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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 585

José Manuel Machado · Pablo Chamoso ·

Guillermo Hernández · Grzegorz Bocewicz ·
Roussanka Loukanova · Esteban Jove ·
Angel Martin del Rey · Michela Ricca Editors

Distributed
Computing and
Artificial Intelligence,
Special Sessions,
19th International
Conference
Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems

Volume 585

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA,
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of
Campinas—UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil
Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA
Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Alberta, Alberta, Canada
Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus,
Nicosia, Cyprus
Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest
developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
of LNNS.
Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new
challenges in, Networks and Systems.
The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks,
spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor
Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological
Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems,
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Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to
both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and
the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid
dissemination of research output.
The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art
and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control,
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Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago.
All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science.
For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).
José Manuel Machado · Pablo Chamoso ·
Guillermo Hernández · Grzegorz Bocewicz ·
Roussanka Loukanova · Esteban Jove ·
Angel Martin del Rey · Michela Ricca
Editors

Distributed Computing
and Artificial Intelligence,
Special Sessions, 19th
International Conference
Editors
José Manuel Machado Pablo Chamoso
University of Minho University of Salamanca
Braga, Portugal Salamanca, Spain

Guillermo Hernández Grzegorz Bocewicz

University of Salamanca Koszalin University of Technology
Salamanca, Spain Koszalin, Poland

Roussanka Loukanova Esteban Jove

Stockholm University University of Coruña
Stockholm, Sweden La Coruña, Spain
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
Michela Ricca
Institute of Mathematics and Informatics
University of Calabria
Sofia, Bulgaria
Arcavacata di Rende, Cosenza, Italy
Angel Martin del Rey
Departamento de Matemática Aplicada
University of Salamanca
Salamanca, Spain

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems
ISBN 978-3-031-23209-1 ISBN 978-3-031-23210-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23210-7

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Preface

Research on Intelligent Distributed Systems has matured during the last decade,
and many effective applications are deployed now. Nowadays, technologies such as
Internet of Things (IoT), Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), Big Data, Blockchain,
and distributed computing, in general, are changing constantly as a result of the large
research and technical effort being undertaken in both universities and businesses.
Most computing systems from personal laptops to edge/fog/cloud computing systems
are available for parallel and distributed computing. Distributed computing performs
an increasingly important role in modern signal/data processing, information fusion,
and electronics engineering (e.g., electronic commerce, mobile communications,
and wireless devices). Particularly, applying artificial intelligence in distributed
environments is becoming an element of high added value and economic potential.
The 19th International Symposium on Distributed Computing and Artificial Intel-
ligence 2022 (DCAI 2022) is a major forum for presentation of development and
applications of innovative techniques in closely related areas. The exchange of ideas
between scientists and technicians from both academic and business areas is essential
to facilitate the development of systems that meet the demands of today’s society.
The technology transfer in this field is still a challenge, and for that reason, this type
of contributions is specially considered in this symposium. DCAI 2022 brings in
discussions and publications on development of innovative techniques to complex
problems. This year’s technical program presents both high quality and diversity,
with contributions in well-established and evolving areas of research. Specifically,
46 papers were submitted, by authors from 28 different countries (Angola, Argentina,
Bahrain, Bangladesh, Brazil, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Canada, Chile, Colombia,
Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Lebanon, Nigeria,
Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Russia, Spain, Turkey, UK, USA), representing a truly “wide
area network” of research activity. Moreover, DCAI 2022 Special Sessions have been
a very useful tool in order to complement the regular program with new or emerging
topics of particular interest to the participating community. The technical program
of the Special Sessions of DCAI 2022 has selected 22 papers (12 full papers). As
in past editions of DCAI, there will be special issues in highly ranked journals such
as Electronics, Systems Journal, International Journal of Interactive Multimedia and

v
vi Preface

Artificial Intelligence, Smart Cities Journal and Advances in Distributed Computing

and Artificial Intelligence Journal. These special issues will cover extended versions
of the most highly regarded works, including from the Special Sessions of DCAI,
which emphasize specialized, multi-disciplinary and transversal aspects. This year,
DCAI 2022 has especially encouraged and welcomed contributions on: AI-driven
methods for Multimodal Networks and Processes Modeling (AIMPM), Compu-
tational Linguistics, Information, Reasoning, and AI 2022 (CLIRAI), Intelligent
Systems Applications (ISA), Mathematical Techniques in Artificial Intelligence and
Machine Learning (MaTe-AI&ML), and New Perspectives and Solutions in Cultural
Heritage (TECTONIC). Moreover, Doctoral Consortium Session tries to provide a
framework as part of which students can present their ongoing research work and
meet other students and researchers and obtain feedback on lines of research for the
future.
We would like to thank all the contributing authors, the members of the
Program Committee, the sponsors (IBM, Indra, Dipartimento di Ingegneria e Scienze
dell’Informazione e Matematica dell’Università degli Studi dell’Aquila, Armundia
Group, Whitehall Reply, T.C. Technologies And Comunication S.R.L., LCL Indus-
tria Grafica, AIR Institute, AEPIA, APPIA), and the Organizing Committee of the
Universities of L’Aquila and Salamanca for their hard and highly valuable work. We
are especially grateful for the funding supporting by project “XAI—XAI—Sistemas
Inteligentes Auto Explicativos creados con Módulos de Mezcla de Expertos”, ID
SA082P20, financed by Junta Castilla y León, Consejería de Educación, and FEDER
funds. And finally, we are grateful and value Program Committee members for their
hard work, which has been essential for the success of DCAI 2022.

July 2022 José Manuel Machado

Pablo Chamoso
Guillermo Hernández
Grzegorz Bocewicz
Roussanka Loukanova
Esteban Jove
Angel Martin del Rey
Michela Ricca
Organization

Honorary Chairman

Sigeru Omatu Hiroshima University, Japan

Advisory Board

Yuncheng Dong Sichuan University, China

Francisco Herrera University of Granada, Spain
Kenji Matsui Osaka Institute of Technology, Japan
Tan Yigitcanlar Queensland University of Technology, Australia
Tiancheng Li Northwestern Polytechnical University, China

Program Committee Chairs

Rashid Mehmood King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia

Pawel Sitek Kielce University of Technology, Poland

Organizing Committee Chairs

Sara Rodríguez University of Salamanca, Spain

Serafino Cicerone University of L’Aquila, Italy
Pablo Chamoso University of Salamanca, Spain
Guillermo Hernández University of Salamanca, Spain
José Manuel Machado University of Minho, Portugal

vii
viii Organization

Organizing Committee

Juan M. Corchado Rodríguez University of Salamanca and AIR Institute, Spain

Fernando De la Prieta University of Salamanca, Spain
Sara Rodríguez González University of Salamanca, Spain
Javier Prieto Tejedor University of Salamanca and AIR Institute, Spain
Pablo Chamoso Santos University of Salamanca, Spain
Liliana Durón University of Salamanca, Spain
Belén Pérez Lancho University of Salamanca, Spain
Ana Belén Gil González University of Salamanca, Spain
Ana De Luis Reboredo University of Salamanca, Spain
Angélica González Arrieta University of Salamanca, Spain
Emilio S. Corchado Rodríguez University of Salamanca, Spain
Alfonso González Briones University of Salamanca, Spain
Yeray Mezquita Martín University of Salamanca, Spain
Beatriz Bellido University of Salamanca, Spain
María Alonso University of Salamanca, Spain
Sergio Marquez University of Salamanca, Spain
Marta Plaza Hernández University of Salamanca, Spain
Guillermo Hernández González AIR Institute, Spain
Ricardo S. Alonso Rincón University of Salamanca, Spain
Raúl López University of Salamanca, Spain
Sergio Alonso University of Salamanca, Spain
Andrea Gil University of Salamanca, Spain
Javier Parra University of Salamanca, Spain

Local Organizing Committee

Pierpaolo Vittorini (Co-chair) University of L’Aquila, Italy

Tania Di Mascio (Co-chair) University of L’Aquila, Italy
Federica Caruso University of L’Aquila, Italy
Anna Maria Angelone University of L’Aquila, Italy
Organization ix

DCAI 2022 Sponsors

Contents

Special Session on AI-driven Methods for Multimodal Networks

and Processes Modeling (AIMPM’22)
Multimodal Network Based Graphs of Primitives Storage Concept
for Web Mining CBIR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Tomasz Michno and Roman Stanislaw Deniziak
Race Condition Error Detection in a Program Executed on a Device
with Limited Memory Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Rafał Wojszczyk, Damian Giebas, and Grzegorz Bocewicz
The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation
of Production Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Zbigniew Juzoń, Jarosław Wikarek, and Paweł Sitek

Special Session on Computational Linguistics, Information,

Reasoning, and AI 2022 (CompLingInfoReasAI’22)
Towards Ontology-Based End-to-End Domain-Oriented KBQA
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Anastasiia Zakharova, Daria Sorokina, Dmitriy Alexandrov,
and Nikolay Butakov
TFEEC: Turkish Financial Event Extraction Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Kadir Şinas Kaynak and Ahmet Cüneyd Tantuğ

Special Session on Intelligent Systems Applications (ISA)

Denial of Service Attack Detection Based on Feature Extraction
and Supervised Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Álvaro Michelana, José Aveleira-Mata, Esteban Jove,
Héctor Alaiz-Moretón, Héctor Quintián, and José Luis Calvo-Rolle

xi
xii Contents

Automating the Implementation of Unsupervised Machine

Learning Processes in Smart Cities Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Raúl López-Blanco, Ricardo S. Alonso, Javier Prieto, and Saber Trabelsi
Intelligent Model Hotel Energy Demand Forecasting by Means
of LSTM and GRU Neural Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Víctor Caínzos López, José-Luis Casteleiro-Roca,
Francisco Zayas Gato, Juan Albino Mendez Perez,
and Jose Luis Calvo-Rolle

Special Session on Mathematical Techniques in Artificial

Intelligence and Machine Learning (MaTe-AI&ML)
Explainable Artificial Intelligence on Smart Human Mobility:
A Comparative Study Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Luís Rosa, Fábio Silva, and Cesar Analide
Recurrent Neural Networks as Electrical Networks,
a Formalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Mariano Caruso and Cecilia Jarne

Special Session on New Perspectives and Solutions in Cultural

Heritage (TECTONIC)
Computer Vision: A Review on 3D Object Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Yeray Mezquita, Alfonso González-Briones, Patricia Wolf,
and Javier Prieto
An IoUT-Based Platform for Managing Underwater Cultural
Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Marta Plaza-Hernández, Mahmoud Abbasi, and Yeray Mezquita

Doctoral Consortium
Overview: Security in 5G Wireless Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Carlos D. Aguilar-Mora
A Study on the Application of Protein Language Models
in the Analysis of Membrane Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Hamed Ghazikhani and Gregory Butler
Visualization for Infection Analysis and Decision Support
in Hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Denisse Kim, Jose M. Juarez, Manuel Campos,
and Bernardo Canovas-Segura
An Intelligent and Green E-healthcare Model for an Early
Diagnosis of Medical Images as an IoMT Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Ibrahim Dhaini, Soha Rawas, and Ali El-Zaart
Contents xiii

Towards Highly Performant Context Awareness in the Internet

of Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Elias Werner
Adaptive System to Manage User Comfort Preferences
and Conflicts at Everyday Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Pedro Filipe Oliveira, Paulo Novais, and Paulo Matos
ML-Based Automation of Constraint Satisfaction Model
Transformation and Solver Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Ilja Becker, Sven Löffler, and Petra Hofstedt
The Impact of Covid-19 on Student Mental Health and Online
Learning Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Faiz Hayat, Ella Haig, and Safwan Shatnawi
Threat Detection in URLs by Applying Machine Learning
Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Álvaro Bustos-Tabernero, Daniel López-Sánchez,
and Angélica González Arrieta
An Approach to Simulate Malware Propagation in the Internet
of Drones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
E. E. Maurin Saldaña, A. Martín del Rey, and A. B. Gil González

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

 Special Session on AI-driven Methods
for Multimodal Networks and Processes
Modeling (AIMPM’22)
2

The special session entitled AI-driven methods for Multimodal Networks and Processes
Modeling (AIMPM 2022) is a forum that will share ideas, projects, researches results,
models, experiences, applications, etc., associated with artificial intelligence solutions
for different multimodal networks born problems (arising in transportation, telecom-
munication, manufacturing, and other kinds of logistic systems). The session held in
L’Aquila (Italy) as the part of the 19th International Symposium Distributed Computing
and Artificial Intelligence 2022.
Recently, a number of researchers involved in research on analysis and synthesis of
multimodal networks devote their efforts to modeling different, real-life systems. The
generic approaches based on the AI methods, highly developed in recent years, allow
to integrate and synchronize different modes from different areas concerning: the trans-
portation processes synchronization with concurrent manufacturing and cash ones or
traffic flow congestion management in wireless mesh and ad hoc networks as well as
an integration of different transportations networks (buses, rails, subway) with logistic
processes of different character and nature (e.g., describing the overcrowded streams
of people attending the mass sport and/or music performance events in the context of
available holiday or daily traffic services routine). Due to the abovementioned reasons,
the aim of the workshop is to provide a platform for discussion about the new solutions
(regarding models, methods, knowledge representations, etc.) that might be applied
in that domain. There is a number of emerging issues with big potential for methods
of artificial intelligence (evolutionary algorithms, artificial neural networks, constraint
programming, constraint logic programming, data-driven programming, answer set pro-
gramming, hybrid methods—AI/OR-Operation Research, fuzzy sets) like multimodal
processes management, modeling and planning production flow, production planning
and scheduling, stochastic models in planning and controlling, simulation of discrete
manufacturing system, supply chain management, mesh-like data network control, mul-
timodal social networks, intelligent transport and passenger and vehicle routing, secu-
rity of multimodal systems, network knowledge modeling, intelligent web mining and
applications, business multimodal processes, and projects planning.
Organizing Committee
Chairs
Paweł Sitek, Kielce University of Technology, Poland
Grzegorz Bocewicz, Koszalin University of Technology, Poland
Izabela E. Nielsen, Aalborg University, Denmark
Co-chairs
Peter Nielsen, Aalborg University, Denmark
Zbigniew Banaszak, Koszalin University of Technology, Poland
Robert Wójcik, Wrocław University of Technology, Poland
Jarosław Wikarek, , Kielce University of Technology, Poland
Arkadiusz Gola, Lublin University of Technology, Poland
Mukund Nilakantan Janardhanan, University of Leicester, UK
 Multimodal Network Based Graphs
of Primitives Storage Concept for Web
Mining CBIR

Tomasz Michno(B) and Roman Stanislaw Deniziak

Kielce University of Technology, al. Tysiaclecia

 Państwa Polskiego 7,
25-314 Kielce, Poland
{t.michno,deniziak}@tu.kielce.pl

Abstract. Nowadays multimedia databases are becoming more and

more popular. Because there are many images uploaded to the Inter-
net there is a need of efficient querying and storing them. Additionally,
a method of efficient web mining method also should be researched. The
proper querying and storing data in a multimedia database is very cru-
cial. In this paper a new concept of using Multimodal Network for storing
and organizing graph of primitives for web mining Content Based Image
Retrieval has been proposed. The graphs of primitives has been devel-
oped in our previous works in order to provide a new CBIR method. The
usage of Multimodal Network would be beneficial for storing different
types of nodes (e.g. nodes used only for organizing the hierarchy, nodes
storing graph of primitives of objects or nodes storing image files). Addi-
tionally, the paper describes also modified K-Mean clustering method
for gathering together in clusters similar graphs of primitives. Because
of limited time, only preliminary experiments has been performed.

Keywords: Query by approximate shapes · Multimodal networks ·

Content based image retrieval

1 Introduction

Nowadays multimedia databases are becoming more and more popular. Because
there are many images uploaded to the Internet there is a need of efficient query-
ing and storing them. Additionally, a method of efficient web mining method also
should be researched [4].
The proper querying and storing data in a multimedia database is very cru-
cial, thus in our previous works we prepared some initial researches for the
Content Based Image Retrieval algorithm in [5], crawling and retrieving images
in [3] and the graphs of primitives used for objects description (which are defined
as a modified graph with additional properties [5]) comparisons in [4].
Through the years researchers developed many graph storage approaches.
There are methods which uses relational databases with SQL [13,16] and NoSQL
c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
J. M. Machado et al. (Eds.): DCAI 2022, LNNS 585, pp. 3–12, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23210-7_1
4 T. Michno and R. S. Deniziak

approaches [1,6]. Graphs may be also stored using hierarchic structure, for exam-
ple [12]. An example approach which is dedicated to distributed graph storage
systems was described in [20]. Moreover there are some transactional approaches,
for example [21] and dedicated fault tolerancy and scalability [11]. For more
efficient storage there are also used approaches like for example reinforcement
learning [19] or graph neural network [18]. Another approach may be using Mul-
timodal Network in order to organize different graphs.
Multimodal Networks have become more and more popular in researches in
recent years. They are designed on a basis of graphs an hypergraphs in order
to add capabilities for representing relationships which are present in biological
networks or databases [7]. The definition of a Multimodal Network extends the
classical graph 2-tuple (Vertices and Edges) to 3-tuple (Vertices, Modal hyper-
edges and Modes) [7]. A modal hyperedge is an edge which has a specified type
and a type is defined by a mode [8]. This specific type of relationship may be very
useful in designing organization of a database of graph of primitives, which will
be described in more details in next sections. Multimodal Networks and their
variations are mainly used in biology [7], transport [9], vehicle routing problems
[15,17], supply chains [14] and batch production flows [2].
The main motivation for this paper is to prepare initial concept for the graphs
of primitives storage in Multimodal Network which is able to represent different
relations between nodes used for organizing graphs, nodes storing graphs and
nodes connected with storing image files. In the future research this concept will
be extended into distributed approach. Additionally, for gathering similar graphs
of primitives in similar part of the network, K-Mean based clustering method is
used.
This paper has the following structure: in the Sect. 2 the idea of graphs of
primitives is described. The Sect. 3 describes the modified K-Mean clustering
method and the Sect. 4 presents the concept of using a Multimodal Network for
storing graphs of primitives. In the Sect. 5 preliminary experimental results are
shown. The last section summarizes the idea and paper.

2 Graphs of Primitives
During previous works on Query by Approximate Shapes algorithm [5] different
methods of sketch representation has been considered and as a result a repre-
sentation using predefined set of shapes has been chosen. The set of predefined
shapes can be defined as [5]:

T = {L, A, P L, P G, Al, AL} (1)

where: O - a line, A - an arc, PL - a poly line, PG - a polygon, AL - a chain of

connected arches, AG - a looped chain of connected arches.
For each of this predefined shapes we can define its property (e.g. for line
its slope can be used or for an arc its angle), creating a primitive which can be
defined as:
pi = (ti , ai ) : ti ∈ T, ai ⊂ A (2)
 Multimodal Network Based Graphs of Primitives Storage 5

where: ti - primitive type, ti ∈ T , A - a set of primitives attributes, defined as

A = {ai1 , ai2 , ai3 , ...ain : ai1 ...ain ∈ [0, 1], n ∈ N+ }.
In order to store mutual relations between primitives they are stored in a form
of a modified graph, where each node is dedicated to one primitive and edges are
used to represent connections between primitives. Additionally, the locations of
primitives are stored using the geographical directions set K (containing follow-
ing values: N, S, W, E and their combinations). The graph of primitives can be
then defined as:
Gi = (Vi , Ei ), (3)
Vi = {pik : pik ∈ P }, (4)
Ei = {(pia , pib , k) : pia ∈ Vi ∧ pib ∈ Vi ∧ pia = pib ∧ k ∈ K} (5)
where: Vi - a set of nodes, Ei - a set of edges between nodes with information
about their mutual location.

3 Gathering Similar Graphs of Primitives Using Modified

K-Mean Clustering
One of the most common Unsupervised Machine Learning usage is finding clus-
ters in a data which groups similar objects together. This task can be performed
even for data which is with unknown classes but has similar properties.
The K-Mean clustering divides data into so called clusters which are groups
of data points which have small variance with the centroid of the cluster. Mostly
squared Euclidean distances is used to partition data. The K-Mean clustering
in a modified version may be also used to gather similar graphs of primitives in
clusters. In order to do that, two operations has to be defined: measuring the
distance between two graphs of primitives and computing the mean of graphs of
primitives.
Measuring the distance between two graphs of primitives may be defined as:

dist(G1 , G2 ) = 1 − sim (6)

sim(G1 , G2 ) ∈< 0, 1 > (7)

where sim is a similarity of two graphs, which may be computed using different
algorithms described e.g. in [4]. This implies that when two graphs of primitives
are the same, the sim value is equal to 1 and the dist is equal to 0. When two
graphs of primitives are completely different, the sim value is equal to 0 and the
dist is equal to 1. For all other situations, the values ∈ (0, 1).
Another operation which has to be defined for using K-Mean clustering for
graphs of primitives is computing the mean graph of primitives, which can be
defined as computing the average of each graph in cluster intersections:

Gm = avg(G1 ∩ G2 , G2 ∩ G3 , G1 ∩ G3 , ..., Gn−1 ∩ Gn ) (8)

where: G1 , G2 , ... , Gn - graphs of primitives for which the average graph has to
be computed.
6 T. Michno and R. S. Deniziak

The intersection of two graphs of primitives G1 and G2 can be defined as

finding a set of vertices and edges which has the highest sim and lowest dist
coefficients with both G1 and G2 graphs:

min dist(G1 ∩ G2 , G1 ) + dist(G1 ∩ G2 , G2 )

Gm ,ξ

s.t. dist(G1 , G2 ) ≤ ξ
G1 ∩ G2 = dist(G1 ∩ G2 , G1 ) ≤ ξ (9)
dist(G1 ∩ G2 , G2 ) ≤ ξ
ξ≥0
where: ξ - the maximum distance between two graphs of primitives which are
considered as similar.
In order to compute average graph of primitives, there should be also defined
the avg operation as follows:
1. Create empty average graph of primitives Gavg .
2. For each mean graph Gmi given by parameter to
avg(Gm1 , Gm2 , ..., Gmi , ..., Gmn ):
(a) for each pair of vertices vmil and vmik and edge between them emilk of
Gmi :
(i) check if at least a half of other mean graphs contains similar vertexes
and edges as vmil and vmik and emilk (compute sim using Eq. 7 and
check if obtained value is ≥ (1 − ξ))
(ii) if the condition is met, add vmil and vmik and emilk to Gavg if they
are not present in the average graph.
3. return Gavg .
An example of K-Mean clustering for graphs of primitives is presented in
the Fig. 1. The step 1 is dedicated to choosing randomly from existing graphs
means - initial centroids for clusters. Next in the Step 2 the distances using Eq. 6
is computed and depending on results all graphs are assigned to each cluster.
In the Step 3 new centroids are computed for each cluster: for cluster 1 - new
graph of primitives is created as a mean of all graphs from the cluster, using
Eq. 8, for cluster 2 - because there is only one graph in this cluster, the mean
remains the same. In the Step 4 distances are computed using new centroids
and all graphs are assigned according to the results. Next, in the Step 5 new
centroids are computed (because there are no new mean graphs of primitives
for centroids, all centroids remain without changes). After that, in the Step 6
distances are computed and assignments to clusters are made. Because there are
no changes, the algorithm converges and finishes.

4 Multimodal Network for Query by Approximate

Shapes
Multimodal Networks are very powerful tools for representing mutual depen-
dencies between nodes which are hard to cover using classical graph or tree
representation.
 Multimodal Network Based Graphs of Primitives Storage 7

Fig. 1. Example of K-Mean clustering for graphs of primitives.

Table 1. The results of K-Mean clustering.

Iteration Graphs in Graphs in Graphs in Graphs in

cluster 1 cluster 2 cluster 3 cluster 4
0 – – – –
1 1, 5 2, 3, 4 6, 7 8, 9, 10
2 1, 5 2, 4, 6 3, 7 8, 9, 10
3 1, 5 2, 4, 6 3, 7 8, 9, 10

In this work only preliminary approach was considered, but in the future more
advanced properties of Multimodal Networks will be considered. Additionally
distributed processing for Network will be taken into account.
The architecture of the Multimodal Network was designed in order to pre-
serve all elements which are needed for Query by Approximate Shapes algorithm:
information about objects graphs of primitives, their connection with image files
and also mean graphs of primitives in order to gather similar graphs of primi-
tives together. Because of that, there could be defined following types of nodes:
entry node - a node used at first when traversing the network nodes, mean graph
of primitives - a node which is dedicated to gathering common parts of other
graphs stored in the network, cannot store connections to image files, object
graph of primitives - a node which stores graph of primitives of objects present
in image files, image file node - a node which is dedicated to storing one image
8 T. Michno and R. S. Deniziak

file (the file physically may be stored in different ways e.g. in the memory or as
a link to file on a disc), graph of primitives - is a special set of nodes which has
the structure described in Chap. 2 and is a part of Multimodal Network.
In order to cover different types of nodes, there should be also defined different
types of edges: from entry node to mean graphs of primitives nodes, from mean
graphs of primitives nodes to objects graphs of primitives nodes, from means and
objects graph of primitives nodes to graph of primitives, from objects graphs of
primitives nodes to image file nodes.
An example of proposed Multimodal Network architecture is presented in
the Fig. 2. The Node number 0 is an entry node, thus it is the first node which
is entered after start traversing the network. From Entry Node there are present
edges to Mean graph nodes (nodes: 1, 2 and 3). Mean graph nodes have edges
to object graph of primitives nodes (nodes: 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Both mean graph
nodes and object graph nodes have connections to adequate nodes in graph of
primitives nodes set. Object graph of primitives nodes may be connected to one
or more image file nodes (e.g. like in nodes 4, 10 and 11, where the same object
appears in two different image files). Moreover, there could be also similar case
when one image file node is connected to different object nodes (e.g. like in nodes
12, 5 and 6, where the image contains two different objects).
The major disadvantages of proposed approach are: long new images/graphs
addition time caused i.e. by inner structure reorganizing (which may be a prob-
lem for some applications) and problem with storing huge amount of data. Both
drawbacks will be investigated in future research, which may include using some
distributed approaches both for speed increase and storage efficiency.

5 Preliminary Experimental Results

Thus, the Multimodal Network usage for Query by Approximate Shapes is an

initial concept, only preliminary experiments were performed for testing the
usability of K-Mean based clustering algorithm. The tests were performed for a
set of 10 different graphs of primitives which are shown if the Fig. 3 and 4 clusters.
The test results are presented in the Table 1. As an initial centroids for the 0
iteration following graphs has been chosen: Graph no. 1, Graph no. 3, Graph no.
7, Graph no. 9 (all centroids after each iteration are shown in the Fig. 4). For each

Table 2. Preliminary real life example results.

Object Query by approximate shapes Regions Kato et al. [10]

Precision Recall Precision Recall Precision Recall
Car 1 (Fiat 500) 0.89 0.33 0.53 0.75 0.58 0.83
Car 2 0.79 0.73 0.51 0.5 0.47 0.7
(Mercedes Benz)
Bike 0.93 0.37 0.23 0.42 0.4 0.5
Scooter 0.86 0.40 0.75 0.4 0.25 0.5
 Multimodal Network Based Graphs of Primitives Storage 9

Fig. 2. Example multimodal network for graphs of primitives.

Fig. 3. Graphs of primitives used for experiments.

algorithm iteration distances have been computed, graphs have been assigned
to clusters and new centroids have been chosen. The algorithm converges after
3 iterations. Additionally the initial results from prototype application has been
provided in the Table 2, but due to limited implementation time, they lack K-
Mean clustering.
10 T. Michno and R. S. Deniziak

Fig. 4. Mean graphs - centroids in different iterations for the test graph of primitives
set.

6 Summary

In this paper a new concept of using Multimodal Network for storing and orga-
nizing graph of primitives for web mining Content Based Image Retrieval has
been proposed. The usage of such a structure would be beneficial for storing
different types of nodes (e.g. nodes used only for organizing the hierarchy, nodes
storing graph of primitives of objects or nodes storing image files). Addition-
ally, the paper describes also modified K-Mean clustering method for gathering
together in clusters similar graphs of primitives. Because of limited time, only
preliminary experiments has been performed.
In the future research development there should be added hierarchical K-
Mean based clustering algorithm in order to more efficiently gather similar
graphs of primitives in near parts of Multimodal Network. Additionally, some
distributed approaches for the Network will be proposed. Another area which
should be investigated is the usage of Multimodal Edges in graph of primitives.
 Multimodal Network Based Graphs of Primitives Storage 11

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 Race Condition Error Detection
in a Program Executed on a Device
with Limited Memory Resources

Rafal Wojszczyk(B) , Damian Giebas, and Grzegorz Bocewicz

Koszalin University of Technology, Sniadeckich 2, 75-453 Koszalin, Poland

[email protected]

Abstract. Wearable devices are a prime example of how electronics are

invading people’s everyday lives. This is forcing electronics manufactur-
ers to use hardware that is cheap to manufacture, allows for long battery
life, and is also computationally efficient. Combining these requirements
is very challenging. A compromise can lie in the use of low-cost micro-
controllers programmed in native C-type language. Additionally, using
at least dual-core microcontrollers will allow the implementation of soft-
ware that runs efficiently and responsively. Unfortunately, software using
multiple cores is prone to errors related to resource conflicts. This paper
presents an example of detecting one such error that occurred in a dual-
core microcontroller.

Keywords: Multithreading programming · Race condition ·

Microcontrollers

1 Introduction

The history of technical development includes several events that are consid-
ered milestones, e.g., the invention of the steam engine. In the case of com-
puters and computing, development is usually driven by large companies such
as Microsoft, Apple, and Google. Occasionally, it happens that one person, or
more precisely, that person’s ideas get noticed and spread to the market. This
situation has been changed by the idea of crowdfunding, which is the sup-
port of society for ideas (start-ups) proposed by ordinary people. It consists
in the fact that one person (or a group of people) wants to offer a product or
service, however, it requires funding for most of the costs, including develop-
ment, production and dissemination. Ideas implemented in start-ups should not
only fit into the expectations of the community, but also be credible. Credi-
bility is especially important when making promises for electronic devices. To
this end, start-ups build prototypes of devices that consist of fairly cheap and
widely available components, such as popular Arduino-compatible microcon-
trollers. These kinds of solutions are also used in manufacturing devices and
science [1].
c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
J. M. Machado et al. (Eds.): DCAI 2022, LNNS 585, pp. 13–20, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23210-7_2
14 R. Wojszczyk et al.

Building your own device dedicated to the consumer market requires a lot
of skills from the creator. It should include programming skills, knowledge of
electronics basics, communication protocols and many other issues related to
computer science and electronics. These are significant requirements that must
be met by the aforementioned one person or a small team. In addition, devices
aimed at such a market often require fast and responsive operation, integration
with smartphone applications and data storage in the cloud. At the same time, it
is important to keep manufacturing costs as low as possible. In a way, this leads to
a conflict of interest. High-performance devices (e.g. those using NVIDIA Tegra
chips, Jetson) provide ease of implementation in modern programming languages
(e.g. C#, Lua, Python), but at the same time are expensive to manufacture and
often have high power consumption, which is very important in mobile devices.
On the other hand, low-cost devices (e.g. ESP32 with 2 × 240 MHz clock and
520 KB SRAM) are more difficult to program (they usually use C or assem-
bler language), but do not share the drawbacks of more expensive solutions. In
this context, a certain compromise is to use low-cost devices with multithreaded
programming capabilities. Delegation of selected operations to separate threads
allows for efficiency and expansiveness effects even in low-cost devices, e.g., a
smartband that simultaneously measures human vital signs and displays a noti-
fication about a new message.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the process of detecting errors that
cause resource conflicts (e.g., harmful race condition, deadlock, atomicity viola-
tion, and order violation) in devices built on popular dual-core microcontrollers.
Such devices are built by enthusiasts, student research clubs, or in the aforemen-
tioned start-ups. Building such devices requires the said knowledge from various
fields and various skills. This paper presents a solution that can be used in the
software testing stage. The developed RD-L method can be applied to applica-
tions written in C language using pthread library and devices (microcontrollers)
with limited memory.
The next Sect. 2 presents selected methods enabling analysis of multithreaded
applications. Section 3 discusses the program in which the race condition class
error occurred. Then, in the Sect. 4, an author’s proposal for detecting errors of
this type is presented. The last chapter contains the summary.

2 Literature Review
The elements of multithreading in computer programs should be tested in one
process with the other types of tests. Unfortunately, this is often not possible
because of the long time that must elapse for an error to occur in a multithreaded
application. The long time is due to the fact that many specific conditions must
be met for an error to occur, e.g., inter-thread interactions occurring, threads
running simultaneously by the operating system scheduler. This leads to a situ-
ation where manual and unit tests are basically useless.
Methods of testing multithreaded applications known from the literature are
often based on dynamic software analysis ([2,3] or [4]). It consists in monitor-
ing the program operation, which is performed by a supervisor - an additional
 Race Condition Error Detection in a Program Executed 15

program. Methods of this type cannot be used for applications and devices men-
tioned in the introduction of the paper (technical limitations related to the
amount of memory and computing power will not allow it).
Methods outside the testing domain consist in preventing the occurrence
of multithreading errors [5,6]. Methods of this type have similar limitations as
methods based on dynamic software analysis. Additionally, they require interfer-
ence with the compiler, which unnecessarily increases code maintenance costs.
The last group of methods that can be used to detect multithreading errors
are methods based on static software analysis. Methods of this type analyze
the source code and therefore are not limited by the amount of memory of the
target device. Source code analysis is usually limited to a particular programming
language, which means that methods dedicated to Java and C# (e.g. [7] or [8])
cannot be used for C language. On the other hand, methods that can be used for
C language only detect selected multithreading errors (e.g. [9] for race condition
and deadlock, [10] for race condition) or in case of detecting at least several types
of multithreading errors prove to be ineffective [5].
In the context presented, it can be seen that there is still a lack of solutions
that can be used for microcontrollers programmed in C (or a C twin) with
simultaneous detection of four classes of errors: race condition, deadlock, order
violation, and atomicity violation.

3 Error Occurrence
Among the four errors that lead to resource conflicts of the types: race condition,
deadlock, order violation, and atomicity violation, the first two are the most
common. The occurrence of an error discussed next concerns race condition.
The occurrence of race condition can be caused by many different phenom-
ena, depending on what data the ongoing threads are competing for. In the
optimistic (least harmful) case, some of the temporary data will be damaged,
which will be manifested, for example, by small artifacts in the video. The worst
case scenario may even lead to the machine being taken over by unauthorized
persons [11]. For Arduino devices using the pthread library, race condition can
occur just like in any other application using this library. Software for Arduino
devices is structured a bit differently than multi-threaded applications written in
C language for example for Linux. This is due to the fact that the code written
for Arduino devices is written in C++. Every programmer, who knows both lan-
guages, knows that “small differences” between them may cause “big problems”.
In any case, writing code on Arduino that looks like C the programmer actually
uses C++ language mechanisms. However, practice shows that programs writ-
ten on Arduino often do not use elements characteristic for C++ language and
resemble programs following structural paradigm. It is worth mentioning, that
before popularization of Arduino platform, the most popular language for pro-
gramming ATMEL AVR microcontrollers was C and avr-gcc compiler. There-
fore, if a programmer does not explicitly use C++ language elements in his
code (i.e. does not define classes, namespaces etc.) and limits himself/herself to
16 R. Wojszczyk et al.

paradigms supported by C language (which is a common practice in low-level

device support), they can use the RD-L method. It should be noted here that
using classes e.g. “Serial.println();” looks the same as using a structure that
contains a pointer to a function. So, if all the classes developed for Arduino have
an interface holding this scheme, then it is possible to use the RD-L method.

Fig. 1. Presentation of message overwriting in a cyclic buffer.

With the above assumptions met, an ESP32 family microcontroller was pro-
grammed using Arduino with a bug that leads to race condition. The error
occurred in a student project for the construction of a small self-driving chassis.
The chassis can be used to build simple self-driving devices to which appropriate
heads are mounted, e.g. for 3d scanning, a camera to record a moving object.
The chassis is equipped with ultrasonic distance sensors that detect obstacles
along the path of the vehicle. The vehicle has been built using several micro-
controllers. The master microcontroller (e.g. other ESP32, Raspberry PI, etc.)
acts as the main controller, while additional ESP32 slave microcontrollers act
as the executive systems (reading data from sensors, controlling motors, etc.).
Two threads are implemented in the slave microcontroller, the first to communi-
cate with the master microcontroller via UART, and the second used to handle
connected devices. The first thread handles requests from the master microcon-
troller and reports interruptions when appropriate information is reported by
the second thread. The second thread infinitely checks the state of the sensors
and when it detects an anomaly (e.g. lack of ground under one of the wheels) it
adds an appropriate message to the message buffer, see Fig. 1. The first thread
 Race Condition Error Detection in a Program Executed 17

has to receive such a message and, based on it, take actions which will not lead
to undesirable behavior of the vehicle (e.g. overturning, hitting an obstacle).
This mechanism, however was written incorrectly, i.e. in the second thread the
operation placing data in the message buffer did not use mutexes. It means that
this thread was adding messages in an uncontrolled way. Additionally, the thread
did not check that the cyclic buffer being used was not full. This could lead to
an error where the other thread could overwrite a previously posted message.
This led to a situation where the first thread did not receive important messages
(although this was the main intention when implementing multithreading), thus
not reacting appropriately to events, and this eventually led to an accident.
The second thread implemented infinite sensor data reading, which is passed
to the first thread. Unfortunately, the operation of the slave microcontroller
turned out to be different from the scenario the developers expected.

4 Error Detection

Detecting the error described in the previous point comes down to locating the
structure shown in Fig. 2. As mentioned before, the code in question is written in
C++ language (but writing code according to C rules), where classes and method
calls are treated as structures, whose components are pointers to functions. This
simple assumption causes that no changes are required either in the solution
code (apart from renaming the input function to main, which results from the
limitation of the used tool called rdao detector), or in the RD-L method, or in
the source code model of multithreaded applications.
The source code model of a multithreaded application contains the following
structure [12]:
CP = (TP , UP , RP , OP , QP , FP , BP ) (1)
where:

1. P is the program index,

2. TP is the set of all threads,
3. UP is a sequence of sets containing threads working in the same time frame,
4. RP is a family of shared resources,
5. OP is a set of all atomic operations of the program,
6. QP is the set of mutexes available in the program,
7. FP is the set of edges,
8. BP is sequence of sets; where every set contains pairs of operations related
by forward relationship or backward relationship or symmetrical relation.
Figure 2 shows a visualization of the constructed model, where dashed vertical
lines denote time intervals, circles denote operations, arrows denote transition
relationships between operations, and a rectangle is a shared resource.
Analysis of the source code revealed the presence of a structure leading to
a race condition at 200 ms. From the description of the error in the previous
section it is known that this error was not limited only to the lack of mutexes,
18 R. Wojszczyk et al.

i.e., from the expert analysis it is known that the other thread also did not
check if there is space for a new message in the cyclic buffer. Hence, in addition
to making the changes necessary to eliminate race condition, changes had to
be made to the message buffer handling. These changes were not trivial. Using
cyclic buffer always involves a risk of overwriting existing messages. So the buffer
had to be replaced with a FIFO queue, implemented as a one-way list. This
approach allowed placing new messages at the end of the list without the risk of
overwriting any of the messages already placed in the list. The only limitation
in this case is the amount of device memory. If the device runs out of memory it
becomes impossible to add a new message to the queue. Hundreds of messages
were analyzed to solve this problem. As a result it was possible to group messages
into a few different groups. Thanks to that instead of putting long messages with
identical content in queue it was decided to use series of codes with 1 byte size.
This approach results in memory savings because a 1 byte code carries the same
information as a long, multi-byte message.
The error found was therefore very complex, i.e., apart from the error leading
to race condition, it was necessary to change the data structure in which the
messages were placed and to limit the message content in order to save memory.
Unfortunately, it is impossible to automatically detect errors that involve the
use of incorrect data structures. For this purpose, it was necessary to analyze
source code by an expert.

Fig. 2. Structure of an error leading to race condition, where u2 ∈ UP , oj , l, oi , k ∈

OP , ti , tj ∈ TP , rc ∈ RP .

5 Conclusion
This paper presents a case of detection of a race condition class error, which
is one of the more common bugs found in multithreaded applications. The pro-
grammer’s intention, which prompted him/her to use multithreading, was to
 Race Condition Error Detection in a Program Executed 19

ensure high reliability in operation (e.g. in a situation when one of the sensors
will require a longer read time, which is the case with the 1-wire interface). Unfor-
tunately, the presented case showed that an effect completely different from the
assumed scenario was obtained, which emphasizes how important multithreading
error detection is.
In the context of the goal of this paper, a race condition class error was suc-
cessfully detected. This confirmed the usefulness of the developed RD-L method
also when applied to a selected class of programs written in C++, what is a main
contribution of this paper. The source code of the developed tool is available in
the github repository (https://github.com/PKPhdDG/rdao detector), so that
everyone can use the tool for their own needs. The obtained results give reason
to believe that the RD-L method can be applied to most programs written in
C++ in the future, which is the main goal of further research. For this purpose,
it is planned to develop algorithms for transforming the source code into the
proposed model. The considered programming languages are primarily object-
oriented languages, e.g. C ++, C# [13], and in the future other paradigms, e.g.
CLP [14]. Adaptation to other languages may require an extension of the model,
however, it will be done with backward compatibility. Another way of research
is the adaptation of the model to areas other than programming, e.g. scheduling
supply chains [15].

References
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 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning
and Automation of Production Processes

Zbigniew Juzoń(B) , Jarosław Wikarek , and Paweł Sitek

Kielce University of Technology, Al. Tysi˛aclecia P.P. 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland

{zjuzon,j.wikarek,sitek}@tu.kielce.pl

Abstract. Production planning is a difficult and very complex issue; therefore, it

is necessary to consider the enterprise as a whole, taking into account the relations
between its elements. The paper presents the application of corporate architecture
supported by constraint logic programming and mathematical programming to
plan production processes as well as to build a corporate bus (service bus). Using
the assumptions of corporate architecture and building a metamodel of corporate
architecture based on good practices, it is much easier and more efficient to identify
those processes that can be automated and robotized. The presented metamodel
can be the basis for building detailed models for planning and automation of
production processes.

Keywords: Corporate architecture · Production planning · Metamodel ·

Constraint logic programming · Mathematical programming

1 Introduction
In Industry 4.0, not only automation plays a very important role, but also full computeri-
zation and the use of various types of data collection, processing and exchange systems,
which boils down to effective factory management and optimization of production pro-
cesses [1]. It is necessary to take into account various uncertain factors (fluctuations
in the value of global economic indicators, changes in the market environment, fluctu-
ations in the value of revenues, costs, etc.). The occurrence of such situations means
the need to develop new methods and systems supporting decision making, taking into
account the uncertain factors in the system under consideration. It is necessary to con-
sider the enterprise as a whole, taking into account the relations that occur between its
components. Changing the approach to date allows the production system to identify,
group production resources, define types of individual relationships and manage a set
of these relationships. Sharing architectural knowledge between different organizations,
or even within one organization (between its individual component units), is a big chal-
lenge. Architectural models are prepared in different languages (e.g., ArchiMate, UML,
BPMN) [2–4] and with different levels of detail. As a result, there are difficulties with
maintaining consistency when creating models of enterprise architecture (the larger and
more complex the organization is, the greater the challenges in this area). The solution
to this situation is the development of architectural metamodels, which are the basis

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023

J. M. Machado et al. (Eds.): DCAI 2022, LNNS 585, pp. 21–32, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23210-7_3
22 Z. Juzoń et al.

for communication and exchange of architectural knowledge; the metamodel itself is

defined as an explicit model for constructing domain models [5]. Below, an architec-
ture metamodel (1) is proposed, which combines resources and processes with a set of
relations in terms of corporate architecture:

M = (Rs , P, R) (1)

where:

Rs resources (all material and non-material elements of the production process that
are necessary to produce products, e.g., machines, raw materials, employees, tools,
etc.)
P processes (all phenomena and deliberately undertaken actions which result in the
gradual occurrence of the desired changes in the subject of work subject to their
influence)
R relationships (all connections and interdependent that affect the manufacture or
maintenance of products or services)

This metamodel defines the semantics and how to use the concepts that appear
on the detail models of planning, scheduling, resource allocation and other production
processes. By using the created metamodel, it is possible to ensure a common under-
standing of the concepts by the stakeholders involved in the process of building corporate
architecture.

2 Illustrative Example
To illustrate the discussed topic, an exemplary production process has been presented.
The production facility manufactures products using 3 various industrial robots. The
following designations for production resources were adopted (machine 1, machine 2,
machine 3). An illustrative example shows a common problem of production planning
and resource allocation, that is usually modelled and solved by using mathematical
programming. Therefore, this example is ideally suited to show the relationship between
a mathematical model and an architectural metamodel. The production volume of each
manufactured product has been determined (Table 2).
In addition, the production of each product requires a certain amount of time on each
machine. The production time is given in Table 1. A dash means that the production
process of the product does not require a given machine.
The identification and elimination of bottlenecks in processes enables better man-
agement of production, resources and costs. This is especially important in distributed
organizations - for a company that has several factories located in different countries, it
may be important to build a coherent system of supply of raw materials and materials
and to supervise the effectiveness of individual stages of production and distribution
processes. Therefore, in this context, the questions below should be answered for the
company to better respond to the market demand.
 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation 23

Product 5 Product 2

Product 7

Machine1

Machine2
Product 1
Product 6

Machine3

Product 4 Product 3

Fig. 1. Set of relationships (machine - product)

Table 1. Production process (data in the table are given in minutes)

Resources Products
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7
Machine 1 5 7 – – 3 2 5
Machine 2 1 2 – 3 – 6 –
Machine 3 2 – 8 – – – 6

Table 2. Sales plan (the quantity of the product was given in pieces)

Month Products
p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7
January 30 – – – 20 10 –
February – 10 20 – 30 10 –
March 40 – – – 20 –
April 40 – 20 400 – 10 30
May 20 – 10 20 – – 20
June – – 20 10 – – –

Q1 How to plan production and maintenance to meet the sales plan, keep
maintenance and storage costs as low as possible?
Q2 What parameters of the Service Level Agreement (SLA) can it guarantee and
introduce to new product supply contracts?

3 Architecture Model
In order to answer questions (Q1/Q2), implementation is necessary, corporate archi-
tecture and an architecture model was built to optimize the production system, which
24 Z. Juzoń et al.

allowed for the grouping of tasks and the selection of technological processes for automa-
tion, within which it would be possible to manufacture products using various types of
industrial robots. To develop the architecture model, the assumptions resulting from
the TOGAF [6] methodology were used, which define the architectural framework for
describing the corporate architecture of a given organization. In particular, at the tech-
nology layer level, use cases have been defined as a set of scenarios related to each
other by a common goal. When building the architecture model, it was assumed that
the production of each product would require the use of specific production resources
and business requirements. Corporate data bus (Fig. 2) means a data repository, it is a
place where data obtained using architecture and results obtained by solving decision
and optimization problems are stored. Information gathered at the corporate bus level
can be reused at the organizational level, at the design stage of future SLA. SLA are
created to document the obligations that need to be fulfilled to customers.

Corporate Data Bus

(Services)
Step 1
input
Business
Layer Step 4
Business
output Process

input
Technological
Layer

Step 2

Step 3
feedback

tools based e.g. on

Constraint Logic Programming (CLP)
Mathema cal Programming (MP)

Fig. 2. The elements of corporate architecture according to TOGAF (step by step)

In the proposed solution concept, the process is as follows Step 1: All the above-
mentioned components of the architecture metamodel (Fig. 2), identification of pro-
duction resource types, identification of relationship types, identification of types of
production processes for the needs, can then be considered as an argument for invest-
ment programming. Step 2: The process of building an architectural model taking into
account the approach, the service and the layer is not an automatic process and during its
construction, first of all, you should build a set of good practices for modelling corporate
architecture that has proven successful in various projects [7]. We start the process of
creating an architecture with building a model of the motivational layer and leads to the
construction of corporate services (Fig. 2) in order to get the answer to question Q2.
Step 3: To answer question Q1, a detailed planning and resource allocation model was
formulated (Sect. 4) for an exemplary production process (Fig. 1) Step 4: It comes down
to building a corporate data bus.
 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation 25

4 Mathematical Model of Production Planning and Resource

Allocation
To answer question Q1: How to plan production and maintenance to meet the sales
plan, keep maintenance and storage costs as low as possible? - it is necessary to build
a mathematical model. The mathematical model was formulated for optimization and
problem solving using Mixed-integer linear programming (MILP). Table 4 defines the
elements of the mathematical model.
Fulfilment of customer orders

Up,t−1 + Xp,t + Yp,t = ap,t + Up,t ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T − {to }sp + Xp,t + Yp,t

= ap,t + Up,t ∀p ∈ P, t = to (2)

The load of machines only within the permitted limits

 
bp,r · Xp,t = or,t · Kr,t ∀r ∈ R, t ∈ T (3)
p∈P

Performing scheduled maintenances

 
1 − Kr,t = hr − Fr ∀r ∈ R (4)
t∈T

Only the permitted number of maintenances during the period

 
1 − Kr,t = hm ∀t ∈ T (5)
r∈R

The quantity of the product in the warehouse does not exceed the allowed value

Up,t = vp ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T (6)

Total storage capacity not exceeded

 
Up,t − zp ≤ vm ∀t ∈ T (7)
p∈P

Calculation of storage costs

  
Cost = Up,t − gp (8)
p∈P t∈T

Determination of the value of L1


L1 = Fr (9)
r∈R

How many total products have not been made for all orders

L2 = Yp,t (10)
p∈P t∈T
26 Z. Juzoń et al.

Table 3. Defining elements of the mathematical model

Architecture metamodel Symbol Model elements Description

elements
Rs P Sets & indexes Product p ∈ P
R Machine r ∈ R
T Time period t ∈ T , to - initial
period, tk - end period
P Xp,t Decision variables Production volume of the
product p in the period t
Yp,t What order quantity for the
product p in period t we are not
able to fulfill
Kr,t If the machine is not to be
maintenance in period t Kr,t = 1
else Kr,t = 0
Fr If the overhaul of the machine r
cannot be performed, then
Fr = 1 else Fr = 0
R Up,t Determined values Stock of product p at the end of
period t
Cost Product storage cost
L1 How many scheduled
maintenances have not been
carried out
L2 How many products in total have
not been comp. for all orders
2 Constraints Fulfilment of customer orders
3 The load of machines only
within the permitted limits
4 Performing scheduled
maintenances
5 Only the permitted number of
maintenances during the period
6 The quantity of the product in
the warehouse does not exceed
the allowed value
7 Total storage capacity not
exceeded
8 Calculation of storage costs
(continued)
 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation 27

Table 3. (continued)

Architecture metamodel Symbol Model elements Description

elements
9 Determination of the value of L1
10 How many products in total have
not been made for all orders
11 Binary and integrity

Binary and integrity

Xp,t ∈ N ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T
Yp,t ∈ N ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T
Up,t ∈ N ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T
Kr,t ∈ {0, 1}∀r ∈ R, t ∈ T
Fr ∈ {0, 1}∀r ∈ R (11)

5 Numerical Experiment
Formalization of the mathematical model (Sect. 4) shows that the number of equations
and decision variables is so large that looking for solution by hand is not practical, due
to the time-consuming nature and the possibility of mistakes. To solve this problem,
it is recommended to use software tools. A proprietary hybrid approach that integrates
Constraint Logic Programming and Mathematical Programming was proposed for the
implementation and solution of the modelled problem [10, 11]. The ECLiPSe CLP [8]
was used to generate the model, which was then solved with the Gurobi solver [9]. The
Experiment_1 and Experiment_2 was conducted on a workstation having the following
specification: Processor: Intel(R) Core (TM) i7-10700K CPU @ 3.80 GHz 3.79 GHz;
RAM: 16 GB; Windows 11; Processor x64. In order to verify the use of the mathematical
model, the data from Tables 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 that was taken into account on Experiment_1
and Experiment_2. The duration of the computational experiments, taking into account
the data from Tables 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6 ranged from 2 to 5 s (Table 3).
The results presented in Tables 7 and 8 allow us to obtain the best possible production
and renovation plan, so that the total cost of product storage is as low as possible. The
conducted experiments and the results obtained in Tables 7 and 8 also provided other key
information that the implementation of certain contracts and maintenances is impossible.
For example, for Experiment_1, the use of the model showed that the entire production
plan would be successful, but renovation for machines 1 and 3 would not be successful.
However, for Experiment_2, it will not be possible to fully fulfil orders for the product p1,
p4 and p6 in period 4. Similarly, renovation for machines 1 and 3 will not be successful.
It should be emphasized that this is important information for the business side and must
be taken into account at the level of future contracts, which will define the so-called
28 Z. Juzoń et al.

Table 4. Data for Experiment_1 and Experiment_2

Description Value
Planning horizon - T 6
Number of products - P 7
Number of machines - R 3
Total storage capacity -vm 1000
Max. number of renovations -hm 1
The maximum stock of the product in the 10 for p1 … p2
warehouse -vp
Product storage volume -zp 2 for p1 , p2
3 for p3 …p7
Initial stock of the product -sp 1 for p1 …p7
Product storage cost p per time unit -gp 0.5 for p1 …p7
Is there any planned overhaul of the machine? 1 for r1 . . r3
– hr
How much time does it take to process the 0 for bp3 ,r1 , bp4 ,r1 , bp3 ,r2 , bp5 ,r2 , bp7 ,r2 ,
product p on the machine bp,r ∀p ∈ P, t ∈ T bp2 ,r3 , bp4 ,r3 , bp5 ,r3 , bp6 ,r3
1 for bp1 ,r2
2 for bp6 ,r1 , bp2 ,r2 , bp1 ,r3
3 for bp5 ,r1 , bp4 ,r2
5 for bp1 ,r1 , bp7 ,r1
6 for bp6 ,r1 , bp7 ,r3
7 for bp2 ,r1
8 for bp3 ,r3
Machine production capacity r in the period 1000 for r1 …r3
or,t ∀r ∈ R, t ∈ T

Table 5. Additional data for Experiment_1

Description Values selected for the needs of the

Experiment_1
Penalty for failure to perform maintenances -Kr1 100000
Penalty for failure to fulfill orders Kr2 1000

SLA parameters. The use of the architecture model in conjunction with a detailed model
can used to solve the planning problem or optimize production and maintenances. In the
proposed solution concept, the metamodel of the corporate architecture (Fig. 2) provides
a complete set of information, the so-called input data for a detailed model (mathematical
 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation 29

Table 6. Additional data for Experiment_2

Description Values selected for the needs of the

Experiment_2
Penalty for failure to perform maintenances -Kr1 1000000
Penalty for failure to fulfill orders Kr2 10

model) with which we can plan or optimize the production system, taking into account
all constraints and conditions resulting from the metamodel of the corporate architecture.

6 Conclusion

Based on the assumptions of the corporate architecture resulting from the TOGAF stan-
dard, it is possible to build a model of the motivation layer to provide important input
for a future mathematical model. At the stage of analysing the model of the motivation
layer, he determines, at a high level of abstraction, the result that should be obtained
to achieve the goals. The results obtained during the implementation of Experiment_1
(Table 7) and Experiment_2 (Table 8) showed that the modification of the previously
selected parameters at the stage of the architecture metamodel contained in (Table 5) or
(Table 6) allows for the determination of SLA parameters for the needs of new contracts
for the delivery of products and building an optimal production and maintenances plan.
Outcomes are high-level, business-oriented outcomes that result from the organization’s
capabilities. In general, to be able to verify the initially adopted theoretical assump-
tions, a detailed mathematical model should be developed (similar to the presented in
Sect. 4), which should be solved using a tool based on artificial intelligence methods
and/or Mathematical Programming (MP), and Constraint Logic Programming (CLP)
[10–12] to support the decision-making process. The tools based on CLP and/or MP
are ideal for solving problems of less complexity. For complex problems Artificial Neu-
ral Networks (ANN) and/or Genetic Algorithms (GA) can be used [13]. Therefore, at
the stage of future research, it is worth experimenting in the field of teaching Artificial
Neural Networks (ANN) supported by CLP and MP.

Appendix A. Checking the Model for the Data from the Illustrative
Example

See Tables 7 and 8.

30 Z. Juzoń et al.

Table 7. Production plan - results of the Experiment_1

[p1] period = 1 init_stock = 0 order = 30 prod. = 30 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0

[p1] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 0 prod. = 40 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 40
[p1] period = 4 init_stock = 40 order = 40 prod. = 0 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p1] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p2] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p2] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 40 prod. = 40 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 6 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 0 prod. = 100 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 100
[p4] period = 4 init_stock = 100 order = 400 prod. = 300 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 6 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p5] period = 1 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p5] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 30 prod. = 30 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 1 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p7] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 30 prod. = 30 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p7] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
Renovations not made: for machines = 1 and for machines = 3  Storage cost = 18000
 The Use of Corporate Architecture in Planning and Automation 31

Table 8. Production plan - results of the Experiment_2

[p1] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 0 prod. = 5 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 5

[p1] period = 4 init_stock = 5 order = 40 prod. = 0 unrealized order = 35 final stock = 0
[p1] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p2] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p2] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 40 prod. = 40 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p3] period = 6 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 400 prod. = 326 unrealized order = 74 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p4] period = 6 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p5] period = 1 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p5] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 30 prod. = 30 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 1 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 2 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 10 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 3 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p6] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 10 prod. = 0 unrealized order = 10 final stock = 0
[p7] period = 4 init_stock = 0 order = 30 prod. = 30 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
[p7] period = 5 init_stock = 0 order = 20 prod. = 20 unrealized order = 0 final stock = 0
Unrealized order: period = 4 ≫ [p1] = 35 and [p4] = 74 and [p6] = 10
Renovations not made: for machines = 1 and for machines = 3 ≫ Storage cost = 1000

References
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for the adaptation of modular production systems. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 115(5–6),
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319-07218-0, ISBN 978-3-319-07218-0
3. Opekunova, L.A., Opekunov, A.N., Kamardin, I.N., Nikitina, N.V.: Modeling enterprise archi-
tecture using language ArchiMate (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27015-5_61,
ISBN 978-3-030-27014-8
4. Rumpe, B.: Modeling with UML (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33933-7, ISBN
978-3-319-81635-7
5. Sobczak, A.: Models and Metamodels in Corporate Architecture (2008)
6. The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) Standard. https://pubs.opengroup.org/
architecture/togaf9-doc/arch/index.html. Last accessed 2018
7. Greefhorst, D., Proper, E.: Architecture Principles—The Cornerstones of Enterprise Archi-
tecture (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20279-7, ISSN 1867-8920
32 Z. Juzoń et al.

8. ECLiPSe Constraint Logic Programming System. www.eclipseclp.org. Last accessed 2022

9. Gurobi. https://www.gurobi.com. Last accessed 2022
10. Sitek, P., Wikarek, J.: A multi-level approach to ubiquitous modeling and solving constraints
in combinatorial optimization problems in production and distribution. Appl. Intell. 48(5),
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11. Sitek, P., Wikarek, J.: A hybrid programming framework for modeling and solving constraint
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rithms to control low rigidity shafts machining. Sensors 20, 4683 (2020). https://doi.org/10.
3390/s20174683
 Special Session on Computational
Linguistics, Information, Reasoning,
and AI 2022 (CompLingInfoReasAI’22)
34

Computational and technological developments that incorporate natural language and

reasoning methods are proliferating. Adequate coverage encounters difficult problems
related to partiality, under specification, agents, and context dependency, which are
signature features of information in nature, natural languages, and reasoning.
The session covers theoretical work, applications, approaches, and techniques for
computational models of information, language (artificial, human, or natural in other
ways), and reasoning. The goal is to promote computational systems and related models
of thought, mental states, reasoning, and other cognitive processes.
Organizing Committee
Roussanka Loukanova, Institute of Mathematics and Informatics, Bulgarian Academy
of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Sara Rodríguez, University of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
Program Committee
Benedikt Ahrens, School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, Birmingham,
UK
Krasimir Angelov, University of Gothenburg and Chalmers University of Technology,
Gothenburg, Sweden
Wojciech Buszkowski, Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science, Adam Mick-
iewicz University, Poznan, Poland
Marie Duzi, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
Antonín Dvořák, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
Annie Foret, IRISA and University of Rennes 1, France
Håkon Robbestad Gylterud, University of Begen, Bergen, Norway
Ali Hürriyetoğlu, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
M. Dolores Jiménez López, GRLMC-Research Group on Mathematical Linguistics,
Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
Manfred Kerber, School of Computer Science, University of Birmingham, UK
Peter Koepke, Mathematisches Institut, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität
Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Stepan Kuznetsov, Steklov Mathematical Institute of RAS and HSE University, Moscow,
Russia
Kristina Liefke, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
Zhaohui Luo, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK
Richard Moot, Université de Montpellier and LIRMM-CNRS, Montpellier, France
Petra Murinová, Institute for Research and Applications of Fuzzy Modeling, University
of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic
Rainer Osswald, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
Christian Retoré, Université de Montpellier and LIRMM-CNRS, Montpellier, France
Frank Richter, Goethe University Frankfurt a.M., Frankfurt, Germany
Ana Paula Rocha, University of Porto, LIACC / FEUP, Porto, Portugal
Sylvain Salvati, Université de Lille, INRIA, CRIStAL UMR 9189, Lille, France
Milena Slavcheva, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria
Alexander Steen, Universität Greifswald, Institut für Mathematik und Informatik,
Greifswald, Germany
 35

Alexey Stukachev, Sobolev Institute of Mathematics, Novosibirsk State University,

Novosibirsk, Russia
Satoshi Tojo, School of Information Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and
Technology (JAIST), Japan
Jørgen Villadsen, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark
Marek Zawadowski, Institute of Mathematics, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
 Towards Ontology-Based End-to-End
Domain-Oriented KBQA System

Anastasiia Zakharova(B) , Daria Sorokina, Dmitriy Alexandrov,

and Nikolay Butakov

ITMO University, St. Petersburg, Russia

[email protected]

Abstract. Knowledge Base Question-Answering (KBQA) systems have

a number of benefits over Question-Answering over Text (QAT) systems:
the ability to process complex, multi-hop questions and the absence of
the need for answers containing texts. However, to develop a KBQA sys-
tem, a knowledge base (KB) and a dataset for training is required. This
fact is a significant drawback in the domain and non-English language
conditions. We propose the end-to-end domain-oriented KBQA system
concept consisting of two methods: filling in the ontology using weak-
supervision methods based on the BERT model and KBQA training
methods based on graph data. This approach requires only an ontol-
ogy, raw texts, and a small amount of labeled data. We also analyze the
robustness of the KBQA system in conditions of limited data.

Keywords: Question answering · BERT · Data mining

1 Introduction
Nowadays, there are two main approaches for building question-answering (QA)
systems: QAT and KBQA. Recent work on QAT systems relies on transformers-
based models for answer span extraction, utilizing context-question pairs as an
input. Albeit the efficacy of such models, QAT systems are usually limited with
the requirements of an answer-containing context, factoid questions nature, and
lack of multi-hop reasoning. On the other hand, a KBQA-system copes with
complex questions and does not require relevant texts, however, KB should be
filled.
While a large amount of work is devoted to the creation of open-domain
KBQA systems based on Freebase [3], DBpedia [1], and Wikidata [21] graphs,
not enough attention is paid to domain-specific KBQA systems, which can be
useful both for finding answers to knowledge within the company and for creating
services and chatbots in various fields: cars, real estate, medicine, etc. However,
to build a domain KBQA system, it is necessary to have both a KB and datasets
for training in the form of a question-query-answer, a question-triplet/doublet-
answer, or others. At the same time, system development in non-English domains
poses a challenging task due to domain-specific data and trained models scarcity.
c The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
J. M. Machado et al. (Eds.): DCAI 2022, LNNS 585, pp. 37–47, 2023.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23210-7_4
38 A. Zakharova et al.

We propose the concept of prototyping such systems in an end-to-end set-

ting: from ontology and domain texts to a fully functioning KBQA system using
a small amount of labeled data. It is important to note that ontology serves to
structure and limit the knowledge that is needed to create a service or product.
The proposed approach consists of two parts: ontology population and KBQA.
The ontology population uses the RuBERT [13] model for entity recognition,
relation classification, and QAT tasks to extract (subject; predicate; object)
triplets from texts to add to the KB. Collection of the training data for aforemen-
tioned models is performed in a weakly supervised manner, which is described
in Sect. 3.1.
The idea of the second part of the approach is to use KB triplets and pairs
to generate a dataset for training the JointBERT [6] model, which allows learn-
ing from the intent classification and slot filling tasks. During the inference, a
triplet/pair is extracted from a natural question, then the SPARQL generation
module forms a query to get an answer from KB. We also conducted controlled
experiments to test the robustness of the KBQA method depending on the num-
ber of mined triplets from the KB-filling method.
Our contributions in this work are the following:
• We propose an end-to-end concept for building a domain-specific KBQA sys-
tem using nothing but an ontology, raw texts, and a few examples of labeled
data.
• We propose weak-supervision methods for training data generation and con-
duct an experimental study on ontology population and KBQA tasks.
• We conduct experiments to analyze the robustness of the KBQA system in
limited data conditions.

2 Related Work
2.1 Information Extraction
Information extraction (IE) methods can be divided into two groups based on the
presence of ontology: OpenIE and Ontology population. OpenIE methods allow
extracting an unlimited amount of entity and relation types. Whereas in ontology
population tasks, there are entities, which are instances of class/subclasses, and
relations between classes fixed.
Ontology population systems such as [9,15] leverage or generate a set of rules.
However, these approaches require a lot of human involvement and do not scale
for other domains. Supervised methods such as [2,25] lack data for training and
often ask domain experts to accept or reject ontology candidates.
Supervised OpenIE methods include formulating tasks as a Sequence Label-
ing [19] or Text2Triple translation [16,22].
Some works are devoted to the development of weakly supervised IE systems.
In paper [23], authors match Wikipedia articles with attribute-value pairs from
infoboxes using heuristics. Researchers in works [18,26] train BiLSTM models
on data derived from inferencing the OpenIE5 system on raw text.
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
some of them the largest I ever saw. There is also a great number of
wild boars, one of which, by the Prince’s permission, the D—— of H
—— killed.
Nothing could surpass the politeness and magnificence with which
the company were entertained during the whole of their stay. The
Princess is a woman of an amiable character, and a good
understanding; educates her children, and manages her affairs with
the utmost prudence and propriety.
This family, and many of the nobility, who have hitherto been at
their country-seats, are now about to return to Vienna. The family of
Monsieur and Madame de Pergen have been here for some time.
This lady is an intimate friend of the Countess Thune; and nearly the
same company, who form her society, now assemble twice a week at
the house of Madame de Pergen, who rivals the Countess in good
sense and many accomplishments, and, without raising jealousy or
ill-will, divides with her the esteem of the best company of this
place. The agreeable footing on which society is established here,
and the number of respectable people with whom we are
acquainted, fills me with regret at the thoughts of leaving Vienna;
but the D—— of H—— inclines to pass the winter in Italy. Indeed, if
he did not, he would be obliged to delay the journey a whole year,
or submit to the inconveniencies of travelling in the summer months,
which, in so hot a climate, is rather to be avoided.
 LETTER XCIII.
Vienna.
I have not said any thing of the Austrian army, having some
suspicion that I rather over-dosed you with military details from
Berlin, where the subject of my letters was continually before my
eyes. But the Emperor has very few of his troops in garrison at
Vienna. They make a fine appearance, and the army in general are
more judiciously clothed, than any other I have seen.
Instead of coats with long skirts, their uniform is a short jacket of
white cloth, with waistcoat and breeches of the same, and each
soldier has a surtout of coarse gray cloth, which he wears in cold or
rainy weather. This he rolls up in a very small bulk when the weather
is good, and it is little or no incumbrance on a march. They have
short boots for shoes; and, in place of hats, they wear caps of very
stout leather, with a brass front, which usually stands up, but which
may be let down upon occasion, to prevent their eyes from being
incommoded by the sun.
Except a very few Hungarians who do duty within the palace,
there are no troops in the Austrian service with increased pay, and
exclusive privileges, under the denomination of body-guards; the
marching regiments on the ordinary establishment, form the
garrison of Vienna, and perform the duty of guards by rotation.
The insolence of the Prætorian bands at Rome, so often terrible to
their masters; the frequent insurrections of the Janissaries at
Constantinople, and the revolutions effected by the Russian guards,
at Petersburgh, sufficiently point out the danger of such an
institution. These examples may have influenced the Austrian
government to renounce a system which seems to render certain
regiments less useful, and more dangerous, than the rest of the
army.
The Austrian army is calculated at considerably above two
hundred thousand; and, it is imagined, that there never was a
greater number of excellent officers in the service than at present;
so that in case of a war with Prussia, the two powers will be more
equally matched than ever. It would be unfortunate for this Court if
it should break out at present, for there are some commotions
among the peasants in Bohemia, which occasion a general disquiet,
and by which some individuals have sustained great losses. One
nobleman of the first rank has had his house, and all the furniture,
burnt to the ground, together with some large out-houses near his
castle.
These excesses, according to some, proceed from mere
wantonness, and love of mischief, in the people. Others assert, that
they are excited by the tyranny of the lords, which has driven those
poor men to despair. Whichsoever of these accounts is true, it seems
evident to me, that it would be much better for the lords, as well as
the peasants, that the latter, instead of being bond-men, were in a
state of freedom. At present, they pay their rent by working a
certain number of days in the week for their masters, and maintain
themselves and families by labouring the other days on their own
account. You will readily believe, that more real business will be
done in one day when they work for themselves, than in two days
labour for their lords. This occasions ill-humour and blows on the
part of the master, and hatred and revolt on that of the peasants.
If the estates in Bohemia were let to free-men at a reasonable
rent, freedom and property would excite a spirit of industry among
these indolent people. They would then work every day with
cheerfulness and good-will, and I am convinced the landlords
revenues would increase daily. In consequence of this, the peasants
would, in all probability, continue as much attached to the ground
from choice, as they are at present from necessity.—Do we not see
families in Great Britain remain for many generations on gentlemen’s
estates, though the master has the privilege of changing his tenant,
and the tenant his master, at the end of every lease?
In almost every country in Europe, except England, the
inhabitants are confined by some barrier or other, to the situation in
which they are born. The total want of education necessarily obliges
the greater part to gain their livelihood by bodily labour. National
opinions prevent others from ever rising above the level of their
birth, however sublime their genius, or however great their acquired
knowledge. But in our island the door of science, and consequently
the road to ambition, is open to almost every individual. Even in the
most remote villages some degree of education is bestowed on the
poorest inhabitants.
This may be of little or no importance to ninety-nine in a hundred;
and if the small number who, by improving this pittance of
knowledge, raise themselves above the state in which they were
born, very few arrive at any degree of eminence; the reason of
which is, that great genius is a quality very sparingly dealt out to
mankind. Though it must be allowed, that much the greater part of
the inhabitants of the same country and climate are born with nearly
the same natural abilities; and that the degrees of education, and
other opportunities of improvement, gradually form all the difference
which appears among them in after-life; yet I cannot, with Helvetius,
believe that genius is entirely the work of education.
I am fully convinced, that Nature is continually producing some
individuals in every nation of a finer organization, with an infinitely
greater aptitude for science of every kind, and whose minds are
capable of a more sublime and extensive range of thought, than is
attainable by the common run of mankind with any possible degree
of culture. This natural superiority is what I call genius. Wherever a
considerable share of this is lodged, a little cultivation will be
sufficient, but some is absolutely requisite to make it appear.
When it does exist in the minds of peasants in Russia, Poland, and
some parts of Germany, it remains dormant from neglect, or is
smothered by oppression. But in Great Britain, the degree of
education which is now universal, small as it is, will be sufficient to
rouse, animate, and bring into action the fire of extraordinary
genius, the seeds of which impartial Nature is as apt to place in the
infant breast of a peasant as of a prince. The chance of great and
distinguished men springing up in a country, is therefore not to be
calculated by the number of inhabitants, but by the number whose
minds receive that degree of cultivation necessary to call forth their
latent powers.
On the supposition, that one kingdom contains eight millions of
inhabitants, and another triple the number, many more men of
original genius, and great eminence in every art and science, may,
from the circumstances above mentioned, be expected to appear in
the first than in the second. In Great Britain, for example, almost all
the natives may be included in the calculation; but in the other
countries which I have mentioned, the peasantry, who form the
most numerous class, must be struck out.
 LETTER XCIV.
Vienna.
Whether it is owing to the example of the Empress, or to what
other cause, I shall not take upon me to decide; but there certainly
appears a warmer and more general attachment to religion in
Vienna, than in any other great town in Germany: There is also a
greater appearance of satisfaction and happiness here than in many
other cities, where religious impressions are more feeble and, less
prevalent: It is not improbable, that the latter may be a
consequence of the former.
Irreligion and scepticism, exclusive of the bad effects they may
have on the morals or future destiny of men, impair even their
temporal happiness, by obscuring those hopes, which, in some
situations, are their only consolation. In whatever superior point of
view those men may consider themselves, who deride the opinions
which their fellow-citizens hold sacred, this vanity is often
overbalanced by the irksome doubts which obtrude on their minds.
Uncertainty with respect to the most interesting of all subjects, or a
fixed persuasion of annihilation, are equally insupportable to the
greater part of mankind, who sooner or later endeavour to put in a
claim for that bright reversion, which religion has promised to
believers. If the idea of annihilation has been supported without pain
by a few philosophers, it is the utmost that can be said; such a state
of mind can never be a source of satisfaction or pleasure. People of
great sensibility seldom endure it long; their fond desire of
immortality overturns every fabric which scepticism had attempted
to raise in their minds; they cannot abide by a doctrine which plucks
from the heart a deeply-rooted hope, tears asunder all those ties of
humanity, affection, friendship, and love, which it has been the
business of their lives to bind, and which they expect will be eternal.
Since sensibility renders the heart averse to scepticism, and
inclinable to devotion, we may naturally expect to find women more
devout than men; very few of that delicate sex have been able to
look with stedfast eyes on a prospect, which terminates in a dismal
blank; and those few, who have had that degree of philosophical
fortitude, have not been the most amiable of the sex.
None of my female acquaintance at Vienna are in this
uncomfortable state of mind, but many of them have embroidered
some fanciful piece of superstition of their own upon the extensive
ground which the Roman Catholic faith affords. In a lady’s house a
few days ago I happened to take up a book which lay upon the
table,—a small picture of the Virgin Mary on vellum fell from
between the leaves; under the figure of the Virgin there was an
inscription, which I translate literally:
“This is presented by —— —— to her dearest friend —— ——, in
token of the sincerest regard and affection; begging that as often as
she beholds this figure of the blessed Virgin, she may mix a
sentiment of affection for her absent friend, with the emotions of
gratitude and adoration she feels for the Mother of Jesus.”
The lady informed me, that it was usual for intimate friends to
send such presents to each other when they were about to separate,
and when there was a probability of their being long asunder.
There seems to be something exceedingly tender and pathetic in
blending friendship with religious sentiments, and thus by a kind of
consecration endeavouring to preserve the former from the effects
of time and absence.—The perusal of this inscription recalled to my
memory certain connections I have at home, the impetuosity of
which recollection affected me beyond expression.
I remarked in this lady’s house another beautiful picture of the
Virgin, ornamented with a rich frame, and a silk curtain to preserve
it from dust; I observed that she never looked at it but with an air of
veneration and love, nor passed it when uncovered by the curtain
without a gentle bending of the knee.—She told me, that this picture
had been long in the family, and had been always held in the highest
esteem, for that both her mother and she owed some of the most
fortunate events of their lives to the protection of the blessed Virgin,
and she seemed not intirely free from a persuasion that the
attention of the Virgin was in some degree retained by the good
offices of this identical picture. She declared that the confidence she
had in the Virgin’s goodness and protection, was one of the greatest
comforts she had in life—that to her she could, without restraint,
open her heart, and pour out her whole soul under every affliction,
and she never failed to find herself comforted and relieved by such
effusions.
I observed, that devout Protestants found the same consolation in
addressing the Almighty.
She said—She could not comprehend how that could be—for that
God the Father was so great and awful, that her veneration was
mixed with such a degree of dread as confounded all her ideas when
she attempted to approach him; but the blessed Mary was of so
mild, so condescending, and compassionate a character, that she
could address her with more confidence.
She said, she knew it was her duty to adore the Creator of the
universe, and she fulfilled it to the best of her power, but she could
not divest herself of a certain degree of restraint in her devotions to
him, or even to her Saviour; but the blessed Mary being herself a
woman, and acquainted with all the weakness and delicacies of the
sex, she could to her open her heart with a degree of freedom which
it was not possible for her to use to any of the Persons of the Holy
Trinity.—Regardez sa physionomie, added she, pointing to the
picture,—mon Dieu, qu’elle est douce, qu’elle est gracieuse!
These sentiments, however contrary to the Protestant tenets, and
the maxims of philosophy, are not unnatural to the human heart.—
Voltaire says, that man has always shewn an inclination to create
God after his own image; this lady formed an idea of the blessed
Virgin from the representation of the painter, as well as from the
account given of her in the Evangelists; and her religion allowing the
Mother of Christ to be an object of worship, she naturally turned the
ardor of her devotion to her whose power she imagined was
sufficient to protect her votaries here, and procure them paradise
hereafter, and whose character she thought in some particulars
sympathised with her own.
Some zealous Protestants may possibly be shocked at this lady’s
theological notions; however, as in other respects she is a woman of
an excellent character, and observes the moral precepts of
Christianity with as much attention as if her creed had been purified
by Luther, and doubly refined by Calvin, it is hoped they will not
think it too great an extension of charity to suppose that her
speculative errors may be forgiven.
 LETTER XCV.
Vienna.
The preference which is given by individuals in Roman Catholic
countries to particular Saints, proceeds sometimes from a supposed
connection between the characters of the Saints and the votaries;
men expect the greatest favour and indulgence from those who
most resemble themselves, and naturally admire others for the
qualities which they value most in their own character.
A French Officer of dragoons, being at Rome, went to view the
famous statue of Moses by Michael Angelo; the artist has conveyed
into this master-piece, in the opinion of some, all the dignity which a
human form and human features are capable of receiving; he has
endeavoured to give this statue a countenance worthy of the great
legislator of the Jews, the favourite of Heaven, who had conversed
face to face with the Deity. The officer happened to be acquainted
with the history of Moses, but he laid no great stress on any of these
circumstances—he admired him much more on account of one
adventure in which he imagined Moses had acquitted himself like a
man of spirit, and as he himself would have done—Voilà qui est
terrible! voilà qui est sublime! cried he at sight of the statue—and
after a little pause he added, on voit là un drôle qui a donné des
coups de bâton en son tems, et qui a tué son homme.
The crucifixes, and statues, and pictures, of Saints, with which
Popish churches are filled, were no doubt intended to awaken
devotion when it became drowsy, and to excite in the mind gratitude
and veneration for the holy persons they represent; but it cannot be
denied that the gross imaginations of the generality of mankind are
exceedingly prone to forget the originals, and transfer their
adoration to the senseless figures which they behold, and before
which they kneel. So that whatever was the original design, and
whatever effects those statues and pictures have on the minds of
calm, sensible Roman Catholics, it is certain that they often are the
objects of as complete idolatry as ever was practised in Athens or
Rome, before the statues of Jupiter or Apollo.
On what other principle do such multitudes flock from all the
Roman Catholic countries in Europe to the shrine of our Lady at
Loretto? Any statue of the Virgin would serve as effectually as that
to recall her to the memory, and people may adore her as devoutly
in their own parish churches, as in the chapel at Loretto.—The
pilgrims therefore must be persuaded that there is some divine
influence or intelligence in the statue which is kept there; that it has
a consciousness of all the trouble they have taken, and the
inconveniencies to which they have been exposed, by long journies,
for the sole purpose of kneeling before it in preference to all other
images.
It was probably on account of this tendency of the human mind,
that the Jews were forbid to make unto themselves any graven
image. This indeed seems to have been the only method of securing
that superstitious people from idolatry; and notwithstanding the
peremptory tenor of the commandment, neither the zeal nor
remonstrances of their judges and prophets could always prevent
their making idols, nor hinder their worshipping them wherever they
found them ready made.
Statues and pictures of Saints which have been long in particular
families, are generally kept with great care and attention; the
proprietors often have the same kind of attachment to them that the
ancient heathens had to their Dii Penates.—They are considered as
tutelary and domestic divinities, from whom the family expect
protection. When a series of unfortunate events happens in a family,
it sometimes creates a suspicion that the family statues have lost
their influence. This also is a very ancient sentiment; Suetonius
informs us, that the fleet of Augustus having been dispersed by a
storm, and many of the ships lost, the Emperor gave orders that the
statue of Neptune should not be carried in procession with those of
the other Gods, from an opinion that the God of the Sea was
unwilling or unable to protect his navy, and in either case he deemed
him not worthy of any public mark of distinction.
The genuine tenets of the Roman Catholic church certainly do not
authorise any of the superstitions above mentioned, which are
generally confined to the credulous and illiterate in the lower ranks
of life.—Yet instances are sometimes to be met with in a higher
sphere: a Frenchman in a creditable way of life had a small figure of
our Saviour on the Cross, of very curious workmanship; he offered it
for sale to an English gentleman of my acquaintance; after
expatiating on the excellency of the workmanship, he told him that
he had long kept this crucifix with the most pious care, that he had
always addressed it in his private devotion, and that in return he had
expected some degree of protection and favour; instead of which he
had of late been remarkably unfortunate; that all the tickets he had
in the lottery had proved blanks; and having had a great share in the
cargo of a ship coming from the West-Indies, he had recommended
it in the most fervent manner in his prayers to the crucifix, and that
he might give no offence, by any appearance of want of faith, he
had not insured the goods—notwithstanding all which the vessel had
been shipwrecked, and the cargo totally lost, though the sailors, in
whose preservation he had no concern, had been all saved—Enfin,
Monsieur, cried he, with an accent of indignation mingled with
regret, and raising his shoulders above his ears, Enfin, Monsieur, il
m’a manqué, et je vends mon Christ.
Happy for Christians of every denomination, could they abide by
the plain, rational, benevolent precepts of the Christian religion,
rejecting all the conceits of superstition, which never fail to deform
its original beauty, and to corrupt its intrinsic purity!
 LETTER XCVI.
Vienna.
Our disputes with the colonies have been a prevailing topic of
conversation wherever we have been since we left England. The
warmth with which this subject is handled increases every day.—At
present the inhabitants of the continent seem as impatient as those
of Great Britain, for news from the other side of the Atlantic, but
with this difference, that here they are all of one mind:—all praying
for success to the Americans, and rejoicing in every piece of bad
fortune which happens to our army.
That the French should be pleased with commotions which must
distress and weaken Great Britain, and may transfer to them an
equal right to every advantage we gained by the last war, is not
surprising; but why the inhabitants of every other country should
take part against England, and become partizans of America, is not
so apparent.
I should forgive them, and even join in sentiment with them, as
far as my regard for the honour and happiness of my country would
permit, if this proceeded from an attachment to liberty, and a
generous partiality for men who repel oppression, and struggle for
independency.—But this is not the case.—Those who can reap no
possible advantage from the revolt of America; those who have not
an idea of civil liberty, and would even be sorry to see it established
in their own country; those who have no other knowledge of the
dispute, than that it is ruining England; all join as allies to the
Americans, not from love to them, but evidently from dislike to us.
When I first observed this hostile disposition, I thought it might
proceed from their being offended at that preference which the
English give to their own country and countrymen, above all others:
but this conceit we have in common with every other nation on the
globe, all of whom cherish the same favourable opinion of
themselves. It assuredly prevails in France in an eminent degree.—
There is hardly one sceptic or unbeliever in the whole nation.—It is
the universal creed, that France is the finest country in the world;
the French the most ingenious and most amiable people, excelling in
all the arts of peace and war; and that Paris is the capital of
politeness, and the center of learning, genius, and taste.
This satisfaction at the misfortunes of Great Britain cannot
therefore arise from a cause which is applicable to every other
country. It may, indeed, in some measure, proceed from envy of the
riches, and jealousy of the power of the English nation; but, I
believe, still more from our taking no trouble to conciliate the
affections of foreigners, and to diminish that envy and ill-will which
great prosperity often creates. The French, though perhaps the
vainest people on earth of their own advantages, have some degree
of consideration for the feelings and self-love of their neighbours. A
Frenchman endeavours to draw from them an acknowledgment of
the superiority of his country, by making an elogium on whatever is
excellent in theirs. But we are apt to build our panegyric of Old
England, on the ruin and wretchedness of all other countries.—Italy
is too hot, the inns miserable, and the whole country swarms with
monks and other vermin.—In France, the people are slaves and
coxcombs, the music execrable;—they boil their meat to rags, and
there is no porter, and very little strong ale, in the country.—In
Germany, some of their Princes have little more to spend than an
English gentleman:—They use stoves instead of grates:—They eat
sour crout, and speak High Dutch.—The Danes and Swedes are
reminded, that they are rather at too great a distance from the
equator; and many sly hints are given concerning the
inconveniencies of a cold climate.—Of all things, I should think it
most prudent to be silent on this last topic, as so many paltry states
will take precedency of Old England, whenever it is the established
etiquette that rank shall be determined by climate.
 But this consideration has no effect on my honest friend John Bull.
When he is in a choleric humour, he will not spare his best friends
and nearest neighbours, even when he has most need of their
assistance, and when those at a distance seem to have plotted his
ruin.—If his own sister Peg should show a disposition to forget old
squabbles, to live in friendship with her brother, and should declare
that all who renounced his friendship were her enemies, and resolve
to conquer by his side, or if that should fail, to die hard along with
him—No! d—n ye, says John, none of your coaxing:—You be d—d!
you are farther North than I—Keep your distance.—And so he falls a
pelting Peg with her own snow-balls; and then turning from her, he
attacks Lewis Baboon, Lord Strut, Lord Peter, and dashes their soup
maigre, olio’s, and maccaroni, full in their teeth.
But to drop allegory; the universal satisfaction which appears all
over Europe, at the idea of England’s being stript of her colonies,
certainly does not intirely originate from political sentiments; but in a
great degree from that reserve which keeps Englishmen from
cultivating the friendship of foreigners; that pride which hinders
them from stooping to humour prejudices; that indifference which
makes them disregard the approbation of others, and betray the
contempt they are too ready to entertain for customs or sentiments
different from their own.
These are things not easily forgiven, and for which no superiority
of genius, magnanimity, or integrity, can compensate. The same
causes which have made foreigners take part against us in the
dispute with America, induce those of them who are rich, and can
spend their revenues out of their own country, to prefer France to
England for that purpose. The difference between London and Paris
in point of climate is very small. The winter amusements of the
former are more magnificent; and perhaps every conveniency, and
most of the luxuries of life are to be found there in greater
perfection. During the summer months, by superior skill in
agriculture and a better taste in gardening, England displays such
scenes of cultivation, of verdure and fertility, as no country on earth
can equal. To these are added the blessings of liberty; yet few or no
foreigners reside in England, except those she maintains entirely at
her own expence; all the wealthy, after a short visit to London,
returning to spend their fortunes at Paris.
Exclusive of pecuniary advantages, it flatters the natural vanity of
the French to find their society preferred to that of all other people,
and particularly to that of their proud rivals.—Let them enjoy this
advantage; let them draw to their capital the idle, the dissipated,
and the effeminate of every country in Europe:—but for heaven’s
sake, do you and your friends in parliament fall on some measure to
prevent them from engaging the affections of our industrious
brethren of America.
Such an event would be attended with severe consequences to
Great Britain, and probably to America. There are, however, so many
repelling points in the American and French characters, that I cannot
imagine the adhesion between them could be of long duration,
should it take place.
You may naturally suppose, from some things in this letter, that
the people here are in a particular manner inveterate against
England, in her dispute with America. But in reality this is not the
case: for although in general they favour America, I have not seen
so much moderation on that question any where as at Vienna. The
Emperor, when some person asked which side he favoured, replied
very ingeniously, Je suis par métier royaliste.
I wish those of our countrymen, who by your account seem to be
carrying their zeal for America too far, would remember qu’ils font
par naisance Anglois.
Just as I was concluding the above I received yours, informing me
that your young friend was in a short time to set out on the usual
tour through Europe. I shall take another opportunity of writing to
him on the subject you desire, at present I must confine myself to
the few following hints.
I hope he will always remember that virtue and good sense are
not confined to any particular place, and that one end of travelling is
to free the mind from vulgar prejudices—he ought therefore to form
connections, and live on a social footing with the inhabitants of the
different countries through which he passes; let him at least seem
pleased while he remains among them; this is the most effectual
method of making them pleased with him, and of his accomplishing
every object he can have in visiting their country.
There are instances of Englishmen, who, while on their travels,
shock foreigners by an ostentatious preference of England to all the
rest of the world, and ridicule the manners, customs, and opinions of
every other nation, yet on their return to their own country,
immediately assume foreign manners, and continue during the
remainder of their lives to express the highest contempt for every
thing that is English.—— I hope he will entirely avoid such perverse
and ridiculous affectation.
The taste for letters which he has acquired at the university, I dare
say will not be diminished on classic ground, or his mind be diverted,
by a frivolous enthusiasm for music, or any other passion, from the
manly studies and pursuits which become an English gentleman.
As he regards the confidence of his friends, the preservation of his
character, and the tranquillity of his mind, let no example, however
high, lead him into the practice of deep play. By avoiding gaming he
will secure one kind of independence, and at the same time keep
possession of another, by continuing the habit of study, till the
acquisition of knowledge has become one of his most pleasing
amusements.—Unlike those wretched mortals, who, to drag through
the dreary hours of life, are continually obliged to have recourse to
the assistance of others, this fortunate turn of mind will add to his
own happiness, while it renders him more useful to, and less
dependent on, society.
The preceding sermon, if you think proper, you may deliver to the
young traveller, with my best wishes.
Having delayed our journey several weeks longer than was
intended, merely from a reluctance of leaving a place which we have
found so very agreeable, we have at length determined to set out
for Italy—and are to go by the Duchies of Stiria and Carinthia, which
is a shorter route than that by the Tirol. As the time we are to
remain at Vienna will be entirely employed in the necessary
arrangements for the journey, and the painful ceremony of taking
leave of friends, you will not hear again from me till we arrive at
Venice.—Mean while, I am, &c.

Transcriber’s Note: Evident printing errors have been changed, but otherwise the
original (and antiquated) spelling has been preserved, in both English and French.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A VIEW OF
SOCIETY AND MANNERS IN FRANCE, SWITZERLAND, AND
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