Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sustainable Materials and Technologies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/susmat

Strategies for recycling multi-material polymer blends for

additive manufacturing
Catalina Suescun Gonzalez a,* , Aditi Basdeo b,c , Fabio A. Cruz Sanchez a , Cécile Nouvel a ,
Joshua M. Pearce b,c, Hakim Boudaoud a
a
Université de lorraine, ERPI Laboratory, 8, Rue Bastien Lepage, 54010 Nancy, Cedex, France
b
Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Western University, London, ON, Canada
c
Ivey Business School, Western University, London, ON Canada

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The rapid advancement of additive manufacturing (AM) technology, combined with the growing accumulation of
3D printing plastic waste, has generated significant interest in utilizing materials derived from plastic waste and their
Plastic blend composites within the AM industry. This paper examines the methods and approaches currently employed in
Recycling
recycling and blending thermoplastic waste into additive manufacturing feedstocks, aiming to enhance under­
Additive manufacturing
standing and guide future advancements in this field. A systematic literature review including 82 papers from
Distributed recycling
2014 to 2024 was performed using the Scopus and Web of Science databases. The review findings indicate that
approximately 83 % of the research is concentrated in production of new materials combining various polymer
waste with recycled bio-sourced materials, recycled fillers or other additives for property enhancement. The
evaluation and characterization of these new materials was carry out mostly using 3D printing, predominantly
employing fused filament fabrication technology (63 %). The remaining 17 % focus on the improvement of the
printing quality and optimization, development or adaptation of 3D printers for the utilization of new materials,
and material reprocessability. This review highlight the need of evaluating the behavior of recycled blends over
multiple life cycles, the cost and environmental assessments, and primary end-use applications of these materials,
including as well as further development and design of printers.

1. Introduction is estimated between 10 and 450 years [1,2].The production and

disposal of plastics in our ecosystem have reached significant levels,
The accumulation of plastic waste present a significant challenge in contributing to severe environmental problems and posing risks to
today’s world, due as most of them have high time of degradation, which human health [3]. In 2021, approximately 390.7 million tons of plastic

Abbreviations: ABS, Poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene); AC, Activated Carbon; AM, Additive Manufacturing; ASA, Acrylonitrile Styrene Acrylate; Al2O3,
Aluminum Oxide; BAK, Bakelite; CB, Carbon Black; CF, Carbon Fiber; DIW, Direct Ink Writing; DLP, Digital Light Processing; DMA, Dynamic Mechanical Analysis;
DRAM, Distributed recycling via additive manufacturing; DSC, Differential scanning calorimetry; EPS, Expanded Polystyrene; FA, Fly Ash; FDM, Fused deposition
modeling; FFF, Fused filament fabrication; FGF, Fused granular fabrication; FPF, Fused particle fabrication; FTIR, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy; GF, Glass
Fiber; HC, Hydrolyzed collagen; HDPE, High-density polyethylene; HIPS, High-impact Polystyrene; LCA, Life Cycle Assessment; LDPE, Low-density polyethylene; MA,
Maleic anhydride; MCC, Microcrystalline Cellulose; MFI, Melt flow index; MWCNT, Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes; PA12, Polyamide 12; PBT, Poly(butylene
terephthalate); PC, Polycarbonate; PCL, Polycaprolactone; PE, Polyethylene; PEG, Polyethylene Glycol; PET, Polyethylene terephthalate; PETG, Polyethylene tere­
phthalate glycol; PHB, Polyhydroxybutyrate; PIEK, polyaryletherketone; PLA, Poly(lactic acid); PME, Powder Material Extrusion; PP, Polypropylene; PS, Polystyrene;
PSW, Plastic Solid Waste; PVC, Polyvinyl Chloride; SAG, Methacrylate; SEBS, Poly(styrene-b-(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-styrene); SEM, Scanning Electron Microscopy;
SLS, Selective Laser Sintering; SiC, Silicon Carbide; TEM, Transmission Electron Microscopy; TGA, Thermogravimetric Analysis; TPO, Polyolefin; TPU, Thermoplastic
polyurethane; TR, Tier Rubber; TiO, Titanium dioxide; WEEE, Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment; rABS, Recycled Poly(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene); rCF,
Recycled Carbon Fiber; rGF, Recycled Glass Fiber; rHDPE, Recycled High-density Polyethylene; rLDPE, Recycled Low-density Polyethylene; rPC, Recycled Poly­
carbonate; rPET, Recycled Polyethylene terephthalate; rPETG, Recycled Polyethylene terephthalate glycol; rPLA, Recycled Poly(lactic acid); rPP, Recycled Poly­
propylene; rPS, Recycled Polystyrene; vPET, Virgin or commercial Polyethylene terephthalate; vPLA, Virgin Poly(lactic acid); μ-CT, Micro-computed tomography.
* Corresponding author at : 8, Rue Bastien Lepage, 54010 Nancy, Cedex, France.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.S. Gonzalez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.susmat.2025.e01430
Received 5 January 2025; Received in revised form 1 April 2025; Accepted 1 May 2025
Available online 3 May 2025
2214-9937/© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

were produced globally, where 90.2 % were fossil-based, 8.3 % post- recycled materials in large-scale extrusion-based 3D printing, ranging
consumer recycled, and just 1.5 % bio-based or bio-attributed plastic from academic research to industrial activities. Despite this growing
[4]. Projections indicate that by 2060, worldwide plastic consumption interest, their use remains limited by technical challenges such as
and waste will almost triple, while plastic recycling will see only a slight inconsistent mechanical performance, limited printability, and vari­
rise, leading to a doubling of global plastic pollution [5]. The recycling ability in material composition. Studying recycled materials is therefore
and upcycling of wastes have emerged as a promising step towards essential not only for improving their processing and performance but
optimized production processes and resource management, contributing also for enabling scalable, sustainable solutions.
to the adaptation of a circular economy as a sustainable long-term so­ At this point most of the common thermoplastics have been
lution [2]. demonstrated to be viable with DRAM and there is a growing interest in
Despite the emergence of recycling as a solution over the past three either developing new materials or blending multi-materials using ad­
decades [6], the rate of recycled plastics is relatively low (9 %). Mean­ ditives for DRAM. This underscores the need for a deeper understanding
while, approximately 19 % was incinerated, 50 % end up in landfills, of the strategies to process multi-material blends for additive
and 22 % leak into the environment [1,7]. Widespread adoption is manufacturing. Previous research highlights the potential of combining
hindered by high volume low value, cost inefficiencies [8], Infrastruc­ recycled plastics with various additives to enhance their properties, yet
ture [9], International trades [10] China’s national sword policy there remain significant gaps in fully implementing these strategies
implementation, which banned import of many reclyables [11,12]. [64,65].
Additionally, multi-material packaging, such as those used for food This study addresses this need by conducting a systematic literature
products, often consists of multiple layers of different polymers like review focused on the research question: What is the current state of
polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene terephthalate different strategies used to recycle multi-material polymer blends using ad­
(PET), and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) [13–15].These complex structures are ditive manufacturing technologies, and how can these strategies be
difficult to recycle due to the incompatibility of different polymers and improved?. The objective is to provide a comprehensive overview of the
the need for separation, as well as the challenge this represents [16]. methods and approaches currently employed, identify existing chal­
Furthermore, recycled products often suffer from diminished quality due lenges, and suggest potential advancements for future research.
to impurities, contamination, degradation, and the mixing of incom­ This paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents a detailed
patible polymers [17–19]. Understanding and studying recycled mate­ background on the state of plastic recycling, polymer blend compatibi­
rials is essential to promoting sustainable manufacturing practices and lization, and advancements in additive manufacturing technologies.
supporting the principles of the circular economy Therefore, there is a Then, Section 3 outlines the methodology employed to systematically
critical need for innovative strategies to enhance recycling efforts of review [66] to identify the relevant literature and ensuring a robust and
these more complex and abundant materials. An alternative solution thorough analysis. In Section 4, the main results are presented, and
could be the use of biopolymers derived from natural sources to replace categorized into key areas such as innovations in 1) material develop­
their fossil-based counterparts [20,21]. ment, 2) 3D printing with recycle materials, 3) technological advance­
Another strategy that has received considerable attention is the ments, and 4) reprocessing of the materials. The discussion in Section 5
blending of recycled thermoplastics to improve material properties and delves into these results and propose new understanding based on the
provide a second life to single-use plastics [3,22,23]. Typically, extru­ broader view proposed here. Finally, the conclusion and directions for
sion processes are employed to mix these blends, utilizing either twin or future research are presented in Section 6.
single-screw extruders. While extensive efforts have been devoted to
characterizing these blends, the challenge of polymer incompatibility 2. Theoretical background
persists, impeding their full implementation. Recent research has
explored the use of additives to enhance inter-or intra-molecular in­ 2.1. Plastic waste and recycling
teractions between the different polymer chains [24–27]. Organic ad­
ditives have shown promise in addressing this challenge, for instance, Plastic solid waste (PSW) is referred as discarded plastic of material
copolymers [28,29], elastomers [30,31] and reactive functional groups such as plastic bottles, containers, packaging, among others. Global
like maleic anhydride (MA) [32,33] and epoxides [34,35], as well as plastic production has significantly increased over the past 50 years
inorganic fillers like carbon [36] and fiberglass [37]. These blending [67], with an annual production estimation of 260–240 metric tons of
strategies can offer opportunities to enhance material properties and waste from 2016 to 2030 [68]. This increment poses environmental and
facilitate recyclability. Moreover, a strategy to overcoming the trans­ waste management challenges, with packaging accounting for nearly 46
portation economic limitations of recycling waste plastic that has gained % of plastic waste by 2017 [69]. Recycling, a circular economy strategy,
attention is the concept of distributed recycling and additive has emerged as a solution, with Europe targeting 60 % recycling of
manufacturing (DRAM) [38–41]. In DRAM plastic waste is used as a packaging waste by 2035 [70].
feedstock for 3D printing on a localized scale either by producing con­ In the 1990s plastic recycling emerged as a viable solution to manage
sumers themselves (prosumers) or as part of community, business, or plastic waste [6] and currently four primary approaches encompasses de
regional initiative. Additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as recycling system: primary (closed-loop) [71] [65], secondary (down­
3D printing, enables the production of complex structures from digital grading), tertiary (chemical) [6], and quaternary (energy recovery) [72]
designs by depositing material layer by layer [42]. [24]. Mechanical recycling, the most common, involves collection,
This manufacturing method holds potential as an innovative solution sorting, and reprocessing but faces contamination and material degra­
for repurposing plastic waste into 3D printing feedstock because the dation issues [67]. Chemical recycling breaks plastics into monomers
value of the 3D printed articles can be substantial for a wide range of but requires advanced technologies and high energy input. Finally,
consumer goods [43–45], which have been shown to be economic quaternary recycling, like incineration and pyrolysis, reduces waste
[46,47]. In addition, prosumer 3D printing of prototyping and scientific volume but negatively impacts air quality [67].
equipment [48–51], sporting equipment [52] adaptive aids [53], toys The consolidation of recycling as a strategy for managing plastic
[54,55], and other goods is becoming widespread [56]. Various studies waste has increased, however, the process still faces significant con­
have demonstrated the feasibility of using recycled plastics, such as PET straints linked to material heterogeneity, degradation, and high costs.
[57,58], PLA [59,60], Poly(acrylonitrile-co-butadiene-co-styrene) (ABS) Additionally, Centralized recycling models add transportation costs and
[45,61], and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) [62] in 3D printing ap­ carbon emissions. In response, decentralized recycling and additive
plications, highlighting the potential for widespread adoption [39]. manufacturing (DRAM) have emerged, promoting local processing of
Romani et al. (2024) [63] clearly illustrated the diverse applications of plastic waste into 3D-printed objects, offering an innovative pathway to

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enhance material revalorization. The different recycling methods are strategically introducing a third component, researchers can mitigate
illustrated in Fig. 1 the inherent limitations of individual materials and achieve superior
composite materials.

2.2. Distributed recycling via additive manufacturing - DRAM

2.3. Polymer blends and compatibilization
This innovative concept represents a departure from traditional
recycling methods, merging the advantages of AM with recycling prin­ Polymer blending involves mixing two or more polymers to create
ciples, with the aim of democratizing and streamlining recycling efforts. new materials with enhanced mechanical and physical properties.
DRAM entails a shift from centralized to distributed recycling systems, [87,88]. These blends can be completely miscible, partially miscible, or
empowering consumers to directly transform their own waste into us­ immiscible, with performance largely influenced by blend morphology,
able products through 3D printing, with a particular emphasis on molecular compatibility, and factors such as glass transition tempera­
extrusion technology due to its cost-effectiveness and efficiency [73]. ture. [89]. While polymer blending is a promising approach to develop
The higher costs associated with recycled plastics stem from various new materials and facilitate recycling, it often faces challenges due to
stages of the recycling process, including collection, sorting, cleaning, immiscibility, phase separation, and weak mechanical properties. [73].
and transportation can be mitigated by the adoption of a distributed Thus, characterizing these blends is essential for understanding their
recycling model eliminating the need for transportation to centralized properties, which are influenced by factors such as morphology [90],
facilities, as well as reducing expenses related to electricity consumption geometrical arrangement [91,92], and inherent polymer [93]
during shredding activities. characteristics.
The use of AM enables the fabrication of personalized objects by Polymer blends offer a promising approach to create novel materials
adding material layer by layer, significantly minimizing material waste and might beneficial in polymer recycling, simplifying sorting processes.
during the fabrication process. Some studies have proved the efficacity However, blending polymers often encounters challenges, primarily due
of distributed recycling for repurposing plastic waste into new 3D to the immiscibility of many polymers. This immiscibility arises from
printed products [43,52,74–78] reducing dependence on the virgin raw weak interactions between the phases of each polymer, leading to poor
materials, energy, and water usually required for traditional mechanical properties and unstable morphology.
manufacturing methods. This method demands less energy and a low To overcome these limitations, compatibilization strategies are
carbon footprint [79] compared with virgin materials. Additionally, employed. For instance, the use of additives called compatibilizers,
DRAM has already shown environmental benefits [39,80,81], and global which are introduced to enhance interfacial adhesion between different
applicability. Full implementation of DRAM still faces some challenges polymers can help to stabilize blend morphology, reduce interphase
associated with the collection and sorting procedures where the opti­ tension, and improve mechanical thermal, and rheological properties
mization of this process are required [73]. The selection of materials that [27,94,95]. Compatibilization can be achieved through two primary
can be processed without significant degradation of their properties is methods: the incorporation of polymer-based additives or fillers and
essential. Additionally, the blending of multi-materials, each with mechanochemical processes as shown in Fig. 3. The role of the compa­
distinct flow, viscosity, and thermal characteristics, presents printing tibilizer is to function as an interfacial agent that reduces the interfacial
challenges such as warping, layer adhesion, shrinkage, and surface fin­ tension between the two immiscible phases, thereby enhancing inter­
ish imperfections [82]. facial adhesion and improving the material properties [96] (Fig. 2).
The practice of blending virgin and recycled polymers, often with the Compatibilizers can act through physical interactions (using non-
addition of a compatibilizer, has been employed to enhance the prop­ reactive polymer-based additives like copolymers or elastomers)
erties of the resulting polymer blends [83,84]. This approach aims to [27,97] or reactive interactions (involving chemical reactions and co­
optimize the mechanical, thermal, and rheological characteristics of the valent bonding, using agents such as epoxy, maleic anhydride, or iso­
blends, thereby improving their overall performance and expanding cyanates) [95].Additionally, fillers such as carbon nanotubes [101], clay
their applicability in various industrial applications [85]. By combining [98,99,102], Janus nanoparticles (two or more chemically distinct
the advantageous properties of both virgin and recycled polymers, and particles with different properties) [25,27,100], or bio-sourced

Fig. 1. Different approaches available for recycling PSW. Adapted from [67,86].

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C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

Fig. 2. Ideal compatibilization of polymer A and B with and without additives. Adapted from [72].

recycling of multi-material polymer blends using the additive

manufacturing process, the challenges faced, and assess the possible
opportunities. For this reason, a systematic review protocol was used to
perform and evaluate studies following [66]. This protocol aims to avoid
publications bias, search for gray literature, and enable future reviews
performance in the identification of new research pathways. The
research strategy used in this study is illustrated in Table 1, while the
selection process of the papers, based in the PRISMA (flow diagram) is
depicted in Fig. 4. A total of 233 studies were identified using two
different scientific research engines (Web of Science and Scopus). The
duplicated articles were discarded, and the retained studies were
screened to select those in relation to the research. Within this screening,
title, keywords, and abstract were assessed, and 98 papers being rejected
by applying the inclusion criteria summarized in Table 1. Finally, a total
Fig. 3. Polymer compatibilization routes.
of 100 articles were chosen for a full reading, and a total of 82 papers
were selected for final analysis because 18 did not match the criteria.
materials like biochar, wood flour [101], and rise husk [102] are used to
4. Results
reinforce blends and stabilize morphology. Their localization either
within one phase or at the interface is critical for successful
From the 82 articles reviewed, Table A1 presents the detailed
compatibilization.
description and analysis criteria. Fig. 5 shows publications from 2017 to
Another innovative approach is mechanochemical compatibiliza­
2024, and the number of published articles on the subject exhibited a
tion, where mechanical processes like solid-state shear pulverization
notable upward trend, reflecting the increasing academic and research
[104,105] or ball milling induce structural changes in polymers,
interest in this area. The overall trend suggests a growing recognition of
generating free radicals that lead to cross-linking and improved self-
the importance of this field, driven by advancements in technology and
compatibility [95]. These strategies are key to advancing polymer
increased environmental awareness.
recycling and creating high-performance recycled materials.
The flow chart presented in Fig. 6 illustrate the general methodology
employed in the studies for developing, testing, and characterizing their
3. Review methodology polymer blends. The process begins with the preparation of the mate­
rials, which includes the collection, sorting, cleaning, shredding, and
The objective of this review is to identify the current work in the

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Table 1 study was systematically analyzed and categorized into two distinct
Protocol for the literature review. applications: the production of new materials and non-production of
Stage Principle Description new materials. Approximately 83 % of the applications were related to
the production of new materials. Among these, 42 utilized and evaluated
Search Type of studies Journals papers
Strategy Keywords 1. Polymer blend to extract the different the new material for 3D printing, focusing on the printing of a bench­
blending using different polymers. mark object (20), tensile testing specimens (27), or both (7). The eval­
2. Additive Manufacturing and its synonym 3d uation of the different new materials were rated in Table A1 in the
printing to limit the type of technology used. appendix with a scale going from 1 to 4: 1 when only the properties of
3. Recycle, recycling and derivates to focus on
the recycling plastics.
the material are evaluated, 2 when the material is placed under a
Search equation Polymer AND blend* AND (“Additive printable form (pellet or filament) 3 when we print the material as a test
Manufacturing” OR “3D printing” OR “Rapid specimen and 4 when we print a real finished object with the material.
prototyping” OR “AM”) AND (recycl*) Finally, the characterization of the material can be conducted both
Period 2014–2024
before and after the printing process to assess its properties and per­
Databases Web of science and Scopus
Study Criteria for data Only articles studying the blending of recycle formance comprehensively.
Selection extraction polymers using additive manufacturing, Out of the 14 studies that did not focus on the development of new
blending to improve recyclability of the materials, 11 conducted printing. Six studies printed tensile test sam­
materials. ples, four studies printed various objects, and one study printed both
Procedure 1) A first review based on title, abstract and
keywords is done to select the articles to be
tensile test samples and objects. These studies focused on several key
completely read. areas: comparing recycled plastics to their virgin counterparts
2) From the previous selection, full articles are [103–105], assessing the reprocess ability through multiple recycling
reviewed. cycles [54,64,106,107], characterizing recycled plastics from sources
3) A group of articles is selected based on the
such as glasses [108] and waste electrical and electronic equipment
criteria for data extraction.
Data Studies involving materials that are sourced (WEEE) [109], and printer development.
extraction outside of the waste stream, exclude the use of In the review articles, three main AM technologies were identified,
3D printing technology, or refrain from material extrusion, selective laser sintering (SLS) and digital light pro­
blending disparate materials have been cessing (DLP). From the material extrusion, 63 % of the studies focused
discarded.
on fused filament fabrication (FFF/FDM), 7 % of employed fused gran­
ular fabrication (FGF), and 1 % on other technologies such as powder
grinding of the polymers. The subsequent step involves the compound­ melt extrusion (PME) and direct ink writing (DIW). 4 % each used SLS
ing of these materials, which can be performed using various techniques and DLP (Fig. 6.b). Additionally, 20 % did not utilize additive
such as twin-screw extrusion, single-screw extrusion, roll milling, batch manufacturing technologies but concentrated on the characterization of
mixing, or ultrasonic mixing. Once the blend is prepared, it is typically filaments (56 %), compression molding (19 %), hot pressing (19 %), and
used to print objects, often for tensile testing purposes. Therefore, each injection molding (6 %) samples for subsequent use in AM. Finally, only

Fig. 4. PRISMA flow diagram.

Fig. 5. Distribution of the studies by year.

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Fig. 6. a) Flow chart showing the methodology employed in the articles, b) Technologies, methods to characterize, and materials used.

4 % of the reviewed papers were dedicated to technology development. properties with various additives Fig. 7. These additives can be classified
The various characterization methods employed in the reviewed into three main categories: bio-sourced, polymer-based, and inorganic.
studies revealed that mechanical characterization was the most preva­ In some cases, the fillers or additives themselves are recycled compo­
lent, constituting 24 % of the total. This was closely followed by thermal nents, such as recycled carbon fiber [110,111], glass fiber [112], cel­
and morphological analyses, each accounting for 22 %. Physicochemical lulose [113], biocarbon [114], and corn husk [115].
characterization methods comprised 10 %, while roughly 5 % performed
rheological tests. It was also found that the most commonly used ma­ 4.1.1.1. Bio-sourced additives. The incorporation of bio-sourced addi­
terials were PLA, ABS, PP, PET, high density poly(ethylene) (HDPE) and tives has shown significant potential in enhancing the properties of
polystyrene PS, as illustrated in Fig. 6.b. recycled and virgin polymers, contributing to mechanical performance,
biodegradability, and environmental sustainability. Table 2 presents
various bio-sourced additives found in the literature and their en­
4.1. Innovations in material development
hancements to polymer matrices.
The production of biocarbon through the pyrolysis process of various
4.1.1. Enhancing materials with additives
food wastes has proven to be effective in filament production and in
The reviewed papers present innovative approaches for repurposing
enhancing material properties acting as reinforcing agent. The use of
plastic waste by developing new materials and enhancing their

Fig. 7. Sankey diagram of additives-material and characterization test relationship in the literature.

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Table 2 and PP [113], while slightly lowering those from rABS, PS, and poly­
Materials enhanced with bio-sourced additives. vinyl chloride (PVC) [119]. The incorporation of 5 wt% of microcrys­
Additive Matrix Weight Main Findings Reference talline cellulose (MCC) in PLA showed comparable properties of those of
Material Fraction their injection-molded counterparts and slightly increasing the elonga­
Improved tion at break (5 %), melt flow index (7 %), and impact strength (7 %)
mechanical, thermal, indicating a more ductile material and printability was also improved
rPET 0.50 % and rheological [116] [118]. Contrarily, Hyvärinen and Kärk.,(2020) demonstrated that
properties of bio incorporating 10 wt% cellulose significantly reduced the tensile strength
composites
Recycled Enhanced elongation
and Young’s modulus of filaments made from rABS, PVC, and PS by
Biocarbon 10 % [114] approximately 60 % and 50 %, respectively, yet improve by 28 % the
HDPE/PP at break
Improved mechanical properties of virgin PLA.
mechanical, thermal, PLA has been widely blended with other different bio-sourced ma­
rPET 0.50 % dynamic properties, [117]
terials in order to improve its properties. For instance, the addition of
and crystallinity of
3D printed parts birch fiber
Comparable and polyethylene glycol (PETG) [120], hydroxyapatite (HAP) and
properties to chitosan (CS) [121], and anchovy fishbone [122].
5 wt% injection-molded Other bio-sourced additives such, wool, collagen, and wood dust
PLA [118]
MCC parts, enhanced
printability and
were likewise studied, showing enhanced mechanical properties [123],
reduced warping thermal stability [124], and biodegradability properties [125].
Reduced tensile Furthermore, Hassan et al.,(2024) [126] presented a detailed review on
Cellulose
rABS, rPS,
10 wt%
strength and Young’s
[119] the blending of biomass and plastic waste for use in 3D printing. This
rPVC modulus by 60 % and
comprehensive analysis explored the various methods and benefits of
50 %, respectively
20 wt% integrating biomass with plastic waste, highlighting its potential to
Improved improve the sustainability and properties of 3D printed materials.
CB, 10 wt
rPP mechanical and [113]
% WF, 5
thermal properties
These findings illustrate the diverse and beneficial impacts of bio-
wt% WP sourced additives on the development of sustainable and high-
Improved tensile
performance recycled polymer composites for additive manufacturing.
strength and
Wool 10 % [123]
biodegradation

PCL
capabilities 4.1.1.2. Polymer-based additives. The blending of polymers or the
Maintained suitable incorporation of polymer-based compatibilizer additives offer an alter­
mechanical
Collagen 20 % [125] native method to enhance material properties for the development of
properties while
being biodegradable feedstock for AM (See Table 3).
Improved tensile In this context, Singh et al.,(2019) [127] investigated the mechanical
Wood Dust rABS 10 % strength and thermal [124] and thermal properties of a blend comprising rABS, rPLA, and high-
stability
impact polystyrene (HIPS) for use in multi-material AM. The study
Decreased tensile
strength and Young’s demonstrated significant enhancements in the mechanical properties of
Birch Fiber & the multi-material blend, with improvements of 60 %, 14.3 %, and 94.6
PLA 10 % PEG modulus, slightly [120]
PEG
increased elongation % for rABS, rPLA, and rHIPS, respectively. These enhancements were
at break attributed to the synergistic effect of combining polymers with varying
Significantly
mechanical properties, resulting in prototypes with superior load-
improved
Hydroxyapatite mechanical bearing capabilities and improved structural integrity. Another study
rPLA 10 % [121]
& Chitosan properties, suitable by Hu et al.,(2017) [128] incorporated 60 w% of a laboratory-made
for biomedical elastomer poly (lactate/butanediol/sebacate/itaconate) into PLA to
scaffolds
create a thermoplastic vulcanizate aimed at improving the toughness
Anchovy Enhanced flexural
Fishbone
PLA & 10 %, 20
modulus, good [122]
and elasticity of PLA. The results showed enhanced mechanical prop­
Mater-bi % erties, including tensile strength and Young’s modulus. Additionally, the
Waste printability
elongation at break improved to 314 %, demonstrating a balance be­
tween strength and elasticity. Similarly, other studies showed the
enhancement of mechanical properties by blending poly(3-
biocarbon derived from spent coffee grounds combined with recycled
hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL)-based mate­
water bottles and bale wrap has resulted in bio composites with
rials [129], expanded polystyrene (EPS) and glycerol and gypsum [130],
enhanced mechanical thermal and rheological properties [116]. Simi­
PLA with aramid filaments [131], polyurea with ureido-cytosine
larly, Chong et al.,(2020) [114] explored the production of activated
quadruple hydrogen bonding [132], and synthetased isosorbide-based
carbon (AC) from coconut fibers, which was then incorporated to
poly(aryletherketone) (PIEK) [133].
recycled high density polyethylene rHDPE/PP. The blend enhanced the
The blending of recycled materials with their virgin counter parts
elongation at break of the composite material by the increased AC
also showed enhancement in the mechanical properties and ensured
content. Despite neither study involving the actual printing of these
thermal stability of ABS [134], PLA [103,105,118].
filaments, they demonstrated an innovative approach to valorizing food
The potential of combining polymers and adding a polymer com­
waste alongside plastic waste for further 3D printing applications.
patibilizer as third agent was explored through the utilization of the
Furthermore, the addition of biochar into recycled polyethylene tere­
copolymer SEBS (Poly (styrene-block-ethene-co-butene-block-styrene)
phthalate (rPET) has been shown to improve the mechanical, thermal,
as a compatibilizer in various polymer blends, including rPET and rLDPE
and dynamic properties of 3D printed parts, while also enhancing their
[116,135], rPP, rPET, and rPS [113], as well as in enhancing rPET [136].
crystallinity [117].
These investigations consistently demonstrate that SEBS is an effective
Another approach for the enhancement of properties using bio-
compatibilizer for different polymer blends, significantly improving
sourced additives is the incorporation of the biopolymer cellulose.
mechanical and thermal properties by enhancing compatibility and
Studies showed improvements in the properties of PLA [105,118,119]

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Table 3
Polymer based additives.
Additive Matrix Material Weight Fraction Main Findings Reference

rABS, PLA, HIPS N/A Improved mechanical properties, significant enhancements [127]
Multi-material PLA and Laboratory-made elastomer (PLBSI) 60 wt% Improved toughness, elasticity, and stiffness [128]
Blends Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and Poly
40 % Enhanced mechanical and thermal properties [129]
(ε-caprolactone)
2 wt% Glycerol, 10 wt% Improved tensile strength, elongation at break, and
Glycerol & Gypsum EPS [130]
Gypsum printability
Ureido-cytosine Polyurea 20 wt% Improved stiffness, balance between strength and flexibility [132]
Aramid filaments PLA 40 % Increased tensile strength and ductility [131]
Improved tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact
rPET, rLDPE, 5% [116,135]
resistance
SEBS
rPET 5% Increasing of the toughness [136]
rPP, rPS 5% Improved tensile strength and elongation to failure [113]

promoting better interfacial adhesion. Gupta et al.,(2021) [135] found plants into HDPE [142,143] and ABS [144] was investigated in three
that incorporating 5 % SEBS into blends of rPET and rLLDPE signifi­ distinct studies. All the studies focused on creating filaments with
cantly improved tensile strength, elongation at break, and impact varying percentages of FA added to the HDPE and ABS matrices. The
resistance. This improvement was attributed to SEBS forming covalent addition of 2 % FA to ABS did not significantly impact the thermal nor
bonds with rPET and creating a miscible phase with rLLDPE. In another the mechanical properties. Conversely, in the study involving HDPE,
study, Zander and Boelter.,(2021) [136] showed that the addition of 5 higher FA content resulted in increased thermal stability and flexural
wt% SEBS with MA significantly increased the toughness of rPET by over modulus; however, the flexural strength decreased with increasing
550 %, achieving a value of 41.5 MPa compared to neat rPET. The cenosphere content due to poor adhesion between the cenospheres and
elongation at break increased to 4.2 %, demonstrating improved the HDPE matrix. The optimization of extrusion parameters, such as
ductility while maintaining the material’s glass transition temperature temperature and speed, was crucial for achieving uniform dispersion
and crystallinity. These findings indicate that SEBS-MA is a promising and minimizing void content in the filaments. Both studies underscore
compatibilizer for enhancing the mechanical performance of rPET in 3D the potential of using industrial waste materials in 3D printing to
printing applications. Moreover, the effect of SEBS on rPP/rPET and enhance sustainability, despite employing different approaches and
rPP/rPS blends were examined [113]. It was found that SEBS improve materials. In other study, Singh et al., (2018) [143] investigated the
tensile strength and elongation to failure in rPP/rPET blends, facilitating recycling potential of HDPE foam filaments filled with 40 wt% FA
better interfacial adhesion and reducing phase separation. The impacts cenospheres. The results demonstrated a uniform dispersion of ceno­
on rPP/rPS blends were less pronounced, however, with only moderate spheres and consistent performance across multiple extrusion cycles.
improvements in tensile strength. These findings underscore the po­ The study found that both the modulus and yield strength of the blend
tential of SEBS in developing high-performance, sustainable materials increased with strain rate and repeated extrusion cycles, indicating a
for advanced manufacturing applications, particularly in additive promising potential for recycling without significant loss in mechanical
manufacturing and 3D printing. SEBS’s ability to enhance mechanical properties.
properties, improve ductility, and maintain thermal stability makes it a Reinforced by adding various fillers, rABS has enhanced its me­
valuable component in the development of next-generation polymer chanical and thermal properties. The addition of 2.5 wt% and 5.0 wt% of
composites. recycled carbon black rCB increased tensile strength and elastic modulus
while also affecting surface roughness, water absorptivity, and density
4.1.1.3. Inorganic fillers. The integration of inorganic additives into [145]. Chawla et al.,(2023,2022) [124,146] found that adding 10 wt%
recycled polymer matrices presents another promising avenue for iron (Fe) powder to rABS significantly improved tensile strength and
enhancing mechanical and thermal properties, as evidenced by various ductility for 3D printing, with lower porosity enhancing thermal ca­
studies. They are especially useful in applications requiring high per­ pacity. Singh et al.,(2019) [147] studied ABS reinforced with bakelite
formance, such as engineering and industrial components. These addi­ (BAK), silicon carbide (SiC), and aluminum oxide (Al2O3), finding that a
tives help reduce warpage and improve the overall dimensional blend of 70 % ABS, 10 % BAK, 10 % Al2O3, and 10 % SiC exhibited
accuracy of printed parts. For instance, glass fibers (GF), and carbon superior flexural strength, thermal stability, and dispersion compared to
fibers (CF), are particularly noteworthy for their ability to significantly other compositions.
improve the performance of composite materials. Schirmeister et al., Recycled PLA have also been enhanced with different fillers such as,
(2021) [137] demonstrated that incorporating GF and nanophase- titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles [148],and silica-sand [149].
separated rubber into a PP matrix results in composites that helped to Likewise, other materials were enhanced with various fillers. For
address the warpage issue and have comparable mechanical properties instance, rLDPE with SiC and Al2O3 ceramic particles [150], ASA with
to the injected. Rahimizadeh et al., (2019) [112] and Tolcha and Wol­ stamp sand [151], and thermoplastic with iron slag powder, alumina
demichael(2023) [138], highlighted the benefits of adding GF to PLA and zirconia [152], as seen in Table 4.
and rHDPE/rPET composites, respectively, noting improvements in
specific stiffness and tensile strength. These enhancements often come 4.1.2. Multi-material blends from waste stream
with trade-offs, such as increased brittleness and reduced elongation, The studies reviewed highlight the significant advancements and
underscoring the need for careful balance in additive content to main­ potential of recycling and upcycling various waste materials for 3D
tain desirable mechanical properties [112]. Furthermore, the effective­ printing applications. Collectively, these studies emphasize the impor­
ness of CF in reinforcing recycle polymers has revealed substantial tance of innovative recycling techniques and material optimization to
improvements in tensile strength and young modulus [111,139], and develop high-performance, sustainable composites for additive
elastic modulus [140]. Blends from CF/Nylon and GF/Nylon printing manufacturing. Ariel et al.,(2022) [115] prepared filaments from post-
waste have shown increased tensile strength to 65Mpa and lower consumer EPS packaging blended with corn husk fibers, demon­
degradation temperature [141]. strating the potential for recycling and repurposing waste streams for 3D
The incorporation of fly ash (FA) captured from coal-fired power printing applications. Further research is needed to enhance the mate­
rial properties and printability of these recycled composites. Chu et al.,

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Table 4 (2022) [153] focused on developing recycled polymer blend filaments

Materials blended with inorganic fillers. from post-consumer EPS and single-use PP containers. Their findings
Additive Matrix Weight Main Findings Reference indicated that the optimal blend ratio of rPS to rPP was 50/50, achieving
Material Fraction a tensile strength of 32 MPa. A higher rPP content improved ductility
25 %, 30 Improved bed and interlayer adhesion due to lower melt viscosity, resulting in fewer
PP [137]
% adhesion. voids and better interlayer coalescence. Increasing the printing tem­
5 %, 10 perature, however, caused thermal degradation, reducing tensile
%, 15 %, Improved stiffness strength. The study also highlighted that increasing the rPP content
PLA [112]
20 %, 25 and young modulus
r-Glass fiber
%.
enhanced melt flow and crystallinity, but led to warping in the printed
15 %, 30 Increment of tensile specimens. Turku et al.,(2018) [154] investigate the feasibility of using
rHDPE, rPET [138]
% strength. rPS, rABS, and rPVC as feedstock for 3D printing filaments.
r-Glass fiber
20 %, 40 Enhanced Recycling single-use face masks directly did not possess the rheo­
%, 50 %, mechanical
and carbon rNylon, [141] logical characteristics necessary for 3D printing. To address this, Bat­
60 %, 80 properties, and
fiber
% thermal stability tegazzore et al.,(2022) [155] mixed the recycled material with 30 wt%
rCF have and 50 wt% commercial PP, resulting in higher stiffness and similar
PLA 5 %, 10 %
comparable
[140]
tensile strength compared to commercial 3D printing materials. In
mechanical contrast, Zabihi et al.,(2024) [156] employed a more effective upcycling
properties with vCF
Higher CF content
method by blending reclaimed PP from masks with vegetable oil and 30
r-Carbon % glass fiber. This approach achieved significant improvements in me­
11.2 %, increment in the
fiber
rHDPE 18.9 %, yield strength, [139] chanical properties, with a 33 % increase in tensile strength and a 55 %
29.5 % tensile strength, and increase in strain compared to untreated reclaimed PP. While ref. [155]
modulus
blended recycled materials with commercial polymers to achieve
Improvement in
ABS 50 %
tensile strength
[111] desirable properties, ref. [156] demonstrate the efficacy, long term cost-
Higher cenosphere benefit of chemical modifications and the incorporation of organic and
content, increased inorganic reinforcing agents to enhance mechanical performance. Both
the rheological studies provide valuable insights into the recycling and upcycling of
properties and
20 %,40 single-use face masks, addressing the environmental concerns associated
flexural modulus. [142]
%, 60 % with PP waste.
3D printed
specimens showed The potential of rPET and rHDPE blends in enhancing the perfor­
rHDPE
comparable results mance of 3D printing filaments was explored. Tolcha and Wolde­
with the literature
michael., (2023) [138] demonstrated that incorporating short glass
Increased thermal
r-Fly Ash
stability, flexural fibers significantly improves the mechanical and thermal properties of
modulus, and 3D printing filaments, thereby making them suitable for more
40 % [143]
consistent demanding 3D printing applications [157], focused on an 80:20 blend,
performance across modified through three distinct methods: compatibilization with maleic
extrusion cycles
anhydride, surface functionalization of PET with sodium dodecyl sul­
Low addition of FA
did not differ from phate, and a novel hybrid approach combining both methods. Their
2 %, pure ABS, however [144] findings revealed that these modified blends, particularly those incor­
rABS
lower the elongation porating both compatibilization and surface functionalization tech­
at break.
niques, exhibit enhanced thermal, mechanical, and morphological
Improved tensile
strength, elastic
properties. Finally, Suescun Gonzalez et al.,(2024) [82] examined the
r-Carbon 2.5 wt%, technical feasibility and cost analysis of using mixed rPET and rHDPE for
modulus, surface [145]
Black 5 wt%
roughness, and large-scale 3D printing. Their study demonstrated significant cost re­
water absorptivity ductions and technical feasibility through the DRAM approach, though
Enhanced
they noted that further exploration is needed to address quality issues in
r-Iron mechanical
Powder rABS
10 wt%
properties and
[124,146] printed outputs.
reduced porosity The studies by Toncheva et al.,(2021) [158] and Laoutid et al.,
r-Silicon
Improved (2022) [129] highlights the versatile applications of recycled tire rubber
10 % SiC, mechanical
Carbide & (TR) in different polymer matrices through advanced manufacturing
10 % properties, [150]
Aluminum
Al2O3 enhanced thermal
techniques. Ref [158] utilized STL to integrate TR into polyamide 12
Oxide (PA12) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), observing that up to 30
stability
Enhanced wt% TR in PA12 resulted in a tensile strength of 23.5 MPa and enhanced
r-Silica-Sand rPLA 10 wt% mechanical [149] impact resistance. However, TPU composites with 20 wt% TR, despite
properties
achieving a tensile strength of 31 MPa, suffered from high porosity,
Improved tensile
Titanium strength, thermal which negatively impacted their mechanical properties. While ref. [129]
vPLA, rPLA 7% [148]
Dioxide stability, and added TR in ABS and thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) composites for 3D
crystallinity printing. They found that ABS composites with 15 wt% GTR experienced
Improved reductions in impact resistance and Young’s modulus, with minimal
r-SiC & mechanical
Al2O3
LDPE 20 %
properties and
[150] elongation at break.
durability Lastly, Nur Nazira Alias et al., (2024) [159] focused on HDPE and PP
r-Iron slag,
Enhanced porosity
blends with recycled flexible plastic (RF), demonstrating enhanced
alumina thermal stability and ductility, making them suitable for 3D printing
Thermoplastic 60 wt% and mechanical [152]
and
strength applications. He et al.,(2020) [160] conducted a comprehensive study to
zirconia
Increased stiffness, explore the microscopic morphology, rheological behavior, and me­
Stamp Sand ASA 40 % suitable for outdoor [151] chanical properties of rABS and poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT)
applications blends, employing styrene-acrylonitrile-glycidyl methacrylate (SAG) as

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a compatibilizer. The investigation revealed that both the mixing limitations and explore research gaps that hinder the effective applica­
scheme and the amount of SAG significantly influenced the mechanical tion of recycled polymer blends and multi-material systems in 3D
properties of the blends. printing.
In the printing phase, two critical steps are the quality assessment of
4.1.3. Material characterization the printed parts and the optimization of printing parameters. Quality
Transitioning from waste to multi-material products requires thor­ assessment ensures that the printed parts meet the desired specifications
ough material characterization to ensure performance meets application and standards, while parameter optimization fine-tunes the printing
standards. As shown in Fig. 8, various techniques have been used across process to enhance performance, accuracy, and material properties.
studies. Mechanical testing was the most common due to its simplicity
and informative output, followed by morphological and thermal ana­ 4.2.1. Quality assessment of 3DP recycled materials
lyses to assess homogeneity, stability, and printability (e.g., fusion and The primary objective of this step is to print a benchmark artifact
glass transition temperatures). Techniques such as scanning electron [161], which facilitates the evaluation of both the technology and ma­
microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and micro- terial capabilities, illustrating printability and identifying challenges.
computed tomography (μ-CT) are used for morphology, while scan­ These artifacts serve as a standardized test piece that helps in assessing
ning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) assess the performance of the material under specific printing conditions,
thermal behavior. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) further evalu­ ensuring a comprehensive understanding of its mechanical properties,
ates viscoelastic and rheological properties. process optimization needs, and overall suitability for intended appli­
Rheological testing, crucial for 3D printing, includes Melt flow index cations. The literature has shown three main benchmark categories,
(MFI) for flow behavior and capillary rheology for simulating printing mechanical, geometrical benchmark, and functional objects [162].
shear rates. For complex waste streams, chemical identification through The most used method is the mechanical benchmark, which tests the
FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, or X-ray diffraction (XRD) is essential to mechanical properties of the material, typically designed according to
detect polymer types and interactions. FTIR is especially useful for rapid standards such as ISO or ASTM. These benchmarks evaluate properties
sorting of mixed waste. Some studies also focused on optimizing printing like tensile strength, compressive strength, elasticity, and impact resis­
parameters to improve mechanical performance and flowability, with tance, ensuring that the material meets specific performance criteria.
specific characterizations depending on the application. Mechanical properties have been conducted to validate the suitability of
the materials [54,108,163–166].
To evaluate printing accuracy, different geometrical benchmarks can
4.2. 3D printing with recycled materials
be employed. Cubes are commonly printed due to their simplicity and
rapid manufacturing, providing valuable information on visual and
Among the technical studies reviewed, the use of filaments was well
dimensional accuracy [115,150,152,156]. Depending on the applica­
established, with 51 studies employing FFF or FDM technology. The use
tion, the printed objects can be varied. For instance, to demonstrate the
of granules and powders for material extrusion, however, is gaining
shape memory effects, different shapes and structures such as, star
traction as a viable technology for recycling waste that eliminates a
shapes [167,168], and scaffolds [169] were used. These designs were
melt/solidification cycle to improve the lifetime of the material as well
selected to effectively showcase the shape memory properties (smart
as cost. It remains in its infancy, with only 7 studies using FGF and PME.
materials that can return to a predefined shape when exposed to specific
Additionally, 6 studies have adopted SLS and DLP technologies, using
external stimuli, such as heat or stress) of the respective materials, as
powders and resins, respectively.
illustrated in Fig. 9. Other objects such animals [109,122,170], deco­
and even elements in furniture and construction. Despite this
rative items [106,171], cylinders [172] and multilayer meshes [173] are
growing interest, their use remains limited by technical challenges such
utilized to demonstrate the materials’ adaptability in customizing
as inconsistent mechanical performance, limited printability, and vari­
structures for specific applications.
ability in material composition. Studying these materials is therefore
Some reviewed articles highlight the printing of functional objects
essential not only for improving their processing and performance but
for various applications. This has the advantage of making useful items
also for enabling scalable, sustainable solutions in decentralized
rather than contributing to waste for research itself and demonstrate
manufacturing models like DRAM. This review seeks to identify these

Fig. 8. Sankey diagram of the main characterization methods used in the literature.

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C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

Fig. 9. Shape memory of printing objects, a) PLA/Fe3O4 [167], b) PCL/TPU [168], c) PolyTMPAC [169].

utility of the materials. For example, Romani et al.,(2023) [75] valorized mechanically recycling photo-cured thermosetting acrylic resin from
blends of granular rABS and PC by printing sports equipment (shin dental models using DLP printing. This process involved grinding,
guards), furniture components (coat hanger joints), and construction milling, roll milling, and printing, successfully producing dental models
materials (bricks) Fig. 10a. Garwacki et al.,(2024) [174] assessed through multiple recycling cycles without loss of mechanical properties
different blends of recycled PETG with PET and additives by printing or printability Fig. 10.c. Lastly, utilizing a composite of AC and rPP a 3D-
mounting bearings Fig. 10.b. Seggiani et al.,(2018) [125] also turned printed gas mask was developed [175] Fig. 10.e.
PCL and HC blends into pot plants, using material extrusion fabrication
Fig. 10.d. Chao and Liao., (2023) [106] developed a method for

Fig. 10. Different functional objects printed with multi-material plastic waste as test prints.

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C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

4.2.2. Optimization of 3D printing processes fibers. They identified issues with extrusion screw length, which caused
Optimization of 3D printing processes is crucial for maximizing the blending inefficiencies and diameter variations, leading to increased
performance and reliability of recycled materials. Recent studies have raw material consumption. The study suggested that an improved
highlighted the significant impact of printing parameters on the me­ extrusion and blending system could produce a more homogeneous
chanical properties and overall quality of 3D-printed parts. These pa­ blend, enhancing filament quality.
rameters include print direction [164], speed [75,103], infill density Material optimization in 3D printing involves selecting and refining
[134,176], bed temperature [177], and extrusion rate [120,178]. the materials used to ensure they meet the desired performance stan­
Effective optimization of these factors can lead to significant improve­ dards, especially when using recycled polymers. This process is crucial
ments in the quality and functionality of parts made from recycled for enhancing the mechanical properties, sustainability, and overall
polymers. For instance, the printing direction, speed, and temperature quality of 3D-printed parts [179] utilized the Elimination and Choice
can scientifically influence the layer adhesion, surface finish, and me­ Expressing the Reality (ELECTRE) method to systematically evaluate
chanical properties, while the infill profoundly influences the internal and rank materials from both virgin and recycled polymer resins. This
structure and overall strength of the printed part. The density of the infill multi-criteria decision-making technique considered key properties such
determines not only the weight and material usage but also the me­ as tensile strength, melting point, glass transition temperature, MFI, and
chanical properties of the final product. The study by de la Torre- coefficient of thermal expansion. Further emphasizing the importance of
Gamarra et al., (2023) [176] focused on 3D printing thick LiCoO2 material optimization, ref. [137] demonstrated that digitally tuning the
electrodes for Li-ion batteries using highly filled thermoplastic fila­ glass fiber orientation by adjusting printing directions layer-by-layer or
ments. The study aimed to create easily recyclable, all-ceramic elec­ within a single-layer (Fig. 11), during the FFF process in PP composites
trodes designed in a coin-type geometry. Maintaining a 100 % infill resulted in stable mechanical properties across various printing speeds.
density and experimenting with various infill patterns was crucial to The Catalloy-PP-GF composites exhibited significantly reduced
ensuring the structural integrity and performance of the printed elec­ warpage, comparable to amorphous thermoplastics like ABS, and
trodes Fig. 11.a. enhanced mechanical properties in the 0◦ printing direction. Similarly,
Extrusion rate, on the other hand, can influence the layer adhesion, Arrigo et al., (2022) [180] focused on optimizing rPP for 3D printing by
print quality, and material performance of the printed objects. Yap et al., blending rPP with first-use PP filled with 20 wt% talc (PPt), the study
(2021) [178] explored the rPS/LDPE blend, observing that higher aimed to achieve suitable rheological and mechanical properties for FFF
printing temperatures and increased LDPE content improved layer processes. They used the Taguchi method where an orthogonal array
adhesion due to lower viscosity. Increasing the extrusion rate from 100 was designed to consider temperature profile, feed rate, and screw
% to 120 % further enhanced adhesion, reducing air gaps and improving speed. The results demonstrated that with proper material and process
overall print quality. Ref [120] highlighted the importance of opti­ optimization, rPP-based formulations could achieve mechanical prop­
mizing extrusion parameters when producing filaments with natural erties comparable to virgin PP filaments, supporting the sustainable

Fig. 11. a) Different infill patterns of coin-type electrodes [176], b) Printing direction of the catalloy-PP-GF composite. c) μ-CT image of catalloy-PP-GF [180].

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C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

manufacturing of high-quality 3D-printed parts from recycled materials quality comparable to commercial 3D printers using filaments Fig. 12a.
Fig. 11.b,c. Miao et al., (2024) [168] designed, developed, and tested an open-
The optimization of 3D printing parameters, such as infill density, source powder material extrusion 3D printer Fig. 12b. The printer was
bed temperature, and extrusion rate, has been shown to significantly developed to allow the direct printing of powdered materials, which is
enhance the performance and quality of parts made from recycled ma­ particularly useful for materials that are thermally unstable or difficult
terials. Studies highlight that precise adjustments lead to improved to process in filament form. The printer demonstrated the ability to print
tensile strength, reduced warpage, and better overall mechanical prop­ a wide range of materials, including recycled plastics, polymer com­
erties. These findings confirm that recycled polymers can be effectively posites, and functional polymers with special properties such as phos­
used in additive manufacturing to produce high-quality, functional phorescence and ferromagnetism. The article highlights the accessibility
products when optimal printing conditions are employed. and versatility advantages of this system compared to commercial
printers. Both articles address significant advancements in 3D printing
by expanding capabilities beyond traditional filaments. Ref [182] fo­
4.3. Technology development
cuses on creating a pellet extrusion system designed for biopolymers,
providing a robust and adaptable solution for materials that cannot be
Advancements in technology are essential for overcoming challenges
easily shaped into filaments. The second introduces an open-source
in 3D printing and expanding the use of diverse materials. Different
printer that allows direct extrusion of powdered materials, which is
industries require materials with specific properties, and technological
especially advantageous for materials presenting thermal instabilities or
progress allows for the customization of these materials to meet unique
those difficult to process in filament form. This approach demonstrates
requirements, enhancing performance and efficiency. Sustainability is
considerable versatility by enabling the printing of recycled plastics and
increasingly emphasized, driving the need for eco-friendly materials
functional polymers with unique properties.
[181]. Innovative technologies can facilitate the development of
Formela and Eyigöz., (2024) [183] conducted a review on the
biodegradable or recyclable materials, significantly reducing environ­
application of planetary roller extruders (PREs), showcasing their ability
mental impact. Furthermore, advanced technology can streamline pro­
to handle complex mixtures while enhancing energy efficiency and
duction processes, lowering costs and making high-performance
material properties. This review underscores the potential of PREs to
materials more accessible and affordable.
significantly improve the quality and performance of recycled polymer
Whyman et al., (2018) [182] designed and developed a pellet
blends, making them more suitable for additive manufacturing appli­
extrusion system for 3D printing biopolymers. Unlike conventional
cations. The study highlights the versatility and effectiveness of PREs in
filament extrusion systems, this system allows the printing of materials
processing recycled materials, which can lead to more sustainable and
in pellet form, expanding the range of usable materials, including bio­
high-performance 3D printing solutions.
polymers and material blends. The system includes a feed hopper, an
The advancement in technology presents significant opportunities
extrusion screw, and temperature control and cooling systems. Tests
for the recycling and upcycling of multi-material plastic waste.
demonstrated that the system can print with consistency and mechanical

Fig. 12. a) Custom biopolymer pellet printer [182], b) PME printer [168].

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However, further research is necessary to fully harness these opportu­ demonstrate the use of blended materials in functional objects, the
nities and optimize processes for better efficiency and material common trend is the printing of samples primarily for mechanical
properties. properties evaluation, rather than showcasing the materials’ utility in
real-world applications. Future research should integrate considerations
4.4. Reprocessing materials in multiple cycles of the end-of-life phase and the practical applications of these materials
to ensure sustainability and functionality.
The concept of reprocessing and multiple cycle analysis is crucial for It is also important to highlight the scarcity of studies focused on
understanding how many times a material can be recycled without polymer–polymer blends, which underscores the technical challenges
losing its properties, which is essential for implementing DRAM as an associated with achieving compatible mixtures. This gap reveals a crit­
efficient and sustainable recycling process. ical need for further research aimed at improving blend performance for
While the assessment of multiple recycling cycles for mono-materials 3D applications, particularly given that a significant share of plastic
has been widely studied [184–191], the reprocessability of multi- consumption and waste involves mixed polymers. In fact, many
material systems remains significantly underexplored. In this review, everyday products are composed of multiple polymers, complicating
only five articles addressing this topic were identified. Nur-A-Tomal their recycling. For example, water bottles are typically made of PET
et al., (2020) [54] demonstrated that waste children’s toys made of with caps composed of HDPE or PP; milk bottles often use HDPE with PP
ABS could be recycled up to ten times without significant degradation in caps; meat packaging trays are commonly PET with multilayered sealing
physical, chemical, and mechanical properties, however, a slightly films; and yogurt pots frequently made of PS illustrate the material di­
darker color of the samples was observed. This finding suggested a versity prevalent in food packaging. Consequently, the packaging sector
viable path for sustainable reuse of toys in 3D printing applications. is the primary sectors consuming plastics in the EU (39.1 %) [4], and
Kozlovsky et al.,(2018) [177] explored the mechanical properties of generates substantial volumes of these multi-polymer blends. However,
reused nylon feedstock for powder-bed additive manufacturing, noting current recycling systems are not equipped to manage effectively.
that initial reprocessing stages influenced ultimate tensile strength, but Another challenge arises as not all blends exhibit the same proper­
had minimal impact on elongation at break, indicating potential for ties, thus comprehensive characterization is essential to inform appro­
recycling in manufacturing settings. priate recycling strategies. Therefore, a considerable portion of the
Plavec et al., (2022) [107] analyzed the recyclability of a biode­ research has been dedicated to the comprehensive characterization of
gradable PLA/PHB blend known as NONOILEN. They conducted nine new materials. Scholars have employed various techniques to assess
cycles following two different processing streams. The study showed mechanical, thermal, morphological, and rheological properties. Me­
that while multiple cycles led to material degradation affecting viscos­ chanical characterization is frequently employed to evaluate properties
ity, no significant impacts on the strength were identified. Hlaváčiková such as tensile strength, modulus de young, and elongation at break.
et al.,(2024) [192], examined the use of regranulate from PLA and PHB Thermal analysis was focused on the thermal stability of the new ma­
blends, finding that the mechanical and thermal properties remained terials, while morphological assessment indicates the homogeneity be­
comparable to virgin materials despite multiple processing cycles. This tween the multi-material blends. Although, FTIR is effective in
suggests the viability of using regranulation in producing sustainable 3D identifying polymer types and, in some cases, detecting additives or
printing materials. Lastly, Papatheodorou et al., (2023) [64] focused on contaminants, yet few articles focused in those area. Similarly, rheo­
the printability and biological performance of recycled Tritan Copo­ logical properties are crucial for the understanding flow behavior of the
lyester TX1501 and PA12 composites. Their study found that TX1501 materials during the printing process. Accessible methods such as the
maintained printability and surface quality after ten recycling cycles, open-source Melt Flow Index (MFI) [185] offer valuable insights into
while PA12 experienced significant issues affecting its performance. material performance under low shear rates; however, this type of
Although few articles have studied reprocessing of materials, these characterization remains less employed in the current literature.
studies underline the potential for multiple reprocessing cycles in Despite these extensive characterization efforts, there remains a
maintaining material properties, thus contributing to a circular econ­ significant gap in studies that evaluate the materials over multiple
omy in plastic manufacturing. However, it is important to also consider recycling cycles to assess long-term degradation and sustainability.
factors such as the addition of fillers in composites. The goal should not Additionally, the lack of comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA)
only be to create higher-performing materials but also to develop more limits the understanding of these materials’ durability, environmental
sustainable ones. impact over extended periods and multiple uses. LCAs are crucial for
evaluating and quantifying the environmental impact of materials and
5. Discussion processes. They aid in decision-making aimed at reducing environ­
mental impact from the material’s cradle to grave by considering factors
Over the past decade, significant progress has been made in repur­ such as resource consumption, energy use, emissions, and waste gen­
posing waste materials for additive manufacturing. This systematic re­ eration [39,194]. Without these assessments, it is challenging to deter­
view underscores the growing interest and significant advancements in mine whether the environmental benefits of using recycled multi-
the field of 3D printing with recycled multi-materials. materials outweigh the potential drawbacks associated with their pro­
The obtained results clearly show that the creation and development duction and use. Moreover, economic assessments are equally important
of new materials using recycled additives or recycled plastic derived to ensure that the production and application of these recycled materials
from waste streams, including 3D printing waste, have become a central are cost-effective and scalable for additive manufacturing. According to
subject of research. These efforts aim to address the decrement of the Graziosi et al.,(2024) [181], achieving sustainability in additive
recycled material properties inherent in the degradation issues that manufacturing (AM) requires focusing on three main areas: the use of
reduce the molecular weight and break the polymer chains that occur recycled or rapidly renewable raw materials, the development of
during each processing cycle [19,193]. Efforts have primarily aimed to energy-efficient printers that facilitate material reuse and minimize
enhance the properties of these recycled materials to make them more waste, and the optimization of part design to reduce manufacturing
suitable for various 3D printing applications. Despite significant ad­ impacts and improve the product lifetime and end-of life. While existing
vancements in properties enhancement, the ultimate end-use of these reviews address the first area and some progress has been made in
developed materials remains unclear in many studies. While researchers improving technology, part design remains underexplored. More studies
have focused extensively on improving mechanical and thermal prop­ in these areas should be prioritized in future research to further enhance
erties, there is often a lack of clarity regarding the real purpose or sustainability in AM. Additionally, should focus on long-term perfor­
practical application of these materials. Although some articles mance, degradation behavior, and the overall lifecycle of the materials.

14
C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

On the other hand, the revalorization and printing processes have phases of produced materials should be included in the studies [197].
predominantly focused on creating filaments or using filaments, solidi­ Additionally, bridging the gap between material development and real-
fying material extrusion as a preferred method. Although, SLS and DLP world application will provide a clearer picture of the practical utility
technologies were also used, interestingly, out of the seven additive and sustainability of these materials. Developing scalable and econom­
manufacturing technologies, only these three were utilized. Further ically viable recycling processes is crucial for the widespread adoption of
research and development in other types of AM could enhance the ef­ recycled materials in additive manufacturing. This involves creating
ficiency and applicability of these emerging technologies for sustainable integrated workflows that can efficiently blend and process recycled
manufacturing. While the manufacturing of medium-sized objects has polymers while maintaining consistent quality.
facilitated the assessment of mechanical properties, the use of large- Future research should also explore the development and application
scale printers and the repurposing high quantities of materials into of bio-compostable materials in additive manufacturing. Ensuring these
larger, functional objects remains underexplored. Developing and uti­ materials can decompose naturally without harming the environment
lizing large-scale printers capable of processing recycled multi-materials will be a significant step towards sustainability.
could significantly enhance the practicality and impact of this field of
research. Additionally, the creation of material blends typically involves 6. Conclusions
preliminary processes before actual printing. Utilizing printers capable
of processing materials in pellet, granule, or powder form can help In this article, a systematic literature review was conducted with the
reduce one degradation cycle and presents a potential for innovation by objective of assess the current state of recycling multi-material blends
enabling the printer itself to act as a blender, allowing for simultaneous into 3D printing. The review revealed that researchers are predomi­
blending and printing. Exploring this integration could open new ave­ nantly focused on developing new materials with polymer matrices and
nues for efficiently utilizing recycled materials in additive various additives (bio-sourced, organic and inorganic fillers), often
manufacturing. sourced from recycled materials. The primary goal of these studies is to
enhance the properties of these materials for use in 3D printing appli­
5.1. Challenges and opportunities cations, with mechanical tests are commonly used to characterize these
novel materials. Researchers have demonstrated significant improve­
5.1.1. Challenges ments in load-bearing capabilities, toughness, elasticity, and print­
The implementation of recycled multi-materials in the 3D printing ability. The printing, optimization of parameters, the re-processability of
field presents several significant challenges related to material the materials, and the development of the technology were also studied.
compatibility, processing, technological limitations, and regulatory Studies underscore the value of multi-material 3D printing in developing
frameworks that must be addressed to advance the field. One of the sustainable, high-performance composite materials, paving the way for
primary issues is ensuring the uniform dispersion of additives or other innovative applications in engineering, medical, and construction fields.
polymers within a polymer matrix, which is often compromised due to Despite this progress, ongoing research and innovation are essential
the inherent heterogeneity in mixing different materials [142,154]. This to address existing challenges and fully realize the potential of recycling
poor dispersion can lead to material degradation, resulting in brittleness multi-material polymer blends through additive manufacturing. The
and lower rheological properties [107,115]. Additionally, the compat­ integration of recycled materials in 3D printing holds great promise for
ibility of these materials with existing 3D printers poses another hurdle, sustainable manufacturing practices, contributing to environmental
as many printers are not designed to handle certain types of recycled sustainability and resource optimization. Thus, this review highlights
materials, necessitating modifications or technological improvements the need to expand research in three main directions: 1) end-use ap­
[168,182]. Integrating technologies such as Arduino (open-source plications, 2) comprehensive biodegradability, cost and environmental
electronics platform), sensors, and digital twins can facilitate the precise assessments, and 3) development and design of printers.
handling of the extrusion process, reducing issues like under-extrusion
and warping. Furthermore, the establishment of standards and regula­ CRediT authorship contribution statement
tions to guide the characterization and sustainable production of fila­
ments is crucial for the broader adoption of recycled materials in 3D Catalina Suescun Gonzalez: Writing – original draft, Methodology,
printing [195]. Finally, ensuring repeatability and optimizing printing Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Aditi
parameters are essential for the consistent and reliable use of recycled Basdeo: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data
multi-materials. curation, Conceptualization. Fabio A. Cruz Sanchez: Writing – review
& editing, Validation. Cécile Nouvel: Writing – review & editing,
5.1.2. Opportunities Validation. Joshua M. Pearce: Writing – review & editing, Validation.
In the rush to find alternatives for effectively recycling and revalo­ Hakim Boudaoud: Writing – review & editing, Visualization,
rizing multi-material plastic waste, and the new adoption of AM as a Supervision.
process to achieve this, DRAM [81,196] has emerged as a promising
method to transform recycled plastics from communities into products Declaration of competing interest
manufactured via AM. This perspective opens several opportunities.
Firstly, innovation in printing and extrusion technologies is necessary to The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
handle a wider range of recycled materials effectively. Following this, interest or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
optimizing extrusion processes and printing technologies is crucial to the work reported in this paper.
ensure the quality and consistency of printed products.
Furthermore, the development of standards and methodologies that Acknowledgements
ensure the ethical formulation of new materials is imperative. Future
research should focus on developing and adopting standardized char­ The authors thank the LUE program for the financing of the thesis,
acterization techniques tailored specifically for recycled materials. the LF2L platform, ANR green local, Weemet, and the Thompson
These standards will enable better comparison and validation of findings endowment.
across different studies, facilitating the advancement of knowledge in
this field. Appendix A. Appendix
The understanding of the environmental impact, energy consump­
tion, and emissions throughout the production, usage, and end-of-life

15
 Table A1

C.S. Gonzalez et al.

Primary studies considered in the literature review.
Reference Type of Polymer Type of additives if Interest Technology used Specimen used for characterization
material used

Commercial Recycle Fillers Polymer- No ME SLS DLP 3D 3d Fillament conventional compression Hot
based AM printing printing injection molding press
used Tensile object

Commercial Recycle Fillers Polymer- No FFF/ FGF PME DIW SLS DLP 3D 3d Fillament conventional compression Hot
based AM FDM printing printing injection molding press
Tensile object
(Morsidi et al., 2019) x x x 2 x x
(Saad et al., 2023) x x x 2 x x
(Singh et al., 2022) x x x 2 x x
(Wiśniewska et al., x x x 1 x x
2023)
(Arrigo et al., 2022) x x x 3 x x x
(Bartolomei et al., x x x 3 x x x
2022)
(Pal et al., 2021) x x x 3 x x x
(Haque and Naebe, x x x 3 x x
2023)
(Alduais et al., 2022) x x x 3 x x
(Rimkus et al., 2022) x x x 3 x x
(Battegazzore et al., x x x 3 x x x
2022)
(Schirmeister et al., x x x 4 x x x x
2021)
(Idrees et al., 2018) x x x 3 x x x
(Qu et al., 2021) x x x 4 x x x
16

(Seggiani et al., 2018) x x x 4 x x

(Kim and Lee, 2021) x x x 4 x x
(Scaffaro et al., 2022) x x x 4 x x
(Doddamani and x x x 4 x x
Gupta, 2022)
(Papatheodorou x x x 3 x x
et al., 2023)
(Domingues et al., x x x 3 x x
2017)
(Bergaliyeva et al., x x x 3 x x
2023)
(Miao et al., 2024) x x x 4 x x

Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

(Brooks et al., 2021) x x x 4 x x
(Toncheva et al., x x x 4 x x x
2021)
(Casado et al., 2022) x x x x 4 x x x x
(Cisneros-López et al., x x x x 3 x x x
2020)
(Garwacki et al., x x x x 4 x x x
2024)
(Laoutid et al., 2021, x x x 3 x x x x
p. 3)
(Zander et al., 2019a) x x x 3 x x x
(Yap et al., 2021) x x x 3 x x
(X. Chen et al., 2020) x x x 4 x x x x
(Hlaváčiková et al., x x x 3 x x
2024)
(Romani et al., 2023) x x x 4 x x x
(Zhu et al., 2023) x x x 4 x x
(continued on next page)
 Table A1 (continued )

C.S. Gonzalez et al.

Reference Type of Polymer Type of additives if Interest Technology used Specimen used for characterization
material used

Commercial Recycle Fillers Polymer- No ME SLS DLP 3D 3d Fillament conventional compression Hot
based AM printing printing injection molding press
used Tensile object

(He et al., 2020) x x x 1 x x

(Mishra et al., 2023c) x x 2 x x
(Nur Nazira Alias x x 2 x x
et al., 2024)
(Moure Abelenda and x x 3 x x
Aiouache, 2023)
(Mishra et al., 2023b) x x 3 x x
(Giani et al., 2022) x x 3 x x
(Kozlovsky et al., x x 3 x x
2018)
(R. Singh et al., x x 3 x x
2019a)
(Bremer et al., 2022) x x 3 x x
(Chao and Liao, x x 4 x x
2023)
(Prasopdee et al., x x 4 x x
2023)
(Singh et al., 2018) x x 2 x x
(Whyman et al., x x 4 x x
2018)
(Mertens et al., 2017) x x 3 x x
(Laoutid et al., 2022) x x x 4 x x x
(Hu et al., 2017) x x 4 x x x x x
17

(Gao et al., 2023) x x 3 x x

(He et al., 2022) x 4 x x
(de la Torre-Gamarra x 4 x x
et al., 2023)
(Ahmed et al., 2020) x x 2 x x x
(Chong et al., 2020) x x 2 x x x
(Chawla et al., 2022) x x 2 x x
(Chawla et al., 2023) x x 2 x x
(Gupta et al., 2021) x x 1 x x
(N. Singh et al., 2019) x x 4 x x x
(Kumar et al., 2022) x x 3 x x
(Ariel Leong et al., x x 4 x x
2022)

Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

(Al-Mazrouei et al., x x 3 x x x
2022)
(Meyer et al., 2020) x x 3 x x x
(Tolcha and x x 3 x x
Woldemichael,
2023)
(Ragab et al., 2023) x x 3 x x
(Zander et al., 2019b) x x 3 x x
(Rahimizadeh et al., x x 3 x x
2019)
(Borkar et al., 2022) x x 3 x x x
(Gupta et al., 2022) x x x 1 x x
(R. Singh et al., x x x 3 x x
2019b)
(Zander and Boelter, x x x 3 x x
2021)
(continued on next page)
 C.S. Gonzalez et al. Sustainable Materials and Technologies 44 (2025) e01430

press
Hot
Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

compression
molding

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