Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

Engineering Geology (CEng 2112) (Cr. Hr. 2)

Chapter 6: Geological Construction Materials

(By Belachew Moges, MSc.)

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 6.1 Introduction of Construction Material
❖The term 'construction material' is used to describe all
minerals, soils and rocks used by the construction industry, for
example those use in
➢ Road construction,
➢ House construction,
➢ Dam construction,
➢ Railway construction and
➢ Other engineering structures.

❖During any engineering structure construction, to have the

stable and economic engineering structure, it is essential to
identify suitable sources of construction material by
considering different suitability factors.
Factors those determine the suitability condition of the Source of
geological Construction materials:
❖ Volume of material
❖ Geological structures which control the workability and block size of
the quarry material
❖ Overburden material which affect the economy of the project
❖ Transportation cost (distance of the source site)
❖ Weathering degree of the rock
❖ Engineering properties of the material
❖ slope angle (topography)of the site
❖ population density of the site
❖ land use/ land covers of the site
❖ Accessibility of the site
❖ workability of the material and others.
6.2 Economic aspects of construction materials
▪ The demand for construction material is determined by the level of
construction activity.
▪ The delivery price of geological construction materials depends on:
➢ Their availability: more available = low cost.
➢ Extraction cost: high extraction cost = high price.
➢ Quality in terms of mechanical, physical and chemical properties.
➢ Proximity of a market: cost increases with increase in distance
from market.

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6.3 Role of geological engineer/engineering geologist
✓ Prospecting and exploration: location of possible resources,
initial testing.
✓ Evaluation: assessing quality and quantity, economic
appraisal.
✓ Exploitation: extraction method, processing, protection of
environment.
✓ Closing site: land restoration and its effects.

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 6.4 Extraction, Processing, and Sampling Of
Construction Materials

6.4.1 Extraction
It involves four operations:

I. Overburden removal and face preparations

II. Primary fragmentation

III. Digging and loading

IV. Hauling to the processing plant

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Excavation is part of the extraction process
Extraction method:
The extraction method depends primarily on:
▪ Type of the material to be exploited (e.g. Soil or rock).
▪ Mode of occurrence of the material to be extracted (e.g.
in land or in water).

Important factors are:

▪ Degree of consolidation or induration,
▪ Degree of weathering,
▪ Fracture spacing (in rock),
▪ Matrix (in gravel deposits),
▪ Density,
▪ Impact strength,
▪ Abrasivity,
▪ Economic and environmental aspects to have been
considered. 8
Methods of excavations could be:

▪ Blasting: with the use of explosives

▪ Ripping: breaking up of a rock mass by ploughing then with

one or two vertical spikes that are bolted on the rear of a
bulldozer.

▪ Dragline excavation: used for sand and gravel in both wet

and dry conditions.

▪ Dredging: used to recover marine aggregates.

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Dragline Excavation

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6.4.2 Processing of Materials
▪ Processing is concerned with the preparation of construction
materials for its application in construction works.
▪ Demands for aggregate are usually defined in terms of:
➢ Size,
➢ Shape,
➢ Grading,
➢ Mechanical strength.

Processing plant usually involves combination of:

▪ Crushers,
▪ Sievers,
▪ Magnetic separators (accessory),
▪ Washing installations (accessory).
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Crushing and Sieving Process
a) Crushing
▪ Involves one or more of the following methods:
➢ Impact,
➢ Compression,
➢ Abrasion or shear,
➢ Attrition.
▪ Impact and compression methods: very efficient methods inducing
tensile stresses in the particles and have the additional advantage that
the produced particles tend to have a more regular shape.
▪ Attrition and abrasion methods: only useful for very small grain-sizes
as these cause high wear and maintenance cost.

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Improving crushing
efficiency and energy
usage:
▪ Integrate crushing with
sieving process.
▪ By integrating crushing
with sieving the material
that has reached the
desired size can be
removed.
➢ This implies that the
crushing will take place
in more than one stage.
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b) Sieving
▪ Takes place for several reasons:
➢ To derive a product that meets the grading specifications.
➢ To remove badly shaped particles.
➢ To increase the efficiency of the crushing process (if integrated).

▪ It can be done during or after processing.

➢ For optimum processing, sieving should be integrated into crushing
process.
▪ Types of screening systems:
➢ Vibrating (inclined on not); these are most important.
➢ Drum screens: contain cylinder from screening media that rotates upon
an axis slightly inclined so that the material moves from one side to
another.
➢ Grissly screens: for very coarse grain-size (>25mm, often 200-250mm).
➢ Other methods include: upward water or airflow.
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6.4.3 Sampling of aggregates
▪ Sampling takes place for:
➢ Research,
➢ Quality control and to optimize extraction and processing.

▪ With results of the tests performed:

➢ Optimum direction of extraction,
➢ Best extraction method,
➢ Quality and amount of the final product can be determined.
▪ Sampling should:
➢ Be designed to assess the properties and the variation in the properties
of a rock mass or other deposits.
➢ Aim at obtaining representative samples for the whole rock.
▪ Quality of an investigation depends on quality of sampling procedure.

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Stockpile ready for sampling and hauling
Sample Size:
▪ Size of sample has a
significant effect on the
representativity of sample.
▪ More or larger samples give
generally a more accurate
indication of the property.
▪ Cost of investigation need to
be considered.
➢ Optimum sample
number is required.
 6.5 Material Extraction and the
Environment
▪ Land based geological construction materials are usually
extracted in open pit quarries.
▪ Some underground mining could take place but limited.
▪ With the effect of the transport distances, these locations
(construction material extraction sites) are not far from urban
areas.
▪ Extraction of geological construction materials could have
negative impact on the following:
▪ Environment,
▪ Occupational health and safety, and
▪ Community health and safety.

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6.6.1 Environmental Issues
The major environmental issues include:
➢ Air Emissions
➢ Noise and Vibrations
➢ Water
➢ Waste
➢ Land Conversion
a) Air Emissions
▪ Particulate matter is generated during all phases of exploitation and
processing from fugitive sources (e.g. shoveling, ripping, drilling, blasting,
transport, crushing, grinding, screening, and stockpiling).
▪ The main sources of particulate matter emissions include: crushing
grinding, drilling, blasting, and transport.

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b) Noise and Vibrations
▪ Noise emissions are commonly associated with all extraction activities,
including construction material and dimension stone quarrying.
▪ The most significant vibration emissions are usually associated with blasting
activities, whereas minor emissions are commonly associated with use of
rock hammers.
c) Water
▪ Diamond-wire cutting activities, aggregate-washing plants, and dimension
stone quarrying activities typically involve significant use of water
resources.
d) Waste
▪ Rock waste and removed topsoil–overburden are the main inert
wastes produced by quarrying activities.
▪ Hazardous wastes may be generated from impurities and trace
components included in the exploited (waste) rocks (e.g. asbestos or
heavy metals or minerals that could result in acidic runoff). 20
e) Land Conversion

▪ Excavation activities at construction materials extraction sites often

involve major topographical and land-cover changes to allow extraction
activities, often including clearing of preexisting vegetation.

▪ If not managed, cultivable land could be converted into barren land

(especially in traditional quarry sites).

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 6.7 Different Types of Construction Materials
A) Dimension Stone
❖ It is the principal load-bearing material of buildings, bridges and others, now
its function largely taken over by concrete, brick and steel
❖ High compressive, shear strengths, hardness and durability for load bearing
Example . granite, massive sandstone, limestone and other igneous rocks
B) Roofing rock Materials:
❖ Rocks used for roofing purposes must possess a sufficient degree of fissility
to split into thin slabs
❖ durable and impermeable material
❖ Slate is one of the best roofing materials and has been used extensively and
also used for paving when the cleavage is not so fine
C) Facing Materials:
❖ Facing and Flooring Rock construction materials are used for the decorative
of building walls and floors.
❖ A wider variety of porphyritic igneous rocks, marbles, Serpentine, tuffs,
fossiliferous limes and others are used as facing and paving (flooring)
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materials
D) Armourstone
❖ Armourstone refers to large blocks of rock that are used to protect
civil engineering structures
E.g. -Rip-rap are used to protect the upstream face of dams from the
wave action of water
✓ it also serve as scour prevention from bridge piers
✓ it is used in coastal engineering for protection of sea walls by
breaking sea waters wave
To have good quality Armourstone material:
❖ the size, grading, shape, density, water absorption, abrasion
resistance, impact resistance, strength and durability of the rock
material used for armourstone must be considered during the design
stage of a particular project.

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E) Aggregate construction material
❖ It is the granular or particulate material that we have use in different
engineering structures as it is or by mixing with other material such as
cement, bitumen and others
❖ The two principal types of aggregate are crushed rock aggregate and
natural gravel aggregate
❖ Most of the time the properties of an aggregate are related to the texture
and mineralogical composition of the rock from which it was derived.
❖ The higher the porosity and the larger the grain size, the lower the crushing
strength.
❖ The coarse-grained igneous rocks are not as suitable as the fine-grained,
as they crush more easily.
❖ On the other hand, the very-fine-grained and glassy volcanics are
unsuitable since they produce chips with sharp edges when crushed, and
they tend to develop a high polishing value.

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6.8 Crushed Rock for Concrete Aggregate
❖ Concrete is formed from the mixtures of rock aggregate, sand, cement and
water and used in different engineering structures.
❖ Approximately 75% of the volume of concrete consists of aggregate,
therefore its properties have a significant influence on the engineering
behavior of concrete.

▪ Aggregate: the inert filler materials, such

as sand or stone, used in making concrete.
▪ Aggregates for concrete are divided into
two:
➢ Fine aggregates
➢ Coarse aggregates
(a) Fine aggregates:
▪ Sand and/or crushed stone

▪ < 5 mm (0.2 in.)

Fine aggregate content usually ranges from
35% to 45% by mass or volume of total
aggregate. 25
(b) Coarse aggregates:
▪ Gravel and crushed
stone
▪  5 mm (0.2 in.)
▪ Typically between 9.5
and 37.5 mm (3/8 and
1½ in.)

Types of aggregates based on (a) Normal-Weight Aggregate (ASTM C 33)

Weight: ▪ Most common normal weight aggregates
▪ Normal weight include:
▪ Light weight ➢ Sand
▪ Heavy weight ➢ Gravel
➢ Crushed stone Produce normal-weight
concrete: 2200 to 2400 kg/m3 (140 to
150 lb/ft3). 26
(b) Light weight Aggregate (ASTM C 330) (c) Heavy weight
Aggregate (ASTM C 637, C
▪ Expanded: 638 (Radiation Shielding)
➢Shale
➢Clay ▪ Barite
➢Slate ▪ Limonite
➢Slag
▪ Magnetite
Produce structural lightweight concrete:
weight 1350 to 1850 kg/m3 (90 to 120 lb/ft3)
▪ Ilmenite
▪ Others: ▪ Hematite
➢Pumice ▪ Iron
➢Scoria ▪ Steel punchings or shot
➢Perlite
▪ Produce high-density
➢Vermiculite
➢Diatomite concrete up to 6400 kg/m3
Produce lightweight insulating concrete: (400 lb/ft3)
weight 250 to 1450 kg/m3 (15 to 90 lb/ft3).

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 Examples of Uses for the
Weight
Aggregates Used Concrete

can be sawed or nailed,

Ultra-lightweight vermiculite, ceramic also used for its
insulating properties

used primarily for making

expanded clay, shale lightweight concrete for
Lightweight
or slate, crushed brick structures, also used for
its insulating properties

crushed limestone,
sand, river gravel, used for normal concrete
Normal weight projects
crushed recycled
concrete
used for making high
steel or iron shot; steel density concrete for
Heavyweight shielding against nuclear
or iron pellets
radiation 28
6.9 Factors affecting aggregate quality for concrete
❖The main factors those control suitability condition of the concrete aggregate
are:
1. Aggregate Size, Shape, and texture
2. Alkali reaction capacity and
3. Shrinkage capacity of an aggregate

1. Aggregate Size, Shape, and texture

(a) Size and grading:
Aggregate grading affects:
▪ Void-filling characteristics,
▪ Permeability,
▪ Strength of concrete,
▪ Strength of road base aggregates,
▪ Filter design materials.
Requirements:
▪ Maximum size up to 40mm in diameter.
▪ Minimum size: 5mm.
▪ Commonly preferred size is about 20mm (maximum).
▪ Size limits: 20-5mm graded aggregates are commonly used. 29
(b) Particle shape:
❖ Most of the time the shape of the aggregate can be depend on the rock
type.
❖ The angular shaped aggregate particles has high interlocking capacity than
the tabular- or planar- shaped aggregate particles.
❖ E.g. Rocks such as basalts, dolerites, andesite, granites, quartzite and
limestone tend to produce angular fragments when crushed, while
foliated and laminated rocks have a tendency to form a tabular or planar-
shaped aggregate particles.
✓ Ideal aggregate mixture: all particles should be equidimensional and
angular, but not spherical.

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(c) Particle surface texture:
❖ This include all those factors influencing the bond between chips and
bituminous binder in asphalt, and that between cement paste and aggregate
in concrete.
❖ The relevant aggregate properties comprise particle roughness, dustiness,
moisture content and surface chemistry.

Is a function of mineral grain size and rock fabric.

➢ Fine-grained igneous rocks tend to have smooth or glassy fracture
surfaces, medium- and coarse-grained ones are rougher textured,
while some are visibly porous or even vesicular.
➢ The rougher the texture, the better the bond strength.
Affect the bond between the aggregate and the cement past in hardened
concrete.

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2. Alkali reaction capacity of an Aggregate
❖ The siliceous aggregate material those contain opal, chalcedony, flint, chert,
greywacke and volcanic glass can undergo the chemical reaction when it
used with the alkali cement those has high content of Na2O and K2O.E.g
Portland cement

❖ Due to this alkali chemical reaction the concrete is expanded and crack,
thereby it looses its strength.
❖ When concrete is wet, the alkalis that are released are dissolved by water
and form the caustic solution that attacks reactive aggregates and produce
alkali–silica gels
❖ These gels can absorb more water and develop the pressure that causes

rupturing of the cement around reacting aggregate particles.

❖ Therefore to avoided these problems a preliminary petrological examination

of the aggregate must be conducted. 32

❖ Based on the petrological examination the material that contains > 0.25%
opal, > 5% chalcedony or > 3% glass by weight must be rejected for the
concrete aggregate.
❖ Otherwise it must be used as the concrete aggregate with low-alkali cement

which contains less than 0.6% of Na2O and K2O

❖ The reactivity of an aggregate is not depend only on the composition but

also to the percentage of strained quartz that a rock contains

❖ For instance the rock aggregates containing 40% or more of strongly

adulatory or highly granulated quartz were highly reactive, whereas those

with between 30 and 35% were moderately reactive

❖ The basaltic rocks with 5% or more secondary chalcedony or opal, or about

15% aragonite, Sandstones containing 5% or more chert and Certain

argillaceous dolostones can show deleterious reactions with high-alkali
cements. 33
 Alkali-Aggregate Reactivity (AAR)

AAR is a reaction between the

active mineral constituents of
some aggregates and the
sodium and potassium alkali
hydroxides and calcium
hydroxide in the concrete.

It includes:
▪ Alkali-Silica Reaction Visual Symptoms:
(ASR). ▪ Network of cracks.
▪ Alkali-Carbonate ▪ Closed or spalled joints.
Reaction (ACR). ▪ Relative displacements.
▪ Fragments breaking out of the
surface (popouts). 34
3. Shrinkage Capacity Of An Aggregate
❖ It is the large wetting and drying volume fluctuation of rock aggregate that
can affect the total shrinkage of concrete.

❖ This properties of rock aggregate is depend on the percentage of clay

material.

❖ Consequently, the proportion of clay material in a fine aggregate should

not exceed 3%.

❖ The aggregates from basalt, gabbro, dolerite, mudstone and greywacke

have high shrinkage capacity while the aggregates from Granite,

limestone, quartzite and felsites are not affected by shrinkage.

❖ In general it assumed that shrinkage of the aggregate in concrete should not

exceed 0.045%.
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6.10 Principal Tests For Construction Material (Geological)

1. Polished Stone Value Test

❖ It can influences the skid resistance of an aggregate by reducing the
surface roughness of aggregate particles
❖ The aggregate in the bended road line is polish up to seven times more
rapidly than the aggregate in the straight road.
❖ The polishing of road aggregate is more significant when the road surface
is dry than wet
❖ In the case of igneous and contact metamorphic rocks the good polishing
resistance result from a variation in hardness between the minerals present
in the rock
❖ In sedimentary rocks, the presence of hard grains in a softer matrix can
improve the polishing resistance.

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2. Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV) test
❖ It is the mechanical properties of an aggregate that is used to measure the
resistance of an aggregate to crushing under a gradual applied compressive
load or static load.
❖ To perform this test the aggregate sample with 10- 14mm size is subjected to the
static load that is increased with a constant rate up to 400kN.
❖ Than the fine material passing through 2.36mm sieve is calculated as percentage of
original weight of tested sample and is used as ACV.
M1= mass of the tested specimen in g
M2= mass of material passing the 2.36 mm sieve in g

❖ The low ACV

indicates the high
crushing resistance or
good quality aggregate
material.
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3. Aggregate impact value (AIV) test
❖ It is one of the aggregate mechanical properties which can be used to
determine the resistance of an aggregate to sudden shock or impact force
❖ To perform this test the aggregate sample with 10-14 mm size is subjected
to 15 blows, from a hammer or piston (13.5-14.1Kg); height 380mm
+6.5mm and the percentage of fine material passing through 2.36 mm sieve
is calculated and used as AIV
AIV=M2/ M1x100% Where M1=mass of the tested specimen in g
M2=mass of material passing the 2.36 mm sieve in g.

❖Small AIV indicates the

high resistance of an
aggregate to the impact
force (the high quality
aggregate material).

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Variation in ACV and AIV may be due to:
▪ Influence of particle shape.
▪ Geological features e.g. bulk composition.
▪ Grain-size.
▪ Texture. E.g. Smooth, rough.
▪ Structure e.g. micro-structures.
▪ Alteration.
▪ Methodological factors e.g. apparatus
rigidity, etc.

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4 Ten Percent fines value
▪ This presents the load required
to produce 10% fines rather
than the amount of crush for a
specific load.
▪ A uniform loading rate is applied
to cause a total penetration of
the plunger of approximately
15mm (gravel), 20mm (normal
crushed rock), or 24mm honey ▪ Some judgment is required to
combed aggregate in 10 generate exactly 10% fines.
minutes. ▪ In practice, two tests are performed,
▪ The fines less than 2.35mm with the aim of liberating about 7%
should fall within 7.5% to 12.5% and 13% fines.
of the initial weight. ▪ The ram load required for 10% fines
▪ The force required to produce is then estimated by proportioning
10% fines is calculated by: between these values.

X= Maximum force (KN).

Y= Mean percentage of fines from two tests at X KN.
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5. Soundness testing
❖ Soundness test: measures the resistance of aggregates to degradation or
disintegration resulting from crystallization of salts within the pores and
interstitial structures of the aggregate particles, also to wetting-drying,
heating-cooling cycles. (weathering resistance of material)
❖ It is accomplished by repeated immersion of sample in to the saturated solutions
of sodium or magnesium sulfate and followed by oven drying
➢ Small soundness value indicates the high resistance of an aggregate to weathering
(the high quality aggregate material)

Recommended limits for soundness values

Tests Max. weighted overall loss after 5 cycles (5)

Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate

Magnesium sulphate 18 15
soundness
Sodium sulphate 12 10
soundness 41
6. Specific gravity test
❖ It is the relative density or the ratio of the density of the material to the
density of distilled water at the stated temperature.
❖ This property of the construction material can controls the stability
condition of the engineering structures by affecting both its vertical and
horizontal holding capacity
❖ Thus, it implies that the material with high specific gravity shows the
heavier and more stable construction material

7. Los Angeles Abrasion (LAA) value test

❖ This test can be used to measure the abrasive wear resistance,
toughness and durability of the construction material under the contact
force.
❖ The Los Angeles Abrasion value shows the percentage of aggregate
material passing a 1.6 mm sieve after the completion of the test.
❖ The more LAA value shows that the construction material is more
susceptible to fragmentation and abrasion or it is unsuitable material.
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8.Water absorption value test
❖ The water absorption test of the construction material shows the ability of
material to absorb water which indirectly use to determine the capacity of
the material to resist the rapid deterioration during wetting & drying
and freezing & thawing cycles of the environment
❖ This test is done by immersing the oven dry rock material into the
water to measure its water absorption
Water absorption %= ( B− A/A) 100
Where; A= the mass of oven-dry tested sample in g
B= the mass of saturated surface-dry tested sample in g
❖ Low percentage of water absorption value indicates high quality
construction material and often tend to be more resistant to mechanical
forces and wetting.
▪ Acceptable limit: 1-5% (generally).
▪ Lightweight aggregates generally have higher water absorption
values: 5-20%.

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9. Aggregate shape tests
❖ The shape of an aggregate can control the interlocking capacity of an
aggregate.

Flakiness index: it is the percentage of particles, by weight, whose least

dimension (thickness) is less than 0.6 times their mean dimension.

Elongation index: it is the percentage of particles, by weight, whose greatest

dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.

Angularity number: it is a measure of relative angularity based on the

percentage of voids in the aggregate.

The least angular aggregates have about 33% voids, and the angularity
number is defined as the amount by which the percentage of voids exceeds 33.
The angularity number ranges from 0 to about 12.
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10. Slake durability test
❖ This test can be used to measure the existence of clay minerals such as
montimorillonite in the rocks which can cause the rapid breakdown of
the rocks due to theirs high water absorption (swelling) capacity.
❖ In addition to this the excessive clay material in ballast rock can restrict
the drainage and promote the growth of vegetation in the ballast section
and affect the track performance.
11. Gradation test
❖ This test can measure the condition of particle grain size distribution in the
construction material
❖ The gradation condition of construction material can control the
performance and stability condition of engineering structures

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Particle size distribution curves for different aggregate mixtures
used for concrete, unbound roadbase and asphalt. 46
Dense-graded mixes:
▪ Termed well graded, continuous graded, straight line graded.
▪ Characterized by an even blend of size fractions from coarse
gravel to silt, such that the finer grains can - with the help of
vibration, watering and compaction - fit between the coarser
ones.

Open-graded aggregate blends:

▪ Termed no fines, harshly graded.
▪ Contain an even mixture of coarse particle sizes, but little or no
void filling fines.

Gap-graded mixtures:
▪ Also termed skip graded or ‘armchair’ graded).
▪ Have an intermediate size fraction missing, generally coarse
sand or fine gravel (say, 1–5 mm).

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48