TEMPERATURES TEMPERATURES
1 LIT.WATER 1LIT.WATER
FLOW

IN OC OUT OC Xh Sec IN OC OUT OC Xc Sec

PARALLEL 44 38.5 41.81 23.5 26 16.41

FLOW

COUNTER 40.5 35.5 35.22 23 26 19.94

FLOW

15
CALCULATIONS -

1) Hot water inlet temp. thi = 44 oC

Hot water outlet temp. tho = 38.5 oC.

2) Hot water flow rate, mh -

Let time required for 1 lit. of water be xh sec.= 41.81sec

Mass of 1 lit. water = 1kg.

∴ mh = 1 / xh kg/s.

= 1 / 41.81 kg/s

= 0.024 kg/s

3) Heat given by hot water ( inside heat transfer rate )

qh = mh . cp . ( thi - tho ) kwatts.

= 0.024 x 4.2 x ( 44 - 38.5)

= 0.55 kw.

Where, cp = Specific heat of water = 4200 J/kg . K .

4) Similarly, for cold water,

Heat collected by cold water ( outside heat transfer rate )

qc = mc . cp . ( tco - tco )

= 0.061 . 4.2 ( 26- 23.5)

= 0.64 kw.

5) Logarithmic mean temperature difference ( LMTD )

Ti - To

16
 LMTD = ΔTm = ---------------------

ln ( Ti / To )

20.5 - 12.5
LMTD = ΔTm = --------------------- = 16.17 0c

ln ( 20.5 / 12.5 )

where , for parallel flow, for counter flow,

Ti = thi - tci = 44 - 23.5= 20.5 , Ti = thi - tco = 40.5-26=14.5

To = tho - tco =38.5 -26=12.5 , To = tho - tci = 35.5- 23=12.5

6) Overall heat transfer coefficient , U -

a) Inside overall heat transfer coefficient, Ui -

Inside diameter of tube = 0.011 m

∴ inside surface area of the tube, Ai = π . di . l = π x 0.011 x 1 = 0.03454 m2.

Now, qh = Ui . ΔTm . Ai

∴ Ui = qh / (ΔTm . Ai )

Ui =0.55 / (16.17. 0.03454 ) = 0.925 kw/ m2 0c

b) Outside overall heat transfer coefficient ,Uo -

outside diameter of tube = 0.012 m.

outside surface area of the tube, Ao = π . do . l = π x 0.012 x 1 = 0.03768 m2.

Similarly, qc = Uo . ΔTm . Ao.

∴ Uo = qc / ΔTm . Ao

Uo = 0.64 /16.17 x 0.03768

= 1.05 kw/ m2 0c

17
7) Effectiveness of heat exchanger -

Rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger

ε = --------------------------------------------------
Maximum possible heat transfer rate

mh . cp . ( thi - tho )

ε = ---------------------------------

( m . cp ) ( thi - tci )

0.024 x4.2 ( 44 - 38.5 )

ε = ---------------------------------

0.024 x4.2 ( 44 - 23.5 )

= 0.268

where, ( m. cp ) is smaller of two capacity rates of mh or mc.

Note :- Sample calculations are only for reference purpose.

*******

18