Maths and Science Infinity Tutor Development

2024 Edition

Grade 12

PHYSICAL SCIENCES

ELECTRODYNAMICS

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 GENERATORS

▪ A generator is a device that converts input mechanical energy from an

external source into electrical energy as output.
▪ ENERGY CONVERSION: A generator converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
▪ Mechanical energy can come from any mechanism that rotates the rotor or
the arm of the generator.
▪ When the turbine (attached to the rotor of the generator) turns (a
mechanical process), through principle called electromagnetic induction,
emf (electrical energy) is induced in the terminals of the generator.
▪ The generator is less than 100 % efficient because energy can also be
converted to:
a. Friction between moving parts
b. Electrical resistance to wires.

COAL-FIRED POWER STATIONS

• In coal-fired power stations such as those used by Eskom, coal is used to

heat up water which turns into steam moving at high speed.
▪ The steam turns the turbine which causes an emf to be induced in the
generator. The steam provides mechanical energy which turns the turbine,
and the generator turns the mechanical energy in electrical energy.

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HYDROELECTRIC POWER

• In a hydroelectric power plant, water that is placed at a relatively high

altitude e.g. a dam on a mountain is allowed to move down the steep slope
and turn the turbine which causes the generator to produce emf, so
whether it is hydroelectric power, nuclear power, coal power or
geothermal power, the principle is the same i.e. a certain mechanism turns
the turbine of a generator which then produces emf as it rotates.

PRINCIPLE OF A GENERATOR

▪ The principle behind the functioning of a generator is the principle of

electromagnetic induction i.e. Faraday’s law.
▪ Faraday’s law states: The emf induced in a coil of a conductor is
directly proportional to the rate of change in magnetic flux linkage.

∆∅
𝜺 = −𝑵
∆𝒕
▪ ε is the emf induced in the wire, in volts (V).
▪ N is the number of turns or loops of the wire.
▪ Δ𝜙 - is the change in magnetic flux linkage in webers (Wb) and 𝜙 =
𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
▪ Δt is the time taken for the change in magnetic flux in seconds.
▪ The minus sign (-) indicates that the emf produced leads to current with a
magnetic field in a direction that tends to decrease the change in magnetic
field. This is known as Lenz’s law.

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 ▪ Lenz’s law states: The emf induced in a coil of wire leads to current with
a magnetic field that tends to decrease the change in magnetic flux.

▪ Thus, a change in magnetic flux caused by a moving magnet or moving or

rotating conductor or changing area results in an emf induced in the wire.

AC GENERATOR

The basic important components of an AC (alternating current).

▪ Magnetic field
▪ North pole of a magnet
▪ Armature
▪ Carbon brush
▪ Slip rings.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A GENERATOR

▪ Armature: Allows emf and current to be induced through it, as it rotates in
the magnetic field.
▪ Magnets: provides magnetic field that passes through the armature.
▪ Slip rings:
▪ a. Allows current to change direction every half-rotation of armature.
▪ b. Allows continuous contact with brushes so that current can be
transmitted to terminals without breaking the circuit.
▪ Carbon- brushes: a. maintains electrical contact with the slip rings. b.
conducts or takes current out of the coil.

HOW DOES AN AC GENERATOR WORK

▪ Consider an AC generator with its armature turning clockwise by some

mechanical Force. The generator rotated clockwise by a force.
▪ Magnetic field is always directed from North Pole to South Pole.
▪ To determine the direction of the current through each part, we use right
hand rule.
▪ We shape and orient our right hand so that the first finger (for finger or
index finger) points to the right, whilst our thumb points upwards, the
second finger points into the page.

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 Armature

▪ AC generators produce alternating current (AC) that changes direction

periodically according to a specified frequency or period.
▪ The right hand-rule is used to determine the directions of magnetic field,
force and current.
▪ Alternating voltage is voltage that changes polarity periodically according
to a specified frequency of period.
▪ In South Africa, Eskom generators in power plants produce alternating
current that has a frequency of 50 Hz (f = 50 Hz) and changes direction
𝟏 𝟏
according every 0,02 seconds:𝑻 = 𝒇 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝒔
𝟓𝟎
▪ The graphs of alternating current and alternating voltage are sinusoidal i.e.
they are shaped like sine and cosine graphs.
▪ The magnitude and direction of emf (voltage) and current produced by an
AC generator is directly linked to the rotation of the armature in the
generator and its orientation in comparison to the magnetic field
surrounding it.
▪ Magnetic flux is the product of the perpendicular component magnetic
field passing through the coil and the area of the coil.
▪ From the equation 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, When the coil is perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the normal is perpendicular to the surface and parallel to
the magnetic field and the magnetic flux is at its maximum value (BA)
since cos 0 = 1.
▪ The perpendicular component of the magnetic field is along the normal to
the surface or coil through which the magnetic field passes.
▪ When the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, the normal is perpendicular
to the surface and magnetic field and the magnetic flux is minimum
i.e.cos 90 = 0.
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 DC Generator

▪ A DC generator produces Direct Current.

▪ Direct current is current is current that maintains its direction.
▪ The direction of current is that of conventional current which flows from
positive to negative.
▪ DC generator is similar in many respects to an AC generator.
▪ Notice especially, the slip rings which is an important structural difference
from a DC generator.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF DC GENERATOR

▪ Armature: Allows emf and current to be induced through it as it rotates in
the magnetic field.
▪ Magnets: provides magnetic field that passes through the armature (coil).
▪ Split rings (or commutator): Allows induced current to flow in one
direction and ensures continuous contact with brushes so that current can
be transmitted to terminals without breaking the circuit.
▪ Carbon brushes: Maintains electrical contact with the split rings and takes
current out of the coil.
HOW DOES AN DC GENERATOR WORK
▪ Consider a DC generator with its armature that is made to turn in the
anticlockwise direction by some mechanical effort.
▪ Magnetic field: Magnetic field is always directed from north to south.
▪ Direction of current through armature: We use the right-hand rule to
determine the direction of the current through the armature.
▪ The first finger points to the right to indicate the direction of the magnetic
field.
▪ The thumb points the direction of the force or coil.
▪ The second finger shows the direction of the current.

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DC generator with its armature rotating due to some mechanical effort.

▪ The type of current induced in the generator is taken as conventional

current.
▪ Conventional current refers to current that flows from the positive terminal
to the negative terminal.
▪ The current maintains its polarity throughout the rotation of the armature.
▪ The commutators are fixed and rotate as the armature rotates.
▪ The carbon brushes are just connectors and have no effect on the polarity
of the emf or current induced.

How the commutators maintain polarity of emf produced.

▪ The emf and current induced in a DC generator has the same polarity
(positive terminal and negative terminals do not change or swap) through
the rotation of the armature. This is achieved using the commutator.
▪ Every half cycle, the induced emf changes direction whilst at the same
time, the two segments of the commutator swap the brushes that are
connected to them.
▪ This way, the emf across the terminals of the DC generator maintains its
polarity.

Magnitude and direction of induced emf as armature rotates.

▪ The magnetic flux in a DC generator changes in the same way that it

changes in an AC generator.
▪ The current induced, however maintains the same direction because the
part of the armature and split-ring connected to one brush always has
current flowing in the same direction.

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 MOTORS
▪ A motor is a device that converts input electrical energy into output
mechanical energy.
▪ Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
▪ A motor does the exact opposite of what a generator does.
▪ A motor can be used as a generator if its shaft (or rotor) is turned
mechanically.
▪ And a generator can be used as a motor if it is connected to a source of
energy e.g. a battery.

FUNCTIONS OF THE BASIC COMPONENTS OF A MOTOR

▪ Permanent magnets
▪ coils (armature)
▪ commutator for DC motor
▪ slip rings for AC motor
▪ brushes
▪ power supply/battery

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 PRINCIPLES OF MOTOR OPERATION

▪ Electric motors operate on the motor effect.

▪ The motor effect is the phenomenon whereby a current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to
the current in the conductor and magnetic field through it.
▪ The motor effect can also be defined as the interaction between the
magnetic field due to the current in the conductor and the external
magnetic field.
▪ When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
moving charges in the conductor will experience a force which is
perpendicular to the magnetic field through the conductor and the current
inside the conductor.
▪ Due to the force exerted on the charges, the conductor will move in the
direction of the force exerted on it.
▪ The direction of the force exerted on the current-carrying conductor is
given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.

▪ The thumb indicates the direction of force (and movement) of the

conductor.
▪ The first finger indicates the direction of the magnetic field through the
conductor.
▪ The second finger indicates the direction of the current inside the
conductor.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE MAGNITUDE OF THE FORCE

▪ The magnitude of the current (I) inside the wire, measured in amperes (A).
▪ The length (l) of the part of the conductor inside the magnetic field,
measured in meters.
▪ The strength of the perpendicular component of the magnetic field (𝐵⊥)
passing through the conductor.
▪ The maximum force is exerted on the conductor when it is perpendicular to
the magnetic field and zero when it is parallel to it.
▪ A force that tends to rotate an object is called torque.
▪ Torque is defined as the moment of a force or the rotational effect of a
force.
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 ▪ There is maximum torque exerted on the conductor when the force is
perpendicular to the distance that connects the point of rotation to the point
where the force acts.

THE TORQUE ON THE ARMATURE (SPEED OF ROTATION) CAN BE

INCRESED BY:

▪ Increasing the number of turns of the coil.

▪ Increasing the current through the coil.
▪ Increasing the area of the coil.
▪ Increasing the strength of the magnetic field i.e. using stronger magnets.

INERTIA OF THE COIL:

▪ Since the DC motor has split rings which are separated from each other,
there is a point (when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field) during
the rotation of the armature where the carbon brushes are not in contact
with the split rings.
▪ At this point, there is no current flowing in the armature.
▪ What keeps the armature rotating at this point is the inertia of the coil.
▪ Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist any change in its state of
motion.
USES OF DC GENERATORS

▪ In factories that do electroplating (covering a metal with another metal).

▪ In factories that produce chemicals such as chlorine and aluminum through
electrolysis (use of electricity to make a chemical reaction occur).
▪ In locomotives that are driven by diesel-electric motors.
▪ Due to the use of commutators (which are expensive), many DC generators
are being replaced by AC generators.

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 ALTERNATE CURRENT
▪ Alternating current is current that changes direction periodically according to
a specified frequency.
▪ Alternating emf (or voltage) is voltage that changes polarity periodically
according to a specified frequency.
▪ In South Africa, power stations produce current and voltage with a frequency
of 50 Hz.
▪ The graph of voltage versus time for alternating current is sinusoidal.
▪ The output voltage (V) varies as the armature of an AC generator rotates.
▪ The crests and troughs of the graph represent the maximum or peak voltage
(Vmax).
▪ The graph of current versus time for alternating current is also sinusoidal.
▪ The output current (I) also varies with time as the armature rotates.
▪ The crests and troughs of the graph represent maximum or peak current
(Imax)
▪ The output voltage of an AC generator varies with time as the armature
rotates. Note that the average voltage is zero. (Vav = 0 V).
▪ Output current (I) of an AC generator varies with time as the armature
rotates. Note that the average current is zero. (Iav = 0 A).

THE ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE (RMS) VALUES FOR AC CURRENT AND

VOLTAGE

▪ The root-mean-square value is the square root of the average of the square of
the AC current or voltage.
▪ RMS voltage: is the value of the voltage in a DC circuit that will have the
same heating effect as an AC circuit.
▪ RMS current: is the value of the current in a DC circuit that will have the
same heating effect as an AC circuit.
▪ If every output value of voltage is squared, every value becomes positive
and the average can be found.
▪ Easier and cheaper to convert from AC to DC.
▪ It can be transmitted at high voltage over long distance with minimum energy
loss.
▪ Higher frequency used in AC makes it suitable for motors.
▪ Much more power can be generated from AC than DC.
▪ AC can be stepped up or down using transformers.

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 AC & DC GRAPHS

▪ Starting from zero if the plane of the coil is vertical to the magnetic field for
AC.

▪ Starting from maximum if the plane of the coil is horizontal to the field for
DC.

▪ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙

𝟏
▪ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝟐 𝑷

𝟏
▪ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙 … … … … … … … … … . (𝒊)
𝟐

𝑰 𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒙
▪ 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ 𝟐
=
√𝟐

𝑽 𝟐 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑽𝒎𝒂𝒙
▪ 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ =
𝟐 √𝟐

▪ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔. 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊)

▪ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒓𝒎𝒔. 𝑹 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝒊𝒊𝒊)

 EXAM TYPE SCENARIOS
QUESTION 1
1.1 An alternating current (AC) generator installed on a farm produces the
following graph of emf against time. The root-mean square current for the
generator is 3% of the root mean square voltage.

1.1.1 What does 94,3 V on the graph represent? (1)

1.1.2 Calculate the average power for this generator. (4)
1.1.3 What alterations must be made to the above AC generator to convert
it to a DC generator? (2)
1.2 A search light with an ohmic light bulb is rated 90 V and 56 W.
1.2.1 Calculate the resistance of the light bulb. (4)
The search light is now connected to the AC generator described in
QUESTION 1.1 above.
1.2.2 Describe how the brightness of the light bulb will now change.
Choose from TOO BRIGHT, CORRECT BRIGHTNESS or TOO
DIM. Explain your answer. (2)
[13]
SOLUTION 1
1.1 1.1.1 V max ✓ OR maximum voltage ✓ (1)

1.1.2 P𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = V𝑟𝑚𝑠 . I𝑟𝑚𝑠 ✓ =

94.3 3 94.3 (4)
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔. 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 = ( )✓. x( )✓ = 133.3 W ✓
√2 10 √2

1.1.3 Replacing the slip rings with a split-ring commutator ✓✓ (2)

1.2 1.2.1 𝑃 = (𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠)2

𝑅
✓

902
56 ✓ = 𝑅
✓
(4)
R = 144.64 Ω ✓
1.2.2 Too bright ✓ (2)

The power of the generator is greater than the power of the light

bulb. ✓ OR The power of the light bulb is smaller than the power
of the generator. ✓
QUESTION 2
A part of a simplified DC motor is shown in the sketch below.

2.1.1 In which direction (a to b, OR b to a) is the current flowing through the coil

if the coil rotates anticlockwise as indicated in the diagram? (1)
2.1.2 Name the rule you used to answer QUESTION 2.1.1. (1)
2.1.3 Which component in the diagram must be replaced in order that the device
to operate as an AC generator? (1)

2.2 An electrical device of resistance 400 Ω is connected across an AC

generator that produces a maximum emf of 430 V. The resistance of the
coils of the generator can be ignored.
2.2.1 State the energy conversion that takes place when the AC generator is in
operation. (2)
2.2.2 Calculate the root mean square value of the current passing through the
resistor. (4)
[9]
SOLUTION

2.1.1 a to b✓ (1)

2.1.2 Fleming's left hand rule /Left hand motor rule ✓ ACCEPT Right hand rule✓
(1)

2.1.3 Split rings /commutator✓ (1)

2.2.1 Mechanical/Kinetic energy ✓to electrical energy✓. (2)

2.2.2

[9]
QUESTION 3
3.1 A teacher demonstrates how current can be obtained using a bar magnet, a
coil and a galvanometer. The teacher moves the bar magnet up and down, as
shown by the arrow in the diagram below.

3.1.1 Briefly describe how the magnet must be moved to obtain a LARGE
deflection on the galvanometer. (2)
The two devices, A and B, below operate on the principle described in QUESTION
3.1.1 above.

3.1.2 Write down the name of the principle. (1)

3.1.3 Write down the name of part X in device A. (1)
3.2 A 220 V, AC voltage is supplied from a wall socket to an electric kettle of
resistance 40,33 Ω. Wall sockets provide rms voltages and currents.
Calculate the:
3.2.1 Electrical energy consumed by the kettle per second (4)
3.2.2 Maximum (peak) current through the kettle (3)
[11]
SOLUTION

1.1.1 Move the bar magnet very quickly OR up and down inside the coil. ✓✓ (2)

1.1.2 Electromagnetic induction✓ (1)

Accept Faraday’s Law (of electromagnetic induction)
1.1.3 Commutator/ split ring (1)
1.2.1
1.2
GROUP ACTIVITIES