Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04173

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Behavior of unconfined steel-fiber reinforced UHPC post

high-temperature exposure
Sohit Agrawal a , Erika Yulianti a , Mugahed Amran b, Chung-Chan Hung a,*
a
Department of Civil Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, 1, University Rd, Tainan City 701, Taiwan
b
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Alkharj 11942, Saudi Arabia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) is renowned for its superior mechanical and durability
High temperatures characteristics. While many studies have focused on thermal effects such as explosive spalling and
Chemical constituents the compressive and flexural properties of UHPC, there is limited research on its residual uniaxial
Microstructure
tensile behavior. Moreover, variations in the heating rates adopted across different studies further
Durability
Tensile strain-hardening
complicate the ability to formulate broad, generalizable conclusions. This study aims to address
these gaps by systematically investigating the thermal behavior of unconfined steel-fiber rein­
forced UHPC in line with the ASTM E119 standard fire exposure. Methods such as X-ray
diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and mechanical and durability testing
were employed to comprehensively assess UHPC’s post-fire performance at ambient temperature.
Results revealed that by 200˚C, portlandite began converting into calcium oxide and water vapor.
Simultaneously, levels of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium carbonate rose, indicating
continued hydration at elevated temperatures. SEM imaging exposed significant microstructural
issues at 300˚C, including debonding between fibers and the matrix, alongside microcracking and
degradation at the aggregate-cement paste interface. This deterioration correlated with a sig­
nificant increase in porosity, permeability, and water absorption, particularly at 300˚C. Although
compressive strength continued to rise, peaking at 300˚C, tensile properties only showed optimal
performance up to 200˚C before declining, demonstrating a differential impact of temperature on
UHPC’s mechanical behavior. Despite this, UHPC displayed tensile strain-hardening behavior up
to 300˚C, with post-peak strain increasing from 0.2 % at ambient temperature to 0.66 % at 300˚C.
Nevertheless, a 1.5 % volume fraction of steel fibers proved ineffective in restraining explosive
failure at temperatures exceeding 300˚C.

1. Introduction

Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) represents a transformative advancement in fiber-reinforced cementitious materials,

distinguishing itself through a dense microstructure and refined composition [1–5]. This technology confers superior compressive
strengths, far surpassing those of traditional concrete. The integration of steel fibers (StF) into UHPC not only improves its mechanical
properties but also substantially enhances tensile strength, resistance to cracking, and behavior after cracking [6]. These fibers,
varying in length and volume, serve a critical function by bridging microcracks that emerge under stress, thereby boosting the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.-C. Hung).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2024.e04173
Received 5 July 2024; Received in revised form 9 December 2024; Accepted 27 December 2024
Available online 9 January 2025
2214-5095/© 2025 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).
S. Agrawal et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04173

toughness and ductility of the composite material [7–11]. Consequently, steel-fiber reinforced UHPC demonstrates remarkable
resilience under severe loading conditions, thereby prolonging the structural lifespan and enhancing the safety of infrastructure [12].
These benefits render UHPC an ideal material for demanding construction applications, including bridges, high-rise buildings, and
protective barriers against impacts and explosions [13–17]. Moreover, the use of UHPC in structural components offers several ad­
vantages over conventional concrete, such as improved aesthetic qualities and streamlined reinforcement designs [18–22].
However, the performance of steel-fiber reinforced UHPC at elevated temperatures remains a significant challenge, particularly in
scenarios prone to fire hazards or in industries where high-temperature processes are common [23]. Such conditions can induce
substantial alterations in the physical and chemical properties of UHPC, leading to decreased strength, reduced elasticity, and
degradation of both the cementitious matrix and the embedded fibers. Additionally, the risk of spalling, which involves the explosive
chipping of the concrete surface, becomes pronounced under high temperatures. In examining the behavior of UHPC under elevated
temperatures, several researchers have made noteworthy observations [24–30].
Zheng et al. [24] observed that incorporating StF into reactive powder concrete significantly mitigates internal cracks caused by
high temperatures, thereby enhancing its resistance to spalling at elevated temperatures. Similarly, So et al. [25] reported that
explosive spalling in UHPC often occurs within the initial 10 minutes of exposure to temperatures between 400˚C and 500˚C. In a
detailed study, Ahmad et al. [26] delved into how exposure duration and fiber content impact the mechanical properties of steel
fiber-reinforced UHPC at a constant temperature of 300 C̊. They reported an increase in compressive strength after five hours of
high-temperature exposure. However, a notable decline in both modulus of elasticity and flexural strength was observed with extended
exposure times. Further insights come from Tang et al. [27], who explored the influence of steel fiber volume fraction and exposure
temperature on the uniaxial compression performance of aluminate cement-based UHPC. They observed that the uniaxial compressive
strength initially increased, then decreased as exposure temperatures exceeded a critical threshold of 200˚C. Specimens with a 3 %
volume of StF showed slightly higher axial compressive strength compared to those without fibers. Banerji and Kodur [28] assessed the
compressive behavior of UHPC with coarse aggregate (UHPC-CA), noting that UHPC-CA faced a quicker decline in compressive
strength and elastic modulus than conventional concrete under elevated temperatures. However, the inclusion of StF contributed to a
slower reduction in tensile strength and ductility at high temperatures.
In related research, Yang et al. [29] analyzed the performance of UHPC, both with and without coarse aggregate, under gradual
heating. Their results indicated that incorporating coarse aggregate slightly improved the material’s resistance to explosive spalling.
Crucially, the inclusion of a combination of steel and polypropylene (PP) fibers markedly increased UHPC’s spalling resistance. Park
et al. [30] further investigated the impact of synthetic fibers on UHPC’s mechanical properties following exposure to an ISO standard
fire. Their trials showed that polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers significantly bolstered the fire resistance and residual mechanical prop­
erties of UHPC. Based on these findings, they recommended using either solely PVA fibers or a combination of PP and nylon (Ny) fibers
to enhance the fire resistance of UHPC.
The existing body of research provides valuable insights into the post-fire behavior of UHPC but also reveals several critical
limitations. While numerous studies have focused on explosive spalling and the residual compressive and flexural properties of UHPC,
there remains a significant lack of data on its microstructure and durability performance. Additionally, research addressing the re­
sidual uniaxial tensile behavior of UHPC is particularly sparse [31,32]. Another key challenge is the variability in experimental
methodologies across studies [33–37], including differences in heating rates, sample dimensions, and material compositions, which
hinders the ability to derive broad, generalizable conclusions. To address these gaps, this study conducted a comprehensive series of
experimental investigations adhering to the ASTM E119 standard fire exposure [38]. These experiments were designed to systemat­
ically assess the effects of elevated temperatures on the chemical compositions, microstructures, durability, and uniaxial tensile
behavior of unconfined steel-fiber reinforced UHPC, providing critical insights that bridge existing gaps in knowledge. The experi­
mental framework incorporated X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), alongside evaluations of porosity,
permeability, and electrical resistivity. Additionally, compressive and tensile tests were conducted to provide a holistic understanding
of UHPC’s structural integrity post-exposure.

2. Experimental program

Fig. 1 depicts the testing procedure for evaluating the microstructure, durability, and mechanical properties of unconfined steel

Fig. 1. Schematic of testing procedure for evaluation of UHPC at elevated temperatures.

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fiber reinforced UHPC subjected to elevated temperatures. Further details are provided below.

2.1. UHPC materials

The composition of the UHPC is detailed in Table 1, comprising Type I ordinary Portland cement (OPC), ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS) conforming to ASTM C989–06 standards [39], silica fume (SF), and fine silica sand (SS) with particle sizes ranging
from 0.105 mm to 0.210 mm. The mix also included polycarboxylate-type superplasticizer (SP) powders, tap water, and StF at a
volume fraction (Vf) of 1.5 %. The StF, which are straight and smooth with a length of 12 mm and a diameter of 0.20 mm, possess a
nominal tensile strength of 2100 MPa.
The UHPC mix was blended in a pan mixer for about 15 minutes until it reached the desired consistency. The slump flow of the mix,
measured per ASTM-C1611[40], was 650 mm. Specimens were initially cured at room temperature for 24 hours, demolded, and then
subjected to water curing until one day prior to testing. To reduce risks of explosive behavior during thermal exposure, specimens
underwent a pre-drying phase at 90˚C in an oven for 24 hours [28,34,41–43].

2.2. Exposure to elevated temperatures

Specimens allocated for high-temperature exposure were positioned inside a digitally controlled electric furnace, as illustrated in
Fig. 2(a). The furnace’s temperature was incrementally increased following the ASTM E-119 standard heating curve shown in Fig. 2(b).
The target temperatures and their respective average heating rates (Rh) are as follows: 100˚C with Rh = 130˚C /min, 200˚C with Rh
= 115˚C /min, 300˚C with Rh = 111˚C /min, 500˚C with Rh = 108˚C /min, 700˚C with Rh = 71˚C /min, and 1000˚C with Rh = 9˚C /min.
UHPC samples were evaluated at ambient temperature, 100˚C, and subsequently at every 100˚C increment until noticeable degradation
occurred. To ensure the reliability of the results, at least three samples were tested at each temperature stage for each test, with the
average of these results being reported.

2.3. XRD and SEM analysis

To elucidate the effects of temperature on UHPC’s chemical composition, XRD analyses were performed to identify and quantify the
crystalline phases present in the material. The analyses utilized a Bruker AXS diffractometer operating at 40 kV and 40 mA, as shown
in Fig. 3(a). This instrument, employing Cu Kα 1 + 2 radiation (wavelength of 1.54184 Å), performed scans at 300 sec/frame.
Furthermore, the microstructure was examined using a high-resolution SEM, offering detailed visual insights into surface morphology
and microstructural changes across different temperature levels.

2.4. Durability tests

The durability of the UHPC was comprehensively evaluated using multiple measures. Among these, porosity is a key indicator, as
lower porosity often correlates with enhanced durability. Porosity measurements were performed on prism samples sized at 50 mm
× 50 mm × 160 mm in according to ASTM-C642 [44].
Additionally, UHPC’s resistance to water ingress was assessed through water permeability tests conducted in line with DIN 1048
[45], as shown in Fig. 3(b). In these tests, samples were subjected to a water pressure of 5 atm for 72 hours, and the depth of water
penetration was measured. These permeability tests provide insights into the interconnectivity of capillary pores, which is critical for
evaluating the material’s susceptibility to deterioration and overall longevity.
Electrical resistivity was also measured to further assess UHPC’s durability. As shown in Fig. 3(c), using the four-electrode Wenner
probe method on cylindrical samples (Ø100 × 200 mm), in accordance with AASHTO T 358–17 [46], resistivity values were calculated
from four equidistant measurements around the cylinder. Electrical resistivity is a key indicator of pore connectivity and the material’s
resistance to ion penetration, offering insights into its durability and potential for corrosion resistance.
These combined tests provide a comprehensive understanding of UHPC’s durability, highlighting its resistance to pore inter­
connectivity, water ingress, and ion penetration.

2.5. Mechanical tests

The mechanical properties of the UHPC were rigorously tested, focusing on compressive and tensile strengths. Compressive
strength tests were performed on cylindrical specimens measuring 75 mm in diameter and 150 mm in height, adhering to ASTM-C39M
[47]. Tensile behavior was evaluated through uniaxial tensile tests on dogbone-shaped specimens, as detailed in Fig. 4. The defor­
mation of a gauge region, 160 mm in length, was measured using two linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) positioned on

Table 1
The mixture design of the UHPC material (unit: kg/m3 except for fibers in Vf).
OPC GGBS SF SS StF SP+Water w/b

UHPC 687 550 134 687 1.5 % 227 0.17

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Fig. 2. Furnace and the standard heating curve accordance with ASTM E-119.

Fig. 3. Experimental investigation on the microstructure and durability of UHPC.

opposite sides of the specimen, with the average LVDT readings determining the tensile deformation. The force applied during testing
was monitored via a load cell linked to the actuator, with all tests conducted under a displacement-controlled regime at a consistent
loading rate of 0.5 mm/min.

3. Results and discussions

It is found that a significant spalling of UHPC samples occurred at approximately 350˚C, accompanied by pronounced explosions.
This phenomenon was primarily due to significant thermal gradients and pore clogging. The results indicate that using a 1.5 % volume

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Fig. 4. Uniaxial tensile test (unit: mm).

fraction of fibers was insufficient to prevent explosive failure in unconfined UHPC when exposed to temperatures above 300˚C. Due to
severe explosive spalling beyond this temperature, UHPC samples were rendered unsuitable for further material characterization tests.
Consequently, the investigations into the properties of post-heated UHPC were limited to temperature changes between 25˚C and 300
˚C. Future studies should incorporate remediation techniques, such as adding PP and PE fibers, to enhance UHPC’s spalling resistance
and allow testing at higher temperatures.

3.1. Chemical compositions, microstructures, and outlook of post-fire UHPC

3.1.1. XRD results

Fig. 5 illustrates the phase transformations within the UHPC matrix as temperature increases, with the results summarized in
Table 2. Initially, at ambient temperature, the primary hydration products identified were ettringite, portlandite (Ca(OH)2), calcium-
silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), and calcium carbonate (CaCO3). At 100˚C, a noticeable reduction in the ettringite peak suggests its complete
decomposition. As the temperature reached 200˚C, the portlandite peaks substantially reduced, indicating dehydration into calcium
oxide and water vapor. However, the intensity of portlandite slightly increased again at 300˚C, suggesting possible rehydration or
recrystallization. Conversely, the intensities of calcium silicate hydrate and calcium carbonate showed notable increases up to 300˚C,
indicating ongoing hydration processes within the UHPC.

3.1.2. SEM images

Fig. 6 presents SEM images depicting the microstructure of UHPC at temperatures up to 300˚C. The morphology of key phases,
including C-S-H, CH, and CaCO₃, was clearly visible and has been tagged in the images for clarity. The results indicate that C-S-H, CH,
and CaCO₃ are present in Fig. 6(a-d), with their structures largely preserved as the temperature increases from room temperature to

Fig. 5. XRD analysis results of UHPC.

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Table 2
Intensity of different phase peaks at elevated temperatures obtained by XRD analysis.
Phase Total Intensity

25˚C 100˚C 200˚C 300˚C

Ettringite 23.21 - - -
C-S-H 67.92 71.65 73.58 86.8
CaCO3 28.47 37.81 43.43 52.36
Ca(OH)2 73.71 80.47 53.17 68.43

300˚C, corroborating the findings from XRD analysis. Specifically, the dense, gel-like C-S-H phases appeared as amorphous or fibrous
structures. CH was identified as distinct hexagonal, plate-like crystals, while CaCO₃ was observed as compact, blocky formations.
At 200˚C, Fig. 6(c) reveals the formation of microcracks, likely caused by differential thermal expansion between UHPC phases,
such as aggregates and cement paste, and the pressure from evaporating water within the material’s pores. At 300˚C, Fig. 6(d) il­
lustrates more pronounced microcracks and degradation at the aggregate-cement paste interface, likely due to further moisture loss
and microstructural damage.
Fig. 7 highlights the thermal response of the fibers within UHPC, showing notable shrinkage and debonding at high temperatures.
This phenomenon occurs as the fibers expand with heat and contract upon cooling, creating gaps that diminish the bonding efficacy
between the fibers and the UHPC matrix.

3.1.3. Visual observation of the post-fire UHPC

Following exposure to 300˚C, Fig. 8 illustrates that the UHPC specimen displayed a dense network of randomly distributed cracks.
These cracks result due to desiccation shrinkage which were predominantly narrow and shallow. Fig. 9 details the color changes in
UHPC specimens subjected to high temperatures. Minimal color alteration occurred below 100˚C. However, beyond 200˚C, specimens
began transitioning to a yellowish-grey hue, culminating in a light grey appearance at 300˚C. These color changes primarily result from
the decomposition of portlandite into calcium oxide and water vapor [48,49].
Fig. 10 examines the condition of fibers in UHPC under varying temperatures. There was minimal change in the color of the fibers

Fig. 6. SEM images of the UHPC material at elevated temperatures.

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Fig. 7. Shrinkage and debonding of fibers at elevated temperature.

Fig. 8. Thermal microcrack on the surface of UHPC specimens after exposure to a temperature of 300˚C.

Fig. 9. Variation in color of UHPC material at elevated temperatures.

up to 200˚C. At 300˚C, however, the fibers took on a greyish hue, suggesting the onset of oxidation and the accumulation of carbon on
the fiber surfaces, indicating significant chemical changes due to high temperatures.

3.2. Durability properties

3.2.1. Water absorption and porosity

Fig. 11(a) illustrates the effect of elevated temperatures on the water absorption rate and porosity of UHPC specimens. Testing at
room temperature was omitted due to ASTM-C642, which requires specimens to be dried at 110 ± 5 C̊ for at least 24 hours as a

Fig. 10. Condition of fibers in UHPC at different temperatures.

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preconditioning step. The results reveal that the water absorption rates at 100˚C and 200˚C were comparably low, at 1.1 % and 1.2 %
respectively. However, a significant increase in water absorption was observed at 300˚C, where it surged by 58–1.9 %. This escalation
corresponds with the SEM images that displayed more pronounced microcracking at this temperature.
In terms of porosity, UHPC samples demonstrated a porosity level of around 2 % when evaluated at 100˚C. As the temperature rose
to 200˚C, following a similar trend to water absorption, there was a slight increase in porosity. While the porosity remained relatively
low until the temperature reached 200˚C, there was a significant jump in porosity, reaching 9.5 %, when the temperature escalated to
300 C̊. Fig. 11(b) illustrates the relationship between porosity and water absorption rates. It is showed that while the increase in
porosity correlates with the water absorption rate in UHPC specimens, the porosity increased more significantly than the water ab­
sorption rate. This suggests that the pores in the UHPC material remained primarily disconnected below 300˚C.

3.2.2. Electrical resistivity and permeability

Fig. 12 illustrates the changes in electrical resistivity and permeability of UHPC specimens across varying temperatures. The
electrical resistivity experienced a substantial increase, rising 600 % to 398 kΩ-cm as temperatures escalated from 25˚C to 200˚C,
categorizing the UHPC as having a negligible corrosion risk per AASHTO T358 [46]. This increase suggests enhanced formation of
hydration products, which likely contributed to reduced pore connectivity in the UHPC matrix. However, at 300˚C, there was a drastic
reduction in electrical resistivity due to intensified microstructural damage, as evidenced by SEM imaging.
In terms of permeability, UHPC specimens demonstrated an initial permeability depth of 5 mm at room temperature. When heated
to 100˚C, this depth notably increased to 19 mm, indicating an expansion of interconnected micropores triggered by thermal effects
and the disintegration of ettringite. As the temperature rose further to 300˚C, the permeability depth expanded dramatically to 46 mm.
This substantial increase correlates with the notable decomposition of portlandite at around 200˚C, which produces lime and water
vapor, thereby increasing porosity and internal pressure within the material. Such changes significantly elevate permeability,
particularly due to extensive thermal microcracking along the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates and cement paste,
as shown in Fig. 6(d).

3.3. Mechanical properties

3.3.1. Compressive strength

Fig. 13 details the compressive strengths of UHPC specimens following exposure to varying elevated temperatures, denoted as fʹTc . It
also presents the residual compressive strength ratio of UHPC, represented as fʹTc /fʹc , where fʹc is the compressive strength at ambient
temperature. Initially, UHPC exhibited an average compressive strength of 120 MPa at room temperature. The compressive strength
increased as the temperature rose to 300˚C. Specifically, the strength enhancement was substantial at 300˚C, with residual strength
ratios reaching 1.3 and 1.6 at 200˚C and 300˚C, respectively. This remarkable increase in strength suggests that the evaporation of
water significantly promotes cement hydration at elevated temperatures. Additionally, a more compact particle packing in the UHPC,
resulting from the reduction in pore pressure due to water loss and thermal expansion of solid phases, could also contribute to the
increase in compressive strength [50]. Despite the presence of a dense array of randomly distributed cracks in the UHPC samples post
high-temperature exposure, the increase in compressive strength was significant. This indicates that the fiber bridging effect effectively

Fig. 11. The impact of elevated temperatures on water absorption and porosity of UHPC.

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Fig. 12. Electrical resistivity and permeability of the UHPC material at elevated temperatures.

Fig. 13. Compressive strengths and failure patterns of UHPC post-high temperature exposure.

counteracted the impacts of temperature-induced cracks.

In comparison, although Hou et al. [51] used smaller sample sizes and lower heating rates, they also observed that UHPC exhibited
increasing residual strength with rising temperatures up to 300˚C. However, the residual strength ratio of the UHPC samples at 300˚C in
the present study was 29 % higher than that reported by Hou et al. [51]. Furthermore, compared to the residual compressive strength
of UHPC specimens cooled to ambient temperature in the present study, Abid et al. [33] observed that the compressive strength of
UHPC in the high-temperature state began to decrease above 120˚C. However, a partial recovery was noted at 300˚C, followed by a
gradual decline at temperatures exceeding 300˚C.
Furthermore, the nature of compressive failure in UHPC became increasingly explosive with rising temperatures, as shown in
Fig. 13. During compressive testing, UHPC materials internalize significant amounts of strain energy up until their point of failure. In
variants of UHPC that exhibit higher compressive strengths, this capacity for strain energy is substantially greater due to their denser
and less porous composition. This characteristic allows them to amass more energy prior to failure and necessitates a higher level of
fracture energy to initiate and extend cracks. The interaction between these two energy types leads to the explosive behavior seen in
high-strength UHPC, especially at 300˚C.

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3.3.2. Tensile behavior

Figs. 14 and 15 illustrate the tensile behavior of UHPC specimens at various temperatures, with Fig. 15 focusing on the residual
tensile cracking and peak strength ratios (fʹTcr /fʹcr and fʹTt /fʹt ). Here, fʹTt and fʹt represent the peak tensile strengths at elevated and
ambient temperatures, respectively, while fʹTcr and fʹcr denote the tensile cracking strengths.
The average cracking and peak tensile strengths at ambient temperature were measured at 6.0 and 7.0 MPa, respectively. As
temperatures increased to 200 C̊, both the cracking and peak strengths showed significant gains, with the residual strength ratios
climbing to 1.3 at 200˚C, respectively. These increases are attributed to continued hydration processes leading to higher concentrations
of C-S-H, confirmed by XRD results. In addition, the reduction in pore pressure from water loss likely enhanced the matrix strength.
These beneficial chemical and physical changes offset the adverse effects of microcrack formation observed at temperature up to 200˚C.
However, upon reaching 300˚C, a decline in both residual cracking and peak tensile strengths was observed, likely due to exac­
erbated expansion and contraction of particles and fibers during heating and subsequent cooling, which weakened their bonds. Despite
this onset of strength degradation, UHPC samples at 300˚C still exhibited cracking and tensile strengths comparable to those at room
temperature. Notably, while the compressive strength increased up to 300˚C, both cracking and peak tensile strengths only showed
improvement up to 200˚C. This discrepancy suggests a more immediate impact of thermal temperature-induced microcracking on
tensile properties compared to compressive characteristics.
Fig. 16 displays the mean stress-strain curves and cracking patterns of the UHPC specimens’ post-temperature exposure, high­
lighting that the tensile strain capacity was affected by increasing temperatures beyond ambient. The post-peak strain, indicating the
strain at post-peak strength, increased from 0.2 % to 0.66 % with rising temperatures from ambient to 300 ˚C. Interestingly, the
variation in temperature levels from 100 to 300˚C did not markedly affect the tensile strain capacity. Furthermore, all UHPC specimens
maintained tensile strain-hardening behavior, accompanied by multiple cracking at all tested temperatures (25–300˚C). This behavior
implies that despite changes in bond strength and matrix properties at different temperature levels, UHPC adhered to the two
micromechanical design principles necessary to exhibit tensile strain-hardening behavior, namely strength and energy criteria [52,53].
According to the steady-state crack opening model [54–56], steady crack opening behavior occurs when the complementary energy
provided by the bridging action of fibers (Jb) matches or surpasses the fracture toughness at the crack tip (Jtip):
∫ δp
Jtip ≤ σ p δp − σ (δ) ≡Jb (1)
0

where σ (δ) describes the relationship between stress and crack opening, and σp and δp denote the peak stress and the corresponding
crack opening, respectively, as depicted in Fig. 17. The increase in temperature leads to microcrack formation in UHPC, reducing the
crack tip fracture toughness, which in turn enhances the material’s ability to undergo tensile strain hardening and increases its strain
capacity. Additionally, the weakening of the bond between fibers and the cement matrix, caused by differential thermal expansion,
facilitates bond slip and helps prevent premature crack localization due to excessive stress concentrated at the fiber-matrix interface.
This phenomenon is crucial for promoting multiple cracking behavior. More specifically, research by Li et al. [52] demonstrated that
an increased frictional bond at the interface can decrease the Jb/Jtip ratio, thereby impairing multiple cracking behavior and dimin­
ishing the associated tensile strain capacity.

4. Conclusions

This study systematically investigated the behavior of unconfined steel-fiber reinforced UHPC after exposure to high temperatures,

Fig. 14. Cracking and peak tensile strengths of the UHPC material at elevated temperatures.

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Fig. 15. Tensile strength and residual tensile strength ratios at elevated temperatures.

Fig. 16. Tensile stress-strain responses and cracking patterns of the UHPC specimens at elevated temperatures.

Fig. 17. The criterion for steady-state crack opening behavior: stress-crack opening relationship for SHCCs, where σ ss and δss are stress and its crack
opening at steady state-crack formation, respectively.

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adhering to the ASTM E119 standard fire exposure. The impact of elevated temperatures on the UHPC was explored in terms of
chemical compositions, microstructure, durability, and mechanical properties. Test results indicated that the use of a 1.5 % volume
fraction of fibers was not effective in restraining explosive failure for unconfined steel-fiber reinforced UHPC at temperatures
exceeding 300˚C. Key findings on the behavior of UHPC with elevated temperatures up to 300˚C are outlined below:

(1) By 100˚C, ettringite completely decomposed, and by 200˚C, portlandite showed signs of dehydration into calcium oxide and
water vapor, persisting in reduced amounts up to 300˚C. Meanwhile, calcium silicate hydrate and calcium carbonate levels
increased, indicating continued hydration up to 300˚C. SEM imaging showed that microstructural integrity was maintained up
to 200˚C. At 300˚C, significant microcracking occurred, particularly around the aggregate-cement paste interface. Moreover, the
interfacial bond between fibers and the surrounding matrix also weakened significantly at 300˚C.
(2) UHPC specimens underwent distinct color changes when exposed to high temperatures. Below 100˚C, the color remained largely
unchanged, but above 200˚C, the specimens transitioned to a yellowish-grey and eventually to light grey at 300˚C due to phase
transformation. Similarly, fibers maintained their original color up to 200˚C but developed a greyish hue at 300˚C, reflecting
oxidation and carbon accumulation.
(3) UHPC specimens exhibited stable, low water absorption rates of 1.1 % and 1.2 % at 100˚C and 200˚C respectively, but saw a
substantial rise to 1.9 % at 300˚C, paralleled by a notable jump in porosity from 2 % at 100˚C to 9.5 % at 300˚C. This suggests a
transition from isolated to interconnected pore structures at 300˚C, which may compromise material durability.
(4) Electrical resistivity surged by 600 % up to 200˚C, indicating negligible corrosion risk and reduced pore connectivity due to
hydration product formation. However, resistivity plummeted at 300˚C, associated with intensified microstructural damage and
a dramatic increase in permeability from 5 mm to 46 mm due to thermal expansion and chemical decomposition that led to
more significant pore interconnectivity.
(5) Despite extensive microcracking in samples exposed to high temperatures, the compressive strength gains were significant,
particularly at 300˚C, where residual strength ratios reached 1.6. This significant increase in compressive strength can be
attributed to enhanced cement hydration and a more compact particle packing within the UHPC matrix. Although some
interfacial debonding and shrinkage of fibers occurred, the residual bridging effect of the fibers remained effective in coun­
teracting temperature-induced cracks, contributing to the overall strength improvement. However, the compressive failure of
UHPC became more explosive with rising temperatures, driven by greater strain energy stored in denser structures, which also
demanded higher fracture energy for crack initiation and propagation.
(6) The cracking and peak tensile strengths increased significantly to residual strength ratios of 1.4 and 1.3 at 200˚C, respectively.
However, at 300˚C, both cracking and peak tensile strengths declined due to the expansion and contraction cycle during heating
and cooling, which weakened the bonds between solid particles and between fibers and the matrix. Despite this, tensile
strengths at 300˚C remained comparable to the ambient level. Notably, while compressive strength continued to increase up to
300˚C, tensile improvements were only observed up to 200˚C, highlighting the immediate impact of temperature-induced
microcracking on tensile properties.
(7) The reduced interfacial bond between fibers and the matrix, along with the formation of microcracks due to elevated tem­
peratures, increased the Jb/Jtip ratio, facilitating multiple cracking behavior and increasing the tensile strain capacity of UHPC.
As a result, UHPC exhibited tensile strain-hardening behavior across the tested temperature range (25–300˚C), with the post-
peak strain increasing from 0.2 % at ambient temperature to 0.66 % at 300˚C.

In summary, this study offers a thorough investigation into the behavior of unconfined steel fiber reinforced UHPC when subjected
to high temperatures, demonstrating remarkable resilience up to 200˚C, particularly in terms of durability and mechanical properties.
Future research endeavors should concentrate on evaluating alternative steel fiber volume fractions, diverse fiber types or configu­
rations, and the exploration of supplementary materials to enhance UHPC’s performance beyond 300 ˚C. Additionally, there is a
pressing need to assess the long-term durability of UHPC following exposure to high temperatures, including cyclic thermal loading, to
ascertain its structural robustness over extended periods.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Erika Yulianti: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Methodology, Investigation, Formal
analysis, Data curation. Chung-Chan Hung: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation, Super­
vision, Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Data curation. Mugahed Amran: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
Visualization, Validation, Supervision. Sohit Agrawal: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Validation,
Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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S. Agrawal et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 22 (2025) e04173

Acknowledgement

This study was sponsored in part by the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under Grant No. 110–2636-E-006–020. We
are grateful for the opportunity to utilize the XRD machine (XRD005101 or XRD005100) and the SEM machine Hitachi SU8000
(EM003600) equipment provided by the Core Facility Center of National Cheng Kung University. The opinions, findings, and con­
clusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors, and do not necessarily reflect those of the sponsors.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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