RC CIRCUITS

INTRODUCTION

RC circuits, consisting of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) in

series or parallel, form the cornerstone of analog electronics.
Their simplicity belies their versatility: these circuits are widely
used in signal processing, timing applications, filtering, and
more. The defining characteristic of an RC circuit is its time-
dependent response to voltage changes, governed by the time
constant τ = RC. This unique behavior allows RC circuits to
manipulate electrical signals in ways that are essential to
modern electronics and communication systems.

RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive element which has two terminals. It
restricts the flow of current in circuits. It consume energy and
dissipates the energy in the form of heat. Resistance is measured
in terms of its characteristics resistance and it is measured in
ohms. Resistance is used in Ohm's law for developing a relation
between current and voltage. It used for limiting current and
dividing voltage in the circuit.Resistance is the fundamental
property of which opposes the flow of current.

There are many factors that affects the resistance like :

* Different Materials have different resistivity.
* The length of the conductor also affect resistance.
* The cross sectional area of a conductor

R = ρL / A
where ρ is a constant called resistivity

CAPACITOR
Capacitor is another passive element it also has two terminals.
Its function is to store energy. It is made using of two
conductive plates which is separated by a dielectric material.
When the current flows through it the electrons get accumulated
on the plates and hence energy is stored. It can charge and
discharge itself time to time which influences the time behavior
of the circuit. It is used in filtering, timing and energy storage in
circuits.

Capacitance is the property of capacitor which is measured in

farads(F). It stores the energy in electric field. The value of
capacitance is dependent on the dielectric material present
between the plates.
C = Q/V
C = εA /d
Where,
* C is the capacitance .
* Q is the charge stored.
* V is the voltage across the capacitor.
* ε is the permittivity of the material that is present between the
plates.
* A is the surface area.
* d is the separation between the plates.

METHODOLOGY / THEORY
BASIC PRINCIPLE:
When a capacitor in an RC circuit is charged or discharged
through a resistor, the voltage across it changes exponentially
with time. This change is described by:

(a) An RC circuit with a two-pole switch that can be used to

charge and discharge a capacitor. (b) When the switch is moved
to position A, the circuit reduces to a simple series connection of
the voltage source, the resistor, the capacitor, and the switch. (c)
When the switch is moved to position B, the circuit reduces to a
simple series connection of the resistor, the capacitor, and the
switch. The voltage source is removed from the circuit.

CHARGING OF CAPACITOR
We can use Kirchhoff’s loop rule to understand the charging of the
capacitor. This results in the equation ϵ−VR−VC=0.This equation can be
used to model the charge as a function of time as the capacitor charges.
Capacitance is defined as C=q/V, so the voltage across the capacitor is
VC=qC. Using Ohm’s law, the potential drop across the resistor is
VR=IR, and the current is defined as I=dq/dt

This differential equation can be integrated to find an equation for the

charge on the capacitor as a function of time.

Let u=ϵC−q, then du=−dq. The result is

Simplifying results in an equation for the charge on the charging
capacitor as a function of time:

After differentiating we will get value as

As we can see in the equation the value of current will depend on the time
and it is called as transient current

DISCHARGING OF CAPACITOR
When the switch is moved to position B, the circuit reduces to the circuit
in part (c), and the charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through the
resistor. Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule to analyze the circuit as the capacitor
discharges results in the equation −VR−VC=0, which simplifies to
IR+q/C=0. Using the definition of current dqR/ dt=−q/C and integrating
the loop equation yields an equation for the charge on the capacitor as a
function of time:

Here, Q is the initial charge on the capacitor and τ=RC is the time
constant of the circuit. As shown in the graph, the charge decreases
exponentially from the initial charge, approaching zero as time
approaches infinity.
The current as a function of time can be found by taking the time
derivative of the charge:

The negative sign shows that the current flows in the opposite direction of
the current found when the capacitor is charging.

APPLICATIONS

1.Timing Circuits

Description:-
An RC timing circuit generates a precise time delay by charging or
discharging a capacitor through a resistor. The output switches state when
the capacitor voltage crosses a predefined threshold.

Theory (R + C roles):-

 The resistor controls the rate at which the capacitor charges or

discharges.
 The capacitor stores energy and its voltage rises or falls
exponentially.
 The delay is characterized by the time constant

τ=R×C
 After one time constant (τ), the capacitor reaches ~63% of its final
voltage.

Example.
In a “power-on reset” for microcontrollers, a 100 kΩ resistor and 10 µF
capacitor produce a ≈1 s delay (τ = 1 s) before releasing the RESET pin,
ensuring the processor initializes properly.

Conclusion.
By selecting R and C, designers tailor turn-on/turn-off delays for timers,
reset circuits, camera flashes, and other time-critical functions.

2. Filters (Low-pass & High-pass)

2.1 Low-pass Filter

Description.
A low-pass RC filter attenuates (blocks) high-frequency signals while
allowing frequencies below its cutoff to pass.

Theory (R + C roles).

 The series resistor and shunt capacitor form a voltage divider

whose output falls off above the cutoff.
 The cutoff frequency is

Example.
In audio amplifiers, a 1 kΩ/0.1 µF low-pass filter (fc ≈1.6 kHz) smooths
out high-frequency hiss from recordings.

2.2 High-pass Filter

Description.
A high-pass RC filter blocks low-frequency signals (including DC) and
passes those above its cutoff.

Theory (R + C roles).
  The series capacitor and shunt resistor again form a divider, but
now low frequencies see the capacitor’s high reactance and are
attenuated.
 Same cutoff formula applies.

Example.
In speaker crossovers, a 2.2 µF/220 Ω high-pass filter (fc ≈330 Hz) sends
only mid/high frequencies to tweeters, protecting them from low-
frequency damage.

Conclusion.
By choosing R and C, filters can be tuned for audio, RF, anti-aliasing in
ADCs, and many other signal-conditioning tasks.

3. Integrators and Differentiators

3.1 Integrator

Description.
An RC integrator produces an output voltage proportional to the time-
integral of the input—effectively smoothing or “averaging” the signal.

Theory (R + C roles).

 The resistor drives current into the capacitor; the output taken
across C ramps up or down in proportion to the area under the
input waveform.
 Ideal when the input frequency is much higher than 1/RC.

Example.
A 10 kΩ/0.01 µF integrator converts a square-wave input into a triangular
waveform for use in analog synthesizers.

3.2 Differentiator

Description.
An RC differentiator yields an output proportional to the rate of change
(derivative) of the input, highlighting rapid transitions.

Theory (R + C roles).

 Fast changes in input voltage produce current spikes through the

capacitor, which develop across the resistor.
  Works best when the input frequency is well below 1/RC

Example.
A 1 kΩ/0.005 µF differentiator at the front end of a digital logic probe
converts slow-rise edges into sharp pulses for precise timing
measurements.

Conclusion.
Integrator and differentiator circuits are fundamental building blocks in
waveform generators, analog computers, and edge-detection circuits.

4. Analog Memory (Sample-and-Hold)

Description.
A sample-and-hold circuit “captures” an analog voltage on a capacitor
when a switch closes, then holds that value when the switch opens.

Theory (R + C roles).

 The capacitor stores the sampled voltage almost indefinitely

(limited by leakage).
 A high-value bleed resistor (RRR) governs the discharge rate,
defining how long the held value remains within tolerance.

Example.
In analog-to-digital converters, a 100 pF hold capacitor and a 1 MΩ
resistor allow the input voltage to be sampled and held long enough for
the converter to complete its measurement.

Conclusion.
By sizing C for desired hold time and R for permissible voltage droop,
sample-and-hold stages enable accurate, discrete measurements of
continuously varying signals.