HERITAGE HIGHER INSTITUTE OF PEACE & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

(HEHIPEDS) BISCUITERIE - YAOUNDÉ

COMPUTER NETWORKS
Lecturer: Mr. AGBOR BESONG B.
E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 1

UNDERSTANDING NETWORKING
Networks are everywhere. You can hardly do anything withdata that does not involve a
network. Like the human networks that we areall part of, computer networks let us
share information and resources. In business,the reliance on networks is even more
pervasive than in homes or schools.Networks help individuals and businesses to save
money, but they also helpcreate income.

Human Networks
In its broadest sense, a network consists of two or more entities, or objects, sharing
resources and information. Although we are focused on computer networks, there exist
networks that don’t involve computers, and those networks are everywhere. You have
grown accustomed to working with them, possibly without even knowing it. It may not
matter to you that, in a basic sense, sharing (giving or getting) is a fundamental aspect
of networking. You just know that you do it.

Family Network
Most people belong to a family network in which related people share their resources
and information. This sharing is bi-directional because even the youngest family
members share information of some sort. As the family grows, so does the network.
A network connects members of a family together.

Father Mother

Child Child

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Peer Network
Outside the family, there is a community that offers a wider array of resources than the
typical family can provide. Naturally, it makes sense toconnect the family to this
community to take advantage of the wealth of resources available around town. This
type of information/resource sharing can be as simple as loaning a hammer to a
neighbor, car-pooling with work associates, or helping a friend with his or her
homework. All of these activities involve sharing, or trading, resources. This kind of
network is represented
by a two-way relationship, a give and take among equals or peers.

Restaur
School
ant

Family

Store Work

DEFINITIONS OF A COMPUTER NETWORK

Acomputer network consists of two or more computing devices that are connected in
order to share the components of your network(its resources) and the information you
store there. The most basic computer network (which consists ofjusttwo connected
computers) can expand and become more usable when additional computers join and add
their resources to those being shared.The first computer, yours, is commonly referred to
as your local computer. It is more likely to be used as a location where you do work, a
workstation,
than as a storage or controlling location, a server. As more and morecomputers are
connected to a network and share their resources, the networkbecomes a more powerful
tool, because employees using a networkwith more information and more capability are
able to accomplish morethrough those added computers or additional resources
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of
sharing resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the

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 Internet. Other shared resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself
can be considered a computer network.

A computer network is a set of connected computers. Computers on a network are

called nodes. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most
commonly the Ethernet cable, or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers
can share resources, like access to the Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A
network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a single computer to do more.
Computer networking is the connectivity among computers to allow communication
between computer systems or devices. A computer network is any set of computers or
devices connected to each other with the ability to exchange data.

Network Services

 Email service
 File service - Allows users to use and share file space on a computer with a lot of file
space.
 Print service - Allows printing to printers connected on the network.
 Web surfing - Allowing someone to open web pages and see web sites on the internet.
 Filtering out undesired sites on the internet.
 Allowing someone to access the network from the outside (from home).
 Updating virus definitions on workstations.
 Allowing someone to log onto the network.
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 Even giving a workstation an address on the network is a service. If your computer
does not have an address, it cannot access the internet or any other resource on thenetwork

Main Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networking

Computer networking has become one of the most successful ways of sharing
information, where all computers are wirelessly linked together by a common network.
Now, businesses and organizations heavily rely on it to get messages and information
across to essential channels. Not only has it benefited establishments, but also
individuals, as they also need to share important information every day. But no matter
how useful computer networking is, it does not come without drawbacks. Here are its
advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages of Computer Networking

1. It enhances communication and availability of information.
Networking, especially with full access to the web, allows ways of communication that
would simply be impossible before it was developed. Instant messaging can now allow
users to talk in real time and send files to other people wherever they are in the world,
which is a huge boon for businesses. Also, it allows access to a vast amount of useful
information, such as news and current events.
2. It allows for more convenient resource sharing.
This benefit is very important, particularly for larger companies that really need to
produce huge numbers of resources to be shared to all the people. Since the technology
involves computer-based work, it is assured that the resources they wanted to get
across would be completely shared by connecting to a computer network which their
audience is also using.
3. It makes file sharing easier.
Computer networking allows easier accessibility for people to share their files, which

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greatly helps them with saving more time and effort, since they could do file sharing
more accordingly and effectively.
4. It is highly flexible.
This technology is known to be very flexible, as it gives users the opportunity to explore
everything essential, such as software without affecting their functionality. In addition,
people will have the accessibility to all information they need to get and share.
5. It is an inexpensive system.
Installing networking software on your device would not cost too much, as you are
assured that it lasts and can effectively share information to your peers. Also, there is no
need to change the software regularly, as mostly it is not required to do so.
6. It increases cost efficiency.
With computer networking, you can use a lot of software products available in the
market which can just be stored or installed in your system or server, and can then be
used by various workstations.
7. It boosts storage capacity.
Since you are going to share information, files and resources to other people, you have
to ensure all data and content are properly stored in the system.

Disadvantages of Computer Networking

1. It lacks independence.
Computer networking involves a process that is operated using computers, so people
will be relying more of computer work, instead of exerting an effort for their tasks at
hand. Aside from this, they will be dependent on the main file server, which means that,
if it breaks down, the system would become useless, making users idle.
2. It poses security difficulties.
Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer
network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security
would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which
you need to be careful about and aware of.
3. It lacks robustness. (Force and energy)
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire
system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server
that fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill. To deal with these
problems, huge networks should have a powerful computer to serve as file server to
make setting up and maintaining the network easier.
4. It allows for more presence of computer viruses and malware.
There would be instances that stored files are corrupt due to computer viruses. Thus,
network administrators should conduct regular check-ups on the system, and the stored
files at the same time.
5. Its light (un strict) policing usage promotes negative acts.
It has been observed that providing users with internet connectivity has fostered
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 undesirable behavior among them. Considering that the web is a minefield of
distractions—online games, humor sites and even porn sites—workers could be
tempted during their work hours. The huge network of machines could also encourage
them to engage in illicit practices, such as instant messaging and file sharing, instead of
working on work-related matters. While many organizations draw up certain policies on
this, they have proven difficult to enforce and even engendered resentment from
employees.
6. It requires an efficient handler.
For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high technical skills
and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic skills
cannot do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as
allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration
and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average technician who does
not have advanced knowledge.
7. It requires an expensive set-up.
Though computer networks are said to be an inexpensive system when it is already
running, its initial set up cost can still be high depending on the number of computers to
be connected. Expensive devices, such as routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the
cost. Aside from these, it would also need network interface cards (NICs) for
workstations in case they are not built-in.

Conclusion
Computer networking will always be a fast and convenient means of transferring and
sharing information, but people should be aware of its consequences as well. They
should remember that often relying on this system can put them at certain risks that can
be caused by its flaws and other malfunctions.

Some basic vocabularies in Networking

1) Workstation

A workstation is a computer intended for individual use that is faster and more capable
than a personal computer. It's intended for business or professional use (rather than
home or recreational use). Workstations and applications designed for them are used by
small engineering companies, architects, graphic designers, and any organization,
department, or individual that requires a faster microprocessor, a large amount of
random access memory (RAM), and special features such as high-speed graphics
adapters. Historically, the workstation developed technologically about the same time
and for the same audience as the UNIX operating system, which is often used as the

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workstation operating system. Among the most successful makers of this kind of
workstation are Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, DEC, and IBM.

A workstation is a personal computer that is used for high end applications such as
graphic design, video editing, Auto-CAD, 3-D design, or other CPU and RAM intensive
programs. A workstation typically has a top of the line, fast processor, multiple hard
drives, and a lot of RAM memory. A workstation may also have special audio, video, or
processing cards for special editing work. A workstation is marketed by computer
manufacturers to professional users

2) Server
A server is a software or hardware device that accepts and responds to requests made
over a network. The device that makes the request, and receives a response from the
server, is called a client. On the Internet, the term "server" commonly refers to the
computer system which receives a request for a web document, and sends the
requested information to the client.

What are servers used for?

Servers are used to manage network resources. For example, a user may set up a server
to control access to a network, send/receive e-mail, manage print jobs, or host
a website. They are also proficient at performing intense calculations. Some servers are
committed to a specific task, often referred to as dedicated. However, many servers
today are shared servers which can take on the responsibility of e-mail, DNS, FTP, and
even multiple websites in the case of a web server.

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 3) Nodes

What is a node?
A node is nothing but a computer or another device like a printer. Each node has an
exclusive address for a network like a DCL (Data Link Control) or MAC (Media Access
Control).

A network node in a communication network is a connection point, used to transmit,

receive, create or store the information with the help of distributed network routes.
Each network node is an endpoint otherwise a redistribution point, used for process
recognition, data transmission from one network to another. The concept of network
nodes is used for network distribution as well as packet switching.
In a network, a node is a device or computer. So, in order to form a network connection,
multiple nodes are required. The node mainly depends on the referred network &
protocol layer. Every device used on a network includes a unique IP (Internet
protocol)address, which is known as a node. When a node is connected in a network, it
must have a MAC address. It is a unique identifier allocated by manufacturers of the
device to a NIC (network interface card) intended for communications within a network.

4) Packet
A packet is a small amount of data sent over a network, such as a LAN or the
Internet. Similar to a real-life package, each packet includes a source and destination
as well as the content (or data) being transferred
It turns out that everything you do on the Internet involves packets. For example, every
Web page that you receive comes as a series of packets, and every e-mail you send

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leaves as a series of packets. Networks that ship data around in small packets are
called packet switched networks.
On the Internet, the network breaks an e-mail message into parts of a certain size
in bytes. These are the packets. Each packet carries the information that will help it get
to its destination -- the sender's IP address, the intended receiver's IP address,
something that tells the network how many packets this e-mail message has been
broken into and the number of this particular packet. The packets carry the data in the
protocols that the Internet uses: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP). Each packet contains part of the body of your message. A typical packet
contains perhaps 1,000 or 1,500 bytes.

Chapter 2
TYPES OF NETWORKS

1) Local area network

A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a
limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned
group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are
most likely based on Ethernet technology.

2) Campus area network

A campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited
geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission
media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the
campus
(an enterprise, university, government, etc.).
For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings
to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls.

3) Metropolitan area network

A Metropolitan Area Network is a network thatconnects two or more Local Area
Networks or Campus Area Networks together but doesnot extend beyond the
boundaries of the immediate town, city, or metropolitan area.Multiple routers,
switches & hubs are connected to create a MAN.
A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a
city or a large campus.

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 4) Wide area network
A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area
such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a
communication channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines,
cables, and air waves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by
common carriers, such as telephone companies.

5) Enterprise private network

An enterprise private network is a network that a single organization builds to
interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices,
shops) so they can share computer resources.
6) Global area network
A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary
number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile
communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to
the next.

7) Home area network (HAN)

A home area network is a residential LAN used for communication between digital
devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers
and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function
is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or digital
subscriber line (DSL) provider.
8) Storage area network (SAN)
A storage area network is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated,
block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk
arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices
appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own
network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area
network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s
to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized
business environments.

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Chapter 3
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
How do we connect to network resources? In this lesson, we'll discuss physical and
logical topologies, which are different ways of describing network connections. We'll
also look at characteristics of some commonly used topologies.

Physical & Logical Topologies

People often draw diagrams or pictures to help describe complicated things. Maps are
pictures of routes to get from point A to point B. Instruction manuals use diagrams to
help us figure out how to put things together.
When we use the word topology in this lesson, we're referring to how things in a
network are connected, as in a configuration.

 A physical topology describes how network devices are physically connected. In other
words, how devices are actually plugged into each other. We're talking about cables,
wireless connectivity, and more.
 A logical topology describes how network devices appear to be connected to
each other.

For example, in a logical diagram of your office network, you may show a connection
between city A and city B. But in the actual physical network, your data may go through
switching points in several other cities as well. The logical path is a high-level
representation; the physical path is the actual route.

Signal Topologies
Logical topology can also refer to the signal topology of the network, which is how the
signals are passed across the physical network. How signals are set up and transmitted is
governed by network protocols. The most common signal topologies are shared media
access and token-based access.

 In a shared media access network, all the devices on the network can transmit at
any time, which sometimes results in collisions if two nodes transmit at once.
Ethernet is based on shared media access.

 In a token-based access network, nodes have to wait their turn with the network
token before they can transmit.

Common Types of Physical Topologies

The common types of physical topologies for networks are star, bus, ring, and mesh.

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The most widely used physical topology in businesses today is the star topology, in
which all network devices are connected back to a central hub or switch. In a bus
topology, network devices are connected to a central cable in a linear direction, like
stops on a bus route.
In most offices and many home networks, the underlying network technology used is
Ethernet. Ethernet (or shared media access) is based on a family of standards that has
been around for almost 50 years and is not brand-specific to any one manufacturer.
Devices can connect to Ethernet through wired or wireless connections. Ethernet
networks are logically a bus topology and physically a star topology.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting
various nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

1) BUS Topology
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to
single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

1. It transmits data only in one direction.

2. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.

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 2. Cable required is least, compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. Cable fails, then whole network fails.

2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.

2) STAR Topology
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

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Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.

2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

1. Cost of installation is high.

2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend
on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

3) RING Topology
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.

Features of Ring Topology

1. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology

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 with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
2. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
3. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite
direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to
keep the network up.
4. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has
to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as

only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.

2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

4) MESH Topology

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It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are
connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

1. Routing
2. Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing
logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing
logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those nodes etc. We
can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes; hence no routing
logic is required. The network is robust, andit’s very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads
to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

1. Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in
the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two
or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each
other.

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Features of Mesh Topology

1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.

2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Installation and configuration is difficult.

2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

5) HYBRID Topology

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 A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more basic network topologies, such as
a star-bus, or star-ring topology.
The advantage of a hybrid topology is that it can be implemented for a number of
different network environments.
The type of topology determines the capabilities of the network, such as ease of
setup, speed, and cable lengths. LAN
architecture describes both the physical and logical topologies used in a network.

6) HIERARCHICAL Topology / Tree Topology

A hierarchical or extended star topology is a star network with an additional

networking device connected to the main networking device. Typically, a network
cable connects to one switch, and then several other switches connect to the first
switch. Larger networks, such as those of corporations or universities, use the
hierarchical star topology.

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called
hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.
Features of Tree Topology

1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

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 Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.

2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.

Chapter 4

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

What Is Network Architecture?

Network architecture refers to the way network devices and services are structured to
serve the connectivity needs of client devices.
 Network devices typically include switches and routers.
 Types of services include DHCP and DNS.
 Client devices comprise end-user devices, servers, and
smart things.

The two types of widely used network architectures are peer-to-

peer aka P2P and client/server aka tiered.

1) Peer-to-Peer Architecture
A peer is considered an equal. All computers on a peer-to-peer networkcan be
considered equals. That is to say, no one computer is in charge of the network’s
operation. Each computer controls its own information and is capable of functioning

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 as either a client or a server depending on which is needed at the time. Peer-to-peer
networks are popular as home networks and for use in small companies because they
are inexpensive and easy to install.

In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered
equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each computer
that is connected to this network would act as the server for the files stored on it.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network

 Does not require a dedicated server which means its less costly.
 If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the network will
continue working.
 Installation and setup is quite painless because of the built-in support in modern
operating systems.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

 Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.

 As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network... performance, security,
and access becomes a major headache.

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2) Client/Server Architecture

In a client/server network, a centralized or really powerful computer (server) acts as a

hub in which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is the
heart of the system, which manages and provides resources to any client that requests
them.

Advantages of a client/server network

 Resources and data security are controlled through the server.

 Not restricted to a small number of computers.
 Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network

 Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices
such as hubs, routers, and switches.
 If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
 Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.

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 THE EQUIPMENT OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the
software. Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router,
and modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network
components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a
cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

NIC
o NIC stands for Network Interface Card.
o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer
onto a network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which
is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is
stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

There are two types of NIC:

1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are
used with wired NIC to transfer data.

Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the
wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

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Hub

A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple
devices. When computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends
the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire
network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not,
the request will be dropped.

The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more
advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers.

Switch

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A

Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated
table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to
the correct destination based on the physical address present in the incoming message.
A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It
determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say

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that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It
increases the speed of the network.

Router

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet

connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to
another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing
table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the
packet.

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Advantages of Router:

o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the
entire cable, but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the
data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no
other networks are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose
there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This
increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the single network into
two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load by half.
o Network range

Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the

internet over the existing telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather; it is installed on the PCI
slot found on the motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog
signal over the telephone lines.

Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified
in the following categories:

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 o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem
o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem

Cables and Connectors

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

o Twisted pair cable

o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

Wired technologies

Fiber optic cables are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to
another
The following classes of wired technologies are used in computer networking.

 Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other
work-sites for local area networks. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits
per second to more than 500 million bits per second.
 Twisted pair cabling is used for wired Ethernet and other standards. It typically
consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data
transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to
reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from

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 2 Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s. Twisted pair cabling comes in An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It
carries pulses of light that represent data via lasers and optical amplifiers.
Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss
and immunity to electrical interference.
Using dense wave division multiplexing, optical fibers can simultaneously carry
multiple streams of data on different wavelengths of light, which greatly increases
the rate that data can be sent to up to trillions of bits per second.
Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are
used for undersea cables to interconnect continents. There are two basic types of
fiber optics, single-mode optical fiber (SMF) and multi-mode optical fiber (MMF).
Single-mode fiber has the advantage of being able to sustain a coherent signal for
dozens or even a hundred kilometers. Multimode fiber is cheaper to terminate but is
limited to a few hundred or even only a few dozens of meters, depending on the
data rate and cable grade.
Wireless technologies

Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links

Network connections can be established wirelessly using radio or other electromagnetic
means of communication.

 Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based

transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in
the low gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay
stations are spaced approximately 40 miles (64 km) apart.
 Communications satellites – Satellites also communicate via microwave. The
satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km
(22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving
and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

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Transceivers
What is a Transceiver?

Definition: It is a combination of transmitter (Tx)/receiver (Rx) in a package. This device

is used in wireless communications devices like cordless telephone sets, cellular
telephones, radios, etc.. Irregularly the transceiver name is used as a reference to Tx or
Rx devices within cable otherwise optical fiber systems.

The main function of this device is to transmit as well as receive different signals. This is
most commonly used to illustrate the component in LAN to apply signals over the
network wire & detect signals flowing through the wire. For several LANs, it is
embedded in the NIC (network interface card). Some kinds of networks require an
exterior transceiver.

Working
In a radio transceiver, as the transmitter transmits the signals, the receiver will be
silenced. An electronic switch lets the transmitter & receiver to be allied to the
similar antenna, so that transmitter o/p can be protected from the damage of the
receiver.
In a transceiver type, it is not possible to get signals while transmitting, which is known
as half-duplex. Some of the transceivers are mainly designed for permitting reception of
signals throughout transmission stages which are known as full-duplex. The transmitter
& receiver operate on different frequencies so that the transmitter signal does not
interfere with the receiver. This kind of operation is used in cordless & cellular phones.

Satellite communication networks frequently use full-duplex transceivers on the

subscriber points based on the surface. The transceiver to satellite or transmitted signal
is known as the uplink, whereas the satellite to the transceiver or received signal is
known as the downlink.

Types of Transceivers
Transceivers are classified into different types which include the following.

 RF Transceivers
 Fiber-optic Transceivers

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 Ethernet Transceivers
 Wireless Transceivers
In the above-mentioned types are different but the working remains the same. Each
type has its own characteristics like the no. of ports accessible for connecting the
network and supports full-duplex communication.

1). RF Transceivers

RF transceiver is one type of module that includes both a Tx as well as Rx. Generally, this
can be used in any wireless communication system by arranging in between baseband
modem as well as PA/LNA. Here PA is a power amplifier whereas LNA is a low noise
amplifier. Baseband Modem includes chipsets of numerous analog or digital modulation
methods & ADC/DAC chips. RF Transceivers are used to transmit the data in the form of
voice or video over the wireless medium. RF Transceiver is used to convert intermediate
frequency (IF) to radiofrequency (RF). These are used in satellite communication for
transmission & reception of TV signal, radio transmission & reception, and ITE
networks/Zigbee/ WiMax/WLAN.

2). Fiber-optic Transceivers

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This is also called as fiber optical transceiver, optics module, optical module, etc. This
device employs fiber optic technology for data transmission. This is an essential
component in the optical network devices that include electronic components to
encode or decode the information into light signals. After that, these signals can be
transmitted as electrical signals through another end. Here the data can be transmitted
in the form of light which uses a light source like VSCEL, DFB laser, and FP.

3) Ethernet Transceivers

An Ethernet transceiver is used to connect electronic devices or computers in a network

to transmit & receive messages. An alternate name of an Ethernet transceiver is MAU
(media access unit). This is used in the specifications of IEEE 802.3 & Ethernet. In the ISO
network model, Ethernet is the physical layer component and the main functions of
transceivers are for detecting a collision, conversion of digital data, Ethernet interface
processing, and provides access for the network.

4). Wireless Transceivers

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A wireless transceiver is an essential component in the wireless communication system
and the quality of this can be determined by the efficiency as well as data delivery
within the wireless system. This includes two functional layers like a physical layer & a
media access control layer. The physical layer includes an RF front end as well as a
baseband processor, this processor changes a bitstream to a collection symbol flow for
data transmission. The MAC layer gives link traffic control used for the transmitter to
contact the wireless links, evade collisions & enhance data throughput.

Applications of Transceiver
The transceiver applications are

 This module is applicable in wireless communication

 The main function of this is to transmit the data in the form of voice or data or video over
the wireless medium.
 This modem is used to change the frequency from IF to RF
 RF transceiver module is used in satellite communication, radio transmission for TV
signal transmission.
What is the function of a transceiver?
It is used to connect electronic devices within a network and allows them to transmit
&receive messages.
What is the transceiver module?
This is a collection of transceivers which includes both a transmitter & a receiver to
share common circuitry otherwise a single housing.
What is the frequency range of the RF transmitter & receiver?
433 MHz
What are the types of transceivers?
They are RF, Fiber-optic, Ethernet, and Wireless.
Examples of transceiver modules
TM751, RR501.
Thus, this is all about an overview of the transceiver. It is the combination of a
transmitter & a receiver. This may vary from one application to another. In a local area
network, a network interface card includes a transceiver that transmits the signals on
the wire and also notices the signals. In radio communication, the communication is in
two ways, where the data can be exchanged in a half-duplex mode. In some

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transceivers, it allows full-duplex transmissions however the frequencies for
transmitting & receiving are generally different. Here is a question for you, what are
the Functions of transceiver?

Server (computing)

In computing, a server is a computer program or a device that provides functionality for

other programs or devices, called "clients". This architecture is called the client–server
model, and a single overall computation is distributed across multiple processes or
devices. Servers can provide various functionalities, often called "services", such as
sharing data or resources among multiple clients, or performing computation for a
client. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple
servers. A client process may run on the same device or may connect over a network to
a server on a different device.[1] Typical servers are database servers, file servers, mail
servers, print servers, web servers, game servers, and application servers.[2]
Client–server systems are today most frequently implemented by (and often identified
with) the request–response model: a client sends a request to the server, which
performs some action and sends a response back to the client, typically with a result or
acknowledgement. Designating a computer as "server-class hardware" implies that it is
specialized for running servers on it. This often implies that it is more powerful and
reliable than standard personal computers, but alternatively, large computing
clusters may be composed of many relatively simple, replaceable server components.

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 Different Types of Servers
Different types servers do different jobs, from serving email and video to protecting
internal networks and hosting websites. There are many different types of servers, for
example:
 File server: a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the
network can store files on the server.
 Print server: a computer that manages one or more printers, and a network server is a
computer that manages network traffic.
 Database server: a computer system that processes database queries.

Are Servers Just Desktop Computers?

Many people mistakenly believe that a server is a typical desktop computer, but simply
running a server operating system on a desktop computer isn't a replacement for real
server hardware. For the average home user looking for a basic, infrequently used
server, one built from a desktop computer could work but most businesses will find that
a ready-made, dedicated server is a better choice. A server is engineered to manage,
store, send and process data 24-hours a day it has to be more reliable than a desktop
computer and offers a variety of features and hardware not typically used in the
average desktop computer.

The Gateway
Gateway: A gateway is any device that serves to interface with other networks using
dissimilar protocols . For example, a gateway might interface between a home network
and the Internet or between a NetBIOS network and an IPX/SPX network. A gateway
operates in any of the seven OSI layers.

Bridge
A bridge also operates at the Data Link layer and is used to connect two (similar or
dissimilar) physical network segments together, forming a larger inter-network. It can
forward packets or reject them based on their destination (MAC) address. Note: The
connected network segments must have same network ID.

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WAP
A Wireless Access Pointis a device that allows wireless devices to access and to
communicate with the network. It acts as a bridge between the wired, traditional
networkand other wireless devices.Alternatively, it can act as a bridge between wireless
devices and another, linked WAP. It typically operates in the Network layer of the OSI
model as a sort of router/bridge/switch combination. Note that most WAP devices
direct traffic by MAC address, making them switched.

Chapter 5
COMPUTER NETWORK – ADDRESSING
(Port, Logical, Specific and Physical Address Basic Overview).

We already know that in any network transmission model, any two devices shall start
communication by the virtue of their unique address. In simple words we can say that if
any two devices want to engage in any kind of dialogue (communication), then they
should first identify themselves in this complex network transmission arena. So first they
should know each other’s respective addresses (of source and destination).

In internet employing TCP/IP protocol we have four levels of addresses being in use for
different layers. Now let us see the different addressing methods in detail.

Four types of addressing methods used are the following:

 Physical address
 Logical address (IP)
 Port address and
 Specific address

Before we dig deep into each type of addressing, we should first understand the
respective mapping (implementation) of each address in each of the layers of TCP/IP
model:

Addressing
TCP/IP Layer
used
Application layer Specific address
Transport layer Port address

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Network or Internet
Logical address
Layer
Data link layer/Physical Physical
layer address

1. MAC Addresses (Physical Address):

 It is also known as the ‘Link address‘. It is basically the address of any particular
node that has been described by the LAN or WAN (already covered in the
previous post). It is further included inside the frame which is utilized by the DLL
(data link layer) of OSI model. It is the bottom most layer (bottom most address in
OSI model) address.
 The packets through the source to destination hosts move across physical
networks. The internet protocol address details are not useful however the host
and routers are acknowledged by their MAC addresses.
 A MAC address is basically a local address. It will be unique locally but it is not
unique universally. The format and size of this kind of address will further change
depending on the network.
 Most importantly we should be able to map any IP address into a corresponding
MAC address.
 The size and format of any physical address varies depending on the nature of
network.
 The Ethernet (LAN) uses a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address which is normally
produced in the network interfacing card (NIC).
 The sender computer with a physical address of 15 wants of communicate with
the receiver computer with a physical address 54.
 The frame sent by any sender consists of the destination address, senders
address, encapsulated data and a trailer that contains the error control bit.
 When this frame travels over the bus topology, each and every computer receives
it and tries to match it with its own physical address. Each of the station having a
physical addresses which is other than 54 declines the frame simply because the
destination target contained in the framework doesn’t match it’s very own
physical address .
 If the destination address in the frame header does not match with the physical
address it will simply drop the frame.
 At receiver computer (D) the destinations address matches with its physical
address (54).So the frame is accepted and decapsulation is carried out to recover
the data. Thus finally the frame is checked, the header and the trailer are
dropped, and the data part is then decapsulated and delivered to the upper layer.

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 2. Logical Address (IP Addresses):

 Logical address is required to facilitate universal communication in which

different types of physical network can be involved. In universal addressing
system every single host will be recognized individually, regardless of any
fundamental physical network.
 The logical address is also called as the IP (Internet Protocol) address.
 The internet consists of many physical networks interconnected via devices like
routers.
 Internet is a packed switched networked that means the data from the source
computer is sent in the form of small packets carrying the destination address
upon them.
 A packet starts from the source host, passes through many physical networks and
finally reaches the destination host. When the frame reaches the destination, the
packet is then decapsulated. The destination logical address further matches the
logical address of the particular computer. The data are then finally decapsulated
from the packet and then delivered (forwarded) to the upper layer.
 The message frame is initially received by every unit on the LAN network , but is
then declined by all apart from the necessary required router, which ultimately
realize that the location destination address in the frame fits with its own target
physical address. The router then finally decapsulates the data packet in order to
retrieve the destination logical address.
 At the network level , the hosts and routers are further recognized by their IP
Addresses. Note that although the physical addresses will change itself from the
hop to hop movement (each jump transition) , but the logical addresses will
remain the same from the source to destination .
 An IP address is an internetwork address .It is a universally unique address.
 Every protocol involved in internetwork requires IP address. The logical address
used in internet is currently a 32-bit address .The same IP address can be used by
more than one computer on the internet.

3. Port Address:

 The IP and Physical address are essential for any level of data traveling from the
certain specific source to the destination host that is required. But in today’s
modern computers, we may require to run multiple process on it simultaneously.
 Let us suppose a computer say ‘A’ first initiate communication with another
computer named ‘C’ by using TELNET. Further consider now, the same computer
‘A’ communicates with any computer ‘B’ simultaneously by means of the File
Transfer Protocol (FTP) .
 The main objective of the internet is the process to process communications. For
this purpose it is necessary to label or name the specific process.

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  Thus the process needs addresses. The label that is allocated to a process is
known as the port address. It is a 16 bit address field.
 The physical addresses change for each and every trip a packet takes, but the
logical and port addresses basically will remain as it is.

4. Specific Addresses:

 A few of the applications generally have simple (easy to use) address. The
examples of specific address are the e-mail addresses or the University Resource
Locators (URL).
 Examples mainly consist of the email address (for eg,
[email protected]) and the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for e.g.
, www.gmail.com).
 These kind of addresses are designed for a specific address. However these
address gets changed according to the required logical and port addresses sent
from the sender computer.

There are two versions of IP in use today, IPv4 and IPv6. The original IPv4 protocol is still
used today on both the internet, and many corporate networks. However, the IPv4
protocol only allowed for 232 addresses. This, coupled with how addresses were
allocated, led to a situation where there would not be enough unique addresses for all
devices connected to the internet.

IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), and was formalized in
1998. This upgrade substantially increased the available address space and allowed for
2128 addresses. In addition, there were changes to improve the efficiency of IP packet
headers, as well as improvements to routing and security.

IPv4 addresses

IPv4 addresses are actually 32-bit binary numbers, consisting of the two sub addresses
(identifiers) mentioned above which, respectively, identify the network and the host to
the network, with an imaginary boundary separating the two. An IP address is, as such,
generally shown as 4 octets of numbers from 0-255 represented in decimal form instead
of binary form.

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For example, the address 168.212.226.204 represents the 32-bit binary number
10101000.11010100.11100010.11001100.

The binary number is important because that will determine which class of network the
IP address belongs to.

An IPv4 address is typically expressed in dotted-decimal notation, with every eight bits
(octet) represented by a number from one to 255, each separated by a dot. An example
IPv4 address would look like this:

192.168.17.43

IPv4 addresses are composed of two parts. The first numbers in the address specify the
network, while the latter numbers specify the specific host. A subnet mask specifies
which part of an address is the network part, and which part addresses the specific host.

A packet with a destination address that is not on the same network as the source
address will be forwarded, or routed, to the appropriate network. Once on the correct
network, the host part of the address determines which interface the packet gets
delivered to.

Subnet masks

A single IP address identifies both a network, and a unique interface on that network. A
subnet mask can also be written in dotted decimal notation and determines where the
network part of an IP address ends, and the host portion of the address begins.

IP address classes
Before variable length subnet masks allowed networks of any size to be configured, the
IPv4 address space was broken into five classes.

Class A

In a Class A network, the first eight bits, or the first dotted decimal, is the network part
of the address, with the remaining part of the address being the host part of the
address. There are 128 possible Class A networks.

0.0.0.0 to 127.0.0.

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However, any address that begins with 127. is considered a loopback address.

Example for a Class A IP address:

2.134.213.2

Class B

In a Class B network, the first 16 bits are the network part of the address. All Class B
networks have their first bit set to 1 and the second bit set to 0. In dotted decimal
notation, that makes 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.0.0 as Class B networks. There are 16,384
possible Class B networks.

Example for a Class B IP address:

135.58.24.17

Class C

In a Class C network, the first two bits are set to 1, and the third bit is set to 0. That
makes the first 24 bits of the address the network address and the remainder as the
host address. Class C network addresses range from 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.0. There
are over 2 million possible Class C networks.

Example for a Class C IP address:

192.168.178.1

Class D

Class D addresses are used for multicasting applications. Unlike the previous classes, the
Class D is not used for "normal" networking operations. Class D addresses have their first
three bits set to “1” and their fourth bit set to “0”. Class D addresses are 32-bit network
addresses, meaning that all the values within the range of 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
are used to uniquely identify multicast groups. There are no host addresses within the
Class D address space, since all the hosts within a group share the group’s IP address for
receiver purposes.

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Example for a Class D IP address:

227.21.6.173

Class E

Class E networks are defined by having the first four network address bits as 1. That
encompasses addresses from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. While this class is reserved,
its usage was never defined. As a result, most network implementations discard these
addresses as illegal or undefined. The exception is 255.255.255.255, which is used as a
broadcast address.

Example for a Class D IP address:

243.164.89.28

Overview: IP address classes and bit-wise representations

Class A
0. 0. 0. 0 = 00000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
127.255.255.255 = 01111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
0nnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class B
128. 0. 0. 0 = 10000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
191.255.255.255 = 10111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
10nnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH

Class C
192. 0. 0. 0 = 11000000.00000000.00000000.00000000
223.255.255.255 = 11011111.11111111.11111111.11111111
110nnnnn.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn.HHHHHHHH

Class D
224. 0. 0. 0 = 11100000.00000000.00000000.00000000
239.255.255.255 = 11101111.11111111.11111111.11111111
1110XXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

Class E
240. 0. 0. 0 = 11110000.00000000.00000000.00000000
255.255.255.255 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111111
1111XXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX.XXXXXXXX

Private addresses
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Within the address space, certain networks are reserved for private networks. Packets
from these networks are not routed across the public internet. This provides a way for
private networks to use internal IP addresses without interfering with other networks.
The private networks are

10.0.0.1 - 10.255.255.255

172.16.0.0 - 172.32.255.255

192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

Special addresses

Certain IPv4 addresses are set aside for specific uses:

Loopback address (the

127.0.0.0
host’s own interface)
224.0.0.0 IP Multicast
Broadcast (sent to all
255.255.255.255
interfaces on network)

IPv4 address exhaustion

The original IPv4 specification was designed for the DARPA network that would
eventually become the internet. Originally a test network, no one contemplated how
many addresses might be needed in the future. At the time, the 232 addresses (4.3
billion) were certainly considered sufficient. However, over time, it became apparent
that as currently implemented, the IPv4 address space would not be big enough for a
worldwide internet with numerous connected devices per person. The last top-level
address blocks were allocated in 2011.

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 Chapter 6

INTERNET NETWORK: THE CONCEPT OF PROTOCOL

What is protocol and its types?

A protocol is a standard set of rules that allow electronic devices to communicate with
each other. Protocols exist for several different applications. Examples include
wired networking (e.g., Ethernet), wireless networking (e.g., 802.11ac), and Internet
communication (e.g., IP).
A protocol is a set of rules that governs the communications between computers on a
network. In order for two computers to talk to each other, they must be speaking the
same language. IP/IPX (Network Layer) TCP/SPX (Transport Layer) HTTP, FTP, Telnet,
SMTP, and DNS(combined Session/Presentation/Application Layers)
Network protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections
with each other, as well as formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into sent
and received messages.

About Protocols
Without protocols, devices would lack the ability to understand the electronic signals
they send to each other over network connections.
Modern protocols for computer networking all generally use packet
switching techniques to send and receive messages in the form of packets, which are
messages subdivided into pieces that are collected and reassembled at their destination.
Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed, each designed
for specific purposes and environments.

Types of protocols
There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in
communicating with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
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7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher
11 Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which
is used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets
that are sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the
destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used
with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a
network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol
connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and
low-latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute
outgoing

E-Mail.

6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to
another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and
documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be
in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow
a client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for making a
request. The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds
accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among
two computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP
is used for transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server
(response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring

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 of data is done in an encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from
interpretation or modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for
connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the
remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server
principle.
11. Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)
The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a mail protocol used for accessing email
on a remote web server from a local client. IMAP and POP3 are the two most commonly
used Internet mail protocols for retrieving emails. Both protocols are supported by all
modern email clients and web servers.
While the POP3 protocol assumes that your email is being accessed only from one
application, IMAP allows simultaneous access by multiple clients. This is why IMAP is
more suitable for you if you're going to access your email from different locations or if
your messages are managed by multiple users.
By default, the POP3 protocol works on two ports:
 Port 110 - this is the default POP3 non-encrypted port
 Port 995 - this is the port you need to use if you want to connect using POP3 securely

Chapter 7

THE SEARCH ENGINE

Search Strategy
Introduction:

Nearly everyone who uses the Internet has had the frustrating experience of doing a
web search and being flooded with hundreds of results. By choosing the appropriate
search engine, controlling the terms that you search for, and using a few tricks, you can
make Internet searching faster and more efficient.

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Search Tools

Definition - Utilities available on the Internet to help you find information among the
millions of documents on the Web. Search Tools are categorized into three types:
- Internet Directories,
- Search Engines
- Meta-Search Engines.
Each type of searching tool accomplishes a different task and locates information in a
different way. For example, an Internet directory will classify information bytopic and
also allows you to choose one of the topics or type a keyword orphrase to search.
A search engine will search the entire contents of the Internet by keyword(s). A meta-
searchengine will search a dozen different search engines and directories simultaneously
and display the ten best responses from each search engine.

A subject directory "offers a collection of links to Internet resources submitted by site

creators or evaluators and organized into subject categories." Subject directories are
useful when you are conducting general research or want to find resources
recommended by experts and evaluators.
Examples include:
 Yahoo (http://www.yahoo.com)
 Open Directory Project (http://www.dmoz.org/)
 About.com (http://www.about.com/)

In contrast, a search engine is "a searchable database of Internet files collected by a

computer program." Use a search engine when you are looking for a particular web site,
have a specific research question, or are looking for the most current information.

Examples include:

 Google (http://www.google.com)
 Northem Light (http://www.northernlight.com)
 Lycos (http://www.lycos.com)
 Microsoft Networks (http://www.msn.com/)
 Altavista (http://www.altavista.com/)

Meta-search engines send searches to several search engines at once, then build the
results into a coherent results pages.
Examples include:
 Dogpile (http://www.dogpile.com/index.gsp)
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 Metacrawler (http://www.metacrawler.com/index.html)

Natural Language Engines allow you to ask questions in ordinary language.

"What is a screech owl?" or "When did Hank Williams die?"
 Ask Jeeves (http://www.askjeeves.com)

Specialized search engines enable you to narrow your search to a particular discipline
and profile web sites of particular interest.
See an extensive listing of specialized search engines, see Search Engine Colossus
(http://www.searchenginecolossus.com/).
 Find Law focuses upon legal information (http://findlaw.com/).
 ERIC (Educational Resources Center) is a useful resource for anyone researching
education (http://www.accesseric.org/).

TOOLS FOR INTERNET ACCESS

THE BROWSER

A web browser is a software application that people use in order to view web pages on
the internet. It can be used to upload or download files on FTP servers. It uses security
methods such as SSL and TLS to secure internet traffic. It also uses cookies to store
information and it caches web pages to make internet surfing more efficiently.

Definition of a Web Browser

When you want to visit your favourite mall and shop at all the fine retailers, how do you
get there? Most of us would prefer to use a car because it's fast, it's convenient, and you
can use all the goodies like the air conditioner and the radio. Like a car helps us get to
the mall quickly, a web browser allows us to travel through the Internet and visit our
favourite websites. And just like we have preferences in cars, we have our own taste in
design, function and brand when it comes to websites. Personally, I prefer Acura as my
automobile of choice; with regard to traveling the Internet highway, my 'go-to' choice
for web browsers is Mozilla Firefox, just as a personal preference.
Some cars have satellite radio where you can download and listen to unedited music.
With a web browser, some come loaded with different features, such as a built in FTP
client where you can download movies and music files. There is an option to surf the
Internet anonymously - which is like riding in your car with the windows tinted - no one
can see what you're doing or have in your car. Some cars even utilize encrypted keys
that keep your car safe from theft by burglars, much like web browsers have encryption

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that prevents hackers from looking into your Internet traffic and stealing valuable
information. This can include bank accounts, log on names and passwords, and even
private emails.
But what exactly is a web browser? A web browser, or 'browser' for short, is a computer
software application that allows a person to view the Internet. The browser operates at
the application layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.

Popular Web Browsers and How They Work

The most popular web browsers that are used today are Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome,
Microsoft Internet Explorer, Apple Safari and the Opera browser. These browsers are
free and available for download and use. Web browsers allow users to view resources
that are stored on a server. For example, if you were to visit www.google.com, you are
actually viewing a file that is displayed using the web browser. This file is drafted using
the hyper text mark up language, or HTML for short. These files, or web pages as they're
commonly known, are pulled from the web server and then translated by the web
browser for the user to view. If you don't have a web browser and attempt to view the
HTML file, you will see numerous amounts of code lines that may not make sense to the
average user. The browser will translate those code lines that make it easily readable for
the user.
Browsers are not just good at viewing web pages, they can also be used to download
and upload files as well. Browsers can facilitate the file transfer protocol, or FTP for
short. FTPs allow users to upload or download files to web servers using a browser. For
example, if I had a deadline to submit my homework to my professor in New York and I
live in Georgia, it would take almost a week to be delivered by mail. But the beauty
about FTP and using the web browser is that I am able to upload my homework to the
server that my professor uses in mere seconds.

List of Top Web Browsers

Google Chrome

Popular Browser by Internet giant Google. Focuses on enhanced performance of web

applications. Hundreds of useful extensions can be downloaded for free from Chrome
Store and can be used for personal use.
A large array of apps and add ons available at Chrome Store. These adds a considerable
amount to the browsing experience of the users.
 Private browsing
 Fast Startup
 Phishing/ Malware Filter
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Mozilla Firefox
A web browser designed for simplicity, security, extensibility yet flexibility and power.
Available for Linux and android as well. There are lots of plugins and extensions with
some powerful developer tools.
Constant updates, high performance delivered and customizable interface is bliss for
advanced users. Firefox allows an open architecture which accepts the installation of
themes and extensions. Themes give the browser a customizable new look. Developers
can write extensions to make the browser perform functions as desired like check your
Gmail account when you open the browser, or block all ads.
 RSS Headlines
 Chat Extensions
 Spam/ Malware Filter

Opera Web Browser

Constantly evolving and improving and the most popular mobile browser, opera has
came a long way from being a browser to a full-fledged internet suite.
Free fast browser with good support for updates. Features like page zoom and
developer shortcuts allow users to have unique experience. There are some
compatibility issues found in certain websites but with constant updates these problems
are scarce.
 Email suite
 Phishing Filter
 Bit Torrent

Safari Web Browser

Safari is a web browser developed by Apple inc. It is the most popular browser with MAC
users.
Safari is a clean browser, very fast based on the Web Kit rendering engine. Safari comes
with the features you want in a modern browser, like tabbed browsing, popup blocking
and built-in search functionality. It also has one of the best RSS-reading feature available
online, it is easier to keep track a number of websites than using bookmarks.
 Most Popular Macintosh Browser
 Import Bookmarks from any browser
 Private Browsing

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Internet Explorer
Internet Explorer by Microsoft is the default browser for Windows operating system. It’s
still very popular with many internet users. Star up speed is a big issue with internet
explorer.
There are a lot of necessary features like Active X capabilities, Smart Screen Filters, a list
of recommended sites and more. Internet Explorer is still considered to be falling behind
in the race, but latest editions promise fast load, packed with latest features. We can
wait and see if it comes back to top.
 Add ons
 Customization options
 Mouse Gestures

Slim jet Browser

Slim jet is a powerful and one of the best browsers around. It has in built extensions to
ease internet browsing. Powered by Blink Engine, Slim jet supports all Chrome Apps plus
a bundle of more extensive build in apps.
Slim jet is as good as Chrome, has powerful and customizable interface like Firefox,
reliability features and in built apps which load a power packed browser every time you
use it.
 Ad blocker & Download Manager
 Social Sharing and Youtube Downloader
 Faster, Secure and Reliable

Maxthon
A fast browser with a lot of features and reliable user interface. Powered by Maxthon
Cloud Engine, it offers seamless browsing and downloads. Works on all platforms.
Maxthon has Lots of nifty features, including video-ad fast-forwarding, Speedy
performance and Two page rendering engines (Webkit and Trident) for better
compatibility.
 Anti Spyware
 Pop up Blocker
 Cloud Browsing

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Slim Browser
A popular choice for users who like speed and security. It is based on Internet Explorer's
Trident Engine and is a robust and powerful browser. It flaunts better usability features
and speed compared to internet explorer browser.
Slim browser takes care of your privacy and security every time you are surfing online.
Slim browser starts as quickly as possible and allows you to have an amazing web surfing
experience.
 Omni Bar mode
 Integrated Plugins(Ad Blocker, Photo Salon)
 Low Crash and Bugs

Netscape Browser
Originally published by AOL, Netscape browser has released latest version based on
Mozilla Firefox. It is fast, secure and is a choice of many users online.
 Dynamic HTML
 Integrated Search Engine
 Open source Development

UC Browser
A popular browser for both desktop and mobile devices. Tabbed browsing and fast
startup make it a popular choice for thousands of users. Full download manager and full
screen browsing ads on nicely.
 Quick browsing
 Quick Page sharing
 Multiple Apps

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Internet service providers
.

An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for accessing,
using, or participating in the Internet. Internet service providers can be organized in
various forms, such as commercial, community-owned, non-profit, or
otherwise privately owned.

Hardware needed

Desktop, Laptop, Notebook computer

or any other PC

Once you have your computer, you really don't need much additional hardware to
connect to the Internet. The primary piece of hardware you need is a modem.

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Modem
The type of Internet access you choose will determine the type
of modem you need. Dial-up access uses a telephone
modem, DSL service uses a DSL modem, Cable access uses
a cable modem, and Satellite service uses a satellite adapter.
Your ISP may give you a modem—often for a fee—when you
sign a contract, which helps ensure that you have the right
type of modem.

Router

A router is a hardware device that allows you to

connect several computers and other devices to
a single Internet connection, which is known as
a home network. Many routers are wireless,
which allows you to create a home wireless
network, commonly known as a Wi-Fi network.

You don't necessarily need to buy a router to connect to the Internet. It's possible to
connect your computer directly to your modem using an Ethernet cable. Also, many
modems include a built-in router, so you have the option of creating a Wi-Fi network
without buying extra hardware.

Setting up your Internet connection.

Once you've chosen an ISP, most providers will send a technician to your house to turn
on the connection. If not, you should be able to use the instructions provided by your
ISP—or included with the modem—to set up your Internet connection.

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 CONNECTION TO THE INTERNET

How do I connect to the Internet?

Once you've set up your computer, you may want to purchase home Internet access so
you can send and receive email, browse the Web, stream videos, and more. You may
even want to set up a home wireless network, commonly known as Wi-Fi, so you can
connect multiple devices to the Internet at the same time.

The type of Internet service you choose will largely depend on which Internet service
providers (ISPs) serve your area, along with the types of service they offer. Here are
some common types of Internet service.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTIONS

There are many ways a personal electronic device can connect to the internet. They all
use different hardware and each has a range of connection speeds. As technology
changes, faster internet connections are needed to handle those changes. I thought it
would be interesting to list some of the different types of internet connections that are
available for home and personal use, paired with their average speeds.

Dial-Up (Analog 56K).

Dial-up access is cheap but slow. A modem (internal or external) connects to the
Internet after the computer dials a phone number. This analog signal is converted to
digital via the modem and sent over a land-line serviced by a public telephone network.
Telephone lines are variable in quality and the connection can be poor at times. The
lines regularly experience interference and this affects the speed, anywhere from 28K to
56K. Since a computer or other device shares the same line as the telephone, they can’t
be active at the same time.

DSL. DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Line. It is an internet connection that is always
“on”. This uses 2 lines so your phone is not tied up when your computer is connected.
There is also no need to dial a phone number to connect. DSL uses a router to transport
data and the range of connection speed, depending on the service offered, is between
128K to 8 Mbps.

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Cable. Cable provides an internet connection through a cable modem and operates
over cable TV lines. There are different speeds depending on if you are uploading data
transmissions or downloading. Since the coax cable provides a much greater bandwidth
over dial-up or DSL telephone lines, you can get faster access. Cable speeds range from
512K to 20 Mbps.

Wireless. Wireless, or Wi-Fi, as the name suggests, does not use telephone lines or
cables to connect to the internet. Instead, it uses radio frequency. Wireless is also an
always on connection and it can be accessed from just about anywhere. Wireless
networks are growing in coverage areas by the minute so when I mean access from just
about anywhere, I really mean it. Speeds will vary, and the range is between 5 Mbps to
20 Mbps.

Satellite. Satellite accesses the internet via a satellite in Earth’s orbit. The enormous
distance that a signal travels from earth to satellite and back again, provides a delayed
connection compared to cable and DSL. Satellite connection speeds are around 512K to
2.0 Mbps.

Cellular. Cellular technology provides wireless Internet access through cell phones. The
speeds vary depending on the provider, but the most common are 3G and 4G speeds. A
3G is a term that describes a 3rd generation cellular network obtaining mobile speeds of
around 2.0 Mbps. 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. The goal of
4G is to achieve peak mobile speeds of 100 Mbps but the reality is about 21 Mbps
currently.

INTERNET SERVICES
1) E-mail

What is an Email Header?

An email consists of three vital components: the envelope, the header(s), and the body
of the message. The envelope is something that an email user will never see since it is
part of the internal process by which an email is routed. The body is the part that we
always see as it is the actual content of the message contained in the email. The

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header(s), the third component of an email, is perhaps a little more difficult to explain,
though it is arguably the most interesting part of an email.

Header

In an e-mail, the body (content text) is always preceded by header lines that identify
particular routing information of the message, including the sender, recipient, date and
subject. Some headers are mandatory, such as the FROM, TO and DATE headers. Others
are optional, but very commonly used, such as SUBJECT and CC. Other headers include
the sending time stamps and the receiving time stamps of all mail transfer agents that
have received and sent the message. In other words, any time a message is transferred
from one user to another (i.e. when it is sent or forwarded), the message is date/time
stamped by a mail transfer agent (MTA) - a computer program or software agent that
facilitates the transfer of email message from one computer to another. This date/time
stamp, like FROM, TO, and SUBJECT, becomes one of the many headers that precede the
body of an email.

To really understand what an email header is, you must see one. Here is an example of a
full email header*:
Return-Path: <[email protected]>
X-SpamCatcher-Score: 1 [X]
Received: from [136.167.40.119] (HELO dc.edu)
by fe3.dc.edu (CommuniGate Pro SMTP 4.1.8)
withESMTP-TLS id 61258719 for [email protected]; Mon, 23 Aug 2004
11:40:10 -0400
Message-ID: <[email protected]>
Date: Mon, 23 Aug 2005 11:40:36 -0400
From: Taylor Evans <[email protected]>
User-Agent: Mozilla/5.0 (Windows; U; Windows NT 5.1; en-US; rv:1.0.1)
Gecko/20020823 Netscape/7.0
X-Accept-Language: en-us, en
MIME-Version: 1.0
To: Jon Smith <[email protected]>
Subject: Business Development Meeting
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii; format=flowed
Content-Transfer-Encoding: 7bit

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IRC
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)is a system for chatting that involves a set of rules and
conventions and client/server software. On the Web, certain sites such as Talk City or
IRC networks such as the Undernet provide servers and help you download an
IRC client to your PC. Talk City also offers an IRC client applet that it downloads for you
as part of their home page so that you can start chatting right away.

You can start a chat group (called a channel) or join an existing one. There is a protocol
for discovering existing chat groups and their members. Depending on the type of
network, nicknames can be reserved (registered) or just used during the session. Some
channels encourage you to register a nickname that you always use and even offer space
for a personal profile, picture, and personal home page link. Popular IRC include
Facebook, Yahoo messenger, Skype, Whatsapp, Imo etc.

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