Non Metallic Materials

Polymer
Polymers
Introduction
►Natural polymers have been used for many centuries:
wood, rubber, cotton, wool, leather, and silk
►Many of our useful plastics, rubbers, and fiber
materials are synthetic polymers
►The synthetics can be produced inexpensively, and
their properties may be managed to the degree that
many are superior to their natural counterparts
►A large molecule consisting of (at least five) repeated
chemical units (`mers') joined together, like beads on a
string. Polymers usually contain many more than five
monomers, and some may contain hundreds or
thousands of monomers in each chain.
Polymers
Introduction

►General characteristics:
▪ Poor electrical and thermal conductivity
▪ Low strength and ductility, except for rubber
▪ Normally, cannot be used at high temperature
▪ Corrosion resistant
▪ Low density → light
Polymers
Hydrocarbon molecules
►Most polymers are organic, and formed
from hydrocarbon molecules → hydrogen
and carbon
►The intramolecular bonds are covalent
►Each carbon atom has four electrons that
may participate in covalent bonding,
whereas every hydrogen atom has only one
bonding electron
Acetylene, C2H2

Ethylene, C2H4
Polymers
Hydrocarbon molecules – Unsaturated

►Unsaturated: molecules that have double

and triple covalent bonds. Unsaturated
molecules are more reactive
Example:

Acetylene, C2H2
Ethylene, C2H4
Polymers
Hydrocarbon molecules – Saturated
► Saturated: all bonds are single ones, and no new atoms may
be joined without the removal of others that are already
bonded
► Simple hydrocarbons belong to the paraffin family:
methane, ethane, propane, butane
► The covalent bonds in each molecule are strong, but only
weak hydrogen and van der Waals bonds exist between
molecules, and thus these hydrocarbons have relatively low
melting and boiling points. However, boiling temperatures
rise with increasing molecular weight
Polymers
Hydrocarbon molecules – Isomerism
►Molecules that contain the same atoms but in a
different arrangement, example: butane and
isobutane
►Some of the physical properties of hydrocarbons
will depend on the isomeric state; for example, the
boiling temperatures for normal butane and
isobutane are -0.5 C and -12.3 C respectively
Polymers
Hydrocarbon molecules – Other
►R and R’ (radicals)
represent organic
groups such as CH3,
C2H5, and C6H5
(methyl, ethyl, and
phenyl).
Polymers
Polymer molecules
►Polymer molecules are very large: macromolecules
►Most polymers consist of long and flexible chains
with a string of C atoms as a backbone
►Side-bonding of C atoms to H atoms or radicals
►Double bonds possible in both chain and side
bonds
►Repeat unit in a polymer chain (“unit cell”) is a
mer
►A single mer is called a monomer
Polymers
Chemistry of polymer molecules
►Ethylene (C2H4) is a gas at room temp and
pressure
►Ethylene transform to polyethylene (solid)
by forming active mer through reaction with
initiator or catalytic radical (R.)
►(.) denotes unpaired electron (active site)
►The process is called polymerization
Polymers
Chemistry of polymer molecules - Polymerization

► Initiation reaction

► Rapid propagation ~1000 mer units

in 1-10 ms

► Termination when two active chain

ends meet each other or active chain
end meet with initiator or other
species with single active bond
Polymers
Chemistry of polymer molecules
Replace hydrogen atoms in polyethylene:
make Polytetraflouroethylene (PTFE) –
Teflon

Replace every fourth hydrogen atom in

polyethylene with Cl atom:
polyvinylchloride (PVC)

Replace every fourth hydrogen atom in

polyethylene with CH3 methyl group:
polypropylene (PP)
Polymers
Chemistry of polymer molecules
► When all the mers are the same, the molecule is called a
homopolymer
► When there is more than one type of mer present, the
molecule is a copolymer
► Mer units that have 2 active bonds to connect with other
mers are called bifunctional
► Mer units that have 3 active bonds to connect with other
mers are called trifunctional. They form threedimensional
molecular network structures
Polymers
Molecular shape
► The angle between the singly bonded carbon atoms is ~109 –
carbon atoms form a zigzag pattern in a polymer molecule.
► Moreover, while maintaining the 109 angle between bonds
polymer chains can rotate around single C-C bonds (double
and triple bonds are very rigid).
► Random kinks and coils lead to entanglement, like in the
heavily tangled fishing line → large elastic extensions displayed
by the rubber materials
Polymers
Molecular structure
► The physical characteristics of polymer material depend not only
on molecular weight and shape, but also on molecular structure
► Linear polymer: long chains are flexible, extensive van der Waals
and hydrogen bonding between the chains. Example:
polyethylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylon, and the fluorocarbon
► Branched polymer: The chain packing efficiency is reduced with
the formation of side branches → lowering of the density.
Example: high density polyethylene (HDPE) is primarily a linear
polymer, while low density polyethylene (LDPE) contains short
chain branches
Polymers
Molecular structure
► Cross-linked polymers: Chains are connected by covalent
bonds. Often achieved by adding atoms or molecules that
form covalent links between chains. Many rubbers have this
structure
► Network polymers: multifunctional monomers forming
three or more active covalent bonds, make 3D networks.
Highly crosslinked polymer can be classified in here.
Distinctive mechanical and thermal properties. Example:
epoxy, polyurethane
Polymers
Molecular configuration

►Isomerism: hydrocarbon compounds with

same composition may have different atomic
arrangements
►Influences physical properties
►Isomerism:
▪ stereoisomerism
▪ geometrical isomerism
Polymers
Molecular configuration – Stereoisomerism

►Atoms are linked together in the same order

(head-to-tail) but differ in their spatial
arrangement
►Isostactic configuration

►Syndiotactic configuration

►Atactic configuration
Polymers
Molecular configuration – Geometrical isomerism

►Consider two carbon atoms bonded by a

double bond in a chain. H atom or radical R
bonded to these two atoms can be on the
same side of the chain (cis structure) or on
opposite sides of the chain (trans structure).
Polymers
Molecular characteristics
Polymers
Thermoplastic and thermosetting
► One classification scheme according to polymer behavior with
rising temperature → molecular structure
► Thermoplastic:
▪ Thermoplastics soften when heated (and eventually liquefy) and harden
when cooled—processes that are totally reversible and may be repeated
▪ On a molecular level, as the temperature is raised, secondary bonding
forces are diminished (by increased molecular motion) so that the
relative movement of adjacent chains is facilitated when a stress is
applied
▪ relatively soft
▪ Most linear polymers and those having some branched structures with
flexible chains
▪ These materials are normally fabricated by the simultaneous application
of heat and pressure
▪ thermoplastic polymers include polyethylene, polystyrene, poly(ethylene
terephthalate), and poly(vinyl chloride).
Polymers
Thermoplastic and thermosetting
► Thermosetting
▪ Crosslinked and network polymers. They become permanently hard
during their formation, and do not soften upon heating.
▪ Network polymers have covalent crosslinks between adjacent molecular
chains. During heat treatments, these bonds anchor the chains together
to resist the vibrational and rotational chain motions at high
temperatures.Thus, the materials do not soften when heated.
▪ Crosslinking is usually extensive, in that 10 to 50% of the chain repeat
units are crosslinked.
▪ Only heating to excessive temperatures will cause severance of these
crosslink bonds and polymer degradation.
▪ Thermoset polymers are generally harder and stronger than
thermoplastics and have better dimensional stability.
▪ Vulcanized rubbers, epoxies, and phenolics and some polyester resins
Polymers
Copolymers

►Copolymers, Random

polymers with at Alternating

least two different
types of mers, can
differ in the way the Block

mers are arranged

►Synthetic rubbers Graft
Polymers
Crystallinity
►Atomic arrangement in polymer
crystals is more complex than in
metals or ceramics (unit cells are
typically large and complex) →
molecules
►The packing of molecular chains to
produce an ordered atomic array
►Polymer molecules are often
partially crystalline
(semicrystalline), with crystalline
regions dispersed within amorphous
material
Polymers
Crystallinity
► Degree of crystallinity is determined by:
▪ Rate of cooling during solidification: time is necessary for chains to
move and align into a crystal structure
▪ Mer complexity: crystallization less likely in complex structures, simple
polymers, such as polyethylene, crystallize relatively easily
▪ Chain configuration: linear polymers crystallize relatively easily,
branches inhibit crystallization, network polymers almost completely
amorphous, crosslinked polymers can be both crystalline and
amorphous
▪ Isomerism: isotactic, syndiotactic polymers crystallize relatively easily -
geometrical regularity allows chains to fit together, atactic difficult to
crystallize
▪ Copolymerism: easier to crystallize if mer arrangements are more
regular - alternating, block can crystallize more easily as compared to
random and graft
► More crystallinity: higher density, more strength, higher
resistance to dissolution and softening by heating
►Crystalline polymers are denser than
amorphous polymers, so the degree of
crystallinity can be obtained from the
measurement of density:

►degree of crystallinity may range up to 95%

Polymers
Polymer crystal

►Thin crystalline platelets grown from

solution - chains fold back and forth: chain-
folded model
►The average chain length is much greater
than the thickness of the crystallite
Polymers
Polymer crystal
► Spherulites: Aggregates of lamellar
crystallites ~ 10 nm thick, separated by
amorphous material. Aggregates
approximately spherical in shape
► Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), polytetrafluoroethylene, and
nylon form a spherulitic structure when
they crystallize from a melt
Polymers
Defects
Polymers
Mechanical behavior – Stress strain
►The description of stress-
strain behavior is similar to
that of metals
►The stress-strain behavior
can be brittle (A), plastic
(B), and highly elastic (C)
►Deformation shown by
curve C is totally elastic
(rubberlike elasticity). This
class of polymers -
elastomers
Polymers
Mechanical behavior – Stress strain
► Modulus of elasticity – defined
as for metals
► Ductility (%EL) – defined as for
metals
► Yield strength - For plastic
polymers (B), yield strength is
defined by the maximum on
curve just after the elastic region
(different from metals)
► Tensile strength is defined at the
fracture point and can be lower
than the yield strength (different
from metals)
Polymers
Mechanical behavior – Stress strain
Polymers
Mechanical behavior – Stress strain
► Mechanical properties of polymers
change dramatically with
temperature, going from glass-like
brittle behavior at low temperatures
to a rubber-like behavior at high
temperatures.
► Polymers are also very sensitive to the
rate of deformation (strain rate).
Decreasing rate of deformation has
the same effect as increasing T.
► Temperature increase leads to:
▪ Decrease in elastic modulus
▪ Reduction in tensile strength
▪ Increase in ductility
Polymers
Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
►Elastic deformation:
▪ Basic mechanism of elastic deformation is
elongation (straightening) of chain molecules in
the direction of the applied stress. Elastic
modulus is defined by elastic properties of
amorphous and crystalline regions and by the
microstructure.
Polymers
Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
► Plastic deformation:
▪ the interaction between crystalline
and amorphous regions and is
partially reversible.
► Stages of plastic deformation:
▪ elongation of amorphous tie chains
▪ tilting of lamellar crystallites
towards the tensile axis
▪ separation of crystalline block
segments
▪ stretching of crystallites and
amorphous regions along tensile axis
Polymers
Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers
►The macroscopic
deformation involves
necking. Neck gets
stronger since the
deformation aligns the
chains and increases local
strength in the neck
region (up to 2-5 times)
→ neck is expanding
along the specimen.
Polymers
Fracture of polymers
►The fracture strengths of polymeric materials are
low relative to those of metals and ceramics
►Mode of fracture in thermosetting polymers
(heavily crosslinked networks) is brittle. During the
fracture process, cracks form at regions where there
is a localized stress concentration (i.e., scratches,
notches, and sharp flaws). Covalent bonds in the
network or crosslinked structure are severed during
fracture
Polymers
Fracture of polymers
►For thermoplastic polymers, both ductile and
brittle modes are possible, and many of these
materials are capable of experiencing a ductile-to-
brittle transition
►Factors that favor brittle fracture are a reduction in
temperature, an increase in strain rate, the presence
of a sharp notch, increased specimen thickness,
and any modification of the polymer structure that
raises the glass transition temperature
Polymers
Fracture of polymers
► Glassy thermoplastics are brittle below their glass transition
temperatures. However, as the temperature is raised, they
become ductile in the vicinity of their Tg and experience
plastic yielding prior to fracture.
► One phenomenon that frequently precedes fracture in some
thermoplastic polymers is crazing. Associated with crazes
are regions of very localized plastic deformation, which
lead to the formation of small and interconnected
microvoids
Polymers
Fracture of polymers

►Fibrillar bridges form between these

microvoids. If the applied tensile load is
sufficient, these bridges elongate and break,
causing the microvoids to grow and coalesce
►As the microvoids coalesce, cracks begin to
form
Polymers
Factors that influence mechanical properties
► Temperature and strain rate
► Chain entanglement, strong intermolecular bonding (van der
Waals, cross-links) increase strength
► Drawing, analog of work hardening in metals, corresponds to
the neck extension. Is used in production of fibers and films.
Molecular chains become highly oriented Þ properties of
drawn material are anisotropic (perpendicular to the chain
alignment direction strength is reduced)
► Heat treatment - changes in crystallite size and order
▪ undrawn material: Increasing annealing temperature leads to
• increase in elastic modulus
• increase in yield/tensile strength
• decrease in ductility
▪ drawn material: opposite changes (due to recrystallization and loss of
chain orientation
Polymers
Factors that influence mechanical properties

►Tensile strength increases with molecular

weight – effect of entanglement
►Higher degree of crystallinity – stronger
secondary bonding - stronger and more
brittle material
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition
►Crystallization: crystalline nuclei form and grow,
chains align and order. Crystallization rates can be
defined from the same type of S-curves we saw in
the case of metals. Nucleation becomes slower at
higher temperatures
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition
►Melting:
▪ transformation of a solid material, having an ordered
structure of aligned molecular chains, to a viscous liquid
in which the structure is highly random
▪ melting of polymers takes place over a range of
temperatures
▪ The thickness of chain-folded lamellae will depend on
crystallization temperature; the thicker the lamellae, the
higher the melting temperature
▪ Impurities in the polymer and imperfections in the
crystals also decrease the melting temperature
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition

►Glass transition
▪ Occurs in amorphous (or glassy) and
semicrystalline polymers, and is due to a
reduction in motion of large segments of
molecular chains with decreasing temperature
▪ The temperature at which the polymer
experiences the transition from rubbery to rigid
states is termed the glass transition temperature
Tg
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition
►Melting and glass transition temperatures are
important parameters relative to inservice
applications of polymers.They define, respectively,
the upper and lower temperature limits for
numerous applications, especially for
semicrystalline polymers.
►The glass transition temperature may also define
the upper use temperature for glassy amorphous
materials
►Tm and Tg also influence the fabrication and
processing procedures for polymers and polymer-
matrix composites
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition
►Melting behavior of
semicrystalline polymers is
intermediate between that of
crystalline materials (sharp
density change at a melting
temperature) and that of a pure
amorphous material (melting can
be only defined from viscosity).
►The glass transition temperature
is between 0.5 and 0.8 of the
melting temperature
Polymers
Crystallization, Melting, Glass transition
► The melting temperature increases with the rate of heating,
thickness of the lamellae, and depends on history of material,
especially crystallization temperature.
► Melting involves breaking of the inter-chain bonds, therefore
the glass and melting temperatures depend on:
▪ chain stiffness (e.g., single vs. double bonds) – rigid chains have higher
melting temperatures
▪ size/weight of molecule - increasing molecular weight increases Tm
(range of M produces range of Tm)
▪ size, shape of side groups, side branches, crosslinking, defects, etc.
► Essentially the same molecular characteristics rise and lower
both melting and glass transition temperatures
Polymers
Types

► Plastics
► Elastomers
► Based on shape: fibers
► Based on application: coating, adhesive,
films, foams
► Advanced polymer
Polymers
Types – Plastics

►The largest group

►Have some structural rigidity under load
►Used in general purpose applications
►Wide variety of properties
►Thermoplastic and thermosetting
Polymers
Types – Plastics
Polymers
Types – Plastics
Polymers
Types – Plastics
Polymers
Types – Elastomers
► Rubber-like elasticity
► Ability to be deformed to quite large deformations, and
then elastically spring back to their original form →
crosslinks in the polymer that provide a force to restore the
chains to their undeformed conformations
► Crosslinking process in elastomers → vulcanization, non
reversible chemical reaction, generally carried out at
elevated T, sulphur compound addition
Polymers
Types – Elastomers
► In an unstressed state, an elastomer will be amorphous and
composed of crosslinked molecular chains that are highly
twisted, kinked, and coiled.
► Elastic deformation, upon application of a tensile load, is
simply the partial uncoiling, untwisting, and straightening, and
the resultant elongation of the chains in the stress direction
► Upon release of the stress the chains spring back to their
prestressed conformations, and the macroscopic piece returns
to its original shape.
Polymers
Types – Elastomers
Polymers
Types – Fibers
►Long filament, utilized in textile industries, woven
or knit into cloth or fabric
►Employed in composite materials as reinforcement
►Must have high tensile strength, chemical stability,
nonflammable, linear and unbranched polymer
structure
Polymers
Types – Coating & adhesive
►Coating:
▪ Protection from environments
▪ Improve appearance
▪ Electrical insulation
▪ Mostly organic
▪ Latex, paint, varnish, enamel, lacquer
►Adhesive:
▪ To bond together the surfaces of two solid components
▪ Mostly as a low viscosity liquid
▪ Polyurethane, silicones, epoxies, acrylics, rubber
materials
Polymers
Types – Film & foam
►Film:
▪ Thin films 0.025-0.125 mm
▪ Used extensively as bags, packaging products
▪ Low density, high degree of flexibility, high tensile &
tear strength, moisture resistance, low permeability of
water vapor
▪ PE, PP, cellophane, cellulose acetate
►Foam:
▪ Contain a relatively high volume percentage of small
pores and trapped gas bubbles
▪ Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics
▪ Cushions, packaging, thermal insulation
Polymers
Types – Advanced polymer
► unique and desirable combinations of properties
► New technology
► Ultrahigh molecular weight PE (UHMWPE): linear PE
with extremely high MW, bullet proof vest, composites
military helmets, fishing line, golf ball cores, blood filters
► Liquid crystal polymers (LCP): LCD
► Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE or TE): at ambient
conditions, exhibits elastomeric (or rubbery) behavior, yet is
thermoplastic in nature, bumpers, electrical insulation,
gasket, shoe soles, shoe heel, sealant, adhesive, protective
coatings
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymerization

►The process by which monomers are linked

together to generate long chains composed
of repeat units
►the raw materials for synthetic polymers are
derived from coal, natural gas, and
petroleum products
►Addition and condensation polymerization
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymerization
►Addition polymerization
▪ Process by which monomer units are attached
one at a time in chainlike fashion to form a
linear macromolecule
▪ The composition of the resultant product
molecule is an exact multiple of the original
reactant monomer
▪ Stages: initiation, propagation, and termination
▪ polyethylene, polypropylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), and polystyrene, as well as many of
the copolymers
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymerization

►Addition polymerization
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymerization
► Condensation polymerization
▪ Formation of polymers by stepwise intermolecular chemical
reactions that may involve more than one monomer species
▪ Usually a small molecular weight byproduct such as water that is
eliminated (or condensed)
▪ No reactant species has the chemical formula of the repeat unit,
and the intermolecular reaction occurs every time a repeat unit is
formed
▪ Stepwise process is successively repeated, producing a linear
molecule
▪ Bifunctional, trifunctional, multifunctional to form crosslinked or
network polymers
▪ Thermosetting polyesters, phenol-formaldehyde, nylons,
polycarbonates
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymerization

►Condensation polymerization
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymer additives
►Modify the mechanical, chemical, and physical
properties to a much greater degree than is possible
by the simple alteration of the fundamental
molecular structure
►Foreign substances called additives are intentionally
introduced to enhance or modify many of these
properties, and thus render a polymer more
serviceable
►Filler materials, plasticizers, stabilizers, colorants,
and flame retardants
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymer additives
►Filler
▪ Most often added to polymers to improve tensile and
compressive strengths, abrasion resistance, toughness,
dimensional and thermal stability, and other propertie
▪ Materials used as particulate fillers include wood flour
(finely powdered sawdust), silica flour and sand, glass,
clay, talc, limestone, and even some synthetic polymers
▪ Particle sizes range all the way from 10 nm to
macroscopic dimensions
▪ Often the fillers are inexpensive materials that replace
some volume of the more expensive polymer, reducing
the cost of the final product
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymer additives
► Plasticizers
▪ Improving the flexibility, ductility, and toughness of polymers. Their
presence also produces reductions in hardness and stiffness
▪ Plasticizers are generally liquids having low vapor pressures and low
molecular weights
▪ The small plasticizer molecules occupy positions between the large
polymer chains, effectively increasing the interchain distance with a
reduction in the secondary intermolecular bonding
▪ Plasticizers are commonly used in polymers that are intrinsically brittle
at room temperature, such as PVC and some of the acetate copolymers
▪ Lowers the glass transition temperature, so that at ambient conditions
the polymers may be used in applications requiring some degree of
pliability and ductility
▪ Thin sheets or films, tubing, raincoats, and curtains
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymer additives

►Stabilizer
▪ Some polymeric materials, under normal
environmental conditions, are subject to rapid
deterioration, generally in terms of mechanical
integrity. Additives that counteract deteriorative
processes are called stabilizers
▪ UV and oxidation deteroriation
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Polymer additives
►Colorants
▪ Impart a specific color to a polymer; they may be added
in the form of dyes (dissolve in polymer) or pigments
(undissolved in polymer)
▪ May impart opacity as well as color to the polymer
►Flame retardants
▪ Enhancing flammability resistance
▪ May function by interfering with the combustion process
through the gas phase, or by initiating a different
combustion reaction that generates less heat, thereby
reducing the temperature; this causes a slowing or
cessation of burning
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
►Consideration:
▪ Whether the material is thermoplastic or thermosetting
▪ If thermoplastic, the temperature at which it softens
▪ The atmospheric stability of the material being formed
▪ The geometry and size of the finished product
►Fabrication of polymeric materials normally occurs
at elevated temperatures and often by the application
of pressure
►Thermoplastics are formed
▪ Amorphous → above glass transition temperatures,
▪ Semicrystalline → above their melting temperatures
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques

►An applied pressure must be maintained as

the piece is cooled so that the formed article
will retain its shape.
►One significant economic benefit of using
►Thermoplastics is that they may be recycled;
scrap thermoplastic pieces may be remelted
and reformed into new shapes
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
► Fabrication of thermosetting polymers is ordinarily
accomplished in two stages. First comes the preparation of a
linear polymer (sometimes called a prepolymer) as a liquid,
having a low molecular weight.
► This material is converted into the final hard and stiff product
during the second stage, which is normally carried out in a
mold having the desired shape. This second stage, termed
“curing,” may occur during heating and/or by the addition of
catalysts, and often under pressure.
► During curing, chemical and structural changes occur on a
molecular level: a crosslinked or a network structure forms.
After curing, thermoset polymers may be removed from a
mold while still hot, since they are now dimensionally stable.
► Thermosets are difficult to recycle, do not melt, are usable at
higher temperatures than thermoplastics, and are often more
chemically inert.
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques

►Molding
▪ most common method for forming plastic
polymers
▪ compression, transfer, blow, injection, and
extrusion molding
▪ For each, a finely pelletized or granulized plastic
is forced, at an elevated temperature and by
pressure, to flow into, fill, and assume the shape
of a mold cavity.
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
►Molding - Compressive molding
▪ Use preform, heated before main process → increases die
lifetime
▪ Can be used for thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers;
however, its use with thermoplastics is more time-consuming
and expensive than the more commonly used extrusion or
injection molding
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques

►Molding - Transfer molding

▪ Transfer molding is used with thermosetting
polymers and for pieces having complex
geometries
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
►Molding – Injection molding
▪ Most widely used technique for fabricating
thermoplastic materials
▪ Thermosetting polymers may also be injection molded;
curing takes place while the material is under pressure in
a heated mold, which results in longer cycle times than
for thermoplastics. This process is sometimes termed
reaction injection molding (RIM) and is commonly used
for materials such as polyurethane
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
►Molding – Extrusion
▪ The molding of a viscous thermoplastic under pressure
through an open-ended die, similar to the extrusion of
metals
▪ The technique is especially adapted to producing
continuous lengths having constant cross-sectional
geometries—for example, rods, tubes, hose channels,
sheets, and filaments.
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques

►Molding – Blow molding

▪ Fabrication of plastic containers is similar to
that used for blowing glass bottles
▪ Use parison, the temperature and viscosity of
the parison must be carefully regulated
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Forming techniques
►Castings
▪ Both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics may be cast.
▪ For thermoplastics, solidification occurs upon cooling from
the molten state;
▪ For thermosets, hardening is a consequence of the actual
polymerization or curing process, which is usually carried
out at an elevated temperature
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Fabrication of fibers
►Most often, fibers are spun from the molten state in
a process called melt spinning. The material to be
spun is first heated until it forms a relatively
viscous liquid. Next, it is pumped through a plate
called a spinneret, which contains numerous small,
typically round holes. As the molten material
passes through each of these orifices, a single fiber
is formed, which is rapidly solidified by cooling
with air blowers or a water bath
Polymers
Synthesis and processing – Fabrication of films
► Many films are simply extruded through a thin die slit; this
may be followed by a rolling (calendering) or drawing
operation that serves to reduce thickness and improve strength.
Alternatively, film may be blown: continuous tubing is
extruded through an annular die; then, by maintaining a
carefully controlled positive gas pressure inside the tube and by
drawing the film in the axial direction as it emerges from the
die, the material expands around this trapped air bubble like a
balloon