Darfur Sudan in The Age of Stone Architecture C Ad 1000 1750 Problems in Historical Reconstruction Andrew James Mcgregor PDF Download
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Sudan South Sudan And Darfur What Everyone Needs To Know Andrew S
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Sahara And Sudan Vol 4 Sahara And Sudan Iv Wadai And Darfur Translated
From The Original German Reprint 2019 Allan G B Fisher Humphrey J
Fisher Rex S Ofahey
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BAR S1006 2001
                                                              Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology
                                                                                 53
                                                                        Series Editor: John Alexander
                                                                       Assistant Editor: Laurence Smith
                                                                     Darfur (Sudan)
                                                            in the Age of Stone Architecture
         Darfur (Sudan)
in the Age of Stone Architecture
       c. AD 1000 - 1750
   Problems in historical reconstruction
BAR
PUBLISHING
Sultanate of Darfur
                                        Table of Contents
1       Introduction                                                                  1-2
2       Geography of Darfur                                                           3-4
3       Historiography of Darfur                                                      5-9
4       Oral tradition as a tool in reconstructing Darfur history                     10-15
5       The Tora: Mysterious founders of Darfur civilization                          16-21
6       The Daju dynasty: origins and historical outline                              22-30
7       Daju sites in Darfur                                                          31-39
8       Daju King-lists                                                               40-42
9       Historical outline of the Tunjur kingdom                                      43-56
10      Tunjur sites in Darfur                                                        57-74
11      The Tunjur: evidence from the south ?                                         75-76
12      Tunjur sites in Wadai                                                         77-80
13      Tunjur King-lists                                                             81-85
14      Historical outline of the Kayra Fur kingdom                                   86-90
15      Kayra Fur sites in Darfur                                                     91-97
16      Fur King-lists from Darfur and Kordofan                                       98-104
17      Correspondences in the Fur king-lists prior to the reign of Sulayman Solong   105-109
18      The ‘Gaoga’ controversy                                                       110-112
19      The Meroitic hypothesis and the African Iron Age                              113-115
20      The Meidob hills: The history and archaeology of an isolated culture          116-121
21      Zankor, Abu Sufyan, and the legend of the ‘Anaj                               122-131
22      Christianity in Chad ?                                                        132-138
23      Conclusion                                                                    139-140
        Bibliography:       a) Books and periodicals                                  141-154
                            b) Archival sources                                       154
                                                    iii
                                               Plates
                                                 iv
                                       Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my parents, Mr. and Mrs. John and Luciel McGregor, and my sister Suanne
McGregor for their assistance and support, without which this work would not have been possible.
I am indebted to Dr. John Alexander, senior editor of the Cambridge Monographs in African
Archaeology series, and Dr. David Davison for enabling the publication of this work.
In Devon, England, I would like to thank Mr. HG Balfour Paul for his interest, hospitality and access to
his unpublished archaeological field-notes from the early 1950’s.
In the Sudan, I would like to thank all those who facilitated my work or acted as informants. Prominent
among these must be mentioned Mr. Salah Omer Sadiq of the Sudan National Museum, Mr. William Wol,
Mr. Enock Majok Matweny, Mr. Peter de Kuch, and Mr. Albino John Latu.
From the national headquarters of the Canadian Institute of International Affairs I would like to express
my appreciation to Ms. Jennifer McNenly, CIIA Librarian, for her assistance and technical support, as
well as to all my other colleagues at the CIIA who have offered their support through the years.
Special mention must be made of the invaluable help offered by Ms. Maria da Mota, secretary of the
Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations, University of Toronto, as well as the staff of the
Robarts Library Inter-Library Loan department, who never failed to find the most obscure requests.
Thanks must also be made to the University of Toronto School of Graduate Studies for the award of a
Dissertation Fellowship, which assisted greatly in the completion of this project.
The present work is a revised version of my doctoral thesis, and it is appropriate to here acknowledge the
contribution of the members of my examining committee, Prof. K Grzymski (supervisor), Dr. NB Millet,
and Prof. J Boddy, as well as the Graduate Co-ordinator of the Department of Near and Middle Eastern
Studies, Prof. L Northrup. Thanks are also due to Joanne Lynes of the Ontario Institute for Studies in
Education, Toronto.
                                                    v
                                                    1. Introduction
The old sultanate of Darfur (in the western part of modern          investigation. The existing literature will be examined in
Sudan) together with its neighbour and rival, the sultanate         depth in an effort to separate fiction from fact, and to
of Wadai (modern east Chad) and a handful of petty border           suggest the most promising avenues for further research.1
sultanates were among the last parts of Africa to fall to the
forces of European colonialism, holding out until the early         My own research in and about Darfur began with a reading
part of the twentieth century. These sultanates were                of Slatin Pasha’s Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1895-6),
centered around a type of divine kingship, and life within          fortunately in the first edition, which contained a historical
the kingdoms was focused around an elaborate ritual cycle,          summary of Darfur that was excised from later editions. As
rich in Islamic tradition and pre-Islamic survivals. The            a student of Nubian archaeology with field experience in
legitimacy of the sultanates was based on their great               the Sudan, I was quickly intrigued by the mysterious
antiquity, witnessed by a multitude of stone monuments              dynasties of the old sultanate. As I examined the literature
and abandoned cities. The testimony of these ruins was              regarding Darfur it became apparent that the meager
enveloped by local traditions in Darfur which provided an           primary literature had been supplemented by a mass of
assortment of myth, legend and historical evidence that             secondary literature consisting of unrestrained speculation,
spoke of a succession of dominant cultures, beginning with          often of a diffusionist and frequently contradictory nature.
the shadowy Tora, typically described as a race of ‘white           There was little in the way of scientific archaeological
giants’ who came from the north. Following this group               work done in the region before the 1980’s, the finds were
were the Daju, an important and aggressive group                    poorly recorded, and the evidence used to support often
mentioned by Arab geographers of the 12th century AD.               far-fetched theories. Colonial boundaries had also served
By the fifteenth century the Daju had been displaced by the         in distorting the literature, as there had been little co-
Tunjur, a warrior group of possible Berber/Banu Hilal               operation between French and British archaeologists in the
origins. Power began to shift in the late 16th and early 17th       region, working independently of each other on their own
centuries to the indigenous Fur, who established an Islamic         sides of the Chad/Sudan border. As in many parts of
state that survived until 1916. It would be false, however,         Africa, the artificial colonial divides had deprived
to regard any of these states as homogeneous creations;             historical investigations of a regional context that reflected
each of them consisted of a multi-ethnic empire in which            historical realities in an often cosmopolitan pre-colonial
intermarriage and conquest drew people from every                   Africa.
constituent group into a larger society in which
advancement to all levels of administration short of the            Though it is clear that Darfur badly needs a programme of
sultanship was open to enterprising individuals of most             archaeological surveys and excavations, it seemed obvious
ethnic groups.                                                      to me that it was nearly impossible to move forward
                                                                    without first laying out some sort of reliable groundwork
The lateness of the conquest offered interested colonial            from the mass of conflicting evidence and commentaries.
administrators an opportunity to study first-hand a culture         Fieldwork cannot exist in a vacuum, but must eventually
that was still rich in its own traditions and rituals, both         be measured against the available historical records and
through physical isolation and a jealously guarded political        existing oral traditons. There had not, however, been any
independence that bordered on xenophobia at times. Such             attempt to examine the traditions, personal accounts and
efforts were, however, scattered and unsystematic, due to           archaeological records in a single work, a necessary first
the absence of any official program to study and record the         step towards profitable fieldwork. With an unsuitable and
traditions and ruins of the region. Those engaged in these          outdated base for further studies, it was necessary to go
efforts were rarely trained in anthropology or archaeology,         back to the original sources and critically examine the raw
and the literature they produced was quickly filled with a          evidence without the biases of its later interpreters.
bewildering combination of observation, supposition and
personal bias. In this atmosphere certain voices came to be         Two major sources were available for this purpose, the
regarded as authoritative by consensus, despite often               underused archival papers of Dr. AJ Arkell (held at the
critical weaknesses in their work.                                  School of Oriental and African Studies, London), and the
                                                                    unpublished field-notes of Mr. HG Balfour Paul (retained
Proper archaeological work has yet to begin in Darfur and           by him at his home in Devon, England). The Arkell Papers
a full study of the known physical evidence with the                were examined in 1995 and again in 1997, at which time I
associated traditions has yet to be completed. The state of         also visited Mr. Balfour Paul to examine his field-notes.
the current body of literature, in which hypothesis is              Also of use were the intelligence records of the 1916
frequently presented as fact, is an unsatisfactory base for         Darfur Field Force, held at the Sudan Government
further studies. The present work has been written in the
belief that a study of the physical evidence, linguistic            1
                                                                      The extensive ritual cycle practiced in the Fur sultanate, as well as many
evidence, and oral traditions that takes into consideration         other aspects of the complex social life of the sultanate’s inhabitants are
the regional context, would be of great value in                    treated in detail in O’Fahey’s State and Society in Darfur (1980), and will
establishing a framework for further archaeological                 not be dealt with at length in the present work, which will instead focus
                                                                    on the material remains in Darfur and their regional context.
                                                                1
Andrew James McGregor
Notes:
1)      Square brackets within quotations indicate an
insertion by the author
2)      The sites examined comprise a selective, rather than
comprehensive list
                                                               2
                                                      2. Geography of Darfur
Forming the western province of the modern Republic of                         than at present.4 Low sandstone hills may be found both to
the Sudan, the region of Darfur corresponds roughly to the                     the east and west of the Marra range.
limits of the old independent Sultanate of Darfur at the
time of its incorporation into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan                        Northern Darfur is a relatively dry area, receiving about
Condominium in 1916. With readjustments to the                                 25cm of rain a year at most. The steppes are broken in
Darfur/Wadai border by the French and British in the                           places by wadi-s with periodic water flows. The area is
1920’s following their conquest of the small border                            largely preferred by nomads, especially in the range
sultanates during the Great War,1 and the addition of a                        between 16° to 17°N. This region, known as the jizzu, is
large quantity of desert to the north in 1952, the present                     usually covered with succulent plants from the time of the
area of Darfur is approximately 193,000 square miles.2 The                     autumn rains up until January or even February, providing
people of Darfur are greatly varied in origin, speaking at                     excellent grazing for the nomads’ herds. The western and
least twelve major languages, with numerous dialects.                          southern areas of Darfur are generally better watered,
They fall generally within one of three types; sedentary                       receiving enough rain to grow crops such as cotton (which
indigenous groups, nomadic or semi-nomadic non-Arab                            in woven form became a major form of currency in the
groups, and the nomadic or semi-nomadic Arab groups,                           sultanate), tobacco, cucumbers, pumpkins and melons.
who keep camels in the north and cattle in the south.3                         During the rainy season and shortly afterwards shallow
                                                                               wells dug in the wadi-s provide sufficient water for crops
Darfur has historically been regarded as an isolated area                      and animals. In the southern reaches of Darfur the seasonal
due to the vast desert to the north, the dry sandy hills along                 wadi-s drain into the Shari river in the west and south-
the Kordofan border to the east, and the tsetse fly ridden                     west, and into the Bahr al-Arab in the south. The southern
marshes to the south. Darfur is most closely connected to                      part of Darfur consists largely of a clay plain covered with
the west, though political antagonism with the                                 thick bush, and forms the homeland of the nomadic cattle-
neighbouring sultanate of Wadai frequently served to limit                     owning Baqqara Arabs.
interaction with this area. The border sultanates of Dar
Tama, Dar Qimr, Dar Sila and Dar Masalit have                                  To the east of Jebel Marra is the vast Qoz region of
historically resisted rule from either Wadai or Darfur, with                   undulating sand-dunes which stretches across Kordofan to
varying degrees of success.                                                    the White Nile. An annual rainfall of approximately 27 cm
                                                                               annually provides just enough water to support a mostly
Most of Darfur consists of vast plains, undulating in the                      sedentary agricultural population. Grasses and herbs are
west, and fairly level in the east, where flat-topped                          usually sufficient to support a number of animals, but with
inselbergs occasionally rise 100-200m above the plain.                         only one significant wadi in the area (the Wadi Ku) a
The most prominent feature is the Jebel Marra mountain                         certain inventiveness has been necessary to provide enough
range, a series of volcanic hills that rise up to 3000m above                  water for the population. To this end deep wells,
the plain. The range is composed mostly of basalt with                         cultivation of melons, and the hollowing out of the huge
some amounts of phonolite and trachyte. The range is not                       tebeldi trees (Adansonia digitata) that dot the landscape for
vast, measuring only 50 km east to west and 110 km north                       water storage are all employed to provide sufficient water
to south, but maintains an immense importance in the                           year-round.5 A certain security was always provided to
region as it dominates the drainage of the area as the                         Darfur by the difficulty of finding enough water to support
dividing point between the Nile and Chad basins and is                         the movement of large numbers of men and animals
regarded as the ancestral homeland of the Fur people who                       westwards from Kordofan to Jebel Marra. The 1916
succeeded in unifying and ruling the entire Darfur region.                     Anglo-Egyptian expedition of the Western Field Force
The main crater of this volcanic eruption is in the south-                     came very close to disaster before a single shot had been
west corner of the Jebel Marra range and contains two                          fired when it was discovered that many of the wells could
lakes (which will be discusssed in detail below in the                         not possibly provide enough water for both men and
section on Daju sites in Darfur). The mountains receive up                     animals. Food was also in short supply, and to some degree
to 75 cm of rain each year which is fully adequate to                          the expedition was saved by the discovery of a field of
support agriculture in the range. The mountain-sides are                       onions, which led to a three-day onion feast. The greatest
extensively terraced to prevent soil erosion and to support
irrigation. The large number of unused terraces suggests
                                                                               4
that Jebel Marra once supported a much larger population                        Hale (1969)
                                                                               5
                                                                                 ‘The stem of these is hollow by nature, and the hollow it contains can
                                                                               easily be enlarged into a cavity of considerable capacity. During the rains
                                                                               water is hauled up from a reservoir dug at the base of the tree in which it
                                                                               collects, and poured into the hollow stem through a hole cut near the top
                                                                               of the main bole, and as soon as the tree is filled it is sealed up. When
1
  See J Tubiana (1981), pp.113-28; and Grossard (1925).                        water is required for use it is drawn up out of the hollow stem with a skin
2
  Sources for the geography of Darfur include Barbour (1954), pp.172-82,       bucket. In a sandy region where there are no wells, Tebeldi trees are of
Barbour (1961), pp.148-58, Theobald (1965), pp.1-11                            great value. They grow to a great age, and in some cases have been
3
  For the movements of the nomadic groups in Darfur, see fig.58, Barbour       known to hold as much as 3000 gallons of water’ (Sarsfield Hall, 1922,
(1961).                                                                        pp.362-3).
                                                                           3
Andrew James McGregor
6
  MacMichael (1918), p.36
7
  See Keding (1998), pp.2-12; and Mohammed-Ali (1981), pp.176-8
8
  O’Fahey (1980), p.7
                                                                  4
                                                     3. Historiography of Darfur
Early sources on Darfur*                                                           from an epic six year exploration of the central African
                                                                                   interior, during which time he had travelled from Tripoli
WG Browne, an Englishman, arrived in Darfur via a                                  through Fazzan and Tibesti (where he was nearly sold into
grueling trek down the Darb al-Arba’in (‘40 Day’s Road’)                           slavery) to Lake Chad, and then through Borno, Bagirmi,
from Asyut in 1793. The Fur, well aware of the threat to                           Wadai and Darfur. Nachtigal’s intellect, curiosity and
their independence from the northern Mamluks and                                   energy resulted in a detailed and generally scientific
Ottomans, had adopted an almost xenophobic attitude to                             account of these lands, which he began publishing in 1879
foreigners who were not known traders. Even the latter                             as Sahara und Sudan: Ergebnisse sechsjährigen Reisen in
were generally confined to the merchant’s town of Kobbe                            Afrika (Berlin). A second volume appeared in 1881, but
at the southern terminus of the Darb al-Arba’in. Browne                            Nachtigal held off on publishing his notes from Wadai and
came under immediate suspicion, and quickly found that                             Darfur in the expectation of making further explorations in
leaving Darfur was even harder than getting there. Browne                          these regions. He was instead appointed Reichskommissar
was kept confined to Kobbé and the capital al-Fashir, and                          for the German government in the new colonies of
was unable to make extensive enquiries before being                                Cameroon and Togoland, where he died in 1885. A third
allowed to leave in 1796. His 1799 work, Travels in Egypt,                         volume of Sahara und Sudan was compiled from his notes
Syria and Africa, provides excellent information regarding                         on Wadai and Darfur in 1889, but these works remained
the then little-known trade route from Egypt to Darfur and                         extremely rare for many years until their appearance in a
the commercial communities of Kobbé and al-Fashir, but                             four-volume English translation by Fisher and Fisher in
the sparse historical information is generally confused and                        1971.
unhelpful, mistaking the Tunjur with the Daju, and
describing the Fur sultans as ‘Moors’ in origin.                                   Nachtigal differed from his predecessors in making a
                                                                                   systematic investigation into the history of Darfur, seeking
Another commercial traveller with far greater access to all                        out both traditions from learned sources and hunting down
parts of Darfur was the Tunisian Muhammad ‘Umar al-                                the often elusive written sources, of which he succeeded in
Tunisi. Al-Tunisi was from a merchant family, and his                              reading several (though they proved largely contradictory).
father and uncle plied the routes between Sinnar, Darfur                           Nachtigal was helped in some degree by establishing
and Wadai.1 Arriving in Darfur at the age of 14 in 1803, al-                       friendly relations with Sultan Ibrahim (1873-4), but as the
Tunisi spent 8 years there before returning to Tunis                               sultanate was in a general state of apprehension regarding a
through Wadai. Living in Cairo years later, al-Tunisi met a                        possible Egyptian invasion (which indeed came shortly
French resident, Dr. Perron, who encouraged al-Tunisi to                           after Nachtigal’s departure), the doctor was prevented from
record his observations in two works, Voyage au Darfour                            leaving al-Fashir to explore the countryside, and was often
(1845) and Voyage au Ouaday (1851). The works appeared                             regarded with the greatest suspicion and even derision
in both Arabic and French, thanks to translations provided                         from the populace.
by Dr. Perron. Valuable in many ways, these works do
little to enlighten us on historical aspects of Darfur, as al-                     O’Fahey describes the work of MacMichael and Nachtigal
Tunisi typically took little interest in pre-Islamic history,                      as ‘open to the criticism of too great a pre-occupation with
and was generally uncritical with the historical information                       the Arab/non-Arab divide and with descent generally.
he did gather. Al-Tunisi again noted the absence of written                        Beyond entrapping the reader in the mire of Arab
historical material in Darfur.                                                     pedigrees, the genealogical approach has small utility...’.2
                                                                                   The present work deals with such issues in some depth in
Heinrich Barth explored the region between Mali and                                the belief that ‘the genealogical approach’ may yet provide
Bagirmi between 1849 and 1855, publishing his findings in                          clues as to the origins of certain cultural groups, reveals the
a three volume work, Travels and discoveries in north and                          processes involved in the collection and transmission of
central Africa (1857). Barth did not reach Darfur, but made                        oral tradition (hence providing a critical framework for the
efforts to collect information about its peoples and history.                      examination of these traditions), and, where the
Barth was disappointed by his failure to acquire written                           genealogies have been obviously revised or falsified,
documents regarding Darfur, after having had success in                            allows us to discover who a certain cultural group believed
finding numerous manuscripts regarding Borno.                                      themselves to be, which is in reality as important as an
                                                                                   accurate racial/ethnic identification in reconstructing
Gustav Nachtigal, a former doctor in the Prussian army,                            regional history. This material is, of course, most useful
spent six months in al-Fashir in 1874 while on his return                          when examined in conjunction with linguistic evidence,
                                                                                   archaeological remains, and the written works of outside
*Early sources in Arabic are translated and discussed in detail later in the
                                                                                   sources, such as the Arab geographers. For this reason the
text. Only the most important European language sources are given here.            term ‘cultural group’ commonly appears in this paper
1
  Hasan and Ogot describe Muhammad al-Tunisi’s father, ‘Umar, as one               where the term ‘tribe’ may appear in older works; the latter
of a number of foreign ‘jurists and mystics’ encouraged to settle in Darfur
by Sultan ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Rashid (1787-1800), (Hasan and Ogot,
                                                                                   2
1992, p.190).                                                                          O’Fahey (1980a), p.3
                                                                               5
Andrew James McGregor
implies a racial or ethnic homogeneity which is not                     texture of hair’.4 Such pliable criteria made it possible for
compatible with what is known of the social organization                proponents of Hamitic penetration and influence in Africa
of the peoples of Darfur. Tracing a lineal history of such              to ascribe almost any cultural development in the Sudanic
groups ignores a continual process of assimilation or                   and Sub-Saharan regions to the presence of ‘Hamitic’
dispersal of peoples of various linguistic or ethnic                    civilizing traits. The Hamitic theory was clearly stated by
identities in the area. Cultural groups in the                          one of its greatest proponents, CG Seligman:
Saharan/Sudanic regions also rarely display any egalitarian
traits, being divided into hereditary castes of servile and                        Apart from relatively late Semitic influence -
superior clans, though individuals and certain cultural                            whether Phoenician (Carthaginian) and strictly
groups have demonstrated the existence of a large degree                           limited, or Arab (Muhammadan) and widely
of mobility through these ranks. Nearly every major ‘tribe’                        diffused - the civilizations of Africa are the
additionally has divisions within it that are ‘foreign’ to that                    civilizations of the Hamites, its history the record
group, but which have long been assimilated to the larger                          of these peoples and of their interaction with the
group, though traditions may remain of the outside origin                          two other African stocks, the Negro and the
of the smaller groups. Many indigenous pagan groups were                           Bushman, whether this influence was exerted by
swallowed namelessly through the adoption of nominally                             highly civilized Egyptians or by such wider
Islamic pedigrees, often inspiring the generally pointless                         pastoralists as are represented at the present day
practice of colonial administrators sorting out their charges                      by the Beja and the Somali... The Hamites - who
through determinations of racial purity by the examination                         are ‘Europeans’, i.e. belong to the same great
of superficial traits such as skin colour, facial features,                        branch of mankind as the whites - are commonly
head-size, etc. Such practices ignored the importance of                           divided into two great branches, Eastern and
understanding the interaction between all the inhabitants of                       Northern.5
Saharan and Sudanic Africa, instead relegating their
studies to an evaluation of how ‘debased’ a certain ethnic              Bender describes the ‘Hamitic concept’ as;
group has become through intermarriage with indigenous
peoples. That such fusion may produce a new, creative and                          The racist idea that African peoples who are seen
vital culture is generally not considered; the                                     as more ‘advanced’ in some terms favored by
accomplishments of such groups are attributed to a                                 racist theorists are so because of admixture by
leavening of lighter-skinned ‘Hamitic’ blood, while those                          invading ‘Hamites’ (descendants of the Biblical
aspects of a culture found distasteful to the colonial                             ‘Ham’), making them superior to ‘Negroes’,
historian were chalked up to the degree of ‘native’ heritage                       although, of course still not up to the standard of
(or simple ‘blackness’) found within that culture. The                             Caucasians (which includes the theorists,
concept is not a new one; it can be traced back into the                           naturally). First of all, the terms ‘Hamito-Semitic’
works of some of the oldest Arab geographers. Ibn                                  or ‘Semito-Hamitic’ are linguistically wrong
Qutayba (d. 889), cites an earlier and now lost work of                            because the division of Arasian into bipartite
Wahb b. Munabbih (d. c.730):                                                       branches Semitic vs. all the rest is not supported
                                                                                   by the data... Second, the ‘Hamitic’ concept is
         Wahb b. Munabbih said that Ham b. Nuh was a                               physically unsound: it is a racist thesis which
         white man having a beautiful face and form. But                           must be rejected as unscientific and pernicious.6
         Allah (to Him belongs glory and power) changed
         his colour and the colour of his descendants                   The Hamitic theory has also been attacked by Olderogge,
         because of his father’s curse. Ham went off,                   who described it as ‘one form of expression of a
         followed by his children. They settled on the                  reactionary ideology of racialism, which divides people
         shore of the sea, and Allah increased them. They               into ‘full-valued’ and ‘less-valued’.7 African groups
         are the Sudan.3                                                displaying few traits of the perceived ‘Hamitic’ influence
                                                                        were often subject to crude generalizations in colonial
                                                                        literature despite their historical roles and achievements in
The Hamite question                                                     the region. One such group was the Daju, who were
                                                                        described as ‘as decadent and debased a people as may be
The dubious existence of the ‘Hamite’ race and its                      found in Africa’.8 Elsewhere the mountain Fur, judged to
supposed role in African history rests uneasily upon the
poorly defined concept of just what constitutes inclusion               4
                                                                          Afigbo (1993), p.43
among the Hamites. Identifying characteristics include                  5
                                                                          Seligman (1966), p.61; See also Seligman (1913), pp.593-705
‘occupational specialisation such as pastoralism, at other              6
                                                                          Bender (1997), pp.42-3
                                                                        7
times cultural traits such as language and religion (Islam),              Olderogge (1971-2), p.70
                                                                        8
                                                                          Henderson (1939), p.56 This appears to be the source for Trimingham’s
and still at other times physical characteristics like skin             judgement that the Daju are ‘a very decadent debased type’ (Trimingham,
complexion, physical height, skull measurements and                     1949, p.89). The Daju of Dar Sila appear to have have left a much better
                                                                        impression on the French; Col. Largeau wrote of the Daju in 1912 that
                                                                        ‘L’humeur indépendante des Dadjo, la nature montagneuse de leur pays,
3
 Abu Muhammad ‘Abd Allah b. Muslim Ibn Qutayba al-Dinawari; Kitab       leur grande aptitude à utiliser les terrains difficiles et les obstacles
al-ma‘arif, Trans. in Hopkins and Levtzion (1981), p.15                 naturels, développée par le sport national de la chasse et de la recherche
                                                                    6
                                                                      Darfur (Sudan) in the Age of Stone Architecture c.1000-1750 AD
have the least amount of ‘Arab blood’ are referred to as the                    mallams [mu‘allim-s], and we have to sort out what it was
‘still savage Karakirit Fur’.9 The colonial literature                          they wanted to convey, from what Palmer made of it; and
abounds with such references, of which these are only                           then we must de-code the mallams’ data along with their
examples. The Hamite theory has been used in Darfur to                          ‘mental frameworks’. Simply to discard the data of Palmer
explain the emergence of a powerful kingdom among the                           (and others like him) is to discard part of oral history
black Fur of Jebel Marra;                                                       c.1910: in practice, even the strictest historians do not do
                                                                                so, despite the disavowals’.13 Musa Muhammad appraised
           ‘Fur’ apparently (like ‘Sudan’) means ‘blacks’,                      the work of Palmer and other colonial officials as follows:
           and was the name given by the early light-
           coloured (?Berber) sultans of Darfur to the                                      Like most of the scholars of their generation, they
           original negroid inhabitants of the country (such                                took a diffusionist standpoint. They looked to the
           as the Binga, Banda, etc.), who agreed to become                                 archaeological evidence in the area to show
           Moslem and submit to the sultan’s rule, the                                      human migration and cultural diffusion into
           alternative being to be attacked and either killed                               Darfur. The Nile Valley and the West Africa
           or enslaved... As the historic dynasty became                                    savannah which were archaeologically better
           more and more negroid from intermarriage with                                    known were taken as more ‘civilized’ areas and
           black wives and concubines, the appearance of                                    hence the possible sources for the cultural
           the sultans darkened correspondingly and they                                    development in Darfur. That assumption led to
           became known by the appellation of their black                                   confusion... Despite their failings, they made
           subjects, ‘Fur’.10                                                               pioneering attempts to record the archaeology of
                                                                                            Darfur and reported sites which since their visits
A major proponent of the Hamite hypothesis was HR                                           have been much destroyed.14
Palmer, a British administrator in northern Nigeria (1915-
28). Palmer collected manuscripts and commissioned
histories from those versed in local history and tradition,
publishing these works in translation with extensive                            AJ Arkell
commentaries informed by the author’s belief in
diffusionism and the cultural superiority of the ‘lighter-                      AJ Arkell’s prolific output of articles regarding Darfur
skinned’ peoples. Nevertheless these works remain an                            history and impressive career as a colonial administrator in
important repository of the lore and history of Borno,                          the Condominium government have made him the most
Chad, Kanem, Bagirmi, Darfur and other regions of the                           influential writer on matters related to Darfur history and
central Sudan. While Palmer’s translations of manuscript                        archaeology. Born in 1898, Arkell abandoned his studies at
histories are of great value, his commentaries must be                          Oxford to join the Royal Flying Corps in 1914, serving as
approached with the greatest caution; ‘Palmer’s                                 a fighter pilot until 1919. He returned to Oxford after the
publications in particular are extremely difficult to use.                      war but again left his studies to join the Sudan Political
They are very confused, having no doubt been hastily                            Service in 1920. After the usual language training in
produced in the spare time of an exceptionally busy                             Khartoum, Arkell served as an administrator in Darfur
colonial administrator. Even where clear they tend to be                        until 1926, a period which saw Arkell develop a strong
misleading because of the author’s prediliction for basing                      interest in the numerous ruins he encountered in the field.
historiographical interpretation on apparent similarities of
vocabulary in the languages of the peoples studied                              Following his first posting in Darfur, Arkell served in
extending even to the acceptance of far-fetched parallels                       White Nile Province until 1929, during which he was
with ancient Egyptian and Greek. But Palmer was not a                           distinguished for his work in eliminating the cross-border
trained linguist and much of his writing in that field is in                    traffic in slaves with Ethiopia. After this Arkell was made
fact nonsensical’.11 Bivar and Shinnie remark that ‘These                       District Commissioner (DC) in Blue Nile Province until
curious works contain, if one can sort it out, a mass of                        1932. The first of many publications came with the 1932
information but are uncritical and full of inaccuracies’.12                     volume of Sudan Notes and Records. He was promoted to
Last has also come to the defence of a critical reading of                      Deputy Governor of Darfur, where he served until 1937,
the traditions collected by Palmer; ‘I would suggest that                       which allowed him to further investigate the antiquities of
much of Palmer’s data is merely what he was told by                             the region. In 1937, Governor-General Angus Gillan
                                                                                decided that anthropological research in the Sudan should
du miel, paraissent être les principales raisons qui ont sauvegardé             be co-ordinated by the Condominium government to
l’indépendance du Sila. Il ne parait jamais avoir payé au Darfour et au         ensure its best application to administrative requirements.
Ouddaï que des tributs irréguliers et peu importants’ (Berre, 1983,             Knowing of Arkell’s historical interests, anthropologist CG
pp.122-3).
9
  Arkell (1920b), p.24
                                                                                Seligman suggested to Arkell that he pursue a year of
10
   Arkell (1961), p.214 The self-name for the Fur of the northern Kora          study at Oxford. Arkell agreed, and obtained a Diploma of
range of Jebel Marra is Korakwa (Kwa means ‘people’). Arkell attempted          Archaeology, studying under EE Evans-Pritchard and AR
to demonstrate that Kora meant “blacks’ with the connotation of ‘slaves’’
(Arkell, 1951a, pp.57-8).
11                                                                              13
   Abdullahi Smith (1971), p.165, fn.17                                              Last (1985), p.168
12                                                                              14
   Bivar and Shinnie (1962), p. , fn.2                                               Musa Muhammad (1986), pp.6-7
                                                                            7
Andrew James McGregor
Radcliffe-Brown. In 1938 Arkell returned to the Sudan and                                   and the Turuj are the serfs of another royal tribe,
became the first Commissioner for Archaeology and                                           the Daju.18
Anthropology in the Sudan.
                                                                                 As Arkell’s methodology largely consisted of seeking
Though busy with other duties during the war-years, Arkell                       proofs of his théorie du jour, his works must be read
was, however, able to continue his archaeological pursuits                       closely, separating the interpretation from the hard data of
in the Sudan during this period, excavating the prehistoric                      observation, for which we are still reliant upon Arkell in
site on the future grounds of the Khartoum hospital in 1943                      many places in Darfur.19 His earliest works, in which
and 1944. The following years also saw the groundwork                            Arkell was still collecting evidence and drawing
laid for the establishment of the Sudan Antiquities Service                      interpretations from it, are among his most reliable;
and of a national Sudanese museum. Arkell also served as                         unfortunately Arkell often dropped his earlier and sounder
editor of Sudan Notes and Records from 1945 to 1948.                             observations in later years in favour of wilder diffusionist
After excavating Shaheinab in 1949 Arkell left the Sudan,                        explanations, supported by often subtly manipulated
moving to London, where he became a lecturer in                                  physical and historical evidence. Arkell became intrigued
Egyptology at University College.                                                early by the Hamitic hypothesis, following Palmer in
                                                                                 tracing this supposed influence on the Sudanic kingdoms
In 1955 Arkell brought out the first edition of his                              back as far as the earliest Egyptian dynasties. The
influential History of the Sudan from the earliest times to                      culmination of this approach was the 1955 work A History
1821 (a revised second edition appeared in 1961). In 1957                        of the Sudan (revised 1961), in which unfounded
Arkell accompanied an expedition travelling by car from                          speculation is presented as reasoned theory, and an attempt
the Libyan coast to Ennedi and Tibesti, the archaeological                       to reconcile various diffusion-based approaches results
results of which were published as Wanyanga in 1964.                             only in a web of contradictions. This work has been
                                                                                 characterized by Trigger as;
Arkell’s life made another turn in 1963, when he retired
from the University of London to become an Anglican                                         a series of pseudohistorical ornamentations such
vicar in a country parish. From this point until his death in                               as the idea that [traits such as iron-working, brick
1980 Arkell was rarely involved in archaeological matters.                                  architecture, and divine kingship] were carried
                                                                                            westward by the Meroitic royal family fleeing
Arkell has been described as having ‘congenitally                                           from their Axumite conquerors (an idea not unlike
diffusionist views”,15 and accused (with HR Palmer, his                                     the once fashionable one that the Renaissance in
mentor in historical style) of practicing ‘wild amateur                                     Western Europe could be explained as the result
philology’,16 seeking cognates and derivatives through                                      of scholars fleeing the fall of Constantinople).
innumerable and unrelated language groups and dialects,                                     Since that time, Arkell’s theories, both with and
even though some languages used in their philological                                       without such romantic elaborations, have attracted
comparisons (Assyrian, Meroitic, Egyptian, etc.) had been                                   widespread attention and have been repeated, with
dead for hundreds or thousands of years.17 This tendency,                                   few if any caveats, in many general studies of
when combined with the availability of thousands of                                         African prehistory.20
known ethnonyms and countless variants in the Sudanic
regions, could lead to some rather startling conclusions,                        Arkell’s archaeological writings between 1959 and 1963
usually without any support from historical, traditional or                      are largely concerned with proving the existence of a
archaeological sources;                                                          highly dubious Christian kingdom in Darfur and Wadai,
                                                                                 perhaps reflecting the religious turn in his state of mind
           From the reign of Tuthmosis IV (1425-1404 BC)                         that led to his retirement from archaeology in 1963 to
           there is a record at Konosso near Philae of one                       become an Anglican minister. Nevertheless, many of
           successful expedition perhaps into the eastern                        Arkell’s least reliable speculations regarding Darfur
           desert against some tribe that had raided Wawat                       continue to appear in popular and scholarly literature that
           (probably the Wadi Halfa district); and on his                        deals with the region. Using both his published works and
           chariot the royal sphinx treads underfoot three                       archival notes (held at the School of Oriental and African
           Nubians and six foreigners (some of whom are
           represented as negroes) with the names Cush,
           Karei, Medju (Beja), Irm, Gwršš and Trk. The last                     18
                                                                                    Arkell (1961), p.90
           three names suggest the country west of the Nile                      19
                                                                                    An important corrective to Arkell’s approach is found in the articles of
           now known as Darfur, where a section of the once                      HG Balfour Paul, a British official who carried out extensive exploration
           royal tribe of Mima is still called Armi, another                     of the archaeological sites in Darfur in the early 1950’s. Balfour Paul was
           tribe in south-western Darfur is known as Kreish,                     able to revisit a number of sites previously described only by Arkell, and
                                                                                 in many cases made significantly different observations than did Arkell.
                                                                                 Balfour Paul’s commentaries are more reasoned and based on direct
                                                                                 observation than are Arkell’s and his draftsmanship allowed Balfour Paul
15
   Kleppe (2000), p242 In this case for suggesting that the stool of the         to produce a large number of important plans and drawings; see in
Shilluk was the throne of Osiris.                                                particular Balfour Paul’s History and Antiquities of Darfur (1955), which,
16
   Holt (1963), p.42                                                             though short, is to this day the most reliable work on Darfur antiquities.
17                                                                               20
   For a more scientific approach to such work, see Ehret (1971), pp.10-25          Trigger (1969), p.25
                                                                             8
                                                                     Darfur (Sudan) in the Age of Stone Architecture c.1000-1750 AD
21
   Anyone planning to do fieldwork in Darfur would also be well advised
to examine Musa Mohammad (1986), section 1.6 ‘Problems encountered
in the 1978-1981 surveys’, pp.15-16
22
   Musa Mohammad (1986), pp.7-8
                                                                          9
                             4. Oral tradition as a tool in reconstructing Darfur history
It is perhaps misleading and possibly even irrelevant to                multiple monarchs who actually reigned concurrently over
judge oral traditions in the sense of being ‘correct’ or                different parts of what later or earlier formed a kingdom.3
‘incorrect’, ‘accurate’ or ‘inaccurate’. The oral
transmission of culture history is never designed to                    As historical events recede into a foggy past, it will often
preserve a record of a group for historical purposes; it is             nevertheless be felt necessary to elaborate upon the deeds
instead a living creation, recalling events that have a                 of a community progenitor, leading to the development of
functional purpose in the present for a cultural group,                 an eponymous ancestor. Again the tradition satisfies the
particularly in the role of legitimation. The traditions                need to know ‘why’; in this case why a cultural group is
usually serve to explain why present conditions exist; the              known by a certain name. The distance between the
question of ‘how’ is important only insofar as it serves to             eponymous ancestor and the present is easily telescoped as
support the answer to ‘why’ - hence the ‘discrepancies’                 the question of time is not only largely irrelevant, but may
that exist in the early portions of narratives of different             in fact impede the function of the oral narrative in
traditions that end the same way. In the value system of                substantiating claims to land, lineage, or political
oral traditions each route to a result is as valid as another;          leadership.4 Oral tradition is, moreover, subject to
the purpose is served when a set of events determines a                 formulaic and mnemonic devices employed by the keepers
desirable conclusion. In this process the mythical event is             of community memory. Historical personalities may
as legitimate as the historical event, so long as it is integral        undergo conflation with other historical characters or even
to the world-view of the giver and the hearer of the                    mythic individuals. The cultural evolution of a group may
tradition. ‘Whereas it was once thought one might attain a              also lead to the assimilation of the memories of an
better understanding of ‘what really happened’, now it is               absorbed or displaced community in order to legitimize the
more clearly realised that we can understand only the                   claims of the new power (the apparent transference of the
various ways in which different peoples and different                   Ahmad al-Ma‘qur variation of the ‘Wise Stranger’ myth
groups understood their past: in short, that there is for us            from the Tunjur to the Kayra Fur comes to mind); as
no History, only histories.’1                                           Richards notes, ‘Historical events are not unique in our
                                                                        sense of the phrase; they are, on the contrary, as identical
The traditions exist in a constant state of flux, evolving in           as possible’.
reaction to the events around them. The dispersal or
concentration of populations, the arrival of alien groups,              Reference to time in the collected accounts is either wholly
the departure of community members or the introduction                  absent or given in the most general terms in most cases.
of new religious ideas will all either expand or diminish               Fixing chronological points is not a concern in the oral
the importance of certain traditions and therefore directly             tradition, and for events known from traditions prior to the
affect the will to remember. ‘Since myths and legends are               17th century in Darfur, it is necessary to look for
used to support political claims it follows that they are               correspondences from the Arab geographers (whose works
most numerous and complex where the claims are                          are themselves often compendiums of uncritically gathered
contested or the population mixed’.2 Tradition also                     information). They nevertheless have the benefit of a fixed
responds to the needs of the present, enduring                          date for their completion. The reliability of these
modifications or omissions to validate the needs,                       geographers needs to be examined on an individual basis,
pretensions or vanity of those who call upon it. Entire                 as they habitually borrowed and embellished earlier
lineages can fall at one fell swoop according to the desire             accounts, and often did not hesitate to retail third-hand
for a community to confirm their rights or orthodoxy                    information to fill in gaps in their works. Other problems
through the introduction of a new version of their culture
history. It is typical, however, for elements of the willfully
forgotten past to percolate back into a record so flexible as           3
                                                                          Many efforts have been made to extract chronological information from
oral tradition. In the Sudanic states the pagan heroes of a             king-lists by deriving a mean length of reign and applying it to an entire
                                                                        list in order to estimate the total length of a dynasty’s rule. Such attempts
barbaric past may be reduced to an Arabicized name in a                 will not be made here, as the author is in agreement with Henige that
lineage list, but something in the memory of an individual              ‘This approach has obvious weaknesses. It assumes that the concept of
refuses to perish. The deeds of the individual may be                   ‘average’ has real relevance in historical reality. It further assumes that
forgotten, but something in his or her life compels                     the succession system under study has not undergone changes from its
                                                                        inception. Finally, it presupposes that the kinglist/genealogy itself is
memory, often regardless of its role in validating or                   accurate’ (Henige, 1974, p.4).
reinforcing the world-view of a community. Conversely, a                4
                                                                          An excellent demonstration of the process of ‘telescoping’ can be found
process of lengthening can often be found in genealogies                from Tanzania. An historical chronicle was produced for the Kilwa
and king-lists, occurring through the addition of tribal or             people of the Tanganyika coast in the early sixteenth century, but appears
                                                                        to have been consulted rarely if ever since then. When Kilwa oral
clan chiefs who never ruled, or through the inclusion of                traditions were collected in the twentieth century, it became possible to
                                                                        compare the development of the traditions concerning events earlier than
                                                                        the sixteenth century with a written control. It was found that the oral
                                                                        traditions had closely retained the origin story with the same names and
1
    Last (1985), pp.168-9                                               places. After this event, however, seven hundred years of history was
2
    Richards (1960), p.177                                              telescoped into the reigns of only six rulers (Levtzion, 1972, p.58).
                                                                   10
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gäller återupprättelsen af osmanernes herravälde öfver världen.
Eders excellens är den man, som profeten utkorat till detta höga
värf, och den ende som förmår utföra det. Men äfven ett lejon kan
kämpa förgäfves utan en droppe lifgifvande vatten, och eders
excellens behöfver penningar, mycket penningar. Värdigas inse hvad
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tillgångar, att med hans guld kunna tämja de grymmaste
motståndare och att med detta samma guld kunna uppställa ständigt
nya härar till tronens försvar eller till utvidgandet af halfmånens
makt. Det hemliga och viktiga anbud, som jag sist velat tillägga å
Ruben Zevis vägnar, är, att han bjuder eders excellens öppet kreditiv
på sin agent i Konstantinopel, grekiska bankirhuset Argyropulos, mot
pant af tullinkomsterna i Smyrna, Aleppo och Alexandria.
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osmanerne dittills frambragt. Han öfverlade och fann skälen
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antog tillbudet.
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hand på den frimodige tolkens skuldra, såg honom skarpt i ögat och
sade:
   — Du är icke en man, du är en kvinna!
   — Eders excellens säger det, svarade Hagar, aftagande
lösskägget. — Jag är Ruben Zevis dotterdotter och syster till denne
hans budbärare.
   Hon kunde ej undgå att rodna. Hennes för en muselmans ögon
alltför smärta, men behagfulla gestalt röjde sig under karldräkten.
Hennes österländska drag med de mörka, blixtrande ögonen
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Storvesiren betraktade henne, lika förvånad öfver hennes skönhet,
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son Achmed.[6]
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 1648 till 1656, då Kuprili blef storvesir.
 [6] Achmed pascha blef 1661 storvesir efter sin fader. Desse två store
 statsmän lyckades för en tid återupprätta sultanernes sjunkande makt.
                  12. Slafvens slafvinna.
                                           Hvad skulle drottning Kristina
                                               säga?
Ryttaren på den röda hästen fortfor att rida. Han hade 1647 sett de
 stridande härarna utsvälta hvarandra i Böhmen, hade med
grinande välbehag räknat tusen och åter tusen offer för
hungersdöden. Han hade sett landtbefolkningen smyga sig ut vid
nattens inbrott från sina gömställen i skogarna och kasta sig öfver
döde och halfdöde vid lägrens utkanter, icke mer för att plundra,
utan för att som vilddjur gnaga en rest från de dödas afmagrade
ben. Han log; han hade sett mera omänskliga uppträden, sett
barnen uppäta sina döda föräldrar och halfmultnade lik uppgräfvas
ur kyrkogårdarna. Sådant är kriget, det kommer aldrig allena;
svärdet och kulan äro barmhärtiga i bredd med hungern och
farsoterna. Pesten var hemma här, han kom, han gick och kom åter
som korpen öfver ett slagfält. Hvad hade icke denne ryttare sett i de
usla baracker, hvilka under trettioåra kriget tjenstgjorde som
fältlasaretter!
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skulle vid sidan af nöden och döden äfven se hatet. Han följde
hessiske öfverlöparen Melander på dennes härjningståg genom
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trehundra stora byar uppgingo inom få veckor i lågor. Sista spillran af
Hessens välstånd var ödelagd, och Melander belönades med titeln
grefve von Holzapfel.
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behag i Wallenstein, i Banér, i Altringer, i Götz, och följde med nöje
hans vidare fälttåg. Där var att hoppas något mer än vanligt af
mänskligt elände. När Melander år 1648 förenat bajerska hären med
den kejserliga, räknade han under sitt befäl 33,000 krigare — där
fanns ännu något att slakta — och dessutom 127,000 lösdrifvare,
kvinnor och barn. Hvilket utsökt byte för mordängeln, om denna här
led ett nederlag! Lifvad af förhoppningar, följde ryttaren hären till
närheten af Augsburg i Bajern.
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bajrarne för att lätta återtåget och stod kvar med de kejserlige. Det
var en skön majnatt. Allt doftade i vårens första fägring, och
sylviorna, som ej kände annat än kärlekens och svartsjukans krig,
sjöngo i lindarnas kronor sina drillar för de tyst i mörkret
marscherande svenske och franske krigarne. En ung öfverste, Gustaf
Kurck, som vuxit från sina älskogsgriller, sporrade i spetsen för
åttahundra ryttare sin häst till det första anfallet. Han högg in, mötte
skarpt motstånd, kastades tillbaka, högg åter in och lyckades bättre.
Tre gånger höllo de kejserlige stånd, tre gånger veko de. Sårad, lät
Melander bära sig på pikar i hetaste kulregnet, genomborrades af en
ny kula och föll. Motståndet bröts, den kejserliga hären blef slagen
på flykten, och de 127,000 ... Här var något att göra för ryttaren på
den röda hästen. Han red in bland dessa flyende, värnlösa, trasiga,
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så långt ögat såg. De redos omkull, trampades ned, kastades öfver
hvarandra och sönderklöste hvarandra, där de blödande lågo på
marken för att frånrycka hvarandra ett stycke bröd. De, som blefvo
vid lif och förmådde fly, skingrades hemlösa och roflystna kring
bygderna, gifna till pris åt alla lustar och alla eländen. Svenskarne
ryckte in i Bajern och härjade så grundligt, att ännu efter tvåhundra
år deras namn blef en buse för ostyriga barn.
   Ryttaren öfvergaf Wrangel och följde Königsmark, då denne en
varm sommarnatt tog genom öfverraskning Lilla sidan af Prag. Här
var icke så mycket blod, som icke mera byte att vinna. Allt hvad
vida, angränsande nejder lyckats bärga undan vänners och fienders
rofgirighet räddades hit bakom starka murar och sköflades här, när
murarna blifvit öfverstigna. Hvarje svensk, hvarje finsk höfding blef
rik till en tid. Königsmark efterlämnade millioner, drottning Kristina
fick sitt lystmäte af dyrbara handskrifter, och Upsala universitet fick
Codex argenteus. Pfalzgrefven Carl Gustaf kom med höstens dimmor
för sent att dela de svenska vapnens segrar och byten.
   Ryttaren på den röda hästen kände sig trött efter trettio års ridt
och rastade några ögonblick i den segrande härens läger. Här firades
segern med dryckeslag och rullande tärningar. Det ungerska vinet
döfvade alla samvetskval på samma gång som alla minnen af mödor
och umbäranden. Hvarför skulle ej krigaren stjäla åt glädjen och
glömskan en timme eller en natt af den korta tid han ännu hade
öfrig att lefva? Tärningarnas rassel öfverröstades af vilda
dryckesvisor, skallande löjen och, för ombyte, stundom ett okväde,
följdt af ett svärdshugg. Insatsen i spelet var det byte man tagit i
dag och skulle förlora i morgon. Flitens sparpenning och ockrarens
snöda guld gingo lika lätt ur en hand i en annan. Ett röfvadt
silfverkrucifix vägdes i handen och hölls som insats mot en skön
fånge bland de 127,000. Ryttaren hånlog: det var icke nog med blod,
tårar, elände, hat och sköfling: kriget skulle ännu därtill förvilda den
sista återstoden af religion och seder.
   Vid det att ryttaren fortsatte sin färd öfver igengrodda åkrar och
brända städer, egnade han en flyktig blick åt ett stort förfallet hus,
som händelsevis kvarstod och varit begagnadt till stall. Hans blick
ljusnade; han fann åter ett spår efter föregående ridter. Detta hus
hade tjenat en fordom blomstrande skola, anlagd af Luthers
samtida. Lärarne hade dött af svält, lärjungarne hade förskingrats
och blifvit soldater eller röfvare eller båda delarna. Det
protestantiska Tyskland hade före kriget organiserat ett utmärkt
skolväsende. Detta var nu förstördt; det släkte af ungdom, som nu
skulle taga arf efter sina fäder, hade fått sin uppfostran bland de
127,000 eller deras gelikar.
   Ändtligen kom ryttaren till två städer i Westfalen, hvilka ännu hade
tak öfver hufvudet för fredsunderhandlingarna, Münster för
fransmännen, Osnabrück för svenskarne och båda för deras
motståndare. Han skådade från sadeln in genom fönstren på
rådplägningarna; han nästan önskade, att dessa skulle leda till
någon påföljd, ty han behöfde samla nytt bränsle, förutan hvilket
äfven den skönaste eld småningom utslocknar. Denna oväntadt
fromma önskan blef länge besviken. I sju år hade man mäklat om
fredsvillkoren. I början af kriget hade nödropen från förödda länder
blifvit med hvarje år högljuddare, sedan åter allt vanmäktigare,
tilldess att de slutligen liknade en döendes suckar. De studsade
ohörda tillbaka frän stenmurar. Hvarför skulle furstarne afsäga sig
sina anspråk, diplomaterne sin ärelystnad, krigarne sitt byte? Makt
stod mot makt, tro mot tro, anspråk mot anspråk; ingen ville ens
gifva sig skenet att behöfva fred. Tron var den envisaste. Ingen fred
mellan jungfru Maria och kättarne! Ingen fördragsamhet mellan
lutheraner och calvinister! Intet pris var för dyrt för den eviga
saligheten. Kurfursten Maximilian af Bajern, som lät gissla sig alla
dagar, ansåg gåfvan af ett helgons hufvudskål fullt uppväga hans
lands ödeläggelse och hundra tusen människors undergång.
    Sändebuden fördröjde sina resor, ministerråden sina svar. När
svaren efter månader anländt, hade nya frågor uppstått och måste
åter vänta på svar med kurirer. Huru man tvistade om fullmakter,
titlar och företräden i rang! Skulle Venedigs sändebud hedras eller ej
med titeln af excellens? Skulle ett sändebud besöka ett annat eller
först vänta besök? Huru skulle de kläda och uppföra sig vid detta
besök för att ej nedsätta sin rang? Skulle man sitta till höger eller till
vänster vid rådsbordet, åka före eller efter en medtäflare i
processionen? Skulle kejsaren representera det heliga romerska
riket, eller skulle hvar liten landtgrefve hafva sin röst vid besluten?
Det sistnämnda gällde dock öfverhögheten; betänkligare voro de
budskap kurirerne medförde från kriget. Hvarje framgång ökade på
en sida fordringarna och kom den andra sidan att tveka. Nej, ännu
borde man vänta, där kunde ännu inträffa ett gynnande omslag. Och
under allt detta, hvilken afund, hvilka ränker, hvilka hemliga
instruktioner och listiga smygvägar i denna myrstack af
underhandlare!
    Historien om fredsunderhandlingarna i Münster och Osnabrück,
som mer eller mindre berörde alla Europas stater, utom Turkiet och
Ryssland, fyller sex digra band. Ryttarens fruktade stund var dock
ändtligen kommen, när krigslågan måste slockna af brist på bränsle.
Kejsar Ferdinand III hade offrat sina sista härar och sista skatter,
hans arfländer hotades, hans bundsförvanter afföllo. Helgonets
hufvudskål hade ej kunnat rädda största delen af Bajern. Detta
medan Sverige ryckte i fält med 70,000 man, Frankrike med 40,000.
Westfaliska freden undertecknades den 10 Oktober gamla stilen
1648 i Osnabrück och kort därefter i Münster. Villkoren äro kända:
samvetsfriheten garanterad, det heliga romerska riket upplöst i en
konfederation af trehundrasextioen suveräna småstater, åtta
kurfurstendömen och en namnkejsare, som behöll titeln;
landvinningar      för   Frankrike,    Sverige,   Hessen-Kassel     och
Brandenburg; fem millioner riksdaler åt Sveriges besoldade härar.
Spanien fortsatte ännu i fyra år sitt krig mot Frankrike.
   Ett så omfattande fredsfördrag hade världen icke bevittnat sedan
Roms lysande dagar. Trettioåra kriget började för tron, men slutade
för makten. Kyrkan, som ville vara allt, blef därefter föga mer än
staternas tjenarinna. Påfven Innocentius X, som protesterade mot
Westfaliska freden, förstod ej själf huru berättigad hans protest var
ur högre synpunkter än hans påfliga maktlystnad. Ty med kampen
för tron försvunno ur världen de högsta lifsfrågor, hvilka dittills
förmått elda och samla Europas folk sedan korstågens tider. I den
tomhet de efterlämnade inrusade alla lägre lidelser och begynte
kifvas om makten. Furstarne framdrefvo de omyndiga folken som
fårahjordar i kamp för sin politiska maktställning. Där furstar ej
styrde, uppreste sig folkens afund i krig om handelns öfvervikt och
enskilda fördelar. Man slogs, men man slogs icke mer för det högsta
i lifvet eller för den eviga saligheten; man slogs i ett och ett halft
århundrade framåt för makt, guld och ära, intill dess att
samvetsfriheten ur sig aflat tankefriheten och denna åter ur sig
framfödt folkfriheten, som famlade efter sitt mål i det konstitutionella
statsskickets och nationaliteternas tidehvarf.
   Ryttaren på den röda hästen sadlade af och unnade sin trogne
följeslagare ett ögonblicks rast.
   — Hvad? sade han. Redan trött och ännu så mycket ogjordt i
världen! Din hof är sliten, dina länder betäckta med lefradt blod. Vet
du icke, att mycket återstår och att vi ännu hafva långt till tidernas
ände? Välan, rasta här ett ögonblick i askan af den förstörda staden
och beta grafvarnas gräs, medan jag uppstiger till bergstoppen och
öfverskådar mitt verk!
   Han behöfde uträta sin långa kropp, som domnat vid
sadelbommen. Med några steg stod han på höjden af Finsteraarhorn
och skådade ut kring Europa. Midtens riken, de, som äro hvarken
nord eller söder, hvarken ost eller väst, voro fruktansvärdt ödelagda.
Två tredjedelar af deras befolkning hade fallit för svärdet, hungern
och pesten; de kvarlefvande sågo sig för hvarje steg skyggt tillbaka,
om icke tilläfventyrs härjaren åter stod bakom deras rygg. Bättre,
men långtifrån lyckligt lottade, voro världsdelens öfriga riken. I öster
uppstego mörka hotande moln, genom hvilka man såg bojarerne
spjärna mot dynastin Romanov, de polske småfurstarne slamra med
sina sablar mot en maktlös konung och ett hotande horn af
halfmånen dunkelt framglimta ur skyn. I söder skälfde det solbelysta
Neapel i raseri mot Spanien, som, själf angripet af Frankrike, ej ville
släppa sitt byte. I väster bevakade britternes upproriska ö sin fångne
konung, medan Nederländerna stolt utvecklade på hafven sin fria
flagga. I norr hamrade vapensmedjorna utan hvila, hvarannan arm
togs från plogen, men handeln blomstrade, segrarna aftorkade
många tårar. Sverige och Finland kände ej själfva huru betänkligt de
blödde; det besegrade Danmark kände det desto mer.
   Freden kom. Freden, det var gamle kung Göstas tid, som hade
upphört med klockljuden öfver hans graf. I Sverige och Finland fanns
numera knappt den man eller kvinna, som kunde minnas en fredstid.
Det ena släktet efter det andra hade födts, uppvuxit, lefvat och dött i
ofred. Huru många fiender? Detta var frågan. En — det var icke att
tala om, det gällde mest gränsbygden. Två — då gällde att hålla
ryggen fri. Tre eller flera — för dem fanns endast en bot: segern.
Och nu, nu skulle man ej vänta någon fiende mer. Huru förunderligt!
Att kunna förlikas med hela världen, att icke mer behöfva skicka sina
söner till döden i fält, att icke behöfva gifva den ena brödkakan af
två till härens underhåll, den enda hästen till trossen, den enda
dalern till det omättliga kriget! Detta kändes ovant. De gamle trodde
det icke, de hade så ofta blifvit svikne förr; de unge trodde det icke
heller och skyndade att uttaga lysning till bröllop, innan en ny
utskrifning kom att rycka fästmannen bort ur hans fästmös armar.
Tacksägelse hölls i kyrkorna; en del städer, som ännu hade talgljus
och själtran, illuminerade, andra hade det icke och förblefvo mörka i
sena höstkvällen. Folket i bygderna förstod sig icke på sådan
grannlåt. Visst funnos många som tackade Gud, men äfven de
underläto icke att ännu, för säkerhets skull, läsa litanian och
fredsbönen efter tacksägelsen.
   Stockholms stad lefde i festjubel: där hade man sörjt för att rätt
åskådligt upplysa menige man om fredens betydelse. Gudstjenster i
alla kyrkor, skådepenningar, fyrverkerier vid slottet och strömmen,
folkförlustelser af alla slag på torg och i trädgårdar. Nu hade
drottning Kristina anledning att slösa. Det var höjdpunkten af hennes
och rikets makt, men det var äfven höjdpunkten af hennes ära, ty
alla visste, att det var hon som påskyndat den ärofulla freden, och
utan hennes maktspråk hade denna sannolikt ännu hängt på udden
af fältherrarnes svärd. Första ilbudet fick en guldkedja om sexhundra
dukater, budbäraren adlades, belöningar utdelades med frikostig
hand, och fredstraktaten inlades i en kupa af guld.
   Var glädjen icke lika odelad vid kejsar Ferdinand III:s hof, så var
man dock mån om att bevara glädjens sken. Äfven där sjöngs
tedeum, folket förlustade sig, klockorna ringde, mässorna ljödo natt
och dag, processioner af munkar genomtågade Wiens gator med
fladdrande standar och helgonens ben i granna relikskrin. Jungfru
Maria erkändes icke slagen: himlens drottning hade, mäktigare än
den jordiska däruppe i snölandet, bedt för freden.
   En af kejsarens undersåtar, en gammal jude i Regensburg, mottog
fredsbudskapet en höstdag i sitt kontor. En lätt ryckning i
öfverläppen under det hvita skägget liknade nästan ett melankoliskt
smålöje. Han visste allt detta förut; det var ju han som gjort freden;
där fattades hittills endast underskrifterna.
   — Israels borgarerätt ännu uppskjuten! mumlade han tyst vid sig
själf. — Tålamod! De må nu hvila en stund mellan Östersjön och
Donau. Det är sörjdt för att bolagen Habsburg och Bourbon
öfverbjuda hvarandra. Mitt konto ... hm ... Jerobeam!
   Förste kontoristen inträdde.
   — Kejsaren får de begärda tre millionerna mot säkerhet af
Frankrikes skadestånd åt ärkehertig Ferdinand Karl. Kurfursten af
Bajern får en million mot säkerhet af öfre Pfalz. Nu är det icke värdt
100,000, men om tio år skall det gifva oss kapitalet i ränta. De öfrige
tyske furstarne få betala åttio procent i förskott eller reda sig utan
mig.
   — Prins Carl Stuart förnyar enträget sin begäran om penningar till
en landstigning i England. Det är det enda och sista medlet att rädda
konungens, hans faders, lif, rapporterade kontoristen.
   — Carl I må falla. Han har svikit mig, som han svikit sitt folk. Gå!
Jag uppsätter Oliver Cromwell på Englands tron.
   Tio minuter därefter återvände Jerobeam, medförande ett litet
tunt, ytterst tätt skrifvet pappersblad, som nyss anländt med
dufvopost från Konstantinopel. Ruben Zevi påtog sina glasögon och
genomstafvade med orubbligt lugn papperets miniatyrskrift.
   — Jag vet, jag vet, sade han vid sig själf. — Venedig har denna
gång lyckats försvara Kandia. Gör ingenting, dess kredit är uttömd,
konkurrensen motad ... Janitscharerne vunne ... Muhamed IV är
befäst på tronen ... mina nya underhandlingar lyckligt afslutade,
turkiska makten beredd att, på min vink, kasta sig öfver kejsaren ...
Ännu vill jag hejda halfmånen ... O, min kloka Hagar, jag igenkänner
din hand! Du förmår allt ... Israels Gud, du vet hvilken strid det
kostade Abraham att offra sin Isak! Men jag måste ju offra henne för
ditt stora verk; hon skall fullborda det! ... Hon omgifves af spioner i
sultanens palats: hvarje slafvinna lyssnar, hvarje eunuk är beredd att
förråda henne. Men hon har vunnit validé Tarchan, ryssinnan; agan
för lifvakten är henne blindt tillgifven ... Det stackars barnet sultanen
ser i henne sin enda beskyddarinna och anförtror henne allt. Kuprili
själf har böjt sig för hennes inflytande ... han behåller skenet af
makten, men det är hon som styr alla rådslag. Båda inse, att de
förenade skola förmå allt, och detta bevarar vänskapen. O, min
dotter, min dotter, du håller nu osmanernes hela makt i din hand! ...
Benjamin återvänder öfver Smyrna och Medelhafvet ... Jerobeam!
   — Mästare!
   — Benjamin återförväntas endera dagen från Smyrna. Intet
uppseende! Sextio man af våra knektar posteras spridda vid
flodstranden, redo att skydda honom, om folksamlingar hota. I
borgen utbredes en guldtygsmatta från porten och upp till trappan af
öfra våningen. Här skall han mottagas med kungliga ärebetygelser.
   Ryttaren återvände till sin röda häst. Han hade sett allt och hört
allt från toppen af Finsteraarhorn. När en osynlig vibrerande ljudvåg
förde till hans öron den gamle judens ord vid Donaustranden,
förvredos hans drag till ett hånande löje.
   — Sultaninnor och konungar! Och jag skulle skona dagsländorna!
          14. Den triumferande Parnassus.
                                           Den      gyllene tiden   skall
                                                 återkomma.
— Han förtäljer oss världens sed, och han torde ej hafva så orätt,
genmälde ärkebiskopen.
   Bland riksrådets närvarande ledamöter saknades rikskanslern, som
föreburit opasslighet. Presidenten Kurck och amiral Ryning delade sin
uppmärksamhet mellan baletten och politiken. Det hängde nu på ett
hår, om Mazarin skulle hålla stånd mot fronden i Frankrike. Ryning
lät undfalla sig skarpa ord om drottningens egenmäktiga försök att
ställa svenska trupper och skepp till kardinalens förfogande. Kurck
log ett af sina diplomatiska löjen.
   — En svensk patriot kan vara lugn, han har en stor drottning, men
denna drottning är kvinna.
   — Tyvärr! mumlade Ryning med sin ärliga sjömansgrimas.
   — Säg lyckligtvis. Näst Alexander och Cesar, beundrar vår nådiga
drottning ingen högre än den store prinsen af Condé, och Condé har
numera öfvergått till kardinalens fiender. Var lugn för vår flotta!
   Kurck hade förlorat sin, i början af denna berättelse omtalade
första gemål, den älskvärda Sofi De la Gardie, och var sedan
halftannat år omgift med Kristina Horn. Denna nya regentinna i det
furstliga Kurckska huset hade bland åskådarinnorna fått sin plats
bredvid riksrådinnan Ryning och undfägnade under mellanakterna
sin granne, som nyss kommit från landet, med dagens löpande
hofskvaller.
   — Ers nåd kan tänka sig huru vi blifvit till mods, om vi oförmodadt
fått ett blodbad här i Stockholm midtunder kröningsfesterna.
   — Gud bevare! inföll trohjärtadt den fromma gamla frun från
Riseberga. — Sådana hedniska spektakler och ännu därtill ett
blodbad! Har det varit uppror mot hennes majestäts helgade
person?
   — Nej, men ers nåd kan föreställa sig en sådan insolens! Här
komma turkiske människoätare i turbaner och vidbyxor och
öfverlämna åt hennes majestät en lyckönskan på mesopotamiska
från en för detta kammarpiga vid namn Hagar, som nu lärer vara
sultaninna åt stora Mogul och understår sig att kalla drottningen du.
Hennes majestät skall ha varit så upptänder af vrede, att hon gaf
befallning på ögonblicket låta afhugga turkarnes hufvuden. Men
ärkebiskopen bad om nåd för dem, så att de fingo behålla lifvet,
med villkor att strax blifva kristne.
   — Hagar? genmälde frun från Riseberga, som i detta hofskvaller
råkade hänga sig fast vid ett kärt namn. — Hvem kan den Hagar
vara, som förut varit kammarpiga?
   — Hon skall hafva varit här i Stockholm förut och heta Rydin eller
Rönning, jag minns ej så granneligt. Hon har varit fröken Kerstins
bokstäderska. Och nu har hon gifvit sig åt turken för att försmäda
drottningen och allt hvad kristeligt är.
   — Undskyll, ers nåd ... jag mår icke väl ... jag måste tala med
drottningen! utbrast den olyckliga fromma frun och uppstod,
darrande i alla leder.
   I detsamma gick förhänget upp öfver Grekelands sju vise, allas
ögon riktades ditåt, ingen vågade röra sig af fruktan att störa
drottningens nöje. Ännu en kvart timme måste den bästa bland
fostermödrar lida alla ovisshetens kval. O, denna ståt, dessa utstyrda
masker, som kunna så tjusa de glada, de lyckliga, de lättsinniga,
huru kunna de ej martera ett ångestfullt modershjärta; huru antaga
de ej för hennes ögon gestalten af ett demoniskt hån, som gäckar
och söndersliter hennes innersta!
   Ändtligen föll åter förhänget. Riksrådinnan Ryning uppstod och
hviskade sin man, riksrådet, något i örat. Han förde henne till
presidenten Kurck, som kände Hagars öden bättre än han funnit för
godt att anförtro sin nya gemål. Kurck dolde icke den omkastning i
dessa öden, som så nära och så smärtsamt berört honom själf.
   — Ers nåd, sade han, vi hafva funnit ett örnägg och sett därur
framgå en stackars liten kyckling, hvilken vi trodde oss kunna
uppfostra till en dufva. Vi sågo vingarna växa och skarpa ögon skåda
ut öfver världen, men vi trodde oss kunna hålla denna ovanliga fågel
i bur och klippa dess vingar. Vi hafva bedragit oss, ers nåd.
Örnungen i dufvohamn har brutit sig ut genom gallret och flugit mot
solen. Dit når hon ej, arma barn; förr eller senare skall hon träffas af
jägarens pil. Men sådan var hennes medfödda art; vi kunna ej
ändra, endast beklaga hennes öde. Gifve Gud, att ej detta afspeglar
en annans, som står högre än hon!
   Åter gick förhänget upp öfver de nio muserna och de tre gratierna,
dragna i en försilfrad vagn, förspänd med lejon, som kördes af Amor.
Ännu en kvart måste frun från Riseberga stänga inom sig suckar och
hjärtesorg. Därefter frågade hon, om den tatariska beskickningen
ännu var kvar, och fick veta, att vildarne ändtligen skulle resa i
morgon. Rädd att bemärkas, smög hon sig bort för att tillbringa hela
den följande natten i bön och mot morgonen skrifva ett bref, så
uppfylldt af tårar och kärlek, som endast en ängel kan hviska till sin
fallande skyddsling, eller en moder skrifva till sitt förlorade barn.
   Men den triumferande Parnassen fortfor att förherrliga drottning
Kristina under åskådarnes jubel. Världens fyra hörn öppnade sig, ur
fyra hufvuden framsprungo fyra konungar, som bekrönte Dygden,
hvilken, dagen till ära, hette Kristina.
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