Information Technology

Management
KDU-CSC 204 / IFT 204
3 Units
 Course Outline

➢ History of IT and internet

➢ IT and its related disciplines.
➢ Pervasive themes in IT;
➢ IT systems model;
➢ A gentle introduction to information technologies – human computer interaction,
➢ Information Management;
❖ Introduction to Information Systems
❖ Introduction to Basic Structured Query Language (SQL)
❖ SQL Syntax
❖ Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Normalization
➢ Networking platform technologies
➢ Programming and web systems and technologies
➢ Data versus information;
 History of Information Technology

➢ Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, probably initially in the form of a
tally stick. The Antikythera mechanism, dating from about the beginning of the first century BC, is
generally considered the earliest known mechanical analog computer, and the earliest known geared
mechanism. Comparable geared devices did not emerge in Europe until the 16th century, and it was not
until 1645 that the first mechanical calculator capable of performing the four basic arithmetical
operations was developed.
➢ Ideas of computer science were first mentioned before the 1950s under the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (MIT) and Harvard University, where they had discussed and began thinking of computer
circuits and numerical calculations. As time went on, the field of information technology and computer
science became more complex and was able to handle the processing of more data. Scholarly articles
began to be published from different organizations.
➢ Looking at early computing, Alan Turing, J. Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly were considered some of
the major pioneers of computer technology in the mid-1900s. Giving them such credit for their
developments, most of their efforts were focused on designing the first digital computer. Along with
that, topics such as artificial intelligence began to be brought up as Turing was beginning to question
such technology of the time period.
 History of Information Technology

➢ Electronic computers using either relays or valves, began to appear in the early 1940s. The
electromechanical Zuse Z3, completed in 1941, was the world's first programmable computer, and by
modern standards one of the first machines that could be considered a complete computing machine.
During the Second World War, Colossus developed the first electronic digital computer to decrypt German
messages. Although it was programmable, it was not general-purpose, being designed to perform only a
single task. It also lacked the ability to store its program in memory; programming was carried out using
plugs and switches to alter the internal wiring. The first recognizably modern electronic digital stored-
program computer was the Manchester Baby, which ran its first program on 21 June 1948.
➢ The development of transistors in the late 1940s at Bell Laboratories allowed a new generation of
computers to be designed with greatly reduced power consumption. The first commercially available
stored-program computer, the Ferranti Mark I, contained 4050 valves and had a power consumption of 25
kilowatts. By comparison, the first transistorized computer developed at the University of Manchester and
operational by November 1953, consumed only 150 watts in its final version.
➢ Several other breakthroughs in semiconductor technology include the integrated circuit (IC) invented by
Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, the metal–oxide–
semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell
Laboratories in 1959, and the microprocessor invented by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, Masatoshi Shima,
and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971. These important inventions led to the development of the personal
computer (PC) in the 1970s, and the emergence of information and communications technology (ICT).
 History of Information Technology

➢ Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields that encompass computer systems, software,
programming languages, data, information processing and storage. IT forms part of information and
communications technology (ICT). Information technology is also a branch of computer science,
which can be defined as the overall study of procedure, structure, and the processing of various types of
data.
➢ An information technology system (IT system) is generally an information system, a communication
system, including all hardware, software, and peripheral equipment; operated by a limited group of IT
users, and an IT project usually refers to the commissioning and implementation of an IT system.
Although humans have been storing, retrieving, manipulating, and communicating information since the
earliest writing systems were developed, the term information technology in its modern sense first
appeared around 1958 in a published article at Harvard Business Review. The term is commonly used
as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but it also encompasses other information
distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several products or services within an
economy are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software,
electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.
 History of Information Technology

➢ Storage: Early electronic computers such as Colossus made use of punched tape, a long strip of paper on
which data was represented by a series of holes, a technology now obsolete. Electronic data storage, which
is used in modern computers, dates from World War II, when a form of delay-line memory was developed to
remove the clutter from radar signals, the first practical application of which was the mercury delay line.
The first random-access digital storage device was the Williams tube, which was based on a standard
cathode ray tube. However, the information stored in it and delay-line memory was volatile in the fact that it
had to be continuously refreshed, and thus was lost once power was removed. The earliest form of non-
volatile computer storage was the magnetic drum, invented in 1932 and used in the Ferranti Mark 1, the
world's first commercially available general-purpose electronic computer.
❖ IBM introduced the first hard disk drive in 1956, as a component of their 305 RAMAC computer system.
Most digital data is still stored magnetically on hard disks, or optically on media such as CD-ROMs. Until
2002 most information was stored on analog devices, but that year digital storage capacity exceeded
analog for the first time. As of 2007, almost 94% of the data stored worldwide was held digitally 52% on
hard disks, 28% on optical devices, and 11% on digital magnetic tape. It has been estimated that the
worldwide capacity to store information on electronic devices grew from less than 3 exabytes in 1986 to
295 exabytes in 2007, doubling roughly every 3 years
 History of Information Technology

➢ Database Management System emerged in the 1960s to address the problem of storing and retrieving large
amounts of data accurately and quickly. An early such system was IBM's Information Management System (IMS),
which is still widely deployed more than 50 years later. IMS stores data hierarchically, but in the 1970s Ted Codd
proposed an alternative relational storage model based on set theory and predicate logic and the familiar
concepts of tables, rows, and columns. In 1981, the first commercially available relational database management
system (RDBMS) was released by Oracle.
❖ All DMS consist of components, they allow the data they store to be accessed simultaneously by many users while
maintaining its integrity. All databases are common in one point that the structure of the data they contain is
defined and stored separately from the data itself, in a database schema.
❖ In recent years, the extensible markup language (XML) has become a popular format for data representation.
Although XML data can be stored in normal file systems, it is commonly held in relational databases to take
advantage of their "robust implementation verified by years of both theoretical and practical effort." As an evolution
of the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML), XML's text-based structure offers the advantage of being
both machine- and human-readable
➢ Transmission: Data transmission has three aspects: transmission, propagation, and reception. It can be broadly
categorized as broadcasting, in which information is transmitted unidirectionally downstream, or
telecommunications, with bidirectional upstream and downstream channels.
❖ XML has been increasingly employed as a means of data interchange since the early 2000s, particularly for
machine-oriented interactions such as those involved in web-oriented protocols such as SOAP, describing "data-
in-transit rather than data-at-rest.
 History of Information Technology

➢ Manipulation: Massive amounts of data are stored worldwide every day, but unless it can be analyzed and
presented effectively, it essentially resides in what have been called data tombs: "data archives that are seldom
visited". To address that issue, the field of data mining "the process of discovering interesting patterns and
knowledge from large amounts of data" emerged in the late 1980s.
 History of Internet

➢ The history of the Internet has its origin in the efforts of scientists and engineers to build and interconnect computer
networks. The Internet Protocol Suite, the set of rules used to communicate between networks and devices on the
Internet, arose from research and development in the United States and involved international collaboration,
particularly with researchers in the United Kingdom and France.
➢ Computer Science was an emerging discipline in the late 1950s that began to consider time-sharing between
computer users, and later, the possibility of achieving this over wide area networks developed the idea of a
universal network at the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) of the United States Department of
Defense (DoD) Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Independently, Paul Baran at the RAND Corporation
proposed a distributed network based on data in message blocks in the early 1960s, and Donald Davies conceived
of packet switching in 1965 at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL), proposing a national commercial data
network in the United Kingdom.
➢ ARPA awarded contracts in 1969 for the development of the ARPANET project, directed by Robert Taylor and
managed by Lawrence Roberts. ARPANET adopted the packet switching technology proposed by Davies and Baran.
The network of Interface Message Processors was built by a team at Bolt, Beranek, and Newman, with the design
and specification led by Bob Kahn. The host-to-host protocol was specified by a group of graduate students at
UCLA, led by Steve Crocker, along with Jon Postel and Vint Cerf. The ARPANET expanded rapidly across the United
States with connections to the United Kingdom and Norway.
 History of Internet

➢ Several early packet-switched networks emerged in the 1970s which researched and provided data networking.
Louis Pouzin and Hubert Zimmermann pioneered a simplified end-to-end approach to internet working at the IRIA.
Peter Kirstein at University College London put internet working into practice in 1973. Bob Metcalfe developed the
theory behind Ethernet and PARC Universal Packet. ARPA projects, the International Network Working Group and
commercial initiatives led to the development of various ideas for internetworking, in which multiple separate
networks could be joined into a network of networks. Vint Cerf, now at Stanford University, and Bob Kahn, now at
DARPA, published research in 1974 that evolved into the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol
(IP), two protocols of the Internet protocol suite. The design included concepts from the French CYCLADES project
directed by Louis Pouzin. The development of packet switching networks was underpinned by mathematical work in
the 1970s by Leonard Kleinrock at UCLA
➢ In the late 1970s, national and international public data networks emerged based on the X.25 protocol, designed by
Rémi Després and others. In the United States, the National Science Foundation (NSF) funded national
supercomputing centers at several universities in the United States, and provided interconnectivity in 1986 with the
NSFNET project, thus creating network access to these supercomputer sites for research and academic
organizations in the United States. International connections to NSFNET, the emergence of architecture such as the
Domain Name System, and the adoption of TCP/IP on existing networks in the United States and around the world
marked the beginnings of the Internet. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) emerged in 1989 in the United
States and Australia. Limited private connections to parts of the Internet by officially commercial entities emerged
in several American cities by late 1989 and 1990. The optical backbone of the NSFNET was decommissioned in
1995, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic, as traffic transitioned to
optical networks managed by Sprint, MCI and AT&T in the United States.
 IT and its related disciplines
➢ The information systems discipline involves the efficient design, delivery, and application of communication and
information technologies in order to solve particular problems for governments, companies, and society. It refers to
information set management that includes technology components, people, and processes.
❖ The study of information systems incorporates computer networking, decision support systems, system design and
analysis, database management, and information security.
❖ The discipline focuses on theoretical and practical problems of data collection and analysis, telecommunication
technologies, and the application of theoretical foundations for the development of algorithmic processes, IT
systems, and various models, especially in business.
❖ Career opportunities in information systems are network administration, system analysis, computer programming,
computer support, database support, and Internet support.
❖ Programming and scripting are computer languages used to create applications and software. Programming is a
particular combination of symbols and words for writing programs. In turn, scripting is a programming language
type designed for runtime systems for task execution automatization. In contrast with programming languages,
scripting does not need compilation. In general, a program is a set of instructions for a computer’s task
performance, while a script is a code for a software application’s control.
❖ Web developers, computer systems engineers, web designers, and app developers use programming languages,
such as Java and HTML. For instance, video game developers use them to create games. In turn, scripting
languages, such as Python, Ruby, or JavaScript, are used by experts to automate network administration tasks and
execute programs, for example, through web servers.
 Pervasive Themes in Information Technology

➢ The pervasive nature of information technology means that there are a wide range of available
careers and professions at every level of professional development and to suit virtually any interest.
➢ Information Technology is pervasive, and people in almost all working environments will be immersed
in it in one form or another. The pervasive nature of information technology leads to a presbyopic sense
of confidence in our ability to understand and manage its uses.
➢ User Centeredness: User-Centered Design (UCD) vary from Participatory Design (PD) to model-based
engineering. Based on the international standard ISO/DIS 13407 (Human Centered Design Process for
Interactive Systems), an approach to software and hardware design that identifies four different basic
principles is given below:
❖ An appropriate allocation of function between user and system
❖ Active involvement of users,
❖ Iterations of design solutions and
❖ Multidisciplinary design teams.
➢ User Centered Versus Participatory: It may seem that User Centered Design (UCD) and Participatory
Design (PD) are very similar, almost equivalent terms, with PD being a subset of UCD. Actually these
are two overlapping sets, with an uncertain amount of overlap.
 Pervasive Themes in Information Technology

➢ User Participation: UCD should be integrated in all design processes but how this is done
depends on the type of project and product.
➢ Different approaches to UCD must be adopted if the user population is:
▪ known and accessible
▪ known and not accessible
▪ unknown and therefore not accessible. The below sections discuss how UCD could be integrated
in different situations.
✓ With or Without Users: It is always important to find out who the users are.
✓ User Representatives: You can choose to work with representatives for the user group. A user
representative represents a group of users or a specific category of users. One should always try to
maximize the difference between the people you involve, i.e. try to cover as many different categories of
users as possible. When developing for a specific organization all different types of work activities that a
system supports should be covered by the skills of the user representatives.
✓ User Selection: Different strategies can be adopted when selecting user representatives. Selecting
users on a random basis may provide you with some information on how the average user would
behave.
✓ Working with Groups or Individuals: An example of working with representatives for a group of
workers in which a homogenous group of about four representatives was formed in order to make them
strong enough to work directly with researchers, designers and UCD facilitators.
 Pervasive Themes in Information Technology

✓ Humbleness and Respect: It is important to think about how to co-operate with users and that we
have to take care of this contact. The keywords for success are humbleness and respect. The ways in
which we interact with the users controls the result. Unfortunately, attitudes both from the developer
side and user side can be obstacles in this process.
✓ Working on the Field: It is important that not only the UCD facilitators but also the designers and
developers should go out into the field and have direct contact with the users. Field observations might
give the designers some impressions and ideas that they would not have been able to obtain
otherwise. After all, users are clients that the designers and developers are supposed to deliver
products to.
✓ Video Documentation: Video is a very useful medium for analysis and for visualizing current and
future scenarios. Video is also a very efficient medium for showing developers how users actually use
the products that they have designed. When a developer has seen a user perform the same error a
couple of times there is no need for further convincing that the design must be changed. In order to
facilitate fruitful and informative interviews and to learn about the hierarchies of the workplace in
advance, spending time at the workplace with a video camera could be very useful.
IT Systems
Model
• Modeling is the foundation for
successful development and
implementation of new IT systems.
A correct and complete model
ensures that, in the end, users get
the IT system they need.
 IT Systems Model

➢ The IT system model consists of four different views, each of which emphasizes certain aspects and
which are closely related to each other.
➢ External View: Use case diagram and use case sequence diagram
➢ Structural View: Class diagram
➢ Interaction View: Sequence diagram and communication diagram
➢ Behavioral View: Statechart diagram
➢ The external view shows the use cases of the IT system in the form of UML use case diagrams and an
interface prototype. It makes apparent which functionalities the IT system provides to users.
➢ The structural view shows the relevant classes of the IT system in the form of UML class diagrams. It
makes apparent in which structures information is filed in the IT system.
➢ The behavioral view shows the behavior of the individual objects in the form of statechart diagrams. It
makes apparent everything that can happen with an object that is filed in the IT system.
➢ The interaction view shows flows that take place during mutations or queries within the IT system, in
the form of sequence diagrams and communication diagrams. It makes apparent what takes place in
the IT system when a user utilizes it.
 Human Computer Interaction

➢ Human-Computer Interaction is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on designing and evaluating

computer systems and technologies that people interact with. It is concerned with understanding

and improving the interaction between humans and computers to make technology more user-friendly,

efficient, and enjoyable.

➢ In 1983, Card, Moran and Newell described the Model Human Processor: a simplified view of the human processing

involved in interacting with computer systems. MHP comprises 3 subsystems: the perceptual system, the motor system

and the cognitive system. Each of them has a processor and memory. MHP also includes a number of Principles of

operation which dictate the behavior of the system under certain conditions.
 HCI (Human) - Input-Output channels

➢ In interacting with a computer, the human input is the data output by the computer vice versa. Input in humans occurs
mainly through the senses and output through the motor controls of the effectors. Vision, hearing and touch are the
most important senses in HCI. The fingers, voice, eyes, head and body position are the primary effectors.
❖ Vision: Visual perception can be divided in 2 stages: the physical reception of the stimulus from the outside world, and
the processing and interpretation of that stimulus.
❖ Hearing: The pitch is the frequency of the sound. The higher the frequency, the higher the sound. The loudness
corresponds to the amplitude of the sound. Timbre relates to the type of the sound, independent of frequency and
amplitude.
❖ Touch: The apparatus of touch (haptic perception) is not localized. Stimuli are received through the skin, which contains
various types of sensory receptors.
❖ Movement: When making movements, a stimulus is received through the sensory receptors and transmitted to the
brain. After processing, the brain tells the appropriate muscle to respond. The movement time is dependent on the
physical characteristics of the subjects. The reaction time varies according to the sensory channel through which the
stimulus is received.
 HCI (Human) – Human Memory

➢ We can distinguish 3 types of memory: sensory buffers, short-term memory (or working memory) and long-term
memory.
➢ Sensory memory: The sensory memories act as buffers for stimuli received through each of the senses: iconic memory
for vision, echoic memory for sounds and haptic memory for touch. These memories are constantly overwritten by new
information coming in on these channels. Information is passed from the sensory memory into short-term memory by
attention, filtering the stimuli to those that are at that moment of interest (arousal, or shift of attention).
➢ Short-term memory: STM is used to store information which is only required fleetingly. STM can be accessed rapidly,
however, also decays rapidly. It has a limited capacity. Miller stated the 7+/-2 rule, which means that humans can store 5-
9 chunks of information. Chunks can be single items or groups of items, like 2 digits of a telephone number grouped
together. Patterns can be useful as aids to memory.
➢ Long-term memory: LTM differs from STM in various ways. It has an unlimited capacity, a slow access time and forgetting
occurs more slowly or not at all. Information is stored here from the STM through rehearsal. There are 2 types of LTM:
episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory represents our memory of event and experiences in a serial
form. Semantic memory is a structured record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired, derived from the
episodic memory.
 HCI (Human)– Human Memory

➢ There are 3 main activities related to LTM: storage of information, forgetting and information retrieval.
❖ Storage: The rehearsal of a piece of information from the STM stores it in the LTM. If the total learning time is increased,
information is remembered better (total time hypothesis). However, the learning time should be well spread
(distribution of practice effect). But repetition alone is not enough: information should be meaningful and familiar, so it
can be related to existing structures and more easily incorporated into memory.
❖ Forgetting: There are 2 main theories of forgetting: decay and interference. Decay suggests that information held in LTM
may eventually be forgotten. Jost’s Law states that if 2 memory traces are equally strong at the same time, the older one
will be more durable. Information, however, can also be lost through interference: if we acquire new information, it
causes the loss of old information: retroactive interference. It is also possible that the older information interferes with
the newly acquired information: proactive inhibition. Forgetting is affected by emotional factors
❖ Retrieval: There are 2 types of information retrieval: recall and recognition. In recall the information is produced from
memory. It can be facilitated by providing cues, e.g. the category in which the information may be placed. In recognition,
the presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before.
 HCI (Human): Psychology and the Design of Interactive Systems

➢ Guidelines: General design principles and guidelines (straightforward or complex) can be and have been derived from
the above discussed theories.
➢ Models to support design: Psychological analysis has led to the development of analytic and predictive models of user
behaviour.
➢ Techniques for evaluation: Psychology provides a range of empirical techniques which we can employ to evaluate
designs and systems.
 HCI (The Computer): Text Entry Devices

➢ Interaction (with or without computer) is a process of information transfer. The diversity of devices reflects the fact that
there are many different types of data that may be entered into and obtained from a system, as there are many different
users. In the early days, batch processing was common: a large mass of information was dumped into and processed by
the computer. Nowadays, computers respond within milliseconds and computer systems are integrated in many different
devices.
➢ The alphanumeric keyboard: The keyboards have a standardized layout, known by the first six letters on the top row:
QWERTY. The non-alphanumeric keys are not standardized. This layout is not optimal for typing, but dates from the time
of mechanical limitations of the typewriter. Today, the keys can also be arranged in alphabetic order (the alphabetic
keyboard), but this does not improve typing performance. The DVORAK keyboard does, placing the keys in a different
order on a similar layout as found on the QWERTY keyboards. The layout minimized the stretch of fingers and the use of
weak fingers, reducing fatigue and increasing typing speed (10-15%).
➢ Chord keyboards: On chord keyboards, only a few keys are used. Letters are produces pressing multiple keys at once.
They are smaller than conventional keyboards and have a short learning time.
➢ Phone pad and T9 entry: The numeric keys on a cellphone can be pressed more than once to enter letters. Most phones
have 2 keypad modes: a numeric and an alphabetic mode.
➢ Handwriting recognition: Current technology is still fairly inaccurate and makes a lot of mistakes, partly due to the
enormous differences between people’s handwriting. HR deals mostly worth stroke information: the way in which the
letter is drawn, not the letter itself. Therefore, online recognition is most accurate. HR has the advantage of size and
accuracy over small keyboards and are therefore often used in mobile computing.
➢ Speech recognition: The performance of speech recognition is still relatively low, even for a restricted vocabulary.
Adjusting the system for use with natural language gives birth to even more problems: the .errors. in natural language
 HCI (The Computer): Positioning, Pointing, and Drawing

➢ The mouse: The mouse is an indirect input device, because a transformation is required to map from the horizontal
nature of the desktop to the vertical alignment of the screen. Invented in 1964 by Engelbart, his mouse used 2 wheels
that slid across the desktop and transmitted x; y-coordinates to the computer. There have been experiments with foot-
controlled mice.
➢ Touchpad: Touchpads are touch-sensitive tablets, operated by sliding the finger over it and are mostly used in notebook
computers. Performance can be increased using accelerators.
➢ Trackball and thumbwheel: A trackball is an upside-down mouse: instead of moving the device itself, the ball is rolled to
move the cursor. Trackballs are often used by RSI users. Thumb-wheels (in 2 dimensions) offer less usability because they
can only manipulate the horizontal and vertical movement of the cursor. 1-dimensional thumbwheels are often included
on the normal mice the enhance the scrolling.
➢ Joystick and keyboard nipple: There are two types of joysticks: absolute sticks, in which the position of the cursor
corresponds to the position of the joystick in its base, and isometric sticks, in which the pressure on the stick (in a certain
direction) controls the velocity of the cursor in that direction. Keyboard nipples are tiny joysticks that are sometimes
used on notebook computers.
➢ Touch-sensitive screens (touchscreens): Touchscreens detect the position of the user’s finger or stylus on the screen
itself and are therefore very direct. They work by having the finger/stylus interrupting a matrix of light beams, making
capacitance changes on a grid overlaying the screen or by ultrasonic reflections. It is a direct device: no mapping is
required. However, the selection of small area’s is di¢ cult and intensive use can be tiring.
 HCI (The Computer): Positioning, Pointing, and Drawing

➢ Stylus and lightpen: For more accurate positioning, systems with touch-sensitive surfaces often employ a stylus. An older
technology for the same purpose is the lightpen, which emits radiation detected by the screen. A difficulty of this and
other direct devices is that pointing obscures the display, making it more difficult to use in rapid successions.
➢ Digitizing tablet: A device used for freehand drawing. A resistive tablet detects point contact between two separated
conducting sheets. Magnetic, capacitive and electrostatic tablets use special pens. The sonic tablet requires no pad: an
ultrasonic sound emitted by the pen is detected by 2 microphones.
➢ Eyegaze: Eyegaze allows you to control the computer by looking at it, while wearing special glasses, head-mounted boxes
etc. By tracking a laser beam’s reflection in the eye, the direction in which the eye is looking is determined. The system
needs to be tuned and is very expensive, but also very accurate.
➢ Cursor keys and discrete positioning: For 2D-navigation, cursor keys can sometimes be preferable. The same goes for
remote-controls and cellphones.
 HCI (The Computer): Display Devices

➢ Bitmap displays, resolution and color: A bitmap-base means that the display is made of a fixed number of dots or pixels
in a rectangular grid. The color or intensity at each pixel is held by the Computer’s video card. The more bits per pixel,
the more colors/intensities are possible. Also is the resolution of the screen: the total number of pixels (in a 4:3-ratio)
and the density of the pixels. Anti-alinsing: softening the edges of line segments, blurring the discontinuity and making
the juggles less obvious.
➢ Technologies: In a CRT-monitor a stream of electrons is emitted from an electron gun, which is than focused and directed
by magnetic .elds. As the beam hits the phosphor-coated screen, the phosphor is excited by the electrons and glows.
Flicker can be reduced by increasing the scanning rate or by interlacing, in which odd lines are scanned first, followed by
even lines. In LCD’s a thin layer of liquid crystals is sandwiched between two glass plates. External light passes through
the top plate and is polarized. This passes through the crystal and is reflected back to the user’s eye by the bottom plate.
The polarization of each single crystal can be turned electronically.
➢ Large displays and situated displays: There are several types of large displays. Some use gas-plasma technology and
usually have a 16:9-ratio. Several smaller screens can also be places together in a video wall. Projectors are possible too,
in two variants: projectors with 3 lenses (red, green and blue) can build a full-color image. LCD-projectors have a small
screen, through which light is projected on a screen.
➢ Digital paper: Thin flexible material that can be written to electronically but keeps its contents when removed from the
power supply.
 HCI (The Computer): Memory

➢ RAM and short-term memory (STM): Most current active information is held in the random access memory (RAM). RAM
is volatile: contents are lost when the power is turned o¤. However, there are more expensive or low-power consuming
memory techniques that can hold their contents when the power is off.
➢ Disks and long-term memory (LTM): There are 2 main techniques used in disks: magnetic disks (floppy, harddisk, tape)
and optical disks. (CD-ROM/DVD). In comparison to RAM, the computers LTM is rather slow.
➢ Understanding speed and capacity: The capacity of RAM is limited and therefore multitask-systems tend to swap
background-running programs from RAM to the harddisk. When the program is fully activated it has to be swapped back,
which can cause delays (von Neumann bottleneck).
➢ Compression: Compression techniques can be used to reduce the amount of storage required for text, bitmaps and
video. In text, logical constructions in the sentence can be replaced by a short code. In video, differences between
frames can be recorded instead of the whole frames. If fractal compression is used, the quality can even improve in the
process.
➢ Storage format and standards: The basic standard for text storage is the ASCII character codes, which assign to each
standard printable character and several control characters an internationally recognized 7-bit code. UNICODE is an
extended version of this system and can also code for foreign characters. However, this is all unformatted text. All editors
which produce formatted texts have their own .le format. Also, for images there exists a wide range of formats.
➢ Methods of access: Standard database access is by special key .elds with an associated index. The user has to know the
key before the system can find the information. Indices on databases are limited due to the storage costs, privacy and
security. The User’s mistakes in searching can be compensated by using forgiving systems, for example by matching a key
to a database index which corresponds closely.
 HCI (The Computer): Processing and networks

➢ Effects of finite processor speed: The processing speed of an interactive system can affect the user by being too slow
(which can be avoided by using buffers) or too fast. The faults can be functional, in which the program does the wrong
action. Slow responses from the system can also cause the cursor tracking and icon wars. If the system is too fast, the
user will not have enough time to interpret the system’s output.
➢ Limitations on interactive performance: Several factors that can limit the speed of an interactive system. They can be:
▪ Computation bound: Make sure the user has an indication of the system’s progress.
▪ Storage channel bound: Select the best fitting kind of memory and access technique.
▪ Graphics bound: The actual time of graphic operations can differ much from the estimates.
▪ Network capacity
➢ Network computing: Networked systems have an effect on interactivity, because the large distances may cause a
noticeable delay in response from the system. The actions of other users may also influence your own interaction with
the connected computers.
 HCI (The Computer): The Interaction

➢ Models of interaction: There are a number of ways in which the user can communicate with the system: batch input,
direct manipulation, virtual reality etc.
➢ Interactivity is essential in determining the feel of a WIMP environment. In WIMP environments, the user takes the
initiative, with many options and many applications simultaneously available. The exceptions to this are the preemptive
parts of the interface, where the system can take the initiative for various reasons (e.g. the need for specific information).
➢ The terms of interaction
❖ Purpose of an interactive system: Aid the user in accomplishing goals from some application domain.
❖ Domain: An area of expertise and knowledge in some real-world activity.
❖ Tasks: Operations to manipulate the concepts of a domain.
❖ Goal: Desired output from a performed task.
❖ Intention: Specific action required to meet the goal.
❖ Task analyses: Identification of the problem space for the user of an interactive system in terms of domain, goals,
intention and tasks.
❖ System’s language: Core language, describes computational attributes of the domain relevant to the System state.
❖ User’s language: Task language, describes psychological attributes of the domain relevant to the User state.
❖ System: Computerized application.
 HCI (The Computer): The Interaction

➢ The execution-evaluation cycle: The plan formulated by the user is executed by the computer. When finished, the user
evaluates the results and determines the further actions. Both execution and evaluation can be divided into the
following subsections:
❖ Establishing the goal
❖ Forming the intention (more specific than goal)
❖ Specifying the action sequence (based on intention)
❖ Executing the action
❖ Perceiving the system state
❖ Interpreting the system state
❖ Evaluating the system state with respect to the goals and intentions
✓ Gulf of execution: Difference between the user’s formalization of the actions and the actions allowed by the system.
✓ Gulf of evaluation: Distance between the physical presentation of the system state and the expectation of the user.
➢ Frameworks and HCI
✓ Ergonomics: The user side of the interface, covering both input and output and the user’s immediate context.
✓ Dialog design and interface styles.
✓ Presentation and screen design
 HCI (The Computer): The Interaction styles

➢ Command line interface: CLI provides a means of expressing instructions to the computer directly, using function keys,
single characters, abbreviations or whole-word commands. They are flexible (parameters) and can be combined to apply
a number of tools to the same data. Commands should be remembered by the user, the CLI offers no ques.
➢ Menus: A set of menu options available for the user is displayed on the screen. The user can select an option
(recognition!) using either mouse or keyboard. The menus can be presented text-based and graphical.
➢ Natural language: The ambiguity of natural language makes it very hard for a machine to understand. However, systems
can be built to understand restricted subsets of a language, which is relatively successful.
➢ Question/answer and query dialog: The user is asked a series of questions and so is led through the interaction step by
step. These interfaces are easy to learn and use but are limited in their functionality and power. Query languages are
used to construct queries to retrieve information from a database. They require specifications from the user in a strict
syntax.
➢ Form-fills and spreadsheets: Primarily used for data entry but can also be useful in data retrieval applications. Most
form-filling interfaces assist the user during the interaction. Spreadsheets are a sophisticated variation of form filling. The
user can enter and alter values and formulae in any order and the system will maintain consistency amongst the values
displayed, ensuring that all formulae are obeyed.
➢ The WIMP interface: Windows, icons, menus and pointers: the default interface style for the majority of computer
systems today.
➢ Point-and-click interfaces: The PCI is closely related to the WIMP-style: pointing and clicking are the only actions required
to access information.
➢ Three-dimensional interfaces: The simplest technique is where ordinary WIMP elements are given a 3D appearance. A
more complex technique uses interfaces with 3D workspaces. The objects displayed are flat but are displayed in
perspective: they shrink when they are further away. The most complex 3D-workspace is virtual reality.
 HCI (The Computer): The Interaction styles

➢ Elements of the WIMP-interface: The elements of the WIMP interfaces are called widgets: the toolkit for interaction
between user and system.
❖ Windows: Windows are areas on the screen that behave as if they were independent terminals in their own right: it can
contain any information and can be resized or moved around. Some systems allow windows within windows.
❖ Icons: An icon is a small picture used to represent a closed window.
❖ Pointers: The different shapes of the cursor are often used to distinguish modes. Cursors are also used to give
information about the systems activity (hour-glass). In essence pointers are nothing more than small bitmap images with
a hotspot: the location to which they point.
❖ Menus: A menu presents a choice of operations or services that can be performed by the system at a given time. Menus
provide information cues in the form of an ordered list of operations that can be scanned and selected by using the
❖ Pointer: There are two types: pop-up menus, that represent context-dependent options, and pull-down menus, that are
always visible. The right grouping of the menu-items is the most di¢ cult part of designing a menu.
❖ Buttons: Buttons are individual and isolated regions within a display that can be selected by the user to invoke a specific
action. Radio buttons are used for selecting one option from a group. When there are multiple options selectable, check
boxes are more common.
❖ Toolbars: Mostly equivalent to menus, except for that a toolbar can also hold buttons.
❖ Palettes: Palettes are mechanisms for making the set of possible modes and the active mode visible to the user
(collection of icons).
❖ Dialog boxes: Dialog boxes are information windows used by the system to bring the user’s attention to some important
information, possibly an error or a warning used to prevent a possible error, or as a sub-dialog for a very specific task.
 Information Management

➢ Information management is a vital aspect of data-driven businesses that allows them to make better decisions
and achieve goals. Understanding the purpose of information management can help the system enhance the use,
protection and storage of information to operate more effectively.
➢ Information management is the collection, storage, management and maintenance of data and other
types of information. It involves the gathering, dissemination, archiving and destruction of information
in all its forms. Information management covers the procedures and guidelines organizations adopt to
manage and communicate information among different individuals, departments and stakeholders.
➢ Information management versus data management
❖ Information management begins with the creation and collection of data that is processed and
analyzed into information. The next step is storage, sharing and archiving when more current data
becomes available. This process ends with the destruction of information for different reasons,
including security, confidentiality, cost and storage constraints.
❖ Data management is a subset of information management and relates to the policies, plans and
programs that protect and control data and information assets through their life cycle. Data
management gives organizations control over their business data, which can minimize security
breaches and other risks when done properly.
 Data versus Information

➢ Data are the facts or details from which information is derived. Individual pieces of data are rarely useful alone.
➢ For data to become information, data needs to be put into context.
➢ Data are simply facts or figures — bits of information, but not information itself.
➢ When data are processed, interpreted, organized, structured or presented so as to make them
meaningful or useful, they are called information. Information provides context for data.
➢ Comparison chart
Data Information
Data is raw, unorganized facts When data is processed,
that need to be processed. Data organized, structured or
Meaning can be something simple and presented in a given context so
seemingly random and useless as to make it useful, it is called
until it is organized. information.
The average score of a class or
Each student's test score is one of the entire school is
Example
piece of data. information that can be derived
from the given data.
 Roles of Information Management

➢ Controls creation of records: An effective information management system can help an organization
control the creation and growth of records. Without a defined strategy for creating and recording
information, the workplace can produce excessive paper and paperless records.
➢ Ensures regulatory compliance: Many organizations have to work within regulations regarding how
they handle client and business data. An effective information management system provides
guidelines that enforce compliance with laws and regulations, allowing the company to avoid legal and
financial penalties that could result from accidental breaches.
➢ Reduces operating costs: Workplaces need an efficient information management system to reduce
the cost of record keeping. Data collection, analysis, information storage, sharing and destruction are
capital-intensive activities, especially for large organizations. Information management prioritizes the
most important records, reducing expenses throughout the information life cycle.
➢ Adopts new technologies: Information management provides the capability to adopt newer and more
efficient technologies for managing information. It can be automation, enterprise solutions, artificial
intelligence or any technological product or service that will help the company derive more benefits
from its information.
 Roles of Information Management

➢ Improves productivity and efficiency: A great information management system can improve how employees
store and retrieve information required during their daily activities. It can also make it easier to disseminate
information to diverse recipients via multiple channels, allowing teams to collaborate and communicate easily
across time zones and locations. An effective information management system can help the organization extract
actionable insights from its records to guide decision-making.
➢ Reduces risks: An important function of information management is to reduce the risk of legal and financial
punishments against the organization. It achieves this with a well-defined protocol for recording, storing,
disseminating and destroying data. This reduces the chance of breaches and improves compliance with
regulations.
➢ Protects proprietary information and preserves corporate memory: Organizations need a process
to safeguard their vital information from competitors and unauthorized access. Information
management provides a system for protecting proprietary information from intruders, system failures
and natural disasters. It helps protect the confidentiality and integrity of vital information assets,
allowing the owner to derive maximum benefits from their trade secrets.
 How to create an information management system

➢ Identify information requirements: The first step when creating an information management system is to identify
information requirements. This can be in the form of an internal study or company-wide survey to determine the
scope of the system in relation to the business, its operations, stakeholders and regulatory requirements. A simple
way to achieve this step is to ask employees and management the amount and type of information they need to
perform their duties.
➢ Outline objectives: For the system to be successful, the organization needs to define its objectives in
the form of guidelines or protocols that will guide implementation. Consider the overall management
principles that will serve as a user manual when the system becomes operational.
➢ Determine information sources: Organizations can collect information from diverse sources,
including employees, internal departments, competitor research, market intelligence and regulatory
agencies. The objectives of the system often determine the sources of information.
➢ Determine collection and classification methods: Once you have determined the sources of
information, the next step is to identify methods of collecting and classifying the information. This
involves outlining the amount of information collection and the frequency, location and time. For
classification, determine which information is quantitative, qualitative, technical, demographic,
financial, legal and other categories. This step also involves the storage of current information and
archiving when it becomes obsolete.
 How to create an information management system

➢ Determine dissemination method: Identify the information recipients, the format and the channels of
distribution. Then, decide when to provide data access and other control measures to prevent breaches.
➢ Perform a cost-benefit analysis: The cost of an information management system will include
expenses for setting up the infrastructure, training staff, daily operations and maintenance. An
effective information management system will deliver benefits that outweigh the costs.
➢ Implement and evaluate: If the cost-benefit analysis is positive, begin setting up the system and
providing training and operational guidelines. You want employees who use the system to improve their
productivity and efficiency at work.
➢ Maintain and improve: An evaluation will show how to improve the system’s effectiveness and also
provides an opportunity to upgrade infrastructure and retrain staff. Continuous improvements can
contribute positively to the company's ability to achieve short- and long-term goals.
 Introduction to Information Systems
➢ The term Information System (IS) refers to information technology that is used by people to accomplish a specified
organisational or individual objective. The technology may be used in the gathering, processing, storing, and/or
dissemination of information, and the users are trained in the use of that technology, as well as in the procedures to be
followed in doing so. The specific technologies that collectively comprise information technology are computer
technology and data communications technology.
➢ IS sometimes refers to a system of persons, data records and activities that process the data and information in an
organisation, and it includes the organisation’s manual and automated processes. Computer-based information systems
are the field of study for information technology, elements of which are sometimes called an “information system” as
well; a usage some consider to be incorrect.
➢ Generally, Information System is described by three objects: Structure, channels and networks.
❖ Structure:
✓ Repositories, which hold data permanently or temporarily, such as buffers, RAM, hard disks, cache, etc.
✓ Interfaces, which exchange information with the non-digital world, such as keyboards, speakers, scanners, printers, etc.
❖ Channels: which connect repositories, such as buses, cables, wireless links, etc.
❖ Network: is a set of logical or physical: an introduction to informatics in organisations.
 Types of Information Systems

➢ Expert Systems: An expert system is built by modeling into the computer the thought processes and decision-making
heuristics of a recognised expert in a particular field. Thus, this type of information system is theoretically capable of
making decisions for a user, based on input received from the user. However, due to the complex and uncertain nature of
most business decision environments, expert system technology has traditionally been used in these environments
primarily like decision support systems that is, to help a human decision maker arrive at a reasonable decision, rather than
to actually make the decision for the user.
➢ Information System Department: The IS department partly governs the information system development, use, application
and influence on a business or corporation. An IS department typically provides:
❖ technologically implemented medium for recording, storing, and disseminating information
❖ techniques for drawing conclusions from such information.
 Types of Information Systems

➢ Transaction Processing Systems: These record and track an organisation's transactions, such as sales transactions or
inventory items, from the moment each is first created until it leaves the system. This helps managers at the day-to-day
operational level keep track of daily transactions as well as make decisions on when to place orders, make shipments, and
so on.
➢ Management Information and reporting Systems (MIS): These systems provide mid-level and senior managers with
periodic, often summarized, reports that help them assess performance (e.g., a particular region's sales performance in a
given time period) and make appropriate decisions based on that information. MIS is a subset of the overall internal
controls of a business covering the application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures by management
accountants to solving business problems such as costing a product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management
Information Systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used to analyse other information
systems applied in operational activities in the organisation.
➢ Decision Support Systems: These systems are designed to help mid-level and senior managers make those difficult
decisions about which not every relevant parameter is known. These decisions, referred to as semi-structured decisions, are
characteristic of the types of decisions made at the higher levels of management. A decision on whether or not to introduce
a particular (brand new) product into an organisation’s product line is an example of a semi-structured decision. Another
example is the decision on whether or not to open a branch in a foreign country. Some of the parameters that go into the
making of these decisions are known. The value of a Decision Support System (DSS) is in its ability to permit “what-if”
analyses
 Introduction to Basic SQL

➢ An aspect of information Systems is data processing, with the prior knowledge of information systems and computer
technology as a whole, it will be easy to introduce the basic concept of Structured Query Language which is a useful tool in
accessing and manipulating databases.
➢ A database is an organised collection of related data. There are many different strategies for organising data to facilitate
easy access and manipulation. A database management system (DBMS) provides mechanisms for storing, organising,
retrieving and modifying data for many users. Database management systems allow for the access and storage of data
without concern for the internal representation of data.
➢ SQL a standard language used almost universally with relational databases to perform queries (i.e., to request information
that satisfies given criteria) and to manipulate data. SQL is a programming language for querying and modifying data and
managing databases.
➢ Advantages of SQL
❖ efficient
❖ easy to learn and use
❖ functionally complete(With SQL, you can define, retrieve, and manipulate data in the tables)
➢ Databases come in various types, including relational (RDBMS), NoSQL, hierarchical, network, object-oriented, graph, cloud,
and distributed, each suited for different data structures and management needs
➢ Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems like MS SQL
Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access. The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A
table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.
 Introduction to Basic SQL

❖ Relational Databases (RDBMS):

▪ Structure: Data is organized into tables with rows and columns, and relationships between tables are defined using keys.
▪ Examples: MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle, SQL Server.
▪ Use Cases: Financial systems, inventory management, customer relationship management (CRM).
➢ NoSQL Databases: Designed to handle large volumes of unstructured or semi-structured data, offering flexibility and
scalability.
❖ Types of NoSQL:
▪ Document Databases: Store data in documents (e.g., JSON).
o Examples: MongoDB, Couchbase.
o Use Cases: Content management systems, social media applications.
▪ Key-Value Stores: Store data as key-value pairs.
o Examples: Redis, Memcached.
o Use Cases: Caching, session management.
▪ Column Family Databases: Store data in columns rather than rows.
o Examples: Cassandra, HBase.
o Use Cases: Analytics, real-time data processing.
▪ Graph Databases: Store data as nodes and edges, representing relationships.
o Examples: Neo4j, JanusGraph.
o Use Cases: Social networks, recommendation engines
 Introduction to Basic SQL

➢ Hierarchical Databases: Data is organized in a tree-like structure, with parent-child relationships.

❖ Examples: IBM's IMS.
❖ Use Cases: Legacy systems, organizational charts
➢ Network Databases: Data is organized using a network of interconnected nodes, allowing for complex relationships.
❖ Examples: IDMS.
❖ Use Cases: Legacy systems, modeling complex relationships
➢ Object-Oriented Databases (OODBMS): Data is stored as objects, similar to object-oriented programming
languages.
❖ Examples: GemStone, ObjectStore.
❖ Use Cases: CAD/CAM systems, multimedia applications.
➢ Cloud Databases: Databases that are hosted and managed in the cloud.
❖ Types of Cloud Databases:
▪ Managed Databases: The database infrastructure is managed by the cloud provider.
o Examples: Amazon RDS, Google Cloud SQL, Azure Database.
▪ Database as a Service (DBaaS): A cloud-based database service that allows users to create, manage, and scale
databases.
o Examples: AWS Aurora, Google Cloud Spanner, Azure Cosmos DB.
❖ Use Cases: Scalable applications, data storage and processing in the cloud
 Introduction to Basic SQL

➢ Distributed Databases: Data is stored and managed across multiple locations or servers.
❖ Examples: Cassandra, MongoDB.
❖ Use Cases: Large-scale applications, data replication and fault tolerance.
➢ Other Database Types:
❖ Centralized Database: Data is stored and managed from a single location.
❖ Personal Database: A database designed for a single user or small group.
 Introduction to Basic SQL

➢ Data type in database

▪ CHAR(size) : A FIXED length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The size parameter specifies the column
length in characters - can be from 0 to 255. Default is 1
▪ VARCHAR(size) : A VARIABLE length string (can contain letters, numbers, and special characters). The size parameter specifies the
maximum column length in characters - can be from 0 to 65535
▪ BINARY(size) : Equal to CHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter specifies the column length in bytes. Default is 1
▪ VARBINARY(size) : Equal to VARCHAR(), but stores binary byte strings. The size parameter specifies the maximum column length in
bytes.
▪ TINYBLOB : For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Max length: 255 bytes
▪ TINYTEXT: Holds a string with a maximum length of 255 characters
▪ TEXT(size): Holds a string with a maximum length of 65,535 bytes
▪ BLOB(size) : For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 65,535 bytes of data
▪ MEDIUMTEXT : Holds a string with a maximum length of 16,777,215 characters
▪ MEDIUMBLOB : For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 16,777,215 bytes of data
▪ LONGTEXT : Holds a string with a maximum length of 4,294,967,295 characters
▪ LONGBLOB : For BLOBs (Binary Large OBjects). Holds up to 4,294,967,295 bytes of data
▪ ENUM(val1, val2, val3, ...) : A string object that can have only one value, chosen from a list of possible values. You can list up to
65535 values in an ENUM list. If a value is inserted that is not in the list, a blank value will be inserted. The values are sorted in the
order you enter them
▪ SET(val1, val2, val3, ...) : A string object that can have 0 or more values, chosen from a list of possible values. You can list up to 64
values in a SET list
 Introduction to Basic SQL

➢ Other Mathematical Operators in MySQL

❖ Absolute
▪ Program: select abs(-23);
❖ Modulus:
▪ Program: select mod(10,4) as remainder
❖ Power
▪ Program: select power(5,2)
❖ Square root
▪ Program: select sqrt(6)
❖ Greater number
▪ Program: select greatest(5,2,6,9,74,67,82)
❖ Least number
▪ Program: select least(5,2,6,9,74,67,82)
❖ Truncate
▪ Program: select truncate(34.6547,1)
❖ Round
▪ Program: select round(34.6547)
❖ Round up to decimal place
▪ Program: select round(34.6547,2)
 The Basic Categories of SQL Statements - RDBMS

➢ Data Manipulation Language (DML)

➢ Data Definition Language (DDL)
➢ Data Control Language (DCL)
➢ Transaction Control
➢ Data Manipulation Language (DML) retrieves data from the database, enters new rows, changes existing rows, and
removes unwanted rows from tables in the database, respectively. The basic Data Manipulation Language (DDL) includes
the following:
❖ select statement
❖ insert statement
❖ update statement
❖ delete statement
❖ merge statement
➢ Data Definition Language (DDL) sets up, changes and removes data structures from tables. The basic Data Definition
Language includes the following:
❖ create statement
❖ alter statement
❖ drop statement
❖ rename statement
❖ truncate statement
❖ comment statement
 The Basic Categories of SQL Statements

➢ Data Control Language (DCL) gives or removes access rights to both a database and the structures within it. The basic Data
Control Languages are:
❖ grant statement
❖ revoke statement
➢ Transaction Control manages the changes made by the DML statements. Changes to the data can be grouped together into
logical transactions. The basic Transaction Control Languages are:
❖ commit
❖ rollback
❖ save point
➢ Viewing the Structure of a Table: The structure of any database table can be viewed by using the describe clause of the SQL
statement. The general syntax of the describe statement is given below:
➢ Table Department
Name NULL? Type
DEPARTMENT_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(4)
DEPARTMENT_NAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(30)
MANAGER_ID NUMBER(6)
LOCATION_ID NUMBER(4)
 The Basic Categories of SQL Statements

➢ Table Employee:
Name Null? Type
EMPLOYEE_ID NOT NULL NUMBER(6)
FIRST_NAME VARCHAR2(20)
LAST_NAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(25)
EMAIL NOT NULL VARCHAR2(25)
PHONE_NUMBER NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)
HIRE_DATE NOT NULL DATE
JOB_ID NOT NULL VARCHAR2(10)
SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
COMMISSION_PCT NUMBER(2,2)
MANAGER_ID NUMBER(6)
DEPARTMENT_ID NUMBER(4)
 The Basic Categories of SQL Statements

➢ Writing Basic SQL Select Statements: To extract data from the database, you need to use the SQL SELECT statement. You
may need to restrict the columns that are displayed. Using a SELECT statement, you can do the following:
❖ Projection: You can use the projection capability to choose the columns in a table that you want to return by your query.
You can choose as few or as many columns of the table as you require.
❖ Selection: You can use the selection capability in SQL to choose the rows in a table that you want to return by a query. You
can use various criteria to restrict the rows that you use.
❖ Joining: You can use the join capability to bring together data that is stored in different tables by creating a link between
them.
➢ Function of SQL
❖ SQL can execute queries against a database
❖ SQL can retrieve data from a database
❖ SQL can insert records in a database
❖ SQL can update records in a database
❖ SQL can delete records from a database
❖ SQL can create new databases
❖ SQL can create new tables in a database
❖ SQL can create stored procedures in a database
❖ SQL can create views in a database
❖ SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
❖ SQL can allow the construction codes manipulating database
 Introduction to SQL SYNTAX

➢ SQL can be divided into two parts: The Data Manipulation Language (DML) and the Data Definition Language (DDL).
❖ The query and update commands form the DML part of SQL:
✓ SELECT - extracts data from a database
✓ UPDATE - updates data in a database
✓ DELETE - deletes data from a database
✓ INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database
❖ The DDL part of SQL permits database tables to be created or deleted. It also defines indexes (keys), specifies links between
tables, and imposes constraints between tables. The most important DDL statements in SQL are:
✓ CREATE DATABASE - creates a new database
✓ ALTER DATABASE - modifies a database
✓ CREATE TABLE - creates a new table
✓ ALTER TABLE - modifies a table
✓ DROP TABLE - deletes a table
✓ CREATE INDEX - creates an index (search key)
✓ DROP INDEX - deletes an index
➢ NOTE: Not all SQL statements accept semicolon at the end of it depending on the platform or server that is used to execute
the statement.
 Introduction to SQL SYNTAX

➢ Database Tables: A database most often contains one or more tables. Each table is identified by a name (e.g. “Faculty” or
“Department”). Tables contain records (rows) with data. Example is given beelow
D_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Lagos
2 Ohie Chris 23, Princewill Drive Porthacourt
3 Rufus Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna

❖ The table above contains three records (one for each person) and five columns (P_Id, LastName, FirstName, Address, and
City).
➢ Format of SQL Statements
The following SQL statement will select all the records in the “Department” table:
SELECT * FROM Department
❖ Semicolon is the standard way to separate each SQL statement in database systems that allow more than one SQL
statement to be executed in the same call to the server.
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ SQL CREATE TABLE Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
column_name2 data_type,
column_name3 data_type,
....
)
❖ Example: We want to create a table called “Student”
CREATE TABLE Student
(
Matric_No int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
❖ The Matric_No column is of type int and will hold a number. The LastName,
FirstName, Address, and City columns are of type varchar with a
maximum length of 255 characters.
❖ The empty “Persons” table will now look like this:
❖ Matric_No LastName FirstName Address City
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ SQL SELECT Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
and
SELECT * FROM table_name
❖ Example: The “Student” table:
Matric_No LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Lagos
2 Ohie Chris 23, Princewill Drive Porthacourt
❖ Now we want to select the content of the columns named “LastName” and “FirstName” from the table above. We use the
following SELECT statement:
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
❖ The result-set will look like this:
LastName FirstName
Akinbade Ola
Ohie Chris
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ The SQL Select Distinct Statement: In a table, some of the columns may contain duplicate values. This is not a problem;
however, sometimes you will want to list only the different (distinct) values in a table. The DISTINCT keyword can be used to
return only distinct (different) values.
❖ SQL SELECT DISTINCT Syntax
SELECT DISTINCT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
❖ The "PersonsOne" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Lagos
2 Okafor Chris 23, Princewill Drive Lagos
3 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna
❖ Now we want to select only the distinct values from the column named “City” from the table above.
SELECT DISTINCT City FROM Persons
❖ The result-set will look like this:
City
Lagos
Kaduna
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ SQL WHERE Clause: The WHERE clause is used to filter records. The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that
fulfill a specified criterion.
❖ SQL WHERE Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
❖ The "PersonsOne" table:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Ogun
2 Okafor Chris 23, Princewill Drive Lagos
3 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna
❖ Now we want to select only the persons living in the city “Kaduna” from the table above. We use the following SELECT
statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE City='Kaduna’
❖ The result-set will look like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna
 SQL SYNTAX

➢ Quotes around Text Fields: SQL uses single quotes around text values (most database systems will also accept double
quotes). Although, numeric values should not be enclosed in quotes.
❖ For text values:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName='Chris’
❖ For numeric values:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE Year=1965
➢ Operators Allowed in the WHERE Clause: With the WHERE clause, the following operators can be used:
Operator Description
= Equal
<> Not equal
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal
<= Less than or equal
BETWEEN Between an inclusive range
LIKE Search for a pattern
IN If you know the exact value you want to return for at least one of the columns
Note: In some versions of SQL the <> operator may be written as !=
 SQL SYNTAX

➢ SQL AND & OR Operators: The AND & OR operators are used to filter records based on more than one condition. The AND
operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition is true while the OR operator displays a
record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
❖ AND Operator Example:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Ogun
2 Okafor Chris 23, Princewill Drive Lagos
3 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna
❖ Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to “Ola” AND the last name equal to “Akinbade”. We use
the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName='Ola'
AND LastName='Akinbade’
❖ The result-set will look like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
1 Akinbode Ola 10, Odeku Str. Lagos
 SQL SYNTAX

❖ OR Operator Example: Now we want to select only the persons with the first name equal to “Chris” OR the first name equal
to “Ali”. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons
WHERE FirstName='Chris'
OR FirstName='Ali’
❖ The result-set will look like this:
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City
2 Okafor Chris 23, Princewill Drive Porthacourt
3 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna
❖ Combining AND & OR: Now we want to select only the persons with the last name equal to “Akinbade” or the lastname
equal to “Okafor” OR. We use the following SELECT statement:
SELECT * FROM Persons WHERE FirstName=‘Chris’ AND
LastName='Akinbode' OR LastName=’Okafor’
 SQL SYNTAX

➢ ORDER BY Syntax: The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set. The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-
set by a specified column. The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order by default. If you want to sort the
records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword. The order by clause comes last in a select statement. The
syntax of the order by clause given below:
SELECT expr
FROM table
[WHERE condition(s)]
[ORDER BY{column, expr} [ASC|DESC]
❖ In the syntax,
✓ ORDER BY specifies the order in which the retrieved rows are displayed
✓ ASC specifies rows in ascending order (this is the default value)
✓ DESC order the rows in descending order
❖ With the ORDER BY clause:
✓ numeric values are displayed with the lowest value first e.g 1-999
✓ date values are displayed with the earliest value first e.g 01-JAN- 92 before 01-JAN-95
✓ character values are displayed in alphabetical order
✓ null values are displayed last for ascending sequences and first for descending sequences
 SQL SYNTAX

❖ ORDER BY Example: Sorting in descending order

SELECT last_name, job_id, department_id, hire_date
FROM employees
ORDER BY last_name:
LAST_NAME JOB_ID DEPARTMENT_ID HIRE_DATE
Akinbade SA_REP 80 21-APR-00
Amodu SA_REP 20 21-APR-00
Buba SA_REP 80 24-MAR-00
Ngozi ST_CLERK 50 08-MAR-00
Okafor SA_REP 80 23-FEB-00
Sowale ST_CLERK 50 06-FEB-00
❖ We also sort using multiple columns. For example,
SELECT last_name, department_id, salary FROM employees
ORDER BY department_id, salary DESC;
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records into a new row in a table.
❖ The syntax of the insert statement is:
INSERT INTO table [{column, [,column…..])]
VALUES (value [, value….]);
❖ In the syntax, table is the name of the table, column is the name of the column, value is the corresponding value for the
column.
❖ SQL INSERT INTO Example: INSERTING NEW ROWS
INSERT INTO departments (department_id, department_name,
manager_id, location_id)
VALUES (170, ‘Public Relations’,100,1700);
❖ Inserting rows with null values: Implicit method example
INSERT INTO departments (department_id, department_name)
Values (30,’Purchasing’):
Explicit Method example
INSERT INTO departments
Values (100, ‘Finance’, NULL, NULL);
❖ Inserting special values.Example
INSERT INTO employees (employee_id, first_name, last_name, email,
phone_number, hire_date, job_id,salary, commission_pct, manager_id,
department_id )
Values (7, ‘Adeola’, ‘Chalse’, ‘ade_char’, ‘2348039990985’,
SYSDATE, ‘AC_ACCOUNT’, 6900, NULL, 205, 100);
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ SQL UPDATE Statement Syntax. The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
❖ Note: Notice the WHERE clause in the UPDATE syntax. The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be
updated. If you omit the WHERE clause, all records will be updated!
❖ SQL UPDATE Examples
Updating rows in a table
UPDATE employees
SET department_id=70
WHERE employee_id = 113;
➢ SQL DELETE Syntax: The DELETE statement is used to delete records and rows in a table.
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE some_column=some_value
❖ SQL DELETE Examples
DELETE *
FROM employees;
DELETE FROM employees
Where department_id =60;
❖ It is possible to delete all rows in a table without deleting the table. Thismeans that the table structure, attributes, and
indexes will be intact:
DELETE * FROM table_name
❖ Note: Be very careful when deleting records. You cannot undo this statement!
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ Joining Tables: The select statement can be used to join two tables together. It can be used to extract part of Table A and
part of Table B to form Table C. For example, assuming student and studentclass are two different tables. Let us look at this
instruction:
Select student.SID, student.name, studentclass.classname
From sudent, studentclass
Where student.SID = studentclass.SID
❖ This statement shows that SID, name are columns or fields from student table and classname and SID are also columns from
studentclass table. The fields in the new table to form by this instruction are: SID name classname
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ Arithmetic Operations: Create expressions with number and date data by using arithmetic operators. You may need to
modify the way in which data is displayed, perform calculations, or look at what-if scenarios. These are all possible using
arithmetic expressions. An arithmetic expression can contain column names, constant numeric values and arithmetic
operators.
❖ Operator Description
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
❖ Let us first extend Table persons to Table employees by adding salary column to it and adding three more records. For
subsequent examples in this unit, the table is also assumed to have more than 5 columns.
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City Salary
1 Akinbade Ola 10, Odeku Str. Lagos 4800
2 Okafor Chris 23,Princewill Drive Porthacourt 17000
3 Amodu Ali 20, Dauda lane Kaduna 12000
4 Buba Ibrahim 12, Dongorayaro Str. Kastina 9000
5 Ngozi Ebe 10, Felix Str. Imo 7700
6 Sowale Ayo 63, Atoba road Abeokuta 24000
 SQL SYNTAX
SELECT last_name, salary, salary+300
FROM employees;
❖ This gives
LastName Salary Salary+300
Akinbade 4800 5100
Okafor 17000 17300
Amodu 12000 12300
Buba 9000 9300
Ngozi 7700 8000
Sowale 24000 24300
➢ Operator Precedence: If an arithmetic expression contains more than one operator, multiplication and division are
evaluated first. If operators within an expression are of the same priority, then evaluation is done from left to right.
Parenthesis can be used to force the expression within parentheses to be evaluated first. Example
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100
FROM employees
LastName Salary 12*Salary+100
Akinbade 4800 57700
Okafor 17000 204100
Amodu 12000 144100
Buba 9000 108100
Ngozi 7700 92500
Sowale 24000 288100
 SQL SYNTAX
➢ A query that uses brackets to override the operator precedence is shown below:
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees
LastName Salary 12*(Salary+100)
Akinbade 4800 58800
Okafor 17000 205200
Amodu 12000 145200
Buba 9000 109200
Ngozi 7700 93600
Sowale 24000 289200
 DBMS Anomalies
➢ In Database Management Systems (DBMS), anomalies are inconsistencies or irregularities in data that arise from poor
database design, particularly when data redundancy is high and normalization is not properly applied, leading to issues
during insertion, deletion, and update operations.
❖ Types of anomalies:
▪ Insertion Anomaly: This occurs when you cannot add new data to a table without also adding data for other attributes that
are not relevant to the new data, or when adding a new record requires also adding data for other attributes that are not
relevant.
o Example: A table stores both employee and department information. If you want to add a new department, you might need
to also add an employee for that department, even if no employees have been assigned yet. In the table below, insertion
anomaly occurs because we cannot a new student without the course title. The primary key is Stud_id + Course_title

Stud_id Stu_name Address Course_title Units

KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Boys room python 3
KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Boys room java 2
KDU102 Sorade Bobo Girls room C 3
KDU103 Atute Jaga Airline way python 3
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way java 2
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way C 3
 DBMS Anomalies
▪ Deletion Anomaly: This happens when deleting certain data inadvertently leads to the loss of other, unrelated data.
o Example: If you delete an employee from a table that also stores department information, you might unintentionally delete
all the information about that department as well. In the table below, if we delete KDU102, the course title C will also be
deleted from the database.

Stud_id Stu_name Address Course_title Units

KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Boys room python 3
KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Boys room java 2
KDU102 Sorade Bobo Girls room C 3
KDU103 Atute Jaga Airline way python 3
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way java 2
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way python 3
 DBMS Anomalies
▪ Update Anomaly: This occurs when updating data in one part of the database requires updating it in multiple places, and if
one update is missed, inconsistencies arise.
o Example: If you store employee phone numbers in multiple places, updating one phone number in one place might lead
to inconsistencies if the change isn't made in all other places where the phone number is stored. In the table below, update
anomaly occurs because a change on a row (possibly address) does not have effect on another row with the same stud_id

Stud_id Stu_name Address Course_title Units

KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Banga road python 3
KDU101 Sundeep Sapata Boys room java 2
KDU102 Sorade Bobo Girls room C 3
KDU103 Atute Jaga Airline way python 3
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way java 2
KDU104 Luib Qara Garage way C 3
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
➢ A conceptual model represents 'concepts' (entities) and relationships between them. Conceptual modelling is a well known
technique of data modelling, together with logical modelling and physical modelling. The conceptual model is explicitly
chosen to be independent of implementation details, such as concurrency or data storage.
➢ Mapping EER to Relational Data Model: External and conceptual schemas are designed in the EER data model. Since there
is no commercially available DBMS based on EER data model, and since most modern DBMS are based on relational data
model, conceptual schema has to be mapped into the relational data model. Conversion is done using a mapping algorithm.
❖ Steps of the Mapping Algorithm
1. Map regular entity types
2. Map weak entity types
3. Map relationship types with:
1 : 1 cardinality ratio
1 : N cardinality ratio
N : M cardinality ratio
4. Map super class / subclass relationships
5. Map categories
6. Map multivalued attributes
7. Define referential integrity constraints
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Step 1 Map Regular Entity Types
✓ Map each EER schema regular entity type E into a relation
schema with:
- The same name (as the entity type E),
- The set of attributes containing all simple, single valued entity type E attributes (including simple, single valued, but
excluding multivalued components of the composite attributes),
- The same set of keys as the entity type E
✓ Result of applying step 1 onto Fig a:
- Department (DeptId, DeptName ),
- Student (StudId, StudName )
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Step 2 Map Weak Entity Types
✓ For each weak entity type W, having owners E1,…, Ek in the EER schema, create a relation schema with:
- The same name (as the entity type W ),
- The set of attributes containing all simple, single valued entity type W attributes (including simple, single valued, but
excluding multivalued components of the composite attributes), and containing the union of the primary keys of all
owners E1,…, Ek,
- The primary key, composed of the union of the primary keys of all owners E1,…, Ek, and the partial key of the entity type W
❖ Result of applying step 2 onto Fig a:
- Course (DeptId, CourNo, CourName)
❖ Step 3.1 Mapping Relationship Types (1:1)
✓ Map binary relationship type with 1 : 1 cardinality ratio between entity types S and T, according to the rules that depend on
participation constrains
✓ Cardinality ratio 1:1 is a seldom but complicated case.
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Step 3.2 Mapping Relationship Types 1: M
✓ Consider a binary relationship type having entity type S with the primary key KeyS on the 1 side, and entity type T with
primary key KeyT on the M side
✓ Map the binary relationship type by inserting the primary key KeyS of the entity type S on the 1 side as the foreign key,
together with all simple, single valued relationship type R attributes, into relation schema T representing the entity type on
the M side
✓ If the participation constraint of the entity type T on the M side is partial, put Null (T, KeyS ) = Yes
✓ If the participation constraint of the entity type T on the M side is total, put Null (T, KeyS ) = Not
❖ Step 3.3 Mapping Relationship Types M:N
✓ Map each EER schema relationship type R with the cardinality ratio M : N into one relation schema with:
- The same name (as relationship type R ),
- The set of attributes containing all simple, single valued relationship type R attributes (including simple, single valued,
but excluding multivalued components of the composite attributes), and including the primary keys of connected entity
types
- The primary key composed of connected entity type primary keys
Result of applying step 5:
- Exam (StudId, DeptId, CourNo, Grade)
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ 3.4 Relationship Types of the Order > 2
✓ Map each EER schema relationship type R of the order greater than two into one relation schema with:
- The same name (as relationship type R ),
- The set of attributes containing all simple, single valued relationship type R attributes (including simple, single valued,
but excluding multivalued components of the composite attributes), and including the primary keys of all connected
entity types
- The primary key that is the proper or improper subset of the union of the connected entity type primary keys.
❖ Step 4 Mapping IS-A Hierarchies
✓ Mapping of a superclass / subclass (IS-A hierarchy) relationship can be done in three ways:
✓ Each subclass and the superclass is mapped to one, separate relation schema
- The superclass is mapped as a regular entity type
- The subclass is mapped as being a Weak entity type with partial key being an empty set,
Each subclass is mapped into one relation schema, containing union of the superclass and this subclass attribute sets
(superclass is contained in each subclass, and there is no superclass relation schema)
All subclasses together with the superclass are mapped into one relation schema.
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Step 5 Mapping Categories
✓ A category is the subclass of the union of two or more superclasses
✓ A category is mapped to one relation schema with:
- The same name as the category type,
- All the single valued attributes of the category (including the attribute CategoryType), and
- An artificial attribute, so called surrogate key
- The relationship between category relation schema and superclass relation schemas is accomplished by inserting the
surrogate key in each superclass relation schema.
❖ Step 6 Mapping Multivalued Attributes
✓ For each multivalued attribute V in an entity or relationship type T, represented by relation schema T (containing all type T
single valued attributes), create a new relation schema with:
- the name V,
- the set of attributes containing all simple, single valued attributes in V, and the primary key K of T, and
- the primary key as the union of K and some attributes from V
✓ Result of applying step 9:
- Lecturer (DeptId, LectNo, LectName, HireDate ).
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Step 7 Defining Referential Integrities
✓ Define a referential integrity constraint for each primary key / foreign key pair
✓ No referential integrity defined should represent a logical consequence of another primary key / foreign key pair constraint
S={
Department ({DeptId, DeptName }, {DeptId }),
Student ({StudId, StudName }, {StudId }),
Course ({DeptId, CourNo, CourName }, {DeptId +CourNo })
Exam ({DeptId, CourNo, StudId, Grade }, {DeptId +CourNo
+,StudId })
Lecturer ({DeptId, LectNo, LectName, HireDate },{DeptId +
LectNo })
}
➢ Referential Integrity Constraints: The set of referential integrity constraints of the example conceptual schema :
- IC = {Lecturer [DeptId ] Í Department [DeptId ],
- Course [DeptId ] Í Department [DeptId ],
- Exam [StudId ] Í Student [StudId ],
- Exam[(DeptId, CourNo )] Í Course [(DeptId, CourNo )] }
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Note that IC doesn’t contain referential integrity
- Exam[DeptId ] Í Department [DeptId ]
- (because it is a logical consequence of
- Exam(DeptId, CourNo )] Í Course [(DeptId, CourNo )] } and Course [DeptId ] Í Department [DeptId ])
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
➢ Database Schema Design: The goal is to design a schema that models the problem domain as precisely as possible, such
that both current known and future unknown use cases may employ the database. A possible approach is to go through the
requirements and through the texts of all the use cases and put the nouns in a dictionary. Nouns that do something, i.e.,
are related to a verb, are candidates for database tables. Nouns that have no verb are possible attributes (table columns).
➢ Database constraints can be defined over a schema. The constraints are usually on the contents of database tables. When
the user tries to change the contents of a table, the relevant constraints are checked first. If there is a constraint violation—
the database engine raises an exception and does not allow the update. The list of some common constraints follows:
❖ PRIMARY KEY a column, where all values are unique. Example is the table Person (id, firstName, lastName, dateOfBirth,
address). The primary key “id” is underlined. A table cannot have two entries with equal primary keys. Primary key may be a
column combination, for example: Chair (model, color, weight, price). A certain model may exist in different colors. A better
solution, however, is Chair (id, model, color, weight, price).
❖ FOREIGN KEY is a column (or several columns), whose values are limited to to the values of certain column(s) of another
table, called the referenced table. For example: consider a table Pair(pairId, personId1, personId2). The values in
“personId1” and “personId2” columns denote the Id’s of two persons and we want these values to originate from the
“Person” table. We do not want to have a person Id in the “Pair” table, that does not appear in the “Person” table. Foreign
key column(s) must reference column(s),that have a PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE constraint.
❖ UNIQUE column(s) are columns whose values are unique. The difference from the primary key is that a table can have
several UNIQUE constraints but at most one PRIMARY KEY constraint. Consider the table Supplier(id, name, address). The
“id” column is a primary key, but we can also define a UNIQUE constraint over (name, address). By that we emphasise the
fact, that there are no two suppliers that have the same name and address.
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ Composite Key: A primary key that is made up of multiple columns.
❖ CHECK constraint is a user-defined boolean expression, that must be true at all times. For example, in a table Book(bookid, .
. . , price) we may define a CHECK (price > 0).
➢ Normalisation: Normalization is a process of organizing data to minimize redundancy and improve data integrity by
structuring data into logical tables and defining relationships between them. The columns of the tables may be either
key or non-key columns. In a normalised schema a non-key column appears only once, in one table in the database. This is a
special case of the software engineering rule, saying that a piece of data or code shall appear only once in the entire
program. Normalization aims to eliminate data anomalies, such as insertion, update, and deletion problems, that can
arise from poorly structured databases. It involves breaking down large tables into smaller, more manageable tables
and establishing relationships between them based on specific rules.
❖ Benefits of Normalization:
▪ Reduced Redundancy: By storing data in a structured way, normalization minimizes the repetition of data, saving storage
space and improving efficiency.
▪ Improved Data Integrity: Ensuring that data is consistent and accurate across the database.
▪ Simplified Queries: Well-structured data makes it easier to retrieve and manipulate data.
▪ Easier Maintenance: A normalized database is easier to maintain and update.
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design

❖ Normal Forms: It refers to a set of guidelines for organizing data in a relational database to minimize redundancy and
improve data integrity, efficiency, and consistency. Normalization is achieved through a series of normal forms (1NF, 2NF,
3NF, etc.), each with specific rules to ensure data integrity and reduce redundancy.
▪ 1NF: Each cell should contain a single value, and each record should be unique (no duplicate rows). Each value should be
non-divisible (cannot be split further)
o Example: Consider the table below. The first table below is not in any form, we cannot link the courses to any number. But,
the second and third tables are in 1NF

Stud_name Course
Stud_id Course
Jame jang C,java
KDU101 C
Hazael king Python, R
KDU101 Java
Debby quuen R,C
KDU102 python
Stud_id surname firstname KDU102 R
KDU101 Jame jang KDU103 R
KDU102 Hazael king KDU103 C
KDU103 Debby queen
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
▪ 2NF: It must be in 1NF. Eliminates partial dependencies. A partial dependency occurs when a non-key attribute (a column not part of any
candidate key) is functionally dependent on only part of a composite key, rather than the entire key.
o Example: Imagine a table for student enrollments with the following columns: StudentID, CourseID, CourseName, and ProfessorName.
• The composite key could be StudentID and CourseID.
• CourseName depends on CourseID (a part of the key).
• ProfessorName depends on CourseID (a part of the key), but not on StudentID.
• Therefore, CourseName and ProfessorName are partially dependent on the composite key.
o How to resolve it: To eliminate partial dependencies, you can decompose the table into multiple tables, ensuring that each table has a
primary key that fully determines all non-key attributes. In the example above, you could create separate tables for student enrollments
(StudentID, CourseID) and courses (CourseID, CourseName, ProfessorName).
o The first table is not in 2NF because Course_fee is only dependent on Course_id but not Stud_id. And, Course_id is dependent on Stud_id.
Table 2 and 3 are now in 2NF

Stud_id Course_id Course_fee Course_id Course_fee Stud_id Course_id

KDU101 1 500 1 500 KDU101 1
KDU101 2 600 2 600 KDU101 2
KDU102 4 300 3 700 KDU102 4
KDU102 3 700 4 300 KDU102 3
KDU103 5 900 5 900 KDU103 5
KDU103 3 700 6 1000 KDU103 3
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
▪ 3NF: It must be in 2NF. Eliminates transitive dependencies. A transitive dependency occurs when a non-key attribute depends on another
non-key attribute, which in turn depends on the primary key, leading to data anomalies and redundancy. A transitive dependency exists
when attribute A depends on attribute B, and attribute B depends on the primary key (or a candidate key). All fields must be determinable
by the primary/composite key, not by other keys.
o Example: Imagine a table with EmployeeID, Department, and DepartmentLocation. DepartmentLocation depends on Department, and
Department depends on EmployeeID (the primary key). If you change the location of a department, you'd need to update multiple rows,
potentially leading to inconsistencies if not done correctly.
o How to address it: To eliminate transitive dependencies and achieve better database normalization, you can decompose the table into
multiple tables, where each table focuses on a specific relationship.
o In the table below, Date_of_Birth is a none key attribute which depends on other none key attribute. We achieve 3NF by decomposing the
table into multiple tables.
Best_stud Date_of_Birth
Exam_name Session Best_stud Date_of_Birth
John Joe 18-04-2010
Normal 2023 John Joe 18-04-2010
Donald Slik 14-02-2012
Summer 2021 Donald Slik 14-02-2012
Elon Jane 16-05-2009
Winter 2022 Elon Jane 16-05-2009 Exam_name Session Best_stud
Jude Mary 21-01-2011
Fall 2024 Jude Mary 21-01-2011 Normal 2023 John Joe
Winter 2025 Donald Slik 14-02-2012 Summer 2021 Donald Slik
Winter 2022 Elon Jane
Fall 2024 Jude Mary
Winter 2025 Donald Slik
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
➢ Database Relationship: A relationship is an association between two or more entities. A relationship can be represented by
combining representations of associated entities and properties of their association. A relationship type is an abstract
representation of an association between two or more entity sets, and a representation of a set of corresponding
relationships. Graphically, a relationship is represented by a diamond-shaped box connecting associated entity types.
❖ Recursive Relationships: A relationship may be defined between entities of the same entity set. Associations between
entities of the same set are called recursive. Every entity in a relationship has a role.
➢ Enhanced ER Data Model: Enhanced ER data model brings a number of concepts:
❖ Superclass / subclass relationship, called IS-A hierarchy, as well, together with specialisation / generalisation procedures
❖ Category (a subset of the union of two different super class entity sets)
❖ Aggregate (as a representation of complex objects)
➢ Super class / Subclass Relationship: An entity class can posses groups of such entities that contain some special properties,
not imminent to the other ones e.g.
❖ Person class contains many such groups like: students, employees, children, retirees etc
❖ Student class may be divided into full time and part time students, or undergraduate, graduate, master, and doctorate
students.
 Conceptual Modelling and Schema Design
❖ A subclass contains only specific attributes and may participate in relationship types by its own. A subclass is a specialisation
of its super class. The super class is generalisation of all its subclasses. Specialisation and generalisation are inverses of each
other. An instance of the subclass is also an instance of the super class. These two instances represent the same real entity.
A subclass instance inherits all the super class attribute values and all relationship participations from its image in the super
class.
❖ Super class / subclass relationship is introduced to:
✓ Enhance the semantic representation power of the ER data model,
✓ Avoid null values of the type "not applicable" in the extension of the super class, and
✓ Avoid impression that super class instances participate in meaningless subclass specific relationships
Database Schema
 Network Platform Technology

➢ A network-based platform is a piece of technology or software that connects users with other members of a
community to create mutually beneficial opportunities. Instead of simply being a tool to use within the four walls of
an organization, network-based platforms help users find opportunities by connecting them with other users in the
network while simultaneously fulfilling a function.
➢ The Network effect exists when the addition of another person or company makes all the existing
members of the network better off.
➢ Examples of Network-Based Platforms
❖ Social media : Network-based platforms have become incredibly popular, and very common, at a
consumer level. Social media sites like LinkedIn, Twitter, Snapchat and Instagram rely on the network
effect to retain users and scale their operations. The more people who join the platform, the more
valuable the platform is for everyone else.
❖ Ride-sharing : Ride-sharing technology has also taken off thanks to the network-effect. Companies
like Uber and Lyft are based on a network of people looking for rides and people who can offer rides for
a fee. This service is not merely a regular car rental, instead, these ride-sharing platforms connect
thousands of individuals who otherwise would never have an opportunity to collaborate.
❖ Fitness tech : The fitness industry has also incorporated the network effect into their technologies.
Fitbit, for example, is not only a personal health monitoring device, it’s also a service to connect
individuals with similar lifestyle goals. Getting people to collaborate isn’t only an added social benefit
for users, it can literally make the technology more effective for achieving fitness goals.
 Programming and Web Systems Technology

➢ Programming is the process or activity of writing computer programs.

➢ Web design is the process of planning and creating a website. Text, images, digital media and interactive elements are
shaped by the web designer to produce the page seen on the web browser. It is the creation of digital environments that
facilitate and encourage human activity; reflect or adapt to individual voices and content; and change gracefully over
time while always retaining their identity.
➢ Internet and World Wide Web are often used in everyday speech without much distinction.
➢ However, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same.
➢ The Internet is a global data communications system. It is a hardware and software infrastructure services that provide
connectivity between computers. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a
broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies.
➢ In contrast, the Web is one of communication via the Internet. It is a collection of interconnected documents and other
resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs.
➢ The World Wide Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and
referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs allow providers to symbolically identify services and clients to
locate and address web servers, file servers, and other databases that store documents and provide resources and access
them using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), the primary carrier protocol of the Web. HTTP is only one of the
hundreds of communication protocols used on the Internet. Web services may also use HTTP to allow software systems
to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data.
➢ The World Wide Web is a system of hypertext documents that are linked to each other. Internet is the means to access
 Programming and Web Systems Technology

➢ World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft's Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple's Safari, and
Google Chrome, let users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These
documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and
interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.
➢ The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience
online at greatly reduced expense and time delay.
➢ Web designers utilize markup language, most notably HyperText Markup Language (HTML) for structure and Cascading
Style Sheet (CSS) for presentation to develop pages that can be read by web browsers.
➢ HTML is a computer language devised to allow website creation. These websites can then be viewed by anyone else
connected to the Internet.
➢ HyperText is the method by which you move around on the web by clicking on special text called hyperlinks which bring
you to the next page. The fact that it is Hyper means it is not linear.
➢ Markup is what HTML tags do to the text inside them. They mark it as a certain typeof text.
➢ HTML consists of a series of tags.
➢ The tags are what separate normal text from HTML code.
➢ CSS are used to control how your pages are presented and make pages more accessible.
➢ Basic special effects and interaction is provided by JavaScript, which adds a lot of power to basic HTML.
 Programming and Web Systems Technology

➢ How to use Hypertext link

<html><head><title>Programming and Web
<html><head><title>Programming and Web Systems
Systems Class</title></head>
Class</title></head>
<body>
<body>
<p> Waooh! This is Programming Class</p>
<p> Waooh! We are linking classes in programming
<a href="ift204s.html"> Go to Second Page</a>
class</p>
</body>
<a href="ift204.html">Link Page</a>
</html>
</body>
</html>
<html><head><title>Programming and Web Systems
Class</title></head>
<body>
<p> How to download documents</p>
<a href="ift204.html">Link Page</a>
<a href="israeloa.jpg" download="israel">
<center><img src="israeloa.jpg" alt ="israel"
width=""200px" height="200px"></center></a>
</body>
</html>