Echoes From The Caves Qumran and The New Testament Florentino Garca Martnez PDF Download
Echoes From The Caves Qumran and The New Testament Florentino Garca Martnez PDF Download
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-caves-qumran-and-
the-new-testament-florentino-garca-martnez-4643392
Echoes From The Dead Zone Across The Cyprus Divide Yiannis Papadakis
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-dead-zone-across-the-
cyprus-divide-yiannis-papadakis-50669410
Echoes From The Past Hebrew And Cognate Inscriptions From The Biblical
Period Hebrew And Cognate Texts From The Holy Land In The Bible Shmuel
Ahituv
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-past-hebrew-and-cognate-
inscriptions-from-the-biblical-period-hebrew-and-cognate-texts-from-
the-holy-land-in-the-bible-shmuel-ahituv-33645716
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-veil-aisling-chronicles-
colleen-halverson-44745252
Echoes From The Greek Bronze Age An Anthology Of Greek Thought In The
Classical Age Robert D Morritt
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-greek-bronze-age-an-
anthology-of-greek-thought-in-the-classical-age-robert-d-
morritt-4630400
Echoes From The East The Javanese Gamelan And Its Influence On The
Music Of Claude Debussy Kiyoshi Tamagawa
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-east-the-javanese-
gamelan-and-its-influence-on-the-music-of-claude-debussy-kiyoshi-
tamagawa-11418140
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-past-rodney-harris-
sr-51222752
Echoes From The Moon The Token Book One Nathan Hystad
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-moon-the-token-book-one-
nathan-hystad-55389500
Echoes From The Moon The Token Book One Nathan Hystad
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-moon-the-token-book-one-
nathan-hystad-55519000
https://ebookbell.com/product/echoes-from-the-past-rodney-harris-
sr-52841950
Echoes from the Caves:
Qumran and the New Testament
http://avaxhome.ws/blogs/ChrisRedfield
Studies on the Texts
of the Desert of Judah
Edited by
Florentino García Martínez
Associate editors
Peter W. Flint
Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar
VOLUME 85
Echoes from the Caves:
Qumran and the New Testament
Edited by
Florentino García Martínez
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2009
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Echoes from the caves : Qumran and the New Testament / edited by Florentino
Garcia Martinez.
p. cm. — (Studies on the texts of the desert of Judah, ISSN 0169-9962 ; v. 85)
“This volume contains a revised form of the contributions to an “experts meeting”
held at the Catholic University of Leuven on December 2007”—ECIP data view.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-17696-6 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Dead Sea scrolls—Congresses. 2. Dead Sea scrolls—Relation to the New
Testament—Congresses. I. García Martínez, Florentino. II. Title. III. Series.
BM487.E25 2009
296.1’55—dc22
2009012558
1
Respectively IOT/03.01 of the BOF and G.0119.04 of the FWO-V.
2
See, as an indication, the selection of studies put together by J.A. Fitzmyer, A Guide
to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature: Revised and Expanded Edition (Grand
Rapids-Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2008), 264–273.
2 florentino garcía martínez
3
In the bibliography edited by B. Jongeling, A Classified Bibliography of the Finds in
the Desert of Judah 1958–1969 (STDJ 7; Leiden: Brill, 1971) a specific section “Qumran
and the New Testament. Qumran and Christianity” took up pages 111–129; in F. García
Martínez and D.W. Parry, A Bibliography of the Finds of the Desert of Judah 1970–95
(STDJ 19; Leiden: Brill, 1996) about 70 entries were recorded under the keyword “New
Testament”; but in spite of the notable increase of studies on the Scrolls recorded in
A. Pinnik, The Orion Center Bibliography of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1995–2000) (STDJ 41;
Leiden: Brill, 2001) there are only 45 entries under the subject “New Testament,” and
even less in R.A. Clements and N. Sharon, The Orion Center Bibliography of the Dead
Sea Scrolls and Associated Literature (2000–2006) (STDJ 71; Leiden: Brill, 2008).
4
For a summary of the changes in this research, see F. García Martínez, “Qumrân,
60 ans après la découverte,” The Qumran Chronicle 15 (2007): 111–138, particularly
112–117.
5
The two latest volumes of the DJD Series (Hartmut Stegemann and Eileen Schuller,
Qumran Cave 1.III: 1QHodayot a: With Incorporation of 4QHodayota-f and 1QHodayot b
(DJD 40) and Emile Puech, Qumran Grotte 4.XXVII: (4Q550–4Q583) Textes en Araméens,
deuxième partie (DJD 37) appeared last November at the Clarendon.
qumran between the old and the new testament 3
6
I have done this for Cave 1: “Reconsidering the Cave 1 Texts Sixty Years After Their
Discovery: An Overview,” in E. Tigchelaar (ed.), Proceedings of the Sixth Meeting of the
IOQS Ljubljana 2007 (STDJ; Leiden: Brill, 2009) (forthcoming) and for Cave 11: “Cave 11
in Context,” in Ch. Hempel (ed.), The Dead Sea Scrolls Texts and Contexts (STDJ; Leiden:
Brill, 2009) (forthcoming).
7
There were the three main sectors to be investigated in the project as test cases of
the core hypothesis. The first has lead to the publication of the monograph by Albert
L.A. Hogeterp, Expectations of the End: A Comparative Traditio-Historical Study of
Eschatological, Apocalyptic and Messianic Ideas in the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New
Testament (STDJ 83; Leiden: Brill, 2009), who has worked as a post-doc of the project.
The third is dealt with in the dissertation by Dries Somers, “Community Functionar-
ies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the New Testament,” which will soon be defended.
On Sabbath and Purity see now the contribution by Friedrich Avemarie, “Jesus and
Purity” and by Lutz Doering, “Sabbath Laws in the New Testament,” in R. Bieringer
4 florentino garcía martínez
part of our ignorance of Judaism during the Roman period, but they
also show us the intersection and interrelation, the appropriation and
transformation, of non-sectarian forms of discourse by the sectarian
communities.8 Besides, the different redactions of several sectarian com-
positions now available reveal to us some of the developments within
the group that collected and preserved the manuscripts, and may also
help us to grasp the different developments within early Christianity
shown in the different writings of the New Testament better.
The collection of writings we call the Dead Sea Scrolls appears now
as a collection of Jewish religious writings more or less authoritative
and possessing a certain coherence, through which, for the first time,
we have access to the developments that had happened within Juda-
ism before the birth of Christianity, and we can see how the religious
writings that later will become “Bible” have given rise to other religious
writings which would become normative for other communities.9 And
this is the main reason why the students of the New Testament should
also be interested in the Scrolls and learn from them.
The Dead Sea Scrolls explicitly present themselves as based on the
Hebrew Bible but clearly differ from it in a great many theological and
legal aspects. It is logical then to consider these differences as document-
ing the evolution of the theological ideas and the legal norms reflected
in the Hebrew Bible that had already taken place within Judaism during
the two centuries, at least, which elapsed between the writing of the
last book of the Hebrew Bible and the deposit of the manuscripts in
the caves around Qumran.
Since the New Testament also presents itself as based on the Old
Testament but is clearly different in many theological and legal aspects
from it, it is logical to consider also these differences as witnesses of
the evolution and changes which took place in Judaism during the
same period.
And since there is no proof of any direct relationship between the two
corpora of writings (the core texts of the group that collected Qumran
and the writings which form the New Testament), a genetic relationship
et al., (eds.), The New Testament and Rabbinic Literature (JSJS; Leiden: Brill, 2009)
(forthcoming).
8
The topic on which worked the other post-doc of the Project, Mladen Popović.
See now F. García Martínez and Mladen Popović (eds.), Defining Identities: We, You
and the Other in the Dead Sea Scrolls (STDJ 70; Leiden: Brill, 2008).
9
See F. García Martínez, “¿Sectario, no-sectario, o qué? Problemas de una taxonomía
correcta de los textos qumránicos,” RevQ 23/91 (2008): 383–394.
qumran between the old and the new testament 5
or a direct influence of one corpus on the other does not most logi-
cally explain the similarities or the differences we find between them.
Therefore, I consider the relationship between these two corpora in
terms of different evolutionary phases starting from a common ground
(the Hebrew Bible) and I see both corpora as different expressions of
the multiform reality that was Palestinian Judaism.
Both the Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament reveal that many
and various developments did take place in Judaism and were written
from the same basic source: the religious authoritative writings that
would later become the Hebrew Bible. And although we will never
have a full picture of all these developments because the evidence
preserved in the Scrolls is not only fragmentary but partial and purely
accidental, we are now able to consider the commonalities and the dif-
ferences between the two corpora. This is not an easy task, because, as
George Brooke says: “[c]oncern with differences as well as similarities
makes comparison both more complicated as well as in the end more
fruitful.”10
In order to analyze and to try to understand both the similarities and
differences as evolving from the common shared ground, the Hebrew
Bible, I convened an “experts meeting” in Leuven at which a small group
of specialists, interested both in the Dead Sea Scrolls and in the New
Testament, were to reflect and discuss on the changes that appear, for
example, in the use the biblical text itself as a proof text in both corpora;
in different legal interpretations explicitly or implicitly deduced from
the same texts of the Hebrew Bible; in the biblical foundations of the
community structures and functionaries at Qumran and in the New
Testament; in the different theological conclusions extracted from the
same passages of the Hebrew Bible; in short, on the commonalities and
differences between the two corpora when one looks at the common
ground from which they developed.
The meeting was held in the Theological Faculty of the Catholic
University of Leuven on December 3rd to 6th 2007 and produced lively
discussions, which were the most fruitful part of the meeting, since they
were free from the constrains of a tight time schedule which handicap
many such meetings. Both the Dean of the Faculty, Prof. M. Lamberights
and the Rector of the University, Prof. M. Vervenne, addressed the
10
George J. Brooke, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2005), xviii.
6 florentino garcía martínez
participants at the beginning and the end of the meeting, which was
also attended by the colleagues of the Department of Bible of the K.U.
Leuven and by some of our doctoral students.11 The present volume
contains a revised form of most of the contributions and the answers
of the participants. The voices of the experts are as varied and multiple
as are the voices of the Scrolls or of the New Testament. Some of the
studies, like the ones by Lim, Brooke, or Jokiranta, are programmatic
and propose a general understanding of the relationship. Other studies
are more like test cases, which apply the general framework to concrete
texts. But all of them clearly follow the directions indicated by George
Brook in the conclusion of his “Introduction”:
Those concerned to appreciate some of the exegetical details preserved
in the Dead Sea Scrolls would do well not to omit the evidence of the
New Testament in their search of contemporary Jewish literature which
might help in the explanation of challenging fragmentary passages. New
Testament Scholars in turn should recognize that the value of the Dead
Sea Scrolls for the better appreciation of the Jewish background of much
in the New Testament does not lie exclusively in particular matters of
organization or messianic belief, but much more broadly in the way in
which Jews contemporary with Jesus and Paul constructed their own self-
understanding and identities through highly intricate and sophisticated
interpretations of inherited traditions, interpretations which gave life to
texts written in earlier generations.12
It is hoped that the publication of these studies here will not only prove
the well founded hypothesis fundamental to the Leuven research project
but help many other scholars of both the Scrolls and the New Testament,
to understand the relationship between the two corpora better.
11
I want to thank particularly Sydney Palmer, who has helped to edit the manuscript
and has prepared the Indexes.
12
G. Brooke, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament, xxii.
TOWARDS A DESCRIPTION OF THE SECTARIAN MATRIX*
Timothy H. Lim
University of Edinburgh
Over the past sixty years, several models have been used in studying
the Qumran Scrolls and the New Testament. Geza Vermes summarizes
them as follows: “Qumran Essenism and Palestinian Christianity can
be related in three different ways. They are either identical, the Com-
munity being the Church and Jesus the Teacher of Righteousness. Or
Christianity is an off-shoot of Essenism. Or Essenism and Christianity
both spring from the same common stock, the Judaism of that period.”1
Vermes considers the first two models unlikely and proceeds to discuss
how Essenism and Christianity both originate from the Judaism of the
time. Like Vermes, I do not think that either of the first two models
is to be followed, and this is not the place to offer a critique of them.
What I should like to do here is to focus on the third model and to
discuss how the notion of the “same common stock” could be usefully
explored.
The paradigm that I have advanced over several years is that of the
sectarian matrix:
It seems to me that there is a better model and that is to regard the
Essenes, the Qumran community of the yahad, the urban sectarians, the
Jerusalem church and the Pauline congregations as distinct groups that
shared a common sectarian matrix. There were other groups beside. This
sectarian matrix includes separation from the majority, organization into
groups, religious ideas, and the choice of favourite biblical proof-texts that
legitimize a sect’s existence. The groups drew inspiration from the Hebrew
Bible or Old Testament; in doing so, they shared this common heritage
* I want to thank Florentino García Martínez for the invitation to present an earlier
version of the paper at the Leuven conference on the Scrolls and the New Testament,
and to offer my hearty congratulations to him on his recent knighthood. I also want
to thank John Collins for offering his characteristic, incisive comments on a draft of
this paper.
1
Geza Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (rev. ed.; London:
SCM Press, 1997), 191. See also his republished article “The Qumran Community, the
Essenes, and Nascent Christianity” in Scrolls, Scripture and Early Christianity (London:
T&T Clark, 2005), 42–43.
8 timothy h. lim
with other Jews in the late Second Temple period. But they were also
sectarians . . . and as such they held to a similar, yet distinct, set of beliefs.
They focused on certain scriptural passages, like Isaiah 40, Jeremiah 31
and Habakkuk 2:4, but they drew different lessons from them.2
The English loan word “matrix”3 is borrowed from Latin where it liter-
ally means “a mother in respect to propagation” or “a breeding-animal”.4
As I have used it, the “matrix” takes on its typological or figurative sense
as a “source, origin or cause”. It also has the added semantic value,
derived from mathematical usage,5 of an intertwined arrangement of
quantities or symbols that serves here as the source of sectarian religious
practices and beliefs. What I should like to do is to develop this model
by sketching out some of the main elements of this sectarian matrix.
Before doing so, let me offer some methodological reflections.
1. The model of sectarian matrix has, to its credit, several advantages,
not least in constraining the search for literary parallels. It makes it
much more difficult to privilege one corpus of writings over another,
such as has been done with the New Testament. In theory, the hunting
for parallels could be applied in either direction: one could just as readily
seek New Testament passages to illustrate the Qumran scrolls. Apart
from one or two exceptions, however, the chase runs primarily in one
direction: the scrolls are scrutinized for features that might illuminate
this or that aspect of the New Testament. This scholarly interest, while
legitimate in itself, could lead to the invidious and unscrupulous using
the scrolls as proof-texts, just as it has done for rabbinic literature.
2
Timothy H. Lim, The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005), 111–2. See also, the conception of the Edinburgh conference
in Timothy H. Lim et al. The Dead Sea Scrolls in their Historical Context (Edinburgh:
T&T Clark, 2000), 1.
3
See my “Studying the Qumran Scrolls and Paul in their Historical Context” in The
Dead Sea Scrolls as Background to Postbiblical Judaism & Early Christianity: Papers
from an International Conference at St. Andrews in 2001 (ed. James R. Davila; Leiden:
Brill, 2003), 151–6.
4
A Latin Dictionary (ed., Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short; Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1990), 1119. This view was anticipated by among others Geza Vermes, The Dead
Sea Scrolls: Qumran in Perspective (London: SCM Press, 1982), 212, who states: “The
third possibility presupposes that the Qumran sectarian writings and the New Testament
represent two independent movements in pursuit of similar ideals. But even here, the
question of a direct Essene influence on the early Church is possible, but arises only
when their common features cannot be otherwise explained.”
5
The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles prepared by William
Little, H.W. Fowler and Jessie Coulson and revised by C.T. Onions. (3d ed.; Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1986), 2: 1290.
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 9
6
See my discussions of these issues in “Studying the Qumran Scrolls,” 135–156, and
“The Legal Nature of P. Yadin 19 and Galatians 3:15” in When Judaism and Christian-
ity Began: Essays in Memory of Anthony J. Saldarini (ed. Daniel J. Harrington, Alan
J. Avery-Peck and Jacob Neusner; 2 vols.; Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2004),
2: 361–376.
7
Ed Sanders, Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 b.c.e.–66 c.e. (London: SCM Press,
1992).
8
Martin Hengel and David Smith, The Zealots: Investigations into the Jewish Freedom
Movement in the Period from Herod I until 70 a.d. (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1989), xviii.
See also Martin Hengel and R. Deines, “E.P. Sanders’ ‘Common Judaism’, Jesus and
the Pharisees” JTS 46 (1995): 1–70.
9
Sanders, Judaism: Practice & Belief, 35–36. See also Martin D. Goodman, Rome
& Jerusalem: The Clash of Ancient Civilizations (London: Penguin Books, 2007),
383–444.
10 timothy h. lim
10
Hengel and Deines, “E.P. Sanders”, 54.
11
Not all biblical texts were equally authoritative; Deut, Isa, and the Pss, for instance,
were particularly important for the scrolls and the New Testament.
12
It is in fact more complicated. See, for instance, John J. Collins, “The Yahad and
‘The Qumran Community,’ ” in Biblical Traditions in Transmission: Essays in Honour
of Michael A. Knibb (ed. Charlotte Hempel and Judith M. Lieu; Leiden: Brill, 2006),
81–96.
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 11
Terminology
How might one begin to describe the sectarian matrix that both the
Qumran and Christian communities shared? One starting point is the
meaning of the English word “sect.” The Concise Oxford English Diction-
ary (COED) defines it as 1) “a religious group or faction regarded as
heretical or as deviating from orthodox tradition” (often derogatory);
and 2) “a group with extreme or dangerous philosophical or political
ideas.” Both contemporary meanings are related to the ancient sense
of the word “sect, “but they are not exact, linguistic equivalents.
The term “sect” derives from the Latin secta13 and is a common
English translation of several Greek words, most notably (but not
exclusively)14 proairesis and hairesis. Thus Philo calls the Therapeutae
proairesis (Contempl. 29, 32 and 67) and hairesis (Contempl. 29), and
the Essenes proairesis (Hypoth. 11.2). The basic meaning of both cognate
nouns is that of “taking” or “choosing.”15 Thus, those who are described
as belonging to a proairesis or hairesis have chosen a particular way
of life or follow a philosophy. Philo, emphasizing the philosophical
quality of virtue and philanthropy, describes the Essene’s recruitment
in a manner that reveals its essential character: “Their enlistment
(prohairesis) is not due to race—the word ‘race’ is unsuitable where
volunteers are concerned—but is due to zeal for the cause of virtue and
13
The Latin secta “following, party” from the stem sequi “to follow”; it is also used
as a synonym for ratio (“account, reckoning, calculation”) and via (“way”). Pliny, using
the Greek loan word, describes the Esseni as gens sola (Nat. 5.17.4.73), meaning either
“people unique of its kind” or “solitary people”, the former emphasizing the distinctive
characteristics of the Essenes and the latter their remote desert location.
14
Other terms translated as “sect” are genos (another designation for the Therapeutae,
Contempl. 11) and thiason (refers to Chaldean philosophers, Her. 99; Pythagoreans,
Prob. 2).
15
Josephus uses proairesis and hairesis eighty and thirty times respectively in his
works, denoting, for instance, its plain sense of ‘choice’ of various kinds (of land,
A.J. 1.169; punishment, A.J. 6.71; king, A.J. 6.91; men, A.J. 15.6; authority, B.J. 1.199;
of return, C. Ap. 2.289; inclination, A.J. 1.54; C. Ap. 1.214); ‘election’ (kings, A.J.
7.321; of God A.J. 4.109); ‘taking’ (of a city, A.J. 7.160; of Babylon, A.J. 10.79, 10.247,
12.363; of a fortress A.J. 13.233; captives B.J. 6.352; men alive B.J. 7.326); and ‘siege’
(of a city, A.J. 13.231).
12 timothy h. lim
16
I am here thinking, of course, of Jacob Neusner’s well-known emphasis upon the
diversity of Judaism.
17
Evidence of synagogues before 70 c.e. is scarce, but see Anders Runesson, Donald
D. Binder and Birger Olsson, The Ancient Synagogue from its Origins to 200 c.e.: A
Source Book (Leiden: Brill, 2008) and Anders Runesson, The Origins of the Synagogue:
A Socio-Historical Study (Leiden: Brill, 2001).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 13
18
See my “An Alleged Reference to the Tripartite Division of the Hebrew Bible”
RevQ 77 (2001): 27–37.
14 timothy h. lim
Scroll as they did from other biblical books; the New Testament did
the same with 1 Enoch (Jude 14–15). But these books were not gener-
ally recognized and eventually were not included in the canon of the
Hebrew Bible. The Qumranians also had legal and exegetical traditions
not preserved in the biblical texts.19 Biblical laws, as many as they are,
do not cover all aspects of life; they require interpretation and supple-
mentation. For instance, the Pharisee’s oral torah, which the Sadducees
rejected (Josephus, A.J. 13.297), is just such a supplement. The Essenes
too had their own distinctive practices, such as the wearing of the white
garment (J.W. 2.123, 137), the avoidance of going to toilet on Sabbath
( J.W. 2.147), and the use of a hatchet to dig a hole to relieve themselves
in a remote place ( J.W. 2.148–9).
Defining a Sect
It is useful to complement the lexical discussion with a consideration of
the nature of sectarianism from a sociological perspective. Shaye Cohen
provides a helpful, short characterization of a sect from a sociological
perspective.
A sect is a small, organized group that separates itself from a larger
religious body and asserts that it alone embodies the ideals of the larger
group because it alone understands God’s will.20
I am not concerned here to defend Cohen’s definition over against
other social scientific alternatives. I have suggested, for instance, that
19
Extra-biblical traditions are already evident in the Hebrew Bible itself. For instance,
there is no precept in the Torah about the wood offering of Neh 10:35 and 13:31.
20
Shaye Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah (2nd ed.; Louisville: Westminster
John Knox Press, 2006), 120–9. Cohen also discusses proto-sects in the Rechabites of
Jer 35, the “servant” and “chosen” of Isa 55–66, and “those who separated themselves
from the peoples of the lands to adhere to the laws of God” in Neh 10:29. The Rab-
binic term is cat. Carol Newsom, “The ‘Sectually Explicit’ Literature from Qumran”
in The Hebrew Bible and its Interpreters (ed. William H. Propp, Baruch Halpern and
David Noel Freedman; Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), 167–88, showed that
the term sectarian is variously defined according to authorship, audience and/or use.
The application of sociological approaches to the study of sectarianism is found in
A. Baumgarten’s The Flourishing of Jewish Sects in the Maccabean Era: An Interpretation
(Leiden: Brill, 1997), which emphasized boundary marking mechanisms and the causes
of sectarianism in the rise of literacy, increased urbanization, and the eschatological
expectation of the end. See now Jutta Jokiranta, Identity on a Continuum: Constructing
and Expressing Sectarian Social Identity in Qumran. Serakhim and Pesharim (Ph.D. diss.,
University of Helsinki, 2005), Eyal Regev, Sectarianism in Qumran: A Cross-Cultural
Perspective (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2007), and David J. Chalcraft, ed. Sectarianism
in Early Judaism: Sociological Advances (London: Equinox, 2007).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 15
21
Lim, Dead Sea Scrolls. A Very Short Introduction, 79–80.
22
Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah, p. 121.
23
The standard discussion for over a hundred years has been J. Beloch’s Die
Bevoekerung der Griechich-Roemischen Welt (Leipzig: Duncker & Humbolt, 1886). See
recently, the cautionary notes in Brian McGing, “Population and Proselytism. How
many Jews were there in the ancient world?” in Jews in the Hellenistic and Roman Cities
(ed. John R. Barlett; London and New York: Routledge, 2002), 88–106.
16 timothy h. lim
24
The relationship between the Therapeutae and Essenes was suggested long ago
by Geza Vermes on the basis of an etymological argument of “healers.” It is also a
feature of Florentino Garcia Martinez and the late Adam van der Woude’s Groningen
Hypothesis that postulated an Egyptian daughter sect of the Essenes. Compare now
Joan E. Taylor’s discussion of the therapeutridae as cultic attendants in Jewish Women
Philosophers of First-Century Alexandria: Philo’s ‘Therapeutae’ Reconsidered (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2003).
25
Keith Hopkins, “Christian Number and its Implications” JECS 6 (1998): 185.
26
Earlier Rodney Stark, The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 5–11, offered a similar estimate which
has been accepted by Thomas M. Finn, “Mission and Expansion” in The Early Chris-
tian World (ed. Philip F. Esler; London: Routledge, 2000), 1: 295–6. According to this
tally, there were about 33.9 million Christians by 350 c.e. For cautionary notes on
such population estimates, see Robert M. Grant, Early Christianity and Society: Seven
Studies (London: Collins, 1977), 7–8.
27
Hopkins blankly states that “my methods are frankly speculative and exploratory”
(“Christian Numbers and its Implications”, 184).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 17
Organization
There are some notable similarities between the various Qumran-Essene
and Christian communities as regards institutional organization.
Vermes states:
The most likely domain of Qumran influence on Christianity is that of
organization and religious practice. After all, the Qumran sect was already
a well-tried institution when the Judaeo-Christian church was struggling
to establish itself, and it would have been only sensible for inexperienced
men of the fellowship of Jesus to observe and imitate existing patterns.28
Specifically, there was what Vermes terms a “monarchic government”,
namely the oversight of the spiritual and material well-being of the
Pauline churches by a group of elders with Paul being in overall charge.
For Vermes, this was similar to the “Essene pattern of a Guardian as
pastor of each individual camp, with Paul himself playing the part of
the ‘Guardian of all the camps’ ”.29
Although Vermes does not say so, the comparison is, of course, with
the urban sectarians of the Damascus Document where the leader of
the camp was the mebaqqer who was “like a shepherd of his flock”
(CD XIII, 9), a description that echoes what is said about Jesus as “a
shepherd and guardian of . . . souls” in 1 Peter 2:25. Vermes holds that
the same Guardian was in charge of the yahad, a paqid who functioned
as a teacher, president and spiritual assessor. In 1QS, he is also called
the Maskil, and he instructed the members according to the “rule of
the community” (1QS I, 1, V, 1 and IX, 21) and the doctrine of the
two spirits; he presided over the assemblies (1QS VI, 11–13); and he
examined the spiritual development of the men and ranked them in
order (1QS VI,14, 21–22). But of the two communities, it is the orga-
nization of the urban sectarians that is comparable to the leadership
of the Pauline churches. Josephus and Philo’s descriptions of the two
orders of the Essenes, with its various officials and administrators,
superiors, procurators and elders, are also closer to the community of
the Damascus Document than 1QS.30
28
Vermes, Qumran in Perspective, 199.
29
Vermes, Qumran in Perspective, 199.
30
There various administrators in charge of collecting the salary (Philo, Apologia
10; Josephus, J.W. 2.123, J.A. 18.22). There are “superiors” and “procurators” who look
after community discipline (Josephus, J.W. 2.134), obedience to “elders”, “the majority”
and the quorum of ten men (Josephus, J.W. 2.146), but can exercise discretion on the
subject of aid and pity ( J.W. 2.134).
18 timothy h. lim
31
Vermes, Qumran in Perspective, 197.
32
Vermes, Qumran in Perspective, 197.
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 19
Taboos or boundaries
The issue of distance focalization also affects the study of the sectarian
boundaries. To be sure, in early Christianity there is no comparable,
multi-year initiation procedure, such as one finds prescribed for the
yahad and Josephus’ Essenes.33 Yet, there is one practice that has been
compared from the beginning of Qumran scholarship and that is the
Qumran-Essene ritual bathing and John’s baptism. From a distance,
the practice is distinctive on the broad canvas of late Second Temple
Jewish religious life. The ritual bathing or baptism was done in an
eschatological context; there was an appeal to the proof-text of Isa
40:3; and Josephus’ description of the baptism of John converges with
his account of the purification of the Essenes. A closer examination
of baptism, however, reveals significant differences: Mark portrays
John’s immersion as a “baptism for the repentance of sins”, whereas
the Qumran community, the Essenes and Josephus’ portrayal of John’s
baptism required repentance before the ritual act.34
33
See John J. Collins, “Essenes,” ABD 2:632.
34
Timothy H. Lim, “Paul, Letters of,” EDSS 2:638–9.
20 timothy h. lim
35
Jonathan Klawans, Impurity and Sin in Ancient Judaism (Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2000).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 21
36
Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 133.
37
Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 77–78.
38
Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 69.
39
Klawans, Impurity and Sin, 26.
22 timothy h. lim
Religious ideals
Sanders outlines the beliefs and practices of common Judaism as fol-
lows: all Jews believed in 1) one God who is sovereign and who alone
is worthy of worship; 2) the covenantal relationship between God and
Israel; and 3) the theological economy of transgression, repentance,
punishment and forgiveness. For Sanders, these beliefs formed “the core
of Jewish ‘orthodoxy’ ”.40 But Judaism is also a religion of “orthopraxy”
and Jews are required to 1) worship or serve God; 2) circumcise their
male offspring; 3) observe the Sabbath and keep it holy by doing no
40
This is most clearly stated in his discussion of ‘Judaism as a Religion’ in The
Historical Figure of Jesus (London: Penguin, 1993), chapter 2.
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 23
work; 4) avoid certain foods such as pork and shellfish; and 5) purify
themselves from various contagions. What made Judaism distinctive
in the context of the Graeco-Roman religions of the Mediterranean
world is that Jewish law was all encompassing. It was not simply the
observance of feasts and offerings, which many other pagan religions
likewise required, but the application of divine precepts to all of life:
“The most striking point about Jewish law is that it brings the entirety
of life, including civil and domestic practices, under the authority
of God.”41
In my view, what the various Jewish and Christian sects held in addi-
tion to or as a qualification of these beliefs and practices include:
1) An understanding of itself as the ‘true Israel’ (מוסד אמת לישראל
ליחד ברית עולם1QS V, 5; בית תמים ואמת בישראלVIII, 9; τὸν Ἰσραὴλ
τοῦ θεοῦ Gal 6:16), expressed in terms of remnant theology ( שאיריתCD
I, 4; 4Q174 1.3 II, 2; τὸ ὑπόλειμμα Rom 9:27 and λεῖμμα Rom 11:5). The
Christian communities, following dominical logia, believed in the new
covenant (ἡ καινὴ διαθήκη Lk 22:20; 1 Cor 11:25; 2 Cor 3:6; Heb 8:8;
12:24), in the sense that through the blood of Jesus a new dispensation
had been inaugurated. The old covenant was now superseded (Heb 8:13;
9:15). The yahad and the urban communities, by contrast, considered
their movements to be a renewal of the old covenant that was given to
their fathers ( כברית אשר חקים אל לראשניםCD IV, 9; VI, 19; VIII,
21; XX, 12; 1QSb III, 26; V, 5; V, 21; 1QpHab II, 3). It was a renewed
more than a new covenant.42 The council of the yahad, moreover,
considered itself the embodiment of the temple (בית קודש לישראל
1QS VIII, 510 [4Q259 II, 18]; 4Q174 1 2 I.6) just as the Pauline com-
munities considered themselves (ναὸς θεοῦ 1 Cor 3:16–17; 2 Cor 6:16),
both even citing the same proof-text from Isa 28:16 that described “the
tested wall” and “precious cornerstone.” They differed in their under-
standing of what the wall and cornerstone signified, a “stumbling stone”
(λίθον προσκόμματος) and “rock of offence” (πέτραν σκανδάλου) in
Rom 9:33 or a sure foundation ( )יזרעזעו יסודותיהוin 1QS VIII, 8. The
urban community of the Damascus Document did not express such
a view; one can only suppose that living amongst non-sectarians in
“camps” ( מחנותCD VII, 6) they de-emphasized the identification of
41
Sanders, Historical Figure of Jesus, 37.
42
Shemaryahu Talmon, “The Community of the Renewed Covenant: Between Juda-
ism and Christianity” in The Community of the Renewed Covenant (ed. Eugene Ulrich
and James VanderKam; Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994), 3–26.
24 timothy h. lim
the community with the Temple, which was important to the yahad,
since they appeared to have continued to sacrifice, as implied in the
Sabbath prohibition ( אל יעל איש למזבח בשבתCD XI, 17).
The Essenes are not described by the classical sources as the true
Israel, remnant, or embodiment of the Temple, but this may be due to
the bias of the sources. Both Philo and Josephus portray the Essenes as
a philosophical group. Philo, influenced by Stoic philosophy on moral-
ity and freedom, depicts the Essenes as “athletes of virtue” (ἀθλητὰς
ἀρετῆς Prob. 88) and Josephus compares them to the Pythagoreans
(A.J. 15.371) and Dacians (A.J. 18.22). For Josephus, however, there
may be an additional reason. Josephus’ Essenes recognize the Temple,
sending but not themselves bringing sacrifices to it (στέλλοντες θυσίας),
for they purify themselves differently from what is expected and thus
are excluded from the court. Consequently, they perform their own
sacrifices (ἐφ᾽ αὑτῶν τὰς θυσίας ἐπιτελοῦσιν A.J. 18.19). This qualified
recognition of the Temple and its cultic sacrifice may be a contributing
factor; like the urban community of the Damascus Document they did
not maintain a strong anti-Temple stance and did not consider their
community a replacement for the cultic center.
2) Views regarding human actions (περὶ τῶν ἀνθρωπίνων πραγμάτων
A.J. 13.171–3). Josephus states that Pharisees believed that “some but
not all” (τινὰ καὶ οὐ πάντα) human actions are the work of fate; Essenes
considered fate “the mistress of all things” (πάντων τὴν εἱμαρμένην
κυρίαν); and the Sadducees denied that there was such a thing (οὐδὲν
εἶναι ταύτην ἀξιοῦντες), assuming all actions to originate within
humans, who are the sole cause of good and evil. The Essenes and
Sadducees were on either side of the fate and freewill debate, whereas
the Pharisees figured somewhere in between. Josephus’ statement must
be considered as broad generalizations.
The yahad too appeared to have believed in determinism of some sort
as evidenced by the “doctrine of the two spirits” in which the Maskil
teaches all the sons of light about the “genealogy” ( )תולדותof mankind
(1QS III, 13–IV, 26). The term toledot is an allusion to the creation
account and its meaning is the spirit of men ()מיני רוחותם, their charac-
ter ( )אותותםand deeds ()מעשיהם. The strict determinism is expressed
in the ultimate design of God: “from the God of knowledge all things
came to be and will be ( )מאל הדעות כול הווה ונהייהand before they
come to be he has already ordered their design (ולפני היותם הכין כול
מחשבתם1QS III, 15).” Even the existence of the Prince of Light and
Angel of Darkness governing the two camps was determined: “And it
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 25
was He who created both the Spirits of light and darkness” (והואה ברא
רוחות אור וחושך1QS III, 24). This sectarian view of fate was closely
tied up with the election of Israel in a covenantal relationship, but it
further specified of the selection of “the Israel” within “Israel.”
Like most strict views about determinism, those of the yahad would
not have been consistent. Despite the divinely determined separation
of the sons of light and darkness, there was in the Angel of Darkness
the power to corrupt the sons of righteousness (ובמלאך חושך תעות
כול בני צדק1QS III, 21–2), to seduce them, as it were, to “the dark
side.” The further statement that God allowed the temporary seduction
to occur (“according to the mysteries of God until His end”, 1QS III,
23) was evidently a rationalization that accounted for the reality that
all men, even the sons of light, sin and stumble.
There is nothing explicit in the two spirits passage about human
responsibility. The passage is written from the perspective of divine
pre-determinism. If God had preordained everything, then all human
actions take place accordingly: a strict view of fate would preclude
human culpability. Again, it is difficult to see how this could have been
so, given the repeated exhortation to obey and do the divine commands,
the presence of the penal codes that punish transgressions, and the
possibility of apostasy. The sectarians must have allowed, if tacitly and
unreflectively, a degree of human freewill to complement their strict
determinism.
The passage of the two spirits is a source of 1QS III–IV; it most likely
had a life of its own outside of the text. In two recensions of the Rule
of the Community, represented by 4QSb and 4QSd, this teaching of the
two spirits is missing. While it is too soon to reconstruct historical
communities behind each of the recensions of the Rule of the Com-
munity, it is probably safe to say that the two spirits passage was not
always (or did not remain) authoritative.
The New Testament too has several notable passages on determinism,
but none so important as those found in Paul’s letter to the Romans.
Like all Jews, Paul held a view of election and predestination that God
had chosen Israel as His special people: He foreknew (προέγνω) his
people Israel (11:2). However, Paul redefined “Israel” by paradoxically
making the term more specific and general. Like other sectarians, Paul
qualified the idea of the people Israel by the notion of a true Israel:
“for not all those of Israel are Israel (οὐ γὰρ πάντες οἱ ἐξ Ἰσραὴλ οὗτοι
Ἰσραὴλ), nor are the seed[s] of Abraham all his children” (οὐδ᾽ ὃτι
εἰσὶν σπέρμα Ἀβραὰμ πάντες τέκνα 9:6–7). Rather, he argues that it
26 timothy h. lim
is the children of the spirit, not of the flesh, whom he calls “the chil-
dren of the promise” (τὰ τέκνα τῆς ἐπαγγελίας), who are “counted as
descendants” (λογίζεται εἰς σπέρμα 9:8).
The argument used to support this redefinition appears, at first glance,
odd: the real children of Israel are not “according to the flesh” (κατὰ
σάρκα 9:3), the seed of Abraham; “the children of the flesh are not the
children of God” (οὐ τὰ τέκνα τῆς σαρκὸς ταῦτα τέκνα τοῦ θεοῦ 9:8).
Instead, they are children of the promise through Isaac. But was Isaac
not Abraham’s son? Of course he was, but not according to the flesh,
as Paul understood it. Paul’s understanding of Isaac’s conception and
birth is that they were enacted through God’s word of promise: “for
the word of promise is this: ‘at this time I will come and a child will
be born to Sarah’ ” (9:9). The biblical proof-text quoted is a conflation
of Gen 18:10, 14, and it captures the essence of the story.43 Paul places
the emphasis of the birth narrative upon the promise of God rather
than on Isaac’s biological lineage.
After this, Paul goes on to provide further arguments, based on
biblical stories, about the inversion of the rights of primogeniture and
the fairness of God, concluding that “Israel” includes not only Jews but
also Gentiles: “whom he called, not only us of the Jews, but also of the
gentiles” (Οὓς καὶ ἐκάλεσεν ἡμᾶς οὐ μόνον ἐξ Ἰοθδαίων ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐξ
ἐθνῶν 9:24). God’s election of Israel is enduring, but Gentiles have also
been included (Rom 11).
There is much more that can be said about this important Pauline
concept and how it developed in the Deutero-Pauline letters. However,
it will suffice for our present purposes. In redefining “Israel,” Paul has
paradoxically made the term more specific and general, the true Israel
consisting of Jews, not all of them, and some of the Gentiles. Moreover,
his view of determinism not only involves God’s foreknowledge of
Israel but also all believers in Jesus: “whom he foreknew (προέγνω), he
predestined (προώρισεν) to conform to the image of his Son” (8:29).
3) Asceticism in following a severe discipline of daily life and celibacy.
According to Josephus, the Essenes had a reputation for an austere form
of discipline (σεμνότητα ἀσκεῖν); they turned away from pleasure since
it is a source of evil; and they supposed self-control with respect to emo-
tions to fall under the category of virtue (B.J. 2.119–120). Some of the
Essenes disdained (ὑπεροψία) marriage, guarding against the sensual-
43
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1992), 561.
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 27
44
Pliny reported that the Esseni were sine ulla femina (Nat. 5.73).
28 timothy h. lim
45
See John J. Collins, Daniel (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993), 394–8; Emil Puech, La
croyance des Esséniens en la vie future: immortalité, résurrection, vie éternelle? Histoire
d’une croyance dans le judaïsme ancien (2 vols.; Paris: Gabalda, 1993); N.T. Wright, The
Resurrection of the Son of God (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003); Alan F. Segal, Life After
Death: A History of the Afterlife in the Religions of the West (New York: Doubleday,
2004); and George W.E. Nickelsburg, Resurrection, Immortality, and Eternal Life in
Intertestamental Judaism and Early Christianity (expanded edition; Cambridge: Harvard
University Press, 2006).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 29
a substantial section that has been conflated from his sources. But this
passage on the resurrection seems genuinely independent.
Among the scrolls, only 4Q521 speaks of a resurrection, “he will
revive the dead” ()ומתים יחיה, but there is no clear indication that this
reflected the sectarian viewpoint. The scroll belongs to the Qumran
library, but it does contain any explicit reference to any characteristic,
sectarian theme. Among the explicitly sectarian scrolls, there is no men-
tion of resurrection. After-life, however, is implied in the reward of the
sons of light with “everlasting life” ( בחיי נצח1QS IV, 7–8), although the
concept is not well developed. The Hodayot have several references that
may imply a continuation of life after the grave, but they are couched
in poetic language and are characteristically vague.
In a well-known incident recounted in the book of Acts 23:1–10,
Paul stood up in the Sanhedrin and divided his opposition of Sad-
ducees and Pharisees by claiming that he, as a Pharisee, was being
questioned for his hope and belief in the resurrection of the dead. This
strategy worked, causing a great dissension between the two groups,
because Pharisees believed in the resurrection of the dead whereas the
Sadducees denied that this was true. Josephus’ report in A.J. 18.12 and
16 corroborates what is learned about the respective teachings of the
two sects in Acts.
It hardly has to be said that in the early Church the concept of res-
urrection and afterlife takes central stage. Paul, for instance, states the
clear implication of resurrection for the gospel and Christian faith: “for
if the dead are not raised then Christ has not been raised. If Christ has
not been raised, our faith is futile and you are still in your sins” (RSV
1 Cor 15:16–17).46
And 5) The use of similar scriptural texts with different interpreta-
tions. The study of the biblical texts is not sectarian. It is enjoined on
all Israel to mediate on them day and night, and to observe all that is
written in them (Josh 1:8). Philo describes the Essenes as engaged in
the study and application of ancestral laws and biblical texts for eth-
ics (Prob. 80). What is distinctive in Jewish and Christian groups is
the interpretation of the same texts, such as Jer 31, Hab 2.4, Deut 21,
Amos 5, Ezek 40–48, and many others. But their interpretation and
46
See Hans Cavallin, Life After Death: Paul’s Argument for the Resurrection of the
Dead in 1 Cor 15, Part I. An Enquiry into the Jewish Background (Lund: Gleerup,
1974).
30 timothy h. lim
the lessons that they drew from them were different.47 Additionally,
they used traditions that developed elements of the biblical texts as,
for instance, in the deliberations about Melchizedek (11QMelch and
Hebrews 7) and the New Jerusalem (4Q554–5, 5Q15, 2Q24, 4Q232,
11Q18, Rev 19–21).
The scrolls and the New Testament enumerate a number of termino-
logical and conceptual parallels as a consequence of this focus on the
same texts: “the sons of light” (1 Thess 5:4–9); Eph 5:8; 1QS I, 9–11;
II, 16–17; 1QM I, 1, 3, 9,11, 13; XIII, 5–6); there is no corresponding
“sons of darkness” but see “we are not of the night or of the darkness”
(1 Thess 5:5; cf. John 17:12); “works of the torah” (Gal 2:16; Rom
3:20; 3:27–8; 4Q174 1–2 I, 7; 4Q396 29); “righteousness of God” (Rom
3:21–24; 1QS XI, 12); community as living temple (1 Cor 3:9; 3:16–17;
1QS VIII, 1–16); ethical division of humanity into camps of good and
evil (1 Thess 5:4–8; 1QS III, 13–VI, 26); interpretation of impalement
of a corpse in Deut 21:22–23 as means of killing (by strangulation or
crucifixion; Gal 3:13; 4Q169 3–4 I, 7; 11Q19 LXIV, 6–13) and the list of
vices (Gal 5:19, 23; 1QS III, 13–IV, 26). It is striking that these literary
parallels do exist; however, it is equally notable that the terminological
and conceptual similarities are not to be found in the deeper meaning
of the texts.48
Epilogue
47
“It is striking how many parallels can be drawn between the terminology and
concept used in the Qumran scrolls and Pauline letters. Yet these parallels, when
examined in context often turn out to be rather limited.” Timothy H. Lim, Pesharim
(London: Continuum, 2001), 83.
48
See recently, George J. Brooke’s collected essays in The Dead Sea Scrolls and the
New Testament (London: SPCK, 2005) and Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Dead Sea Scrolls
and Christian Origins (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000). Still useful is The Scrolls and
the New Testament (ed. K. Stendahl; New York: Crossroad, 1957).
towards a description of the sectarian matrix 31
George J. Brooke
University of Manchester
I. Introduction
1
William H. Brownlee, “Jesus and Qumran,” in Jesus and the Historian: Written in
Honor of Ernest Cadman Colwell (ed. F. Thomas Trotter; Philadelphia: Westminster
Press, 1968), 52.
2
See especially Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew: A Historian’s Reading of the Gospels
(London: Collins, 1973).
3
Vermes himself has stated that “if the Qumran Scrolls are invaluable in shedding
new light on early Christianity, rabbinic literature skilfully handled, is still the richest
source for the interpretation of the original message, and the most precious aid to the
quest for the historical Jesus”: “The Impact of the Dead Sea Scrolls on the Study of
the New Testament,” JJS 27 (1976): 116; repr. in The Gospel of Jesus the Jew (Riddell
Memorial Lectures; Newcastle upon Tyne: University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 1981),
17 n. 65.
34 george j. brooke
4
See, e.g., Sean Freyne, Jesus: A Jewish Galilean (London: T&T Clark International,
2004).
5
This distinction between the “open commensality” of the historical Jesus and the
“hierarchy, precedence, and the order of dignity” of the Qumran Rule of the Community
and Rule of the Congregation is the only comparison, and that a negative one, between
Jesus and Qumran made by John D. Crossan in his summary Jesus: A Revolutionary
Biography (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco, 1994), 179–81.
6
James D.G. Dunn, Jesus Remembered (Christianity in the Making 1; Grand
Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 604–605, views Jesus’ attitude on purity, particularly in
relation to table fellowship, as deliberately formulated against the views of Essenes
and Pharisees.
7
So concludes Thomas Kazen, Jesus and Purity Halakhah: Was Jesus Indifferent to
Impurity? (ConBNT 38; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 2002), 347.
8
This distinction between Jesus and the sectarian community of the Scrolls is largely
the case also in Heinz-Wolfgang Kuhn, “Jesus,” in EDSS, 404–408.
the pre-sectarian jesus 35
9
This saying is omitted by Matthew and Luke and might be as early and authentic
as anything in Q; see, John S. Kloppenborg, The Formation of Q: Trajectories in Ancient
Wisdom Collections (SAC; Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987), 82 and n. 141.
10
The Qumran view of the Sabbath is one of just three Qumranian issues that James
Dunn perceives may be alluded to in the Jesus tradition: James Dunn, Jesus Remembered,
568 n. 110. The second is possibly a similarly negative view of the Qumran outlook,
namely on the attitude to one’s enemies (1QS I, 10–11; Matt 5:43–48; Luke 6:27–28,
32–36), about which Dunn remains non-commital, acknowledging that several scholars
have seen the matter as part of a much wider discourse in the ancient world: Dunn,
Jesus Remembered, 587 n. 194. The third is the matter of purity in relation to table
fellowship mentioned above. For Dunn the scrolls are so insignificant that he sees no
need to index his few references to them.
11
James H. Charlesworth, Jesus within Judaism: New Light from Exciting Archaeologi-
cal Discoveries (New York: Doubleday, 1988; London: SPCK, 1989), 67.
12
David Flusser provided an excellent study of parallels between the sectarian scrolls
and the Matthean form of the opening beatitudes, but he was overly optimistic about
what might be attributable to Jesus: “Blessed are the Poor in Spirit . . .” IEJ 10 (1960):
1–13; repr. in Judaism and the Origins of Christianity (Jerusalem: Magnes Press, 1988),
115–25. Charlesworth is similarly convinced that the use of “poor” can ultimately be
attributed to Jesus: Jesus within Judaism, 70.
13
Charlesworth, Jesus within Judaism, 72.
36 george j. brooke
for the previous forty years.14 Their use of the materials is slightly more
subtle as they weave the data from the Qumran scrolls into the broader
fabric of their overall descriptions of the various forms of Judaism with
which Jesus was contemporary, but they fail to distinguish between
non-sectarian (or pre-sectarian) and sectarian Qumran sources.
Although the distinction between Jesus and the Jews at Qumran is
easy to make, the distinction is just that, between Jesus and the Qumran
sectarians. I want to suggest in this presentation that the publication
of the whole collection of manuscripts from Qumran forces reconsid-
erations of many kinds, not least a reconsideration of how the kinds
of Judaism reflected in the largely non-sectarian (even pre-sectarian)
or quasi-sectarian compositions might illuminate the modern under-
standing of Jesus. And the illumination is two-way, since I would like
to propose that in aligning Jesus with some of the motifs of the non-
sectarian or pre-sectarian compositions found in the Qumran caves, we
may discover not only a broader Jewish background against which to
appreciate Jesus, but also, in seeing Jesus himself as pre-sectarian, may
have a tool for appreciating why such compositions are to be found in
a sectarian library and how a trajectory in the direction of sectarian-
ism could be built on the basis of such non-sectarian views. The time
has come for using the non-sectarian (or pre-sectarian) compositions
in the Qumran library to assist in the understanding of Jesus, both as
they might illuminate his activities and teaching and also as to how
they might indicate tendencies in both his deeds and words that might
have been readily picked up by subsequent generations in a particular
sectarian way. The non-sectarian or pre-sectarian compositions are not
just the residue of Judaism generally, but inasmuch as they are preserved
in the Qumran library, they are indicative of sectarian tendencies in
embryonic form. Some things are obviously revised or even discarded
in the later or fully developed worldview of the sectarians, but most is
carried forward. The same goes for Jesus and the Jesus movement—
aspects of the teaching and example of Jesus were rejected and modified,
but much was taken up by later Christians in their new contexts.
The challenge of my proposal is that there is both a phenomenological
and a traditio-historical comparison to be made between Jesus and the
14
Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, Der historische Jesus: Ein Lehrbuch (Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1996; trans. by John Bowden; London: SCM Press, 1998).
the pre-sectarian jesus 37
15
After an insightful conversation with Maxine Grossman, I use the term “mode”
rather than “stage” in order to allow for the phenomenological approach to be sug-
gestive both synchronically and diachronically.
16
See John J. Collins, “242. 4QPrayer of Nabonidus ar,” in Qumran Cave 4.XVII:
Parabiblical Texts, Part 3 (ed. James C. VanderKam; DJD XXII; Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1996), 83–93. In his edition of 4Q242 Collins has noted that “In the Gospel
narrative, Jesus forgives the sins of the paralytic before he heals him (Matt 9:2; Mark
2:5; Luke 5:20)” (p. 91).
38 george j. brooke
17
See, e.g., Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Tobit (Commentaries on Early Jewish Literature;
Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003), 243, in relation to the exorcism of demons with New Testa-
ment parallels.
18
For how the Genesis Apocryphon informs some healing descriptions in the New
Testament, see Joseph A. Fitzmyer, The Genesis Apocryphon of Qumran Cave 1 (1Q20):
A Commentary (BibOr 18B; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 2004), 213.
19
For 11Q11 see Florentino García Martínez, Eibert J.C. Tigchelaar and Adam S. van
der Woude, Qumran Cave 11.II: 11Q2–18, 11Q20–31 (DJD XXIII; Oxford: Clarenedon
Press, 1998), 181–205.
20
As used by James D.G. Dunn, Jesus Rememebred, 669.
21
Pieter F. Craffert, The Life of a Galilean Shaman: Jesus of Nazareth in Anthropo-
logical-Historical Perspective (Matrix, The Bible in Mediterranean Context 3; Eugene:
Cascade Books, 2008), 294. Craffert bases his observations on those of David Flusser,
“Healing through the Laying-on of Hands in a Dead Sea Scroll,” IEJ 7 (1957): 107–108;
repr. in Judaism and the Origins of Christianity, 21–22.
22
Vermes, Jesus the Jew, 65–69.
the pre-sectarian jesus 39
neither the names of God nor those of angels, neither magical prayers
nor magical rites, neither Davidic nor Solomonic texts of conjuration,
and he needed no equipment such as magic bowls or rings. The miracle
accounts of the Gospels show that perfectly clearly.”23 For Stegemann,
the distinctiveness of Jesus’ activity is that his miracles “are rather
miracles of God,”24 events of Jesus’ own area of experience that then
gave rise to his teachings about the reign of God. “The Essenes were of
no recognizable importance here.”25 This view rings with Christological
certainty, even though it is meant to be a depiction of the historical
Jesus. The logic of the matter for Stegemann is clear: out of context,
Jesus looks decidedly different.
Which way should the evidence of healings and exorcisms in the
pre-sectarian and non-sectarian compositions from Qumran be played?
As depictions of general aspects of Jewish culture into which Jesus can
be fitted, or as practices from which he needs to be distinguished? My
suggestion is that caution is required. At the time Josephus wrote his
Jewish War, he was able to single out the Essenes as those who were
interested in matters to do with “the welfare of soul and body” and
“the treatment of diseases” (B.J. II, 136). Why mention such concerns
if they were not a feature of Essene identity, rather than being very
widely known and practised? Although, of course, there is some textual
evidence for the depictions of Jewish charismatics and Pseudo-Philo
can assign to David a song composed to keep Saul’s evil spirit at bay,26
we probably need to avoid too great a generalization from such data
as do survive. In other words the scrolls from the Qumran library
may most suitably be understood as providing illumination for one
trajectory within Judaism in which healings and exorcisms played a
role. Jesus seems better understood against the backdrop of the earlier
positions on such a trajectory, rather than the later ones; later Chris-
tian developments of Jesus’ healings and exorcisms display more of
the explicit marks of what had been practised later on the Qumran
trajectory. In a way Stegemann may be correct, but not in the way
he intended: “The Essenes were of no recognizable importance here.”
23
Hartmut Stegemann, The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the
Baptist, and Jesus (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; Leiden: Brill, 1998 [German original
1993]), 237.
24
Stegemann, The Library of Qumran, 238 (italics his).
25
Stegemann, The Library of Qumran, 238.
26
LAB 60:2–3.
40 george j. brooke
That is, the latest point on the trajectory, which is clearly Essene, may
indeed not be where one looks for phenomenological illumination of
Jesus’ deeds; rather, it is the earlier points on the trajectory, such as the
Prayer of Nabonidus, which illuminate best the practices of Jesus and
which indicate how Jesus’ activity could be developed in similar ways
in Christianity, as had been possible within Essenism on the basis of
traditions preserved in pre-sectarian compositions now to be found in
the Qumran library.
As Jesus research of the last twenty years or more has shown, the search
for the authentic Jesus has to be carried out both through the texts in
which he is portrayed and memorialized, and through the study of
the contexts with which he may be most plausibly associated. For the
former the approach is to peel back the layers of editorial and ecclesial
concern to discover, in particular, what might be the earliest source
to have memorialized echoes of the authentic Jesus, namely Q (with
Mark),27 and then to reach behind even that, perhaps by paying atten-
tion to how one might provide an Aramaic retro-translation of some Q
sayings.28 For the latter the geographical, social, political and religious
worlds of early first century Galilee and Judea are reconstructed through
a variety of means and the authentic Jesus is the one that resonates most
satisfactorily within such a reconstruction with some part of it or some
combination of parts.29 In both cases continuities and discontinuities
have to be handled with sensitivity.
To my mind such sensitivity requires the adoption of a model for
understanding the materials both from the Qumran caves and in the
New Testament such as I am proposing in this presentation. The
problem with Stegemann’s approach, and possibly that of others, is
that, even though he knew about the full range of compositions in the
27
In North America this has been essentially the approach taken in the Jesus
Seminar.
28
E.g., Maurice P. Casey, Aramaic Sources of Mark’s Gospel (SNTSMS 102; Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); idem, An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources
for the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (SNTSMS 122; Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2002).
29
Again, in North America this has been the focus of the aptly named Contexts
Group.
the pre-sectarian jesus 41
Qumran library, he did not distinguished clearly between the three (or
more) modes attested in the literature there, namely the pre-sectarian
or non-sectarian, the quasi-sectarian, and the full-blown sectarian.30 For
the first of these modes there are a number of compositions which can
commonly be seen as developments of scriptural traditions but which
have no clear sectarian identity markers. For the second mode, there
are texts that could have had a wide appeal, but which are beginning
to show some non-exclusive nascent sectarian features. Amongst this
group of texts the most well-preserved member is the book of Jubilees,
but a large number of other texts can be allocated here too, such as
the Apocryphon of Jeremiah with its jubilee chronology. In the third
mode belong the sectarian compositions which Qumran scholars are
now beginning to differentiate yet further in order to try to show what
might have been the history of the Qumran group and the movement
of which it was a part.31 There is much work yet to be done in under-
standing all the pre/non-sectarian compositions from Qumran, but as
for Jesus’ deeds, largely as exorcist and healer, so in words and teach-
ing Jesus most obviously seems to reflect the pre-sectarian or possibly
quasi-sectarian compositions in the library. Let me illustrate this by
considering both macro-characteristics and micro-characteristics of
the literature.
At the macro level I refer to two matters in particular. In most of
the many presentations of the teaching of Jesus there are certain com-
mon themes, notably his attention to the reign of God (whatever that
might mean), his prophetic stance, his interest in developing certain
aspects of wisdom tradition, his eschatology. So, firstly, for Jesus as
prophet, it is now becoming increasingly clear that there is a wealth
of material in the Qumran scrolls of relevance. Alex Jassen bases his
reconsideration of prophecy and revelation in the scrolls on three pil-
lars: that the majority of the Qumran community’s engagement with
prophecy and revelation can be found in “the rewriting of the ancient
prophetic experience”; that the community believed “the eschatological
age would usher in a new period of prophetic experience”; and that the
30
I consider that there are probably more modes of sectarianism than these three. In
particular the full-blown sectarian mode often leads to fragmentation and rejuvenation
in sects, a mode that can take place for one sectarian sub-group at the same time as
non-sectarian compositions are rediscovered.
31
Thus some scholars have tackled the redactional and recensional history of the
Rule of the Community in order to try to show how the community changed from
one thing to another.
42 george j. brooke
32
Alex P. Jassen, Mediating the Divine: Prophecy and Revelation in the Dead Sea
Scrolls and Second Temple Judaism (STDJ 68; Leiden: Brill, 2007), 5–6.
33
M. Sato, Q und Prophetie: Studien zur Gattungs- und Traditionsgeschichte der
Quelle Q (WUNT 2/29; Tübingen: Mohr, 1988).
34
See, e.g., Dale C. Allison, Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (Minneapolis:
Fortress, 1998); Ben Witherington III, Jesus the Seer: The Progress of Prophecy (Peabody:
Hendrickson, 1999).
35
John Strugnell and Daniel Harrington, Qumran Cave 4.XXIV: Sapiential Texts:
Part 2 (DJD XXXIV; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999), 9.
the pre-sectarian jesus 43
36
John J. Collins, “The Eschatologizing of Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” in
Sapiential Perspectives: Wisdom Literature in Light of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Proceedings
of the Sixth International Symposium of the Orion Center for the Study of the Dead Sea
Scrolls and Associated Literature, 20–22 May 2001 (ed. J.J. Collins, G.E. Sterling and
R.A. Clements; STDJ 51; Leiden: Brill, 2004), 49–61, here 50.
37
Collins, “The Eschatologizing of Wisdom in the Dead Sea Scrolls,” 52.
38
Matthew J. Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction (STDJ 50;
Leiden: Brill, 2003), 215.
39
Goff, The Worldly and Heavenly Wisdom of 4QInstruction, 171.
40
Casey, An Aramaic Approach to Q: Sources for the Gospels of Matthew and
Luke, 17.
41
See, e.g., Ronald A. Piper, Wisdom in the Q-tradition: The Aphoristic Teaching of
Jesus (SNTSMS 61; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
prose qu'il a nommée les Fragments (1808). Jugez de la profondeur
de cette blessure: «Nous serions bien moins étonnés de souffrir, dit-
il, si nous savions combien la douleur est plus adaptée à notre
nature que le plaisir. Il n'y a de réel que les larmes.... Montrez-moi
celui qui a pu arriver à trente ans sans être détrompé... montrez-le
moi! Un déluge de maux couvre la terre, une arche flotte au-dessus
des eaux, comme jadis celle qui portait la famille du Juste; mais
cette arche-ci est demeurée vide, nul n'a été digne d'y entrer.» Plus
tard, Ballanche revint à une tristesse plus calme. Et lui-même, dans
une belle composition, le Vieillard et le Jeune Homme, s'est fait un
devoir de combattre le penchant auquel il avait jadis cédé. Mais il
avait souffert, comme l'a écrit M. Ampère, du mal de René.
J'ai parlé de M. Ampère. C'est à son père lui-même, à l'illustre
savant, que Ballanche écrivait: «Un brasier est dans votre cœur.» Et,
en effet, André-Marie Ampère avait une âme passionnée, mais aussi
tourmentée. Ayant perdu la foi religieuse, il n'avait pas tardé à sentir
le vide de son absence. «Descendu, on l'a très bien dit, au fond de
l'abîme, il chercha à remonter vers le ciel, et c'est un des spectacles
moraux les plus intéressants que celui qu'offrent les lettres où il nous
peint ses regrets, ses angoisses et ses aspirations renaissantes vers
la religion. Il y a dans ses doutes, dans ses souffrances, dans ses
affirmations retrouvées, quelque chose de cette crise qu'éprouva
Pascal et qui l'épuisa.» Enfin, il retrouva la foi pour ne la plus quitter.
Chez lui, de même que chez les autres personnes d'élite auxquelles il
m'a paru naturel de l'associer, le mal du siècle était dépouillé de ses
éléments mauvais. Pur dans son origine, il resta toujours inoffensif
dans ses effets, et ne se traduisit jamais par les audaces, les révoltes
ou les faiblesses que nous avons eu, que nous aurons encore, à
signaler dans le cours de ce travail.
VI
Senancour et ses disciples
Si la physionomie des deux principaux écrivains que nous ayons
jusqu'à présent étudiés, Mme de Staël et Chateaubriand, présente
des aspects variés, si leur caractère et leurs œuvres comportent des
nuances nombreuses, il n'en est pas de même de M. de Senancour.
En lui tout est uniforme, et une ombre de mélancolie enveloppe sa
vie entière et ses écrits.
Sa vie d'abord. Enfant maladif et ennuyé, il est confié à un curé de
campagne, aux environs d'Ermenonville: là, il se plaît aux souvenirs,
encore récents alors, que Jean-Jacques Rousseau a laissés dans ces
lieux témoins de ses derniers moments. Il se prend d'un goût
précoce pour la solitude. Ce goût, il le nourrit plus tard à
Fontainebleau, où pendant le temps des vacances il promène ses
jeunes rêveries. Puis son humeur indépendante se trahit par un acte
important. Ne se sentant aucune vocation pour l'état ecclésiastique
auquel on le destinait, il se sauve en Suisse, pour y vivre d'une vie
purement contemplative. Bientôt la Terreur qui rend la France
inhabitable, le fixe dans son pays d'adoption. Dans le même temps,
il perd ses parents, sa femme, sa santé et sa fortune, et se voit
réduit à chercher des moyens de vivre dans un travail qui lui
répugne. Cependant il retrouve assez de liberté pour écrire, de 1798
à 1804, ses Rêveries sur la nature primitive de l'homme, et, en 1804,
son livre d'Obermann, ouvrages qui, par l'esprit général qui les
anime, par leur forme, par le titre de l'un d'eux, par l'emploi fréquent
de l'apostrophe, rappellent l'influence de Rousseau. Mais, écrire
n'était pour lui qu'un dérivatif insuffisant à ses douleurs. On ne
saurait dire de ses ouvrages comme de ceux de Chateaubriand, que
leur auteur y soulageait ses chagrins par la verve qu'il déployait à les
décrire. Philosophe plutôt que poète, il se contentait d'analyser
fidèlement ses impressions, et des deux conditions que réunissait
l'auteur de René en composant son roman, l'entrain et la tristesse,
Senancour n'a connu que la seconde. J'achèverai d'indiquer ici ce
qu'il fut dans le reste de son existence. Il a continué sous la
Restauration sa vie cachée et ses travaux philosophiques. Il a publié,
en 1819, les Libres méditations d'un solitaire inconnu, et, en 1833, le
roman d'Isabelle. «Il resta toujours dans le gris» a dit Sainte-Beuve.
Mais plus il avançait en âge, plus il se tournait vers les sentiments
religieux. Il est mort à St-Cloud, en 1846, comme il avait vécu,
obscur, isolé; on lit sur sa tombe ces mots: «Éternité, deviens mon
asile!»
Je l'ai dit, la triste monotonie de son existence se retrouve dans ses
écrits, qui ne sont souvent qu'un journal de sa vie morale. Dans ses
Rêveries, quand il quitte les régions abstraites pour faire un retour
sur lui-même, on voit quel était son esprit de résignation, et de
détachement. «Douce et mélancolique automne, s'écrie-t-il, saison
chérie des cœurs sensibles et des cœurs infortunés, tu conserves et
adoucis les sentiments tristes et précieux de nos pertes et de nos
douleurs; tu nous fais reposer dans le mal même, en nous apprenant
à souffrir facilement, sans résistance et sans amertume; tout ton
aspect délicieux et funèbre attache nos cœurs aux souvenirs des
temps écoulés, aux regrets des impressions aimantes... Automne,
doux soir de la vie, tu soulages nos cœurs attendris et pacifiés, tu
portes avec nous le fardeau de la vie.» Ces sentiments apparaissent
surtout dans son ouvrage capital, dans ce livre d'Obermann, qui, ce
titre l'indique, est, je ne dirai pas le poème ou le roman, mais la
monographie de la solitude.
Le solitaire qui en fait le sujet a quitté le monde pour se mieux
conformer aux vues de la nature, pour rompre avec tout ce qui peut,
au milieu de la société, contrarier la destinée véritable de l'homme.
Il a échappé par la fuite au joug d'une profession pratique qu'on lui
voulait imposer; «il n'a pu renoncer à être homme pour être homme
d'affaires.» Il s'est retiré en Suisse et il écrit à un ami resté en
France.
Il jouit d'abord de la liberté qu'il a conquise, en même temps que de
la beauté des lieux qu'il parcourt; mais ce moment d'espérance et de
bonheur passe vite. Une secrète inquiétude se glisse dans son cœur;
son indépendance même, ses loisirs lui pèsent; l'inaction de ses
facultés devient pour lui une cause de souffrance. On le voit passant
une nuit entière, absorbé dans ses pensées, sur le bord d'un lac
éclairé par la lune. «Indicible sensibilité, s'écrie-t-il, charme et
tourment de nos vaines années, vaste conscience d'une nature
partout accablante et partout inspirée, trouble, passion universelle,
sagesse avancée, voluptueux abandon, tout ce qu'un cœur mortel
peut contenir de besoins et d'ennuis profonds, j'ai tout senti, tout
éprouvé dans cette nuit mémorable, j'ai fait un pas sinistre vers l'âge
d'affaiblissement, j'ai dévoré dix années de ma vie. Heureux
l'homme simple dont le cœur est toujours jeune!»
C'étaient sans doute des heures funestes que celles qui s'écoulaient
ainsi; mais peut-être dans la violence même de ces orages intérieurs
existait-il encore je ne sais quelle âpre jouissance. Après cette crise,
il n'y a plus pour Obermann qu'un état presque continu de langueur
et d'ennui. «Je ne veux plus de désirs, dit-il; ils ne me trompent
point. Je ne veux pas qu'ils s'éteignent; ce silence absolu serait plus
sinistre encore. Cependant c'est la vaine beauté d'une rose devant
l'œil qui ne s'ouvre plus. Si l'espérance semble encore jeter une
lueur dans la nuit qui m'environne, elle n'annonce rien que
l'amertume qu'elle exhale en s'éclipsant; elle n'éclaire que l'étendue
de ce vide où je cherchais et où je n'ai rien trouvé! Je suis seul, les
forces de mon cœur ne sont point communiquées, elles réagissent
dans lui, elles attendent. Me voilà dans le monde, errant, solitaire au
milieu de la foule qui ne m'est rien, comme l'homme frappé dès
longtemps d'une surdité accidentelle et dont l'œil avide se fixe sur
tous ces êtres muets qui passent et s'agitent devant lui.»
Cependant cette vie à la fois inutile et malheureuse, Obermann ne
comprend que trop qu'il lui importe d'en sortir. Le renversement
subit de sa fortune lui fait, d'ailleurs, une loi de l'activité. Mais
aucune considération ne peut triompher de son apathie et de son
indécision. Dans le cours de ses méditations sur le meilleur parti à
prendre, le découragement s'empare de lui, et il en arrive à
envisager une solution suprême qui conviendrait à son désespoir. Il
écrit à son ami: «Des idées sombres, mais tranquilles, me
deviennent plus familières. Je songe à ceux qui, le matin de leurs
jours, ont trouvé leur éternelle nuit; ce sentiment me repose et me
console, c'est l'instinct du soir.» Il examine alors les objections qui
s'élèvent contre le suicide: les devoirs envers l'amitié, la patrie,
l'humanité. Il croit les réfuter par cette raison que, quand on se sent
incapable de remplir un rôle dans le monde, on peut quitter
volontairement la vie, et que le pouvoir de la société ne va pas
jusqu'à interdire à l'homme de disposer de lui-même. Comme si
l'être le plus humble ne pouvait faire quelque bien sur la terre, et si,
à défaut de la société, Dieu ne lui imposait pas de rester à la place
où il l'a mis! Toutefois, il ne décide rien, content de savoir qu'il lui
reste, contre l'excès de ses maux, une ressource toujours prête. Il
ne se peut déterminer ni à vivre ni à mourir. Il continue à végéter.
Sans doute, il a encore de nobles aspirations, mais il manque de la
force nécessaire pour les réaliser. Si quelque lueur inespérée de
bonheur brille un instant à ses yeux, elle s'évanouit bientôt. Sa
volonté se soulève un instant, puis retombe, épuisée de son effort.
Ainsi, flottant sans cesse entre des aspirations stériles et des désirs
impuissants, le triste Obermann paraît près de toucher au fond de
l'abîme. Toutefois, il ne doit pas périr. Le salut lui apparaît quand il
renonce à le chercher en lui-même, quand il songe sérieusement à
ses semblables. Les projets utiles qu'il n'a pas encore eu le courage
d'exécuter, il veut enfin les accomplir. Redevenu riche, il forme un
établissement agricole qui fournit un noble aliment et à son activité
et à sa bienfaisance. Outre ce généreux emploi d'une partie de ses
heures, il en consacre une autre à écrire des leçons de morale, de
philosophie, qui puissent être de quelque profit pour les hommes.
C'est alors que, dépouillé de toute illusion, de toute passion
intéressée, il trouve le calme et la paix qu'il avait si longtemps
cherchés en vain dans la satisfaction de ses goûts personnels.
Tel est le remarquable traité d'Obermann. Il ne clôt pas les travaux
de Senancour sur la solitude, et pour ne pas scinder l'étude de cet
écrivain, je dirai quelques mots de ses derniers écrits.
Les libres méditations d'un solitaire inconnu renferment un grand
nombre de pages consacrées à la description, à l'éloge de la vie
solitaire et à l'analyse de ses effets sur l'âme. L'ouvrage est précédé
par le récit de la vie d'un homme qui aurait habité, jusqu'à l'âge
avancé où il mourut, une grotte de la forêt de Fontainebleau, dans
laquelle on aurait trouvé le manuscrit même des Méditations. Ce
vieillard convie chacun à l'imiter. Il invite ceux qui sont restés dans le
monde à enfuir les bruyantes passions; il voudrait voir se développer
des établissements toujours ouverts aux hommes désireux de la vie
cénobitique. Cette solitude ne peut cependant être que le partage du
petit nombre; il en est une autre plus accessible. Le philosophe
inconnu en raconte les charmes; selon lui, elle procure à l'esprit la
modération et la santé, l'oubli des choses vaines, la continuité dans
la possession de soi-même. Voilà sans doute de grands avantages,
et celui qui parle ainsi semble entièrement satisfait de son état.
Cependant, il ne le dissimule pas, il reste en lui un fond d'inquiétude,
un levain de chagrin et d'ennui toujours prêt à se soulever. Il ne peut
l'étouffer que par le travail, quelquefois le plus rude; pour dompter
son âme, il faut qu'il épuise ses forces physiques. «Je me hâterai,
dit-il, de saisir la bêche ou le rabot: je ne les quitterai pas avant d'y
être contraint par le sommeil. Que de fois je me félicitai d'une
vigueur qui me rendait cette diversion facile. Je plains celui dont la
pensée n'est pas moins active, mais à qui ces occupations et cette
lassitude ne sauraient convenir; c'est celui-là dont la vie est un
pénible combat.» Enfin, au moment même où il vient de se réjouir
d'avoir pris le parti de la retraite, il fait des aveux qui jettent un jour
inattendu sur la fragilité du bonheur qu'il y a trouvé. «Je n'ai pas su
me garantir de tous les écarts de la pensée: la paix dont je jouis est
précaire; je l'éprouve quelquefois avec autant de honte que de
découragement. L'ennui revient, il surmonte tout; il renouvelle de
faux besoins, et je me sens inondé d'amertume. Mais de tels instants
sont rares; la fatigue du corps épuise l'activité trompeuse qui ne me
laisserait apercevoir autour de moi que l'abandon et l'uniformité.»
Pas plus que dans les Libres méditations, le portrait de la solitude
n'est flatté dans le roman d'Isabelle. Isabelle est un pendant au livre
d'Obermann; et on l'a justement appelé un Obermann en jupons. La
donnée du roman est d'une grande simplicité. A la suite
d'événements qu'il est inutile de rapporter, une jeune fille du monde
a résolu de vivre dans une solitude complète. Elle espère y trouver
un soulagement à des regrets très naturels. Sans compter sur le
bonheur, elle cherche du moins à éviter son contraire. Elle croit
qu'elle n'est pas faite pour la vie ordinaire des femmes, qu'elle n'a
pas les dons nécessaires pour vivre dans l'état de mariage, et elle se
promet de n'aimer jamais. Mais l'épreuve de cette existence
anormale est pénible pour elle, et elle est bien loin d'y trouver la
paix qu'elle en attendait. Bien vite désabusée sur les suites de sa
bizarre tentative, elle ne fait rien cependant pour rentrer dans la vie
commune. Elle ne sait pas plus supporter la situation qu'elle s'est
faite, que la rompre. Elle n'accepte ni ne repousse, soit l'amour, soit
l'amitié, et elle meurt n'ayant su remplir ni complètement, ni à
temps, les devoirs qui lui étaient imposés. Sans entrer dans une
analyse plus étendue, citons quelques fragments de ses lettres:
«Que je souffre plus ou moins, ce ne sera pas une différence réelle
dans le cours du monde. Que te dirai-je? Comment me faire
entendre? je ne connais pas bien ce que j'éprouve, et il est possible
que j'aie peu de raison de croire ce dont je reste persuadée... tout
m'obsède, tout m'irrite. C'est une fatigue qui redouble par
intervalles; c'est un découragement universel... tout vient de ma
faute, ma perte sera mon ouvrage. J'appartiens au malheur, l'effroi
me pénètre, je gagnerais maintenant à cesser de vivre... Le rêve
dont je suis fatiguée va-t-il finir?... Dès que nous avons passé la
première jeunesse, ce n'est plus qu'un long désastre: ces regrets
forment l'histoire du monde.» Ces fragments suffisent pour faire
connaître la triste Isabelle. Personnage étrange, dont le caractère
n'est pas d'accord avec le sexe, création confuse qui s'explique
moins par le besoin, chez Senancour, de peindre un type réel, que
par le penchant qui porte un auteur à reproduire, à renouveler, sous
des aspects quelquefois peu variés, le premier objet de son étude et
de ses goûts.
On aperçoit maintenant l'unité qui préside à l'existence et à l'œuvre
de Senancour. On peut juger l'une et l'autre.
Que dirai-je de sa vie? Sans doute, des infirmités précoces, des
pertes de famille et d'argent, s'ajoutant au sentiment des malheurs
publics, étaient de nature à assombrir son caractère. Mais n'a-t-il pas
travaillé lui-même à son infortune, en s'isolant volontairement, en se
dérobant au train commun des choses pour lequel il ne se croyait
pas fait, et en se consacrant à un genre de vie exceptionnel et
contraire à la destination de l'homme? De ces premières fautes est
née peut-être, par une juste punition, la série ininterrompue des
ennuis qui ont usé les ressorts de son âme.
Toutefois, s'il est dans une certaine mesure l'artisan de son malheur,
on ne peut l'accuser de s'y complaire. Sa solitude n'est pas oisive;
elle est, au contraire, remplie de labeurs où le travail du corps
alterne avec celui de l'intelligence. Elle n'est pas non plus
orgueilleuse, car loin d'avoir la conscience de facultés supérieures,
Senancour souffre du sentiment de son insuffisance.
Quant aux pages qui ont été le fruit de cette existence solitaire, il
faut blâmer leur auteur de n'avoir pas repoussé nettement la
tentation du suicide et d'être resté dans le doute sur cette question
qui exige une réponse formelle. Mais, reconnaissons-le, jamais il
n'atténue aucun des arguments qu'on lui peut opposer, et il ne
cherche pas à pallier les côtés faibles de ses théories. A côté de son
opinion sur le suicide, il expose consciencieusement celle de son
correspondant inconnu, comme, après avoir décrit les bienfaits de la
solitude, il en révèle tous les maux, avec une exactitude qui enlève
au tableau qu'il en trace le prestige dangereux de ce sujet.
Enfin, une grande leçon est rappelée, avec beaucoup de force dans
ces livres de bonne foi. Chose remarquable: tous les esprits sur
lesquels la maladie du siècle a passé paraissent avoir compris, après
bien des recherches, des aspirations et des fatigues, que le bonheur
qu'ils souhaitaient ne pouvait exister que dans un état de l'âme,
réglé par des habitudes fixes et paisibles. Jean-Jacques Rousseau l'a
écrit le premier: «J'ai remarqué, dans les vicissitudes d'une longue
vie, que les époques des plus douces jouissances et des plaisirs les
plus vifs, ne sont pourtant pas celles dont le souvenir m'attire et me
touche le plus. Ces courts moments de délire et de passion,
quelques vifs qu'ils puissent être, ne sont cependant, et par leur
vivacité même, que des points bien clair-semés dans la ligne de la
vie. Ils sont trop rares et trop rapides pour constituer un état; et le
bonheur que mon cœur regrette n'est point composé d'instants
fugitifs, mais un état simple et permanent, qui n'a rien de vif en lui-
même, mais dont la durée accroît le charme, au point d'y trouver
enfin la suprême félicité.» Après lui, Zimmermann préconisait aussi,
comme le grand moyen de bonheur, l'occupation dans le calme.
Mais, mieux encore que ces deux écrivains, Chateaubriand a dit la
même chose par la bouche de René: «On m'accuse d'avoir des goûts
inconstants, de ne pouvoir jouir longtemps de la même chimère,
d'être la proie d'une imagination qui se hâte d'arriver au fond de
mes plaisirs, comme si elle craignait d'être accablée de leur durée;
on m'accuse de passer toujours le but que je puis atteindre, hélas! je
cherche seulement un bien inconnu dont l'instinct me poursuit. Est-
ce ma faute si je trouve partout des bornes, si ce qui est fini n'a
pour moi aucune valeur? Cependant, je sens que j'aime la
monotonie des sentiments de la vie, et si j'avais encore la folie de
croire au bonheur, je le chercherais dans l'habitude.» C'est cette
même solution de la paix par l'ordre que Senancour vient apporter
au problème du bonheur. «Il nous faudrait, fait-il dire à Obermann, il
nous faudrait une volupté habituelle et non des émotions extrêmes
et passagères. Il nous faudrait la tranquille possession qui se suffit à
elle-même dans sa paix domestique, et non cette fièvre de plaisir
dont l'ivresse consumante anéantit dans la satiété nos cœurs
ennuyés de ses retours, de ses dégoûts, de la vanité de son espoir,
de la fatigue de ses regrets.» Rencontre bien significative, de
plusieurs intelligences éminentes à des degrés divers. Mais chez
Rousseau, chez Zimmermann et chez Chateaubriand, cette
conclusion n'est proposée qu'avec timidité. Rousseau et
Zimmermann ont fini désespérés, et Chateaubriand nous montre
René mourant dans l'impénitence finale de la mélancolie. Senancour
ne tombe pas dans ces excès. Il fait plus qu'entrevoir la vérité qu'il a
exprimée, il la dégage par une application pratique. Son Obermann
guérit en sortant de l'oisiveté, en rentrant en communication avec
les hommes, en travaillant pour eux, en sacrifiant ses intérêts à leur
bonheur; et, dans ses Méditations, on voit encore Senancour
combattre courageusement le démon de la tristesse, et, quoiqu'il
succombe quelquefois sous ses coups, se relever, du moins, et se
fortifier par la lutte.
Malgré le caractère modeste de la vie et des écrits que je viens
d'apprécier, une célébrité tardive n'a pas complètement fait défaut à
Senancour. Un pâle rayon de gloire posthume est venu visiter son
tombeau. Lui, dont les œuvres n'avaient occupé jusque-là que
quelques hommes de loisir et d'esprit délicat, a été, enfin, présenté
au vrai public. Mme Sand lui a consacré une étude enthousiaste qui a
eu du retentissement et qui a donné, en quelque sorte, le
mouvement à l'opinion. Plus tard, Sainte-Beuve a parlé de lui avec
étendue, avec éloge. Un poète anglais, M. Arnold, lui a rendu
hommage en de belles stances. M. Auguste Barbier a pris pour sujet
d'une poésie celui qu'il appelle «Le noble Obermann;» et, plus
récemment, un autre écrivain, M. René Biémont, a intitulé «Le petit-
fils d'Obermann,» un roman dans lequel il raconte les souffrances
d'une âme inquiète.
Quoiqu'il en soit, Senancour avait jeté d'abord trop peu d'éclat pour
avoir, de son vivant, des disciples. Cependant, si l'on n'avait tant
abusé de cette expression, je dirais qu'il eut, à son insu, des frères
obscurs qui, loin de lui et par une sorte d'inconsciente sympathie,
rappelaient ses mœurs et ses sentiments.
L'un de ces hommes était Maine de Biran, dont le nom a grandi
depuis, et, comme celui de Senancour lui-même, a fini par recueillir,
dans le monde philosophique, une certaine illustration. Les affaires
publiques qui ont pris une part considérable de la vie de Maine de
Biran, ne l'ont pas, en effet, occupée toute entière, et même dans
les fonctions de l'État, et sur la scène politique, il eut toujours un
regard tourné en dedans de lui-même.
A la vérité, ces habitudes méditatives ne furent pas chez lui le
résultat d'un choix entièrement libre: elles furent en partie la
réaction forcée de la dissipation qui avait marqué sa jeunesse. Les
récentes publications dont il a été le sujet nous font connaître qu'il
avait, à cette époque, mené une existence très frivole. Sa mauvaise
santé l'avait engagé à changer sa manière d'être, et il avait suivi ce
conseil.
Les événements publics l'avaient aussi détourné de la vie du dehors,
et ramené davantage à la vie intérieure. Pendant la Terreur, il s'était
réfugié dans une terre éloignée de Paris. Cet asile lui offrait un
double avantage: il lui voilait le spectacle des folies sanguinaires qui
désolaient la France, et il lui permettait de se consacrer à l'étude de
lui-même. Il fut heureux de le retrouver en 1797, lorsque le coup
d'État du 18 fructidor l'eut éloigné des assemblées politiques, où son
opposition royaliste l'avait fait remarquer.
Maine de Biran s'occupe donc à se voir vivre, et cette contemplation
ne lui donne pas toujours sujet de se réjouir. Il se plaint de n'avoir
pas la direction de son âme, d'être plutôt passif qu'actif: sa volonté
est chose variable; il est obligé de reconnaître qu'elle est
subordonnée à la partie matérielle de son être, qu'elle dépend
quelquefois du temps ou de sa santé. Il est aussi un certain état qu'il
gémit d'éprouver trop souvent: «En cet état, dit-il, absolument
incapable de penser, dégoûté de tout, voulant agir sans le pouvoir, la
tête lourde, l'esprit nul, je suis modifié de la manière la plus
désagréable. Je me révolte contre mon ineptie, j'essaie pour m'en
sortir de m'appliquer à diverses choses, je passe d'un objet à un
autre; mais tous mes efforts ne font que rendre ma nullité plus
sensible.» Il parle ailleurs de «l'agitation ordinaire de sa vie
intérieure,» de «sa monotone existence;» enfin plus tard, en 1811, il
constate avec regret l'affaiblissement de son imagination et il écrit ce
triste mot: «Ma vie se décolore peu à peu.»
A ces analyses d'impressions fugitives et de nuances délicates, à ces
confessions d'insuffisance morale, ne reconnaît-on pas le lien qui
existe entre Maine de Biran et Senancour? Comme Senancour, il
aspirait à la stabilité de l'âme, à la permanence des sentiments
intimes. Comme lui aussi, il n'a trouvé le calme qu'en donnant plus
de place dans ses pensées à l'élément religieux, en s'élevant
davantage vers l'esprit du christianisme; et, bien qu'il éprouvât
encore quelquefois «de la difficulté à vivre au dedans comme au
dehors» il eut la consolation, avant de mourir, de saisir une foi à
laquelle il se tint fortement attaché.
A côté de Biran, on peut mentionner Gleizès, personnage connu par
son originalité et sa vie solitaire et indépendante, qui a publié, en
1794, les Mélancolies d'un solitaire; en 1800, les Nuits élyséennes.
Ces écrits sont des méditations sentimentales sur les clairs de lune,
les cimetières, les ruines, présentées dans une prose poétique et
chargée d'images exagérées, souvent tirées de souvenirs bibliques.
Un autre écrivain, qui s'est signalé par son hostilité contre le
gouvernement impérial et avait même cru devoir s'exiler après le 18
brumaire, pour éviter d'être compris parmi les victimes du coup
d'État, Thiébaut de Berneaud doit aussi trouver sa place ici. Avant
ses nombreux ouvrages sur les sciences et surtout sur l'agriculture,
Thiébaut avait, en 1798, fait paraître Un voyage à l'Ile des Peupliers,
hommage ardent à la mémoire et au génie de Rousseau, dans le
goût de celui que lui avaient déjà rendu Mme de Staël et M. Michaud.
On en prendra une juste idée par cet éloge qu'en fait, dans un style
qui porte bien sa date, un catalogue de libraire de son temps
(Lepetit, palais du Tribunat): «Les amis de la nature, de Rousseau,
des lettres et de la vertu, ne liront pas sans émotion ce petit ouvrage
où respire une âme honnête, et où se manifeste le talent de peindre
la campagne et d'exprimer le sentiment.»
Enfin, il convient de rappeler le nom oublié de Cousin de Grainville,
l'auteur du Dernier homme (1803). Dans cet ouvrage qui nous
montre le globe desséché, usé, éteint, tendant à une mort
prochaine, et le génie de la terre fatigué de sa longue existence,
mais condamné à vivre encore jusqu'à ce que, par la mort du dernier
homme, la terre entre enfin dans l'éternel repos, dans ce vaste et
sombre tableau, on a retrouvé «l'expression agrandie de la tristesse
d'Obermann.» Cette œuvre, du reste, quoiqu'elle fût fort estimée par
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, et qu'elle ait eu plus tard de nombreux
admirateurs, avait été, à son apparition, mal jugée par le public, et
dans l'un des accès d'une maladie violente, occasionnée par son
insuccès, Grainville s'était précipité dans la Somme qui coulait au
pied de sa maison et y avait trouvé la mort.
Tels sont les contemporains de Senancour qui présentent avec lui le
plus de ressemblance, et constituent ainsi son entourage nécessaire.
VII
Les Romanciers
CH. NODIER.—Mme DE FLAHAUT.—Mme DE KRUDENER.
VIII
Benjamin Constant
X
Les Etrangers
ANGLETERRE.—ALLEMAGNE.—ITALIE.
Pendant que la France présentait ce regrettable spectacle, quel était
au dehors l'état des esprits? C'est ce qu'il importe de rechercher ici,
pour être à même d'apprécier l'influence que notre pays a pu
recevoir du dehors.
L'Angleterre voyait alors fleurir un poète illustre qui devenait le chef
incontesté de l'école de la mélancolie, et qui fondait même celle du
désespoir. J'ai nommé lord Byron.
Investi encore enfant d'un titre aristocratique, il prend possession à
dix-huit ans d'un vaste manoir, d'une antique abbaye solitaire.
D'abord, il s'abandonne à toute la fougue de son naturel; mais il
paraît vite se lasser de ses folies, et tout jeune encore, il se montre
déjà blasé. Ayant «prodigué tout son été dans le beau mois de mai»,
ne pouvant plus voir refleurir en lui «la fraîcheur du cœur, il
contemple avec une triste indifférence le monde qui s'ouvre devant
lui.» Profondément irritable, avide d'originalité, il rompt en visière
avec quiconque gêne ou contrarie ses goûts; il brave, il excite à
plaisir l'opinion publique. Il affecte de n'avoir jamais eu qu'un ami
qu'il a perdu, et cet ami qu'était-il? un chien.
Adolescent, il aimait les courses vagabondes à travers les bois et les
montagnes de son pays; homme fait, un instinct inquiet, un besoin
de mouvement et de nouveauté, l'aiguillon enfin de l'ennui le
poussent vers des pays lointains. Il parcourt la France, la Suisse,
l'Italie, la Grèce. Tantôt on le voit sur une frêle embarcation défier la
tempête au milieu du lac Léman; tantôt, au galop de son cheval, il
dévore les plages de l'Adriatique; tantôt, il tente à la nage la
traversée de l'Hellespont, fatale à Léandre. Mais ni le plaisir, ni les
voyages ne l'arrachent à son incurable tristesse. Il ne fait que
changer le théâtre de ses chagrins, et pour achever cette existence
courte et troublée il va se battre pour la libération de la Grèce, et il
meurt au moment où il se prépare à attaquer la citadelle de Lépante.
Homme extraordinaire par la hauteur, par l'énergie du caractère
autant que par le don de poésie, mais se rapprochant du vulgaire
par ses passions, il présente un mélange d'éléments disparates qui
ne sont pas également avouables, mais il a cherché à s'entourer aux
yeux du public d'une grandeur idéale et n'a pas craint d'en
emprunter le caractère à un type maudit.
Écoutez comme à dix-huit ans il parle de sa destinée: «Ah! dit-il,
quoique je sois d'un naturel hautain, bizarre, impétueux, dominé par
le caprice, la proie de mille erreurs qui préparent ma chute, je
voudrais tomber seul.» Ainsi à ses yeux sa perte est inévitable; il est
l'instrument d'une puissance surnaturelle et il s'y résigne. Les
témoins de son séjour à Coppet, ont remarqué qu'il tenait à paraître
«amer, sarcastique, prenant plaisir à scandaliser par des propos
irréligieux le puritanisme de la société de Genève, enfin qu'il
s'amusait à se donner des airs sataniques.» Lui-même raconte qu'un
jour à son apparition dans le salon de Mme de Staël, une dame
anglaise s'évanouit, ou prétendit s'évanouir, et que toutes les
personnes présentes «firent une mine, comme si sa majesté
satanique était entrée dans la chambre.» Quand Mme Lamb eut
composé son Glenarvon où elle peint Byron sous les traits d'un Don
Juan insolent et cruel et comme une figure infernale, Byron n'hésita
pas à autoriser la publication de ce roman qui flattait en lui un
amour-propre bien singulièrement placé. Du reste, son genre de
beauté favorisait cette transfiguration. Son front noble et élevé
semblait le siège d'une intelligence plus qu'humaine, et il n'était pas
jusqu'à cette difformité légère qui déparait un de ses pieds, qui ne
concourût à son prestige, en rappelant l'idée de quelque ange
foudroyé, gardant les marques de la chute qui l'a précipité du ciel.
C'est aussi pour le type infernal que sa prédilection s'accuse dans
ses premiers écrits. On connaît son portrait de Conrad dans le
Corsaire; «il y avait dans son dédain le sourire d'un démon que
suscitaient à la fois des émotions de rage et de crainte, et là où
s'adressait le geste farouche de sa colère, l'espérance s'évanouissait
et la pitié fuyait en soupirant..... Solitaire, farouche et bizarre, si son
nom répandait l'effroi, si ses actions étonnaient, ceux qui le
craignaient n'osaient le mépriser.»
Welcome to our website – the perfect destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world,
offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth.
That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of
books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to
self-development guides and children's books.
ebookbell.com