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 Second Edition

TPIPWORK5
A Tap Dictionary and Reference Manual
 Second Edition

TFIPWORK5
A Tap Dictionary and Reference Manual

Beverly Fletcher

si
7
y
A Dance Horizons Book
Princeton Book Company, Publishers
 Copyright ©1997 by Beverly Fletcher
Canadian Copyright Registration No. 468654
Copyright ©2002 by Beverly Fletcher
All rights reserved

ADance Horizons Book

Princeton Book Company, Publishers
P.O. Box 831
Hightstown, New Jersey 08520

Cover and layout design by Lisa Denham

Library of Congress Cataloging— in— Publication Data

Fletcher, Beverly.
Tapworks: a tap dictionary and reference manual / researched and compiled
by Beverly Fletcher,
p. cm.

ISBN 0-87127-247-4
l.Tap dancing — Dictionaries. 2. Tap dancing — History. I. Title.

GV1794 .F555 2002

792. 7’8 —dc21
2002034572
 Contents

(^OnTEMT5

PCKMOWLEDGEMEPTS VII

PPRTI Pin HIST ORICPIL LOOK PT TPP 1

The Beginnings 3
Contributors 1
Pfrican heritage 1
in Pmerica 5
The Birth of the Minstrel Shows 6
The Soft Shoe 6
Enter Vaudeville 9
The Black Circuit 9
The Chorus Line IO
The Time Step II

The Buffalo Step II

Falling Off a Log II

The Buck and Wing II

Bojangle5 IP
The Hoofers’ Club IP
Other Performance Preas 13

Med Wayburn 13

Vaudeville Collapses 13

Social Dances 11

The Film Musical 11

Fred Pstaire 15

Hermes Pan 15

Other Performers 15

Music of the Day 15

Big Bands 16

Gene Kelly 16

Dancers in Film 17

Dance Directors and/or Choreographers 17

The 1910s 16

The 1950s 16

The 1960s PO
The 1970s PO
Pfter the 1970s — Into Today PI

Today PI

V
TAPWORK5

PERTH STEPS PHD STYLES OF TPP DPMCE 33

P Chronology of Steps 35
Tap Beginnings 35
Early Tap 35
Later Tap 36
hewer Categories 36
Styles and Dances 37
PERT III P DICTIOMPRY OF TPP TERMinOLOGY 33
How to use the Dictionary 35
Organization 35
Abbreviations 36
Our Counting System 36
The Dictionary 37
PPRTIV P REFEREHCE MPhUPL FOR TPP 169
Performing 171

The Stage Prea 171

Stage Directions 171

Dancer’s Guide to Theater Terminology 173

Theater Tap Talk 171
Teaching 175
Studio or Teaching Prea 175
Classes 175
Primary 176
Level I Begmnner 177
Level II Beginner— Intermediate 176
Level III Intermediate 176
Level IV Advanced 160

BIBLIOGRPPHY 163
Dictionaries, Syllabi, and technical manuals 163
Videos 161

VI
 ftCKriOWLEDGEMEhT5

|jcKhOWLEDGEMEMT5
offer a very warm thank you to the people

n
Fletcher,
who
father
have made this book
and mother, Charles and Hazel
a reality: to

who nurtured my love for dance through

my

the years, and to my two daughters, Bambi Feuz

and Robin Bishara who, with their families, gave
me the space, time, guidance and encouragement
to complete this project.

To these friends I am deeply indebted for their

encouragement, help and optimism: Tom Ralabate,
Barbara Denny, Suzi Hayes, Patti and Sam Viverito,
and Diane Sheehan. I thank the Dance Masters of
America for their acceptance of Tapworks as its

official reference book, and Rhee Gold, the

national president, for suggesting that this book
might be used for that purpose.

To all of those dance teachers who donated facts,

steps, definitions and combinations to the Tapworks

Dictionary: many thanks for your irreplaceable
contributions.

Beverly Fletcher

VII
 Part

Pin Historical Look Pt Tap

 Pin Historical Look Pit Tap

menca has given birth to many firsts — minstrelsy, only briefly interrupted in transit to the new land, and then,
vaudeville, dance marathons, the Big Apple, radio, the upon arrival, it returned to its former state. These more
Lindy, movies, T V., the Charleston, ragtime, jazz affluent European settlers brought with them a highly
music, jazz dance, and tap — all of them as American as apple developed system of music, including a twelve-tone scale,

pie, all of them “Made in the U.S.A.” But why here? Why tonal melodies,harmony, and counterpoint. Along with
not Europe, Australia, or the Orient? What special set of them came their social dances, complete with the proper
circumstances was needed to produce such a myriad of attire and impeccable manners. Thus, there were three
contributions that would be seen and imitated throughout different immigrant factions taking up residence in the New
the world? World: the wealthy, whose minuets, gavottes, and quadrilles
would no longer be hidden in the ballrooms and palaces of
Europe; and those of moderate or less than moderate means,
who would bring with them their jigs, reels, and clogs,

The BEGinmnGE resplendent with sound; and finally, the Africans —whose
we know that one major factor lies in the 17th
Historically, energetic, percussive, into the ground dancing defied
century, when large groups of people left England and descnption. Together, they would become the birth parents

migrated to America. They came in search of a new land and of tap.

a new home, one as yet unpolluted by years of war, politics, Other colonists soon followed; the Dutch Protestants found
and finances, a country open to the ideas of freedom and their way to New York (then called New Amsterdam), the
individual choice. Quakers to Pennsylvania, the Anglicans to Virginia and the
Concurrently, there was another great exodus, this one from Carolinas, the French and the Spanish to Louisiana, and the
Africa, not filled with the anticipation or the exhilaration of Moravians to Pennsylvania and North Carolina. Each
the first. These people came unwillingly. They were sold into brought with them wonderful gifts, which in time would
servitude, some by their own, most by profiteering slave- become an integral part of the American The waltz,
lifestyle.

traders. They were heading for an unknown destination and for example, arrived as a social dance; although came from
it

for a future thatwas out of their control. Yet their coming Vienna, it had its early roots in the folk dances of Germany.

contributed to the growth of dance and the birth of tap in During the Napoleonic invasions of that count!/, it was

this country. All of these races and nationalities brought with brought to Pans, where it crossed over to England. England
them not only their belongings, but also their traditions, considered it indecent and of loose character because of the

customs, and beliefs. America was to become a cocoon for close hold with which the male held the female. Society had

the preservation of the old and a melting pot for the dictated that one must see “a candle’s width of light’’

development ot the new. between the couple when they assumed dance position —an
impossible request, as the vigor and the twirling quality of
By 1607 the English had created a settlement at Jamestown
the dance made a firm and close embrace not only important,
and 1620 the Puritans arrived at Plymouth, Massachusetts.
in
but also a necessity. It is interesting to note that this newly
Most English colonists were Calvinists who had a rigorous
introduced 3/4 time would eventually become the basis for
and merciless religion. Where dancing and gaiety were
our own waltz clog.
frowned upon and most music, with the exception of sacred
Scotland contributed reels, complete with bagpipes,
hymns, was banned, pleasures were few. Life was harsh and
its

danced high on the of the and the Highland

this was particularly true for the poor. For the rich, life was
balls feet, fling.

3
TAPWORK5

which received name from performing on one leg while

its should be noted that true doggers, even in minstrelsy and
flinging the other about. Germany contributed the early vaudeville, always wore wooden clogs, while jig dancers

schottische, a gayer and more active version of the waltz, wore leather shoes with thick wooden heels. Metal taps for
while Bohemia brought the polka, and Poland the polonaise the toes and heels were not available until 1915, but even
and the mazurka. England, Ireland, and Wales introduced the then many dancers preferred wood to metal.

hornpipe, a step dance now associated with sailors and their

manual tasks while on shipboard. Later it would become a

favorite stage dance. The list is endless, but one should not hFRicnn Heritage
forget the Lancashire clog from England or the jig from Mille, in her book America Dances, states that in the
Agnes de
Ireland, for when they combined with the contnbutions of 1600s and 1700s alone, more than eight million slaves were
the black race, tap became a reality.
brought to the shores of America. Slavery, unfortunately, was
not a new occurrence, as the Europeans had participated in it

before the sailing of Columbus and the Portuguese had a

2
COITTRIBUT OR5 slave trade market as early as 1441. However, with the
The Old World contributed two of the most influential introduction of Africans into America, we were one step
dances to the beginnings of tap. The Lancashire clog had its closer to the development of tap.
roots in England, where workers in the factories would often The came from many territories and
African people
take their lunch breaks outside on the streets. Here, where settlements,some extremely isolated, others heavily
the cobblestones acted as a sounding board tor their wooden populated. Most African communities, with the exception of
clogs; they would hold contests and competitions to see who large cities, developed independently from each other, and
could produce the fastest and most innovative sounds and although their dances contained great similarities, they also
rhythms — a very pleasant way to acquire recreation and bore noticeable differences; some tribes were known as

financial reward simultaneously. Because ot the wooden leapers and jumpers, others spinners and turners, yet others
shoes that were worn and the county from which it specialized in highly skilled body isolations. Unfortunately,
emanated, the dance became known as the Lancashire Clog, through the years the white man would perceive the blacks
and the sounds that they produced were called “shoe as being all the same, regardless of their territorial heritage,
1

music.” their final point of residence in the United States, their

The Irish jig may have taken its name from the French word occupation, or their social status.

gigue, a kind of fiddle used for its accompaniment. Although African dance was and is energetic, vigorous, and athletic.
credited to Ireland, the dance was common to Britain as The people danced for the joy of it as well as for their
well. The early Irish peasants’ shoes were hard, possibly as beliefs. They brought with them a highly complicated and

protection from the inclement weather or in order to last. developed system of syncopated rhythms. Later, we would
The jig’s tempo was lively, with highly complex footwork. see these expressed in our own music —ragtime, jazz, and
The upper body remained erect and rigid with the arms swing —and in the feet and souls of our great traditional
down by the sides or lifted in a horizontal line to the tappers. Marshall and Jean Stearns, in their book Jazz Danced
shoulders, with the lower arm bent upward. The jig, like the point to six basic characteristics that help us to identify the
clog, became a highly competitive form of dance, with African presence in America:
contests held frequently in various regions of the country.
1 It was performed flatfooted, barefooted, and
Such performances required three sets of judges: one for style
adjudication, which was done from the orchestra pit; a on the naked earth, as opposed to the
timing judge, who remained in the wings; and a third judge European style of using shoes to create
who sat beneath the platform to listen to the clarity of the sounds against hard surfaces.
feet, never seeing the contestants! Such competitions are still

held today in the United States and Canada. 2 The dancing was done by leaning forward,

It might be advantageous at this point to discuss shoes, as

with the knees bent and in a crouched
without them tap w’ould indeed become a vanishing art. position, as opposed to the upright stance of
Clog shoes, or sabots (pronounced sah-BO), were the European dance.
common footwear tor all public dancing and dancers
3 It was very imitative of the animals and
(courtiers found a softer shoe). Cut from one continuous
piece of light wood, with the inside scooped out, clogs were wildlife found in the environment; they, like

practical, durable, and good tor a lifetime or until your feet the American Indian, copied in accurate
grew r
. By the 1800s leather was readily available, but when it detail those things which surrounded them.
became the footwear of performers, it still sported a wooden
sole and heel for producing sounds. Maple was, and is, the 4 Improvisation and the idea of self-expression

wood of choice. Later, just the wooden heel was used. It played a dominant role in their dance and

ntuals.

1
 fVi Historical Look at T ap

5 Their dance was centrifugal, exploding in an owners. From this set of circumstances was bom the famous
outward direction and from the point of cakewalk. The black servants, tilted in a backward stance,
pranced and strutted, mimicking the pompous manners and
origin, (i.e., the legs from the hips, not the
courtly look of their white owners performing the minuet
knees, and the arms from the shoulders, not
and the cotillon. Much to the enjoyment and dismay of the
the elbows).
white family members, the couples added kicks and flourishes

6 The dance itself had a constant, consistent,

of their own.

pulsating rhythm, which gave it a swinging The dance and its exaggerated style became so popular that
competitions rapidly appeared, usually pitting one plantation
quality later to be found in Jazz music.
against another. In the South, thesewere held each Saturday
Africans brought with them lutes, drums, and gourds strung night at the town square on a small wooden structure used
with animal hair and instruments made from hollowed wood, for community events. Each proud master would present his
covered with parchment or skin. Also included was the dancers in the hope of becoming the victor. The pnze was
banjer, described as a variation on the Spanish guitar. It was actually a cake, the winner to share it with the other
also known as the banza, banja, or banjello and believed to cakewalk would reach America’s
participants. Eventually, the
be the forerunner of the banjo, the most favored instrument ballrooms and, before the turn of the century, it would
of minstrelsy. appear on the stages around the country. Thus we have
The passage to America was arduous, appalling, and cruel, direct evidence that a recreational dance became a social

often taking four to six months to accomplish. The men dance, and in time reinvented itself into a dance for theatrical
were kept below deck, while the women were allowed to performance. Another example of blending occurred when
roam becoming easy prey for the ship’s officers
freely, thus Katherine Dunham, well-known authority on black dance,
a

and crew. If there was any redeeming feature about this realized while participating in a Jamaican dance, that what
journey, it could be the following event: to keep the captives she was really doing was the Maroon African version of the
healthy, they were brought to the top deck and exercised quadrille, which in turn was a European social and society

before the ship’s personnel, which in reality meant that they dance. Others claim that the cha-cha from Cuba was a

performed their native dances, accompanied by the beating combination of steps from Africa and contained the hopping
out of rhythms on an overturned bucket or the sides of a and leaping patterns of the European schottische. The
pail. Likewise, the ship’s personnel exercised by performing blending process was beginning to take effect.

their country, step, and folk dances along with their favorite In New Orleans, the mixture of dance and music occurred
jigs, reels, and flings. Thus, in the middle of an ocean and much earlier than it did in other sections of the country,
perhaps for the very first time, these two groups, each with a likely because of a number of factors: the lack of segregation
totally different perspective of dance, caught a fleeting of the black race from the white; the large family plantations;
glimpse of the other’s heritage. The crew witnessed and Latin-Catholic traditions. In other words. Southern
undulating bodies in crouched position performing
a whites and blacks had a different kind of relationship with
unbelievable feats of acrobatics and spontaneity, while the each other than did blacks and whites of the North. The
slaves, amazed, heard percussive sounds emanating from the blending of races in the South would see Creoles of color
feet men who danced in
of an upright, almost static position. sending their children abroad to be educated, while they
What a marvelous moment for all! Strangely enough, a themselves looked to European culture and dance. While this

similar incident would take place many years later in a was happening in the city, the larger outlying plantations
dwelling called the Old Tenement House in New York City, kept African dance and customs alive and current. However,
but on this occasion it would occur between the treed slaves in the North the black race was free, yet isolated, from white
and the Irish, and it would lead to a change of roles and style socialization, making the blending process much slower and
on the stages of America. more difficult — if possible at all.

The year 1740 saw the infamous Slave Law enacted in Stono,
Virginia. The owners, feanng insurrection, forbade all slaves

h PlMERICR from beating drums, blowing horns, singing, or playing

The slave buyers distributed their human cargo in both the instruments, theoretically stopping all possibilities of message-
North and the South as well as in the West Indies, Cuba, sending and communication among them. Faced with this

South America, and parts of the Caribbean. Depending on new circumstance, the slave substituted hand clapping, body
their surroundings and their circumstances, different degrees patting, foot stomping, and vocal intonations for the musical
of blending took place. In the American South, many instruments, using as accompaniment the tambourine and/or
became field or farm workers and many others became house the clacking of bones. Most of these adaptations were for
servants, literally becoming part of the family. They lived in their own entertainment, but they were also initiated to keep
the main house, raised the children, cooked the meals, and in touch with the family through prearranged signals. As in

entertained their owners. In turn, they had the opportunity all other things, these changes also became an integral part of
to view at close range the European dances of the
plantation

5
THPWORK5

their dances, a new addition to an already expansive became exceedingly interested in watching a slave perform

vocabulary, which we would later see in the minstrel shows his tasks at a Every stable behind the theater. The slave, “Old
of the country. Daddy,” suffered a deformed right shoulder and had a limp
By 1774 two dance masters had established schools in produced by a stiff left leg, permanently bent at the knee. He
Philadelphia. Teaching dancing as a profession was well had been renamed Jim Crow after his master, a rather

accepted, but the performing aspect was frowned on. Dance common practice of the day. As he went about his chores, he

masters were expected to teach the social dances of the day as

would sing a little song, ending each verse with a crippled
well as the social graces and deportment. Proper etiquette jump that culminated on his heels. The verse was “Wheel
must for colonial about, turn about, do jis so; and ebery time I wheel about, I
was a living.
4
jump Jim Crow.” Rice, after watching the slave’s
Before the Declaration of Independence was signed, the
movements for several weeks, donned a porters outfit,
entertainment industry was not exactly flourishing in the
blackened his face with burnt cork, created a few new verses
New World. There was a sparse performing population,
to the song, upped the tempo, and developed one of the first
widely scattered, with only two or three hundred persons at
dances in that era based strictly on Negro material. He then
best representing the show-business field. Furthermore, very
presented it to the Louisville audience, who were so
few towns had performance areas. Usually, all touring
enamored of his performance that they gave him twenty
companies made do with the dining rooms of taverns or the
curtain calls on opening night. The jumpin crow dance
blacksmith’s shop, where soap boxes, barrels, and pails could
would become a national craze and a worldwide success, and
be used for seating. In the New England colonies, the
under his new stage name, Daddy “Jim Crow” Rice, Thomas
Calvinists still held sway and all entertainment was strictly
Dartmouth Rice had set the blackfaced prototype for the
forbidden. However, as the 18th century progressed, there
minstrelsy. Black and white had come together, popularized
were a few shining lights on the horizon. The Williamsville
well as the Nassau Street
by a white man but at the expense of the black man.
Theatre opened in Baltimore as

Theater and the John Street Theatre in New

York City. By the 1830s, black dance had developed into a highly

Wandering bands of jugglers and magicians plus wagon and complicated and rhythmic form. Agnes de Mille stated about

medicine shows appeared in all the colonies, and in 1793 black dancers of that period that “they let go, in face, in

John Bill Ricketts presented a full-scale circus in voice, in fun and when they danced they yelped, called,
Philadelphia, the nation’s capitol, with President George giggled, laughed and moaned. White folks were taught never
Washington in attendance. to do any of these things, the black folk danced with more
personal expression and invention and they enjoyed
In 1789 one of the firstAmerican dancers to attract attention
5
themselves while they did it.”
on the stage was a white male, John Durang, bom in
Lancaster, Pennsylvama. He became an actor, author, dancer, In the 1840s, two major events swept the country, both of

and manager. Durang played the role of Friday in the which would blend white and Afro-American dance
pantomime of Robinson Crusoe (also known as Harlequin together. However, they would take place in two separate

Friday), where he appeared in blackface and performed his arenas —

a white and a black one. Each would influence the

specialty, the hornpipe. Notes discovered on this routine other, but not under the same roof.

included ballet terms such as glissade and terre-a-terre, but The first event ocurred in 1845. The potato famine in
they also included double shuffle, back shuffle, side shuffle, Ireland caused thousands of Irish families to flee their country
and heel toe which may or may not be the shuffle as
shuffle, as they watched whole villages succumb to starvation. Upon
we know it today. However, it opened new avenues of entering the United States, they settled throughout the
discovery. Durang was cognizant of the way in which the country, with a large number of them remaining in New
Negro danced and injected some of this knowledge into his York City, their port of entry. Many took up residence in a

own work. His performance inspired others to look to the rather ancient and somewhat decrepit structure known as the
black man’s dancing as a possible source of new material. Old Tenement House, or the Old Brewery, in the infamous
Unfortunately, this source would be very abused within the Five Points neighborhood/’ Here, owing to their lack of
next few years. finances and for recreational purposes, they would find empty

By the mid 1800s the entertainment picture was much rosier. spaces within the building and fill their evenings with their
Waterfront towns were visited by floating theaters, later to be own jigs, reels, and songs. Also residing in this building were
called showboats. With the building of the Erie Canal in an almost equal number of black families, who enjoyed the
1825, an entertainment passageway was created between same pastime and, unfortunately, the same poverty.
Albany and Buffalo, and boats were transporting performers Eventually, the two groups met, and from then on spent
up and down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers as well. evening after evening watching the other perform dances of
their origin, a scene fairly reminiscent of those days in the
mid-Atlantic in which the slaves and the crew indulged in
the same pastime. This time, however, it was voluntary.
The Birth Of The Mihetrel Bhowe How lucky we are, for all those evening dance sessions
In 1829, while touring with a theater company in Kentucky,
would produce the tap sounds and steps that today we call
a professional white dancer, Thomas Dartmouth Rice,

6
 Pin Historical Look at T ap

tap dancing. Upon viewing the footwork of the Irish, the O The Olio, as it was called, was next. It

blacks learned the material quickly and changed it to a more contained a number of singing, dancing, and
syncopated beat. Likewise the Irish, with their sense of
speaking roles, which in vaudeville became
humor and flair for the spectacular, began to incorporate
their bodies and arms into their own dancing — a real
the variety acts.

deviation from the original. The stage would soon see the O The conclusion of the show was the
blacks performing the Irish jig and the Irish performing the
Afterpiece, at first a dramatic presentation,
black Virginia Essence. Out of both of these would come the
but later a burlesque on some senous drama
Buck and Wing.
of the day. The Grande Finale was the
The second event, the minstrel show, would become the
cakewalk, performed by the entire company
most popular entertainment form of its day. It began as

whites ;
.n blackface imitated the blacks, then blacks in and done to the thunderous applause of the
blackcace imitated the whites imitating the blacks! It had a audience, which by this time was on its feet.

life span of approximately 55 years (1845-1900), but its

White or blackface minstrel shows ruled supreme as long as
heyday was in the first fifteen years. Starting in the United
minstrels were in existence. No black performer was allowed
States, it soon spread all would provide a
over the world. It
in white minstrelsy in the U.S. Therefore, black minstrels
true blending ground, where African-American dance would
(black men in black face) emerged. This did not begin until
mix with Insh and British dance in the United States. The War when
after the Civil (1860-1865) and, it did, its
dances most affected by this integration would be the
managers were usually white, basically creating a white
hornpipe, clog, andjig.
monopoly. It is also interesting to note that the minstrel
Why were these shows so appealing? Some felt that Daddy stereotype established by the whites —the corked face, the
Rice’s characterization of the black man coincided with the enormous, grotesque white lips, and the kinky black wig that
viewpoint held by most whites that blacks were sometimes could be made mechanically to stand on end — was such a
devil-may-care, smart-talking, and gaudily dressed. At other strong minstrel image that the black minstrels had to adhere
times they were viewed as lazy and lackadaisical, childlike to it as well, including the corking of the face. The black
and irresponsible, but always fun-loving, good humored, and performers were forced to seek employment in poorer areas
had a gift for music, dance, and song. Still others felt that of town, where saloons and brothels were abundant.
America was open to nonserious entertainment after
Again, because of their poor economic situation, Irish and
experiencing the hard colonial years, and that the African-Americans found themselves residing side by side as
transportation and communication systems were developed they had in the Old Tenement House. For both, the living
sufficiently to support this idea. Some pointed to the fact that
conditions were far from desirable, but for dance the
the 19th century saw a falling apart of the social molds and
conditions were ideal. There is no doubt in the minds of
principles that had existed, giving way to an emergence of
historians that these two groups, more than any others, were
the individual and his right to free expression and thinking. heavy contributors to the field of tap.
For whatever reasons, minstrelsy would provide a place
In the early 1840s appeared a young black male, William
v/here the African-American style of song and dance would
Henry Lane, professionally known as Juba. He would come
forever be a part of American culture.
to be known as the greatest dancer of his time. A nineteen-
By the 1850s the minstrel show, whose basic instruments
year-old freeborn slave from Providence, Rhode Island, he
were the banjo, the tambourine, and the bones, had would long be remembered as the greatest dancer of his time.
developed a pattern of presentation that began with a parade Lane had studied with an Irishman, William Lowe, a master
through the town, commencing at 1 1:45 a.m. and leading to
of the jig. It was said that a proficient jigger could produce at
the performance area. The show then followed this pattern:
least 15 sounds per second. Juba more than met this challenge
and became noted not only for his style and technical skills,
O The presentation began with a musical
but also for the brilliance of performance. A cn :
-
c in the
overture and opened with the entire “There
London Theatrical Times said, is an ideal in what he
company seated in a semicircle, with Mr. does that makes his efforts at once grotesque and poetical,

(Brother) Bones and Mr. Tambo at either without losing sight of the reality of representation.”*

end. In ihe center was a dignified interlocutor Juba’s nearest nval was Master John Diamond, a white

(the straight man) who earned on a question- dancer, small of stature and considerably older, who pnded
himself on his skill at Negro dancing. As a final
and-answer session with the two comic
determination, and to prove who was the best dancer, the
endman. This was followed by sentimental two were pitted against each other in a senes of three
and comic songs and culminated in a Walk- challenge matches. The first match was declared a draw. After
Around, a dance that had a challenge section the second and third competitions, Juba was announced the

performed by the enure company as they winner and proclaimed King of All Dancers. Ironically,

processed in a semicircle.

7
 — ” —
THPWORK5

shortly thereafter, in Massachusetts, having defeated a number less abrasive parts of the Virginia Essence, which some
of formidable challengers, Juba was given the tide The John claimed was a dance characteristic of the rude and untutored
Diamond of Boston. blacks of the old plantation. One of the leading exponents of

As a young man in 1848, Juba joined Pell’s Ethiopian this new form was George Primrose, an Irishman whose real

Serenaders, a white minstrel show established in London. name was Delaney. He became a master stylist and when he
performed to Swanee River, according to soft shoe dancer
Remarkably, he was die only black man ever to perform
with white minstrels. He was again honored overseas as the Willie Covan, “with every movement he made a beautiful
9
most influential performer of the nineteenth century. In his picture. Dancer Billy Maxey said, “everybody was
lifetime he opened a dancing school for whites who were influenced by Primrose, he was the only true stylist of the
10
interested in exploring the earlyNegro dances. time.” Others credited with contributing to this style of

Unfortunately, he never lived long enough to fully dance were Dan Bryant, a who
blackface (white) minstrel

understand the extent of his fame, he died in London in performed it to a very slow tempo; George More, who is
1872. (Because of their exclusion by whites, many black credited with its invention; Eddie Girard, who used old-

performers migrated to Europe, where they developed forms fashioned black steps as its basis; and Eddie Leonard, who was

of jazz music and jazz dance. In this new setting, they were more imitated then Primrose because his steps and style were
viewed as talented and innovative and were received more easier.

readily than at home. Their interest in Europe was also The variety acts were just what they claimed to be: a

spurred by the ending of the Civil War — its outcome gave diversity of ideas of every type and descnption. For example,
them freedom but often left them homeless and jobless Harry Bolger performed slap-shoe dancing, later to be used
when the nft between the black and white races was at play by the clowns in the circus; Eddie Foy, the hand dance;
again.) In retrospect, writers of dance have stated that Juba’s Eddie Horan, the cane dance; Harry Pilsner ran up the
work was as much jazz and eccentric dance as it was tap, and proscenium wall and flipped off backwards long before
that in every tap dancer’s repertoire, including today, the George M. Cohan introduced it; A1 Leach was tap dancing
elements of his work are present. If Daddy “Jim Crow” Rice on a staircase in the 1880s, which Bill Robinson populanzed
created the stereotypical darky’ for the minstrels, Juba fused many years later. Billy Kersands, a headliner with black
Negro and wdnte dance. minstrels, used to wow them by singing Wait’ Til the Clouds

Roll By while peeling off twelve vests and delivenng a terrific

Virginia Essence; he later performed a monologue with a

mouth full of billiard balls.

T he 5oft 5hoe
The became the performance arena of the day
minstrel stage What led to the death of the minstrel shows? There seem to
and fostered a type of entertainer who would become the be many reasons for its demise: the white minstrels had their
classic period from the 1830s to the 1860s, and many
variety act in vaudeville, which in turn would provide the
material for the silver screen musicals of the 1930s. These concluded that after the Civil War its format had grown
shows were masculine, family-onented, and predominantly a
tasteless and rude. The black image had changed in the eyes

Southern art form that fostered an Afro-American style of of whites; essential qualities that had existed before were now
dance very reliant on solo performance and improvisation. dated. Others felt that minstrel performances had become
These performances supported four main dances: the jig, the cluttered and incongruous with ballads too sentimental, and
clog, the hornpipe, and later the essence of old Virginny, comedy too slapstick. It had also remained a very masculine

which in its final form would become the soft shoe. The first form, with little if any sex appeal. It is interesting to note,

two were the most influential, but the last would remain however, that when women were introduced, no matter how
throughout the minstrel era, find its way into vaudeville, talented they were, they, too, felt and looked out of place
enter films, and exert its importance on the dance of today. It
next to male entertainers. For all minstrel men a job on the

is interesting to note that the jig actually outlasted all of stage was mostly successful, but life off stage was sheer
minstrelsy and, up to the present, has remained unchanged in
drudgery: fatiguing hours on a train, long work schedules,

itsperformance or structure. The clog became absorbed by and very little pay. The job had become very unglamorous,
and absorbent of many other dance forms. Harland Dixon, a
exceptionally tedious, and totally uncreative.

recognized soft shoe exponent, claimed that the hitting By now, musical comedy companies had begun to appear
together of the toes and the heels (toe-heel clicks) originated owing to the opening of an extremely popular
largely
with the clog. Barney Fagan, the first to syncopate the clog, extravaganza. The Black Crook (1866). This production would
claimed that the buck and wing had done nothing but hurt be the forerunner of the American music hall, the variety
the famous old dance. Dixon’s comment on Fagan was that theater, vaudeville, and later the musical theater. The final
Fagan’s work was so intricate that neither the audience nor straw was not a stage happening, but a musical one
the other dancers could decipher what it was about. ragtime —which emerged in the 1890s. This form would
The soft shoe, often called “song and dance,” came into slowly, but surely, take the country by storm and become the
being and received its name from the soft shoes in which it
rage of 1920s —
the the Jazz Age.

was performed. It had been conceived from the gentler and

<3
 1

Pin Historical Look at Tap

Thus, the minstrel shows bowed out in the late 1800s and shows; the rest did a full schedule because of popular
America was ready for a change of entertainment, one that demand.
would be as popular, if not more so, as its predecessor. This And what was happening on the vaudeville stage?
genre would see that tap became known and recogmzed as a Everything! There were “dumb acts” (anything that didn’t
true American form — its name was vaudeville. use the spoken word), which included dancers, acrobats,
bicycle acts, ammal acts, rough-house, legomania, eccentric,
Hawaiian, ballet, toe tap, Russian, Scotch, and Apache as

OITER VnUDEVILLE well as the “animal dances” of the day: the grizzly bear, the

The term “vaudeville” is of French origin, from the word turkey trot, the horse trot, the bunny hug, and the kangaroo

which referred to the popular, satincal songs that

vaux-de-vire, dip. Along with the clog, still being performed in wooden
were composed and presented in the valleys (vaux) near the shoes, or at least wooden soles, were the jig, now with
French town of Vire in the 15th century. Vaudeville, to authentic tap sounds as well as the original jig sounds; the

most, means a variety show comprised of many different pedestal dance, which presented a dancer, juggler, or acrobat

kinds of entertainment. However, some theater buffs protest in a tiny dance space suspended atop a column; a sand

this definition, stating that the term “variety” is better used in dance, where a small cup of fine sand would be carefully

connection with the old beer where alcohol was halls, sold spread center stage for the performer, who would then

and whose main patronage was male. Vaudeville was produce swishing and scraping sounds to an orchestral
respectable, they claimed, always being held in a theater, background; a soft shoe, an offshoot of the sand dance, in

where no alcohol (at least then) was obtainable and where which the dancer, in soft leather shoes, produced no sounds
the audience was both male and female. Regardless of this but captivated the audience with slides, glides, turns, and
difference in understanding, eventually the terms variety and flowing images.

vaudeville became synonymous under the careful supervision

of Tony Pastor.
Pastor is credited, in 1880, with opening his 14th Street The Blhck Circuit
Theater in New York City and with it taking the variety acts Unfortunately, instead of a joining of African-Americans with
out of the beer halls and into a theater setting. Immediately whites on the entertainment circuit, there was white
after that, Benjamin Franklin Keith opened The Gaiety vaudeville in the form of the Loew’s, Orpheum, and Keith
Museum in Boston, where he ran continuous entertainment. and Albee circuits (the latter included the Palace and possible
In 1884 Keith was joined by Edward F. Albee and together connections with England and Europe), and there was the
they would build a theatrical empire. Vaudeville quickly Theatre Owners Booking Association for black artists. It was
climbed onto the bigger stages of the country. If one really also refeired to as TOBY or T.O.B.A., which was more
had one’s act together it could be done clear across the commonly known as Tough on Black Artists or, in some

country, then changed slightly and especially with different cases, Tough on Black Asses. As the white performer began

wardrobe, could come back across the country again using to excel at his craft, he would find his way to one of the

the same material. major or minor vaudeville circuits that crisscrossed the

Vaudeville was conceived with the idea that it would focus United States. But, as explained by Dewey “Pigmeat”
Markham, a black dancer who, by sheer will and hard work,
on the working class and present a popular, yet inexpensive,
form of entertainment. It maintained its status as show- finally appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show, “Show business for
a colored dancer was like going through school, you started
business kingpin because it gave people what they wanted. It
mind the family. Strict censorship was exercised
in a medicine show (kindergarten), then to a gillv show
also kept in
any member of a family could attend a (grade school), if you had something you went to a to offer,
on its stages, so that
carnival (high school) and in college you became part of a
show without nsk of being offended. Although
circumvention of censorship codes was common,
1

the clean minstrel show or Broadway or vaudeville

1-
some never left —
the tent.”
image of vaudeville basically remained intact. As a matter of
fact, vaudeville had such a strong cultural influence on There were many white and black artists who contributed

American society that the public clung to its moral view long abundantly to vaudeville. On the white circuit there was
after the medium expired, transfenng censorship to the Thomas Patricola, who, while playing the ukelele, created
motion picture, radio, and television industries. new dance steps and performed a new form of blackface.
two shows with no There was Pat Rooney, known for his waltz clog and
By 1894 the Keith Theater had a day,

and no popularizing the Shuttle Oft to Buffalo and Falling Off a Log
reserved seating, a ten-cent admission charge,
sight. In the late 1890s Keith had so perfected steps. There was Eddie Horan, who laid the foundation for
competition in
would song and dance acts with the use ot a cane and the
the entertainment concept that all the smaller houses
performance of his walking waltz clog.
run continuous entertainment, while larger theaters
maintained a two-a-day schedule. Eventually, only the Palace White families also abounded on the stage: the Four Fords,
Theatre in New York was limited to a smaller number of known as the Greatest Dancing Family; the Purcella

9
TPTWORK5

Brothers, dressed like convicts with their legs linked together, lucky and devil-may-care to suave, sophisticated, and
complete with ball and chain. There were the Cohans, dignified. Its influence would be felt much later.

George M. being the most famous, who introduced Some acts who were already stars skipped the T.O.B.A.
Americanism to the stage; the five Kellys, among them Fred, circuit entirely and went directly into the white theaters.
who directed attenric’' to 1
fast tap dancing along with his Others formed their own circuit, such as the Whitman sisters
brother Gene, who went on to fame in the movies. And let (Alice, Alberta, May, and Essie) who had not only a terrific
us remember the Condos brothers; Steve Condos was the act, but were also considered the foremost leader and
originator of practice drills called tap rudiments. Similar to a promoter of black talent on the circuit. Eventually they
drummer's rhythm with his sticks, the rudiments produced joined the T.O.B.A. because they were able to get top billing
innumerable variations and numbers of strikes on each foot. and demand extremely high salaries. Some black performers
On the Black circuit, there were many notable contributors. had passed from the minstrels into vaudeville, and a few
Most black performers had a number of skills; singing, acting, would pass from vaudeville onto the silver screen; Bill
dancing, patter, jokes, skits, etc. Leonard Reed, the creator of Robinson did.
the famous Shim Sham Shimmy, could dance, do the Although vaudeville was generally a man’s world, this era saw
Charleston, tell stories and somehow pass for white owing to the arrival of women on the stage. As dramatic skits were
his interracial background. part of the entertainment menu, so was Ethel Barrymore; so
The T.O.B.A. circuit was founded by a black comic and was Gertrude Hoffman in her “Salome” dance of the seven
actor, Sherman Dudley, who, before World War I, bought veils, and Eva Tanguay, who promptly tried to rid herself of
up many theaters, primarily in the South and the Southwest. the veils in her Solome, but was prevented from doing so by
He was so successful that he formed a theatrical circuit the management.
through which black artists could perform in more than three
hundred theaters, across the United States from the South
through the North. The talent it produced was remarkable;
T he Chorus Lime
Ethel Waters; the superlative dancing of Toots Davis; Eubie
In this melange of vaudevillian achievements, one should not
Blake, the yet to be famous pianist-composer; and John
overlook the faithful chorus girls of the stage, that spectacular
Bubbles, who in 1922 would be the creator of rhythm tap, a
line of females who made the heart beat a little faster with
highly complex, syncopated, and stylized form of the art.
each high kick and new formation. Formerly known as the
Together with these notables was Peg Leg Bates, a marvelous
one-legged dancer who incorporated flash steps with tap and
Tiller Girls — the predecessors to the Rockettes —they were
named after their trainer in England, John Tiller, and brought
never missed a beat. He was such a fine performer that many,
to Amenca to perform in white musicals. Prior to the Tiller
after seeing him, forgot that he had only one leg. Another
line, the chorus lines of the country had been described by
sensational performer was Baby Laurence, a great master of
writer Cecil Smith as “gigantic chorus ladies with their
close to the floor tap work.
Amazonian marches and drills.” 13 The Tillers, on the other
Probably one of black vaudeville’s most outstanding and
hand, were a trained precision line of dancers who performed
innovative teams was that of John Bubbles and pianist Ford
in unison and who ended their routine with a flourish of
Lee “Buck’’ Washington, known as Buck and Bubbles. They high kicks. They became a welcome addition to any show
created a new style ot tap with a simple appearance and a
and changed the American concept of what a chorus actually
complex sound, which gave the impression of being
did. Later, Charlie Davis, a fine buck and wing dancer turned
controlled and dignified. One of the most influential dancers
coach, was asked to create some matenal for a Tiller line.
of the time was King Rastus Brown, a flatfooted buck
Finding the look of the line rather sweet and tame, Charlie,
dancer, heavily involved in syncopated rhythms, rhythms
in his own words, “took out the kicks and put in taps . . .

basically unknown and unused by the European and white

and then drilled them until they could 14
all do it together.”
dancers. There was Eddie Rector, a great soloist and stylist
who had added arm and hand movements to the soft shoe;
It was during the vaudeville era that old and new steps were
being discovered, explored, and in some cases standardized or
Jack Wiggins, a dancer and choreographer who brought the
at least popularized. This was a natural consequence of
“class act to the circuit, trom which it never left. The class
dancers who, while traveling on the road, had an opportunity
act consisted ot a duet or trio, usually male, in full evening
view each other’s work and even exchange ideas,
attire — top hat, tails or tux, spats, and sometimes sporting a
to

combinations, and steps. Thus, there was a great deal of

cane —presenting a suave, smooth routine in identical
dance exposure both for performers and for spectators.
precision that created an atmosphere of grace and elegance.
Audiences became capable of recognizing and anticipating
The master dancer Horn Coles and his partner Chollv Atkins
certain well-known and frequently used movements, such as
were one of the most famous of the class acts, as well as
the time step, the Buffalo step, and falling off a log.
Rufus Greenlee and Thaddeus Drayton. The class act helped
to change the black man's image from shiftless, happy-go-

IO
 An Historical Look at Tap

sounds they produced: = step, 2 = shuffle, 3 = shuffle

The Time Btep 1

step, 4 = shuffle ball change, 5 = waltz clog. A 6 has been

The basic structure of the time step was identical in both
black and white vaudeville circuits. Most black performers
debated —some say that it is two running shuffles, others that
it is a double waltz clog (flap, shuffle ball change). These
preferred working flatfooted, with feet close to the floor, in a
simple terms actually existed and were used into the 1930s. It
crouched Afro-Cuban stance with no arm
little or
is also interesting to note that some claimed that the terms
movements. White dancers tended to perform on the balls of
tap and clogging were interchangeable, therefore identical,
the feet, in an upright, Irish jig-like position. It was during
not recognizing that a new style had been born.
this period that the black performer would begin his time
step on the count of 8 with a stomp or step scuff and Certain dances brought with them steps that were already

substitute chug or heel drop for the hop, while the white
ingrained in their framework. For example, from the jig and

performer, being weaned on jigs and clogs, was executing a the clog we obtained the terms shuffle and heel; terms also

shuffle on the eighth count and an articulate, clear hop on

found in steps and complete dances of African origin. The

the 1 count. These very time steps would become our

hornpipe produced the well-known sailors’ rock and the bell,

while traditional dancers offered the rundown, the chug, and

present buck (rhythm) and standard (basic) time steps, and the
the roll as well as the family of roll steps. Yet other steps
difference in the rendition, style, and motivation would lead
to the separation of the traditional tap dancer from the were taken from the dancer and skill or his work, such as the
contemporary one. Maxie Ford break, the Abe Kabbible, the Ruby Keeler time
step, the Ann Miller break, the Bill Robinson break, and the

Shirley Temple.

Our vocalization of tap steps usually has the same number of

The Buffalo Btep syllables as the sounds being made; for example, step, shuffle,
The Buffalo step was conceived for a line of Tiller Girls who
shuffle hop step, heel toe, spank step ball change, etc. In the
were performing at Shea’s Buffalo Theater, in the city of the
beginning this was not true, for example, the term toe (i.e.,
same name. When the director refused the choreographer the
hit the top of the R toe crossed back L) was called toe tip or
privilege of a blackout for exiting, the latter rose to the
toe strike. It is probable that the dancing teacher changed this
moment by having the girls stand, place their arms around
procedure because verbal commands are very connected to
the waist of the girls on either side of them, look to the
the step’s rhythmic content: the structure of a step, its
nght, and exit stage right while doing the soon-to be famous
rhythm, and accompanying verbalization all match to
step. It was so unexpected and inventive that it became a
emphasize the step’s execution. So conscious of this thought
common exit of the day, not only with chorus lines but also
are we as teachers that, in uttering of the simple phrase “flap
with acts of all kinds. Incidentally, other steps named after
ball change,” we will resort to “a-flap ball change” or “fah-
cities of their origin are the Cincinnati, the Charleston, and
lap ball change” to ally the rhythm with each section of the
the New Yorker.
step.

Fallimg Off a Lod The Buck ato Wind

Falling off a log was an imitative movement of loggers as
Vaudeville launched a new style of dance: the buck and
they loosened log jams and rolled their product down the
wing. James McIntyre introduced this dance on the New
river, using only their sense of balance and very nimble new dance was a mixture of jigs
York stage in 1880. This
footwork. Falling downstairs was invented by an eccentric and reels, “buck” got its name because dance in general, and
dancer/comedian who needed an effective and quick exit. tap in particular, was a masculine art; therefore, as the male
Many steps derived their name from the look or the action of of many animal species was known as the buck, so was the
the foot or leg, or the direction of the movement; for
dancer. The term “wing” was derived from another source.
example, slap, click, pullback, cut-out, treadmill, slide, draw, This step, discovered in the 1880s, did not reach solid
stamp, etc. Little emphasis was placed on whether the step acclaim until the 1930s. Some say that its origin was an old
carriedweight or remained weightless. Therefore, there was Afro-folk step, the pigeon wing, which involved a foot-
no difference between stamp and stomp, flap and slap, or heel shaking movement executed by the early minstrel dancers.

drop and heel stand. Perhaps the first to confront this Others say that it came from a wild flapping and circling of
problem were the English, who used the word “cramp to the arms of the performer during its execution. Either way, it

indicate the bearing of weight, and the word beat tor not has been part of the tap vocabulary for more than one
carrying the weight. These terms are in existence today in hundred years. For many years, the wing was considered a

the form of heel cramp and heel beat, toe cramp and toe flash step, which normally was quite acrobatic. Flash steps
But one must remember that in the very early
beat, etc. appeared at some strategic point in the routine, usually at the

beginnings of tap, steps were named after the number of end or during a particularly loud and vigorous section of the
music, the effect producing a flash or brilliant outburst strictly
TRPWORK5

meant for applause. Flash steps would come to include used throughout a production to sing, dance, and add
trenches, coffee grinds, Russian splits, etc. gentleness and atmosphere to the stage.

The buck and wing was danced on the balls of the feet by On May 9, 1927, at the Liberty Theatre in New York City,

most, an Insh influence. However, some preferred to remain a play called The Blackbirds of 1928 opened. Although the
flatfooted, an African influence. It contained fast foot work production itself was not a success, Bojangles was. (Bojangles

compnsed of heel and toe drops and variations on the time is a contraction of the words “bone jangler,” one who creates

step, which, because of its familiarity and its syncopation, was wonderful rhythms while playing the bones). At that time he
often used by the performer to cue the orchestra. But owing performed a stair dance that would make him famous for all

to the cost of rehearsal time or the unavailability of either the time.

performer or the orchestra to rehearse, this was often Some think that his idea for the stair dance was born by
accomplished on stage during the performance. accident.While he was closing a solo dance at the Palace

The vaudeville era helped to popularize and standardize Theatre, he saw some friends in the audience.
terminology that still exists today. The term “hoofer” came Simultaneously, he spotted the four steps that lie on either

into existence. To most it meant a flatfooted style of tap; to side of the stage, leading down into the audience so that the

others it included all tap dancers. Some terminology came actors could enter or exit from the stage during a play. Bo
from other fields. Riff and paradiddle are probably associated ad-libbed a little dance down the stairway, shook hands with
with drumming and the bnse cramproll from combining the his friends, and danced back up. It was so well received by
ballet brise with tap cramproll. The shimmy and shorty the audience that he kept it in the act and had his own
george added tap sounds to movements from social dances of stairway built.
the era, which in turn were created in response to music. Robinson, a self-taught dancer of the streets, was a magnetic
Essentially, the vaudeville era founded and categorized most and irresistible performer. Unlike the current dancing, he
basic steps — flash steps, time steps, and breaks — that we teach stood erect and performed on the balls of his feet. His taps
today. The only new additions would be those stylized from were clean and neat, with no flash steps and uncomplicated
music produced in the 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, and on, and new footwork. He was deeply influenced by the white dancers
areas in tap created from combining tap with other dance Eddie Leonard, James Barton, and Jack Donahue. In his
forms, such as ballroom, ballet, and jazz. Vaudeville definitely lifetime, he produced dozens of time step routines, using
established tap as an American product and placed it high on breaks to separate one from the other. As a performer, he was
the list of firsts. pleasant and charming, captivating the audience with his
The early dancers, unlike contemporary dancers, were not personality and smile. He was almost fifty years old when he
trained by dance masters in a dancing school, nor were they became the first on Broadway. Bojangles would
black star
exposed to the proper classes in ballet, ballroom, or creative continue his career in films, where he would be teamed with,
movement. The profile might have read: from a middle-class and become the teacher of, Shirley Temple. They would
or poorer economic level, probably black but occasionally become the first interracial team on the screen and the most
white, with a tap education received from a brother or a successful to ever play in any entertainment medium.
sister, a friend, or an acquaintance on a street corner or at a In 1950 the Copasetics came into being, “a benevolent
bar. As the tap vocabulary increased, the dancer would memory ^
organization dedicated to the of Mr. Robinson,”
1

consider himself a musician, countering the music, adding whose favorite saying was “everything’s copasetic” (in those
fullness to a bass section, or syncopating a break. He was part days meaning that everything’s fine, great, terrific). The
of the music. He would be performing not only for an original group was comprised of people, many of whom
audience, but also for other musicians.
music, he would
With or without were the top dancers of the day Buster Brown, Ernest—
create “conversations” with his feet by Brown, Leslie “Bubba” Gaines, Charles “Cookie” Cook, and
controlling accents and shading. He was a jazz artist who Horn Coles. As a further tribute to Bojangles, Congress
loved jazz music and was at one with it. The motion picture instituted National Tap Dance Day on May 25, 1989, in
Tap probably best expresses this philosophy of a traditional commemoration of Bill Robinson’s birthday. Had he been
tapper: the involvement they had with each other, the music, alive he would have been 1
1
years old.1

the challenges, the dedication, and the art.

The Hoofer’b Club

BOJfTIGLEB One of the most famous meeting places for dancers in the
Born in 1878, at age twelve Bill “Bojangles” Robinson 1920s was the Hoofer’s Club at 131st Street and 7th Avenue
appeared as a “pick” on the minstrel stage. Picks, a short New York City’s Harlem.
in It was described as a fifteen-
term for pickaninny, were young children who were hired to foot square back room behind a pool hall (some say it was a
surround a black female singer on the stage, contributing to comedy club, but really doesn’t matter, as
it both offered
her maternal look and increasing the authenticity of what gambling). Here, old professionals and young aspirants as well
was, usually, a plantation setting. The picks were frequently as nondancers who just loved tap would congregate. The
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