Lecture-36

On

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (ESO203)

▪ Synchronous Machine.

1
 3-Phase Synchronous Machine

• Each phase carries an alternating current that varies sinusoidally with time.

• Current in each phase are displaced from each other by 120 degrees due to the geometry of the
stator winding.

Fig.6: Three-phase generators : (a) 2-pole, (b) 4-pole,(c) Y-connected stator winding
 3-Phase Synchronous Machine (cont…)

Fig.7: (a) Flux produced by a single coil winding in the stator (b) air-gap mmf produced by this
stator winding
 MMF by Distributed Stator Winding

Fig.8: (a) Distributed 3-phase stator winding (b) mmf produced by the phase ‘a’ of the
distributed winding
 Combined MMF

• Under balanced 3-phase condition, the instantaneous currents are:

𝑖𝑎 =𝐼𝑚 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡) 𝑖𝑏 =𝐼𝑚 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡 − 120°) 𝑖𝑐 =𝐼𝑚 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡 + 120°)

Since mmf is proportional to the current (recall Hl=Ni),

𝐹𝑎 =𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡) 𝐹𝑏 =𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡 − 120°) 𝐹𝑐 =𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡 + 120°)

At time t, all three phases contribute to the air-gap mmf at a point P (whose spatial angle is θ).
The resultant MMF is then given by,
3
F= 𝐹𝑎 cos(θ)+ 𝐹𝑏 cos(θ − 120°)+ 𝐹𝑐 cos θ + 120° = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 cos(ω𝑒 𝑡 − θ)
2
Points to note:
• The resultant mmf wave rotates at constant angular speed ω.
• Its value depends on the spatial position θ as well as time.
 Combined MMF (cont…)

120𝑓𝑠
Synchronous Speed N= r/min
𝑃

2π𝑓
ω𝑚 = ω𝑠 =
𝑃/2
𝑇𝑒 = 𝐾ϕ𝐹𝑟 sin δ𝑟
P is the number of poles

Φ: the resultant flux per pole produced by the

combined effect of the stator and rotor mmfs
 The Synchronous Speed
𝑃 𝑑θ𝑒𝑎
• θ𝑒𝑎 = θ Now, ω𝑒 =
2 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
• Where,
𝑑θ𝑎
• θ𝑒𝑎 =electrical angle 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ω𝑚 =
𝑑𝑡
• θ𝑎 =mechanical angle
• P= number of poles (Rotational speed in mechanical radians/second)
Rotational speed of the resultant mmf produced by the stator is therefore,

𝑃
ω𝑒 = ω𝑚 (synchronous speed in electrical radians/second)
2
The electrical frequency 𝑓𝑒 of the voltage generated in a synchronous machine is e therefore,
𝑃
𝑓𝑒 = 𝑠 (synchronous frequency in Hz)
2
Where, S is the mechanical speed of the rotor in rotations per second.
 Synchronous Speed: Example

Example 1: List the four highest possible synchronous speeds (in mechanical radians per
second) for a 60 Hz synchronous generator.
Solution:
We have,
𝑃 2𝑓𝑒 120𝑓𝑒
𝑓𝑒 = ×s=60 Or, s= r.p.s = r.p.m.
2 𝑃 𝑃

The highest speed is determined by the number of poles. The smallest number of poles is 2.
120×60
Therefore, the highest speed is given by, s = = 3600 r.p.m. The next three highest
2
speeds are 1800-, 1200- and 900-rpm for p = 4, 6 and 8 respectively.
 Internal Generated Voltage
• Voltage induced is dependent upon flux and speed of rotation, hence from what we
have learnt so far, the induced voltage can be found as follows:

𝐸𝐴 = 2𝑁ϕπ𝑓

Above can also be written as,

𝐸𝐴 =kϕω

where,
𝑁
k= , 𝑖𝑓 ω 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
2

𝑁𝑃
𝑘= , 𝑖𝑓 ω 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
2
 Armature Reaction
• The voltage EA is the internal generated voltage produced in one phase of a synchronous
generator. If the machine is not connected to a load (no armature current flowing), the terminal
voltage will be equivalent to the voltage induced at the stator coils. This is due to the fact that
there are no current flow in the stator coils hence no losses. When there is a load connected to
the generator, there will be differences between EA and terminal voltage V. These differences
are due to :
a) Distortion of the air gap magnetic field by the current flowing in the stator called armature
reaction.

b) Self inductance of the armature coil.

c) Resistance of the armature coils.

 Armature Reaction (Cont…)

• When the rotor is spun, a voltage EA is induced in the stator windings. If a load is attached to the
terminals of the generator, a current flows.
• But a 3-phase stator current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own. This stator magnetic
field will distort the original rotor magnetic field, changing the resulting phase voltage.

• This effect is called armature reaction because the armature (stator) current affects the
magnetic field, which produced it in the first place.

• The voltage produced in the stator due to this field is proportional to the armature current, and
can be given by,
𝐸𝐴 = −𝑗𝑋𝐼𝐴

Where X is the reactance that accounts for the armature reaction, IA is the armature current.
 Armature Reaction (Cont…)
• ‘Armature reaction’ is the influence of the stator m.m.f. upon the value and distribution of the
magnetic flux in the air gaps between poles and the stator core’.
Flux due to the
If the machine is on open stator currents alone
circuit there is no stator current, at the instant when
and the magnetic flux due to the the current in phase
rotor current is distributed R is at its maximum
symmetrically. positive value.

The direction of most of the lines of flux in the air gaps has been skewed
and thereby lengthened.
 Armature Reaction (Cont…)

• Armature reaction exerts a backward pull on the rotor.

• To overcome the tangential component of this pull, the engine

driving the generator has to exert a larger torque than that
required on no load.
• Since magnetic flux due to the stator currents rotates
synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the
same for all positions of the rotor.
• When the current lags the generated e.m.f. by a quarter of a
cycle, by the time the current in phase R reaches its maximum
value, the poles will have moved forward through half a pole
pitch. The stator m.m.f. would have a flux in direct opposition
to the flux produced by the rotor m.m.f.
• When the current leads the e.m.f. by a quarter of a cycle, the
flux due to the stator m.m.f strengthens the rotor flux.
 • The field current is maintained constant at a value giving
an e.m.f. OA on open circuit condition.

• When the power factor of the load isunity, the fall in voltage
with increase of load is comparatively small.

• With an inductive load, the demagnetizing effect of armature

reaction causes the terminal voltage to fall much more rapidly

• With a capacitive load, the magnetizing effect of armature

reaction causes the terminal voltage to increase with increase
of load.
 VOLTAGE REGULATION

• If the field current is adjusted to give the terminal

voltage OA when the generator is supplying current OB
at unity power factor, then when the load is removed
but with the field current and speed kept unaltered, the
terminal voltage rises to OC.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

Per unit voltage regulation=
𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
 Equivalent Circuit

• Also, we have to include the self-inductance and resistance of the armature coils. If the stator
self-inductance is called Ll (reactance is Xl) while the stator resistance is called Ra, then we can
write (for generator):

V=𝐸𝑓 − 𝑗𝑋ϕ 𝐼𝑎 − 𝑗𝑋𝑙 𝐼𝑎 - 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 = 𝐸𝑓 - 𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑎 - 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎

Where, 𝑋𝑠 = 𝑋ϕ + 𝑋𝑙 (also known as the synchronous reactance)

Motor Motor
Īa Īa
jXϕ jXL jXs=j(XL+XΦ)
Ra Ra
+ +
+
+ Īa + Īa
Generator Generator
f_ - f t f_ t

_ _ _
 Synchronous Generator: Example

Example 2: Calculate the % voltage regulation for a three-phase wye-connected 2.5 MVA, 6.6 KV
synchronous generator operating at rated KVA load, 0.8 lagging power factor. The synchronous
impedance is Zs = Ra +jXs = (0.071 + j10.4) W (N.B.: 6.6 KV/ 3 ≈ 3811 V).
(0.071+j0.4)Ω
Solution: Equivalent circuit: Ia
_ +
+
𝑁𝑜𝑤, 𝐼𝑎 = | 𝐼𝑎 | ∠θ E +
_
(0.071+j0.4)Ω Ia Vt=6.6KV/√3 ∠0°
(Ref. ph.) load
_

2.5 M A 1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 | 𝐼𝑎 |= × = 218.7A, And 𝜃 = cos −1 0.8 ≈ −36.87°
3 6.6 K / 3

Therefore, E=𝑉𝑡 + 𝑍𝑠 𝐼𝑎 = 3811+10.4∠89.67° × 218.7 ∠−36.87° ≈ 5495 ∠19.2°𝑉

𝑉𝑛𝑙 −𝑉𝑓𝑙 𝐸 −|𝑉𝑡 | 5945−3811

VR= × 100 = × 100= × 100=44.2%
𝑉𝑓𝑙 |𝑉𝑡 | 3811
 f Īa
jXsĪa jXsĪa
δ f
Φ t
Φ δ
Īa t

Overexcited generator (power factor lagging), Under excited generator (power factor leading),
P > 0,Q > 0, δ > 0. P > 0,Q < 0, δ > 0.
-Īa Īa

Φ t t
δ δ
jXsĪa Φ
jXsĪa
Īa
f -Īa f

Overexcited motor (power factor leading), Under excited motor (power factor lagging),
P <0,Q > 0, δ < 0. P <0,Q < 0, δ < 0
 POWER ANGLE

• It is convenient to adopt a convention such that the real power P and the reactive power Q
delivered by an overexcited generator is positive.

• The generator action corresponds to positive values of δ, whereas the motor action corresponds
to negative values of δ.

• It follows that P > 0 for generator operation, whereas P < 0 for motor operation.

• Positive Q means delivering inductive VARs for a generator action or receiving inductive VARs
for a motor action; negative Q means delivering capacitive VARs for a generator action or
receiving capacitive VARs for a motor action.
• Incidentally, the power factor is lagging when P and Q have the same sign and leading when P
and Q have opposite signs.
 ҧ
𝑆=P+𝑗𝑄 = 𝑉ഥ𝑡 𝐼𝑎∗ 𝐸𝑓 =𝐸𝑓 (cos 𝛿 + 𝑗 sin 𝛿) 𝑉ഥ𝑡 = 𝑉𝑡 + 𝑗0

𝐸𝑓 −𝑉ഥ𝑡 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿−𝑉𝑡 +𝑗𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 Xs is the synchronous

𝐼ഥ𝑎 = =
𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝑗𝑋𝑠 reactance per phase

∗ 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿−𝑉𝑡 −𝑗𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿−𝑉𝑡

𝐼𝑎 = = +𝑗
−𝑗𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠
for a cylindrical-rotor
𝑉𝑡 𝐸𝑓 sin 𝛿
P= synchronous generator
𝑋𝑠
𝑉𝑡 𝐸𝑓 cos 𝛿−𝑉𝑡 2
with negligible armature
Q= resistance.
𝑋𝑠

• To obtain the total power for a three-phase generator, multipliy by 3 when the voltages are line
to neutral. If the line-to-line magnitudes are used for the voltages, however, these equations give
the total three-phase power.
 POWER ANGLE/TORQUE-ANGLE CHARACTERISTICS
• The maximum real power output per phase of the generator for a given terminal voltage and a
given excitation voltage.
𝑉𝑡 𝐸𝑓
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑋𝑠
• Any further increase in the prime-mover input to the
generator causes the real power output to decrease.
The excess power goes into accelerating the
generator, thereby increasing its speed and causing it
to pull out of synchronism.

𝜋
• The steady-state stability limit is reached when δ =
2
• For normal steady operating conditions, the
power angle or torque angle is well below 90°.
• The maximum torque or pull-out torque per phase that a round-rotor synchronous motor can
develop for a gradually applied load is-

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = ns is the synchronous speed in r/min
𝜔𝑚 2𝜋𝑛𝑠 /60
• In normal steady-state operation, the electromechanical torque balances the mechanical torque
applied to the shaft. In a generator, the prime- mover torque acts in the direction of rotation of
the rotor, pushing the rotor mmf wave ahead of the resultant air-gap flux. The
electromechanical torque then opposes rotation.
• The opposite situation exists in a synchronous motor, where the electromechanical torque is in
the direction of rotation, in opposition to the retarding torque of the mechanical load on the
shaft.
Note:
• To address hunting of machine at a new operating position, damper windings are provided.
23