UNIT 6

MODELS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

6.1 Models of Teaching

6.2 Five E-Model- Engage, Explore, Enforce, Expand and Evaluate

6.3 Suchman’s Enquiry Model

6.4 Bruner’s Concept Attainment Model

6.5 Individualized Instruction

6.6 Programmed Instruction – Meaning and concept

6.7 Types of Programmed Instruction – Linear, Branching, Mathetics

 UNIT 6

6.1

MODELS OF TEACHING MATHEMATICS

MODELS IN TEACHING
The term model is used to mean a teaching episode done by an experienced teacher in
which a highly focused teaching behaviour is demonstrated, in it an individual demonstrating
particular patterns which the trainee learns through imitation. It is a way to talk and think
about instruction in which certain facts may be organized, classified and interpreted.

Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil describe a Model of Teaching as a plan or pattern
that can be used to shape curricula, to design instructional materials and to guide instruction
in the classroom and other settings.

Thus teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process and
producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a
way that specific change occurs in his behaviour.

According to N.K.Jangira and Azit Singh (1983): “A model of teaching is a set of

inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific
goal. It helps in designing instructional activities and environmental facilities, carrying out of
these activities and realization of the stipulated objectives.”

Models of Teaching are designed for specific purposes-

 the teaching of information concepts, ways of thinking, the study of social values and
so on-
 by asking students to engage in particular cognitive and social tasks.
Some models are centered on delivery by the instructor while others develop as the learners
respond to tasks and the student is regarded as a partner in the educational enterprise.
These are based on the following specifications:
 Specification of Environment- It specifies in definite terms the environmental
conditions under which a student’s response should be observed.
 Specification of operation- It specifies the mechanism that provides for the reaction
of students and interaction with the environment.
 Specification of criterion of Performance-It specify the criterion of Performance
which is accepted by the students The behavioural outcome which the learner would
demonstrate after completing specific instructional sequences are delineated in the
teaching models
 Specification of learning outcome- It specifies what the student will perform after
completing an instructional sequence.

UTILITY OF TEACHING MODELS IN TEACHING

 Teaching models are useful in developing social efficiency, personal abilities,
cognitive abilities and behavioural aspects of the students. It helps in selecting and
stimulating situations which causes the desirable changes in students
 Teaching models help to establish teaching and learning relationship empirically. It
helps in making the teaching more effective.
 Teaching models helps in providing a theoretical rationale to the teaching, which will
provide changes and rectifications in teaching.
 Teaching models stimulates the development of new educational innovations in
teaching strategies and tactics, which may replace the existing ones in schools of
today.
 Teaching models assist makers of materials to create more interesting and effective
instructional materials and learning sources.
 Teaching models assist teachers to develop their capacities to create conductive
environment for teaching, as its nature is practical.
 Teaching models help curriculum planners to plan learning activities and content
material which provide a variety of educational experiences to learners.
 Teaching model evaluates the behaviour of the students. For this important task, it
presents such a criterion with the help of which the changes in the students
behaviours can be easily evaluated.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEACHING MODEL
1- Encourage Art of Teaching- Teaching is considered as an art.. Teaching models
encourages this art by providing learning environment.
2- Development of Inherent Abilities -Teaching models bring about the qualitative
development of personality as it helps in developing human abilities. It also increases the
teacher’s social competency.
3- Based on Individual Differences- Teaching model uses the student’s interest, as it is
constructed on the basis of individual differences.
4- Influenced by Philosophy- Every teaching model is influenced by the philosophy of
education. Hence, teachers formulate different models of teaching under the influence of the
philosophy they believe.
5- Answers Fundamental Questions- In every teaching model answers to all the
fundamental questions pertaining to the behaviour of students and teachers are included.
6- Providing Appropriate Experiences- Teaching models provides proper experiences
to both teacher and student. Selecting the content and presenting it for learning before the
students is the main essentiality of teaching. This difficulty is solved when a teacher presents
appropriate experience before the students.
7- Maxims of Teaching- The basis of teaching model is the maxims of teaching. They
are the foundation of each teaching model.
8- Practice and Concentration- The development of a teaching model is based on
regular and continuous practice and concentration. The proper development of a teaching
model is only possible when the assumptions are made clear by related thinking.
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF A TEACHING MODEL:

Normally, majority of teaching models are based on the following six elements:
Focus
Focus is the central aspects of a teaching model. Objectives of teaching and aspects
of environment generally constitute the focus of the model. Every teaching model is based on
one or the other objective as its focal point. Any teaching model is developed by keeping this
focal point in mind. Every teaching model differs from another in terms of its objectives. It is
the nucleus of a teaching model. Every model is developed by keeping in view its focal point
or objective . Every model has various phases, some particular types of competencies are
developed by it.

Syntax
Syntax of the model describes the model in action. Syntax includes the sequences of
steps involved in the organization of the complete programmed of teaching. It is the
systematic sequence of the activities in the model. Each model has a distinct flow of phases.
It means the detailed description of the model in action. In it, the teaching activities and
interactions between a pupil and the teacher are determined .The syntax of any teaching
model means those points which produce activities focused on educational objectives at
various phases. Under syntax, the teaching tactics, teaching activities and interaction between
a student and the teacher are determined in such a pattern of sequence that the teaching
objectives are achieved conveniently by providing desirable environmental situations.

Principles of Reaction
Principles of Reaction tell the teacher how to regard the learner and to respond to
what the learner does. This element is concerned with the way a teacher should regard and
aspects respond to the activities of the students. These responses should be appropriate and
selective. They provide the teacher with rules of thumb by which to select model, appropriate
responses to what the student does. This element is concerned with the teacher’s reaction to
the students responses. In it,he comes to know that how he has to react to the responses of the
students and has to see whether the learners have been actively involved in the process, or
not.

Social System
This element is concerned with the activities of pupil and the teacher and their mutual
relationships. Every teaching model has separate objectives and will have therefore separate
social systems. It is related with the interactive roles and relationship between the teacher and
the student, and the kinds of norms that are observed and student behaviour which is
rewarded. The Social System describes the role of and relationships between the teacher and
the pupils. In some models the teacher has a dominant role to play. In some the activity is
centre around the pupils, and in some other models the activity is equally distributed. This
element is based on the assumption that every class is a miniature society. In it, also
discussed the selection of motivating strategies and tactics for the students. Naturally social
system occupies a central position in making the teaching impressive and successful in
relation to the previously selected objectives. .

Support System
Support System describes the supporting conditions required to implement the model.
‘Support’ refers to additional requirements beyond the usual human skills, capacities and
technical facilities. The support system relates to the additional requirements other than the
usual human skills or capacities of the teacher and the facilities usually available in the
ordinary classroom. Teacher requirements refer to special skills, special knowledge of the
teacher and special audio-visual material like films, elf-instructional material, visit to special
place etc. This includes books, films, laboratory kits, reference materials etc. It means the
additional requirements beyond the usual human skill, capacities and technical facilities. In it,
the evaluation is done by oral or written examination, whether the teaching objectives have
been achieved or not. On the basis of this success or failure, clear idea is achieved regarding
the effectiveness of strategies, tactics and techniques used during teaching.

Application
It is an important element of a teaching model. It means the utility or usage of the
learnt material in other situations. Several types of teaching modes are available. Each model
attempts to desirable the feasibility of its use in varying contexts related with goal
achievements in terms of cognitive, and affective behaviour modification.

Effect of models of Teaching

Models of teaching have a very positive effect on students’ behavior. Bruce Joyce
classified the effect as Instructional effect and Nurturant Effect. Instructional effects are the
direct effect of an instruction on students’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor domain.
Nurturant effects are the indirect effect other than the teacher intends to achieve through the
model. It is the additional achievement gained by the students through the unique nature
classroom interaction. Examples are the development of problem solving ability, analytical
thinking, critical thinking, social skill, tolerance etc.

Models of Teaching are really models of learning. As we helps students acquire

information ideas skills, values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we
are also teaching them how to learn. In fact the most important long term outcome of
instruction may be the students ‘increased capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in
the future, both because of the knowledge and skills they have acquired and because they
have mastered learning processes.
 According to Joyce and Weil, Each model results in two types of effects Instructional
and Nurturant.
a) Instructional effects are the direct effects of the model which result from the content
and skills on which the activities are based.
b) Nurturant effects are those which are implicit in the learning environment. They are
the indirect effects of the model.

Bandura and Walters have formulated three kind of effect in teaching by modeling:
1. Modeling effect- The learner acquires new kind of response pattern.
2. Inhibitory and dis-inhibitory effect- The learner increases or decreases the frequent,
latency or intensity or previously required responses.
3. Eliciting effect- The learner receives from a model merely a cue for realising a
response.

Modeling effect can be seen when a teacher demonstrates to a student how to hold a
pencil or write capital A and thus shows a new behaviour. Through modeling the teacher lets
the student know that it is not permissible of obscene nature in art book. The eliciting effect
takes place when through modeling; a teacher tries to teach students to get up when he enters
the room. Thus it provide a cue eliciting a response neither new nor inhibited. Gagne feels
that learning through imitation seems to be more appropriate for tasks which are a little
cognitive in nature.

TYPES OF TEACHING MODELS

Every teaching model has its specific objective. In order to achieve the objective of a
teaching model, the teacher has to choose right type of model for achieving the particular
objective. The teaching models have been classified into three main types:

1. Philosophical teaching models: Israel Saffer had mentioned such types of models.
These include
a) The Insight model (Plato).-The insight model discard the assumption that the
meaning of of a teaching model is merely deliver the knowledge or ideas through
teaching to the mental domain of the students. According to this model the
 knowledge can not be provided merely through the expression of sense organs,
but the knowledge of principles of language are most important. Edge of the
content is also a necessity. The knowledge can not be provided merely by
speaking the words or listening them. Mental processes and language both work
together.

b) The Impression model of teaching (John Locke).-it is based on a general

assumption that the child’s brain is like a clean slate at the time of birth.
Whatever experiences are provided through teaching, creates impression on
child’s brain. These impressions are termed as learning. In the learning process
the sense organs

c) The Rule model (Kant)-In this model much importance is given to the logic.
Kant gives importance to logic, because in it following certain rules is essential.
The objective of rule model is to devlop the logical reasoning capacities of the
student. Some particular rules are followed. Planning, organization and
interaction of teaching is performed under specific rules.

2. Psychological model of teaching: John P. Dececco had mentioned such types of

models. It includes
a) Basic Teaching model (Robert Glaser)- Robert Glaser (1962) has
developed a stripped-down teaching model which, with modifications, is the
basic teaching model. The basic teaching model divides the teaching process
into four components or parts. It will be useful in several ways.. The four parts
of the model represent the basic divisions. Instructional objectives, Entering
behavior, instructional procedure, and finally performance assessment.

b) An Interaction model of teaching (N.A. Flander).- Flander considered

teaching process as an interaction process. He divided class-room behaviour
in ten categories known as Flander’s ten category system. In this model the
behaviour of student and teacher is analysed. An interaction between a teacher
and the student is more emphasized in this model.
 c) Computer based teaching model (Daniel Davis )-It is the most complicated
model having , entering behaviour, determination of objectives and teaching
aspect as fundamental elements. In this element computer teaching plan is
selected according to the entering behaviour and instructional objectives. The
performances of the student are evaluated. Accordingly alternative teaching
plan is presented. In this model, the diagnosis and teaching go side by side.
Remedial teaching is provided on the basis of diagnosis .Individual
differences are also given importance.

3. Modern teaching models (Joyce and Weil)

Eggen, Kauchar and Harder (1979) have discussed six Information Processing Models –
 General Inductive Model,
 Concept Attainment Model,
 Taba Model,
 General Deductive Model,
 Ausubel’s Model and
 Such man’s Inquiry Model.

MODERN TEACHING MODELS

The most comprehensive review of teaching models is that of Joyce and Weil (1980).
Bruce R.Joyce has divided all the teaching models under the title “Modern teaching models”.
They identified 23 models which are classified into four basic families based on the nature,
distinctive characteristics and effects of the models. These four families are :
1. Information Processing Models
2. Personal Models
3. Social Interaction Models and
4. Behaviour Modification Models.
 Within the families, there are specific models which are designed to serve particular
purposes
.
I. INFORMATION PROCESSING MODELS
The models of this type are concerned with the intellectual development of the
individual and help to develop the method of processing information from the
environment. These models focus on intellectual capacity. They are concerned with
the ability of the learner to observe, organise data, understand information, form
concepts, employ verbal and nonverbal symbols and solve problems. The primary
purposes are :
1. The mastery of methods of inquiry
2. The mastery of academic concepts and facts
3. The development of general intellectual skills such as the ability to reason and
think more logically

The models which belong to this family are :

 The Concept Attainment Model
 Inquiry Training Model
 The Advance Organiser Model
 Cognitive Growth Development Model
 Biological Science Inquiry Model
 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE INFORMATION PROCESSING SOURCE MODELS
TEACHING AIMS AND
SOURCE INNOVATOR
MODEL APPLICATION

To develop inductive
reasoning, mental
Concept Attainment
inductive process, and
Model Bruner, Hilda Taba
understanding of
Inductive Model
concepts and
principles.

To develop individual
Inquiry Training competencies to
Richard Suchman
Model achieve the social
objective.

To develop
understanding of
The Information
Biological Science research
Processing Source Joseph J. Schwab
Inquiry Model methodology, to think
logically on social
problems.

To understand
concepts and facts and
Advance
David Asubel to make the content
Organizational Model
purposeful and
interesting.

To develop general
Cognitive Growth intelligence and logic,
Jean Piaget
Developmental Model social and moral
development.
II. PERSONAL MODELS
Personal development models assist the individual in the development of self hood,
they focus on the emotional life an individual.

The emphasis of these models is on developing an individual into an integrated,

confident and competent personality. They attempt to help students understand themselves
and their goals, and to develop the means for educating themselves. Many of the personal
models of teaching have been developed by counselors, therapists and other persons
interested in stimulating individual’s creativity and self expression.

The primary goals are :

 To increase the student’s self worth,
 To help students understand themselves more fully.
 To help students recognise their emotions and become more aware of the way
emotions effect other aspects of their behaviour,
 To help them develop goals for learning,
 To help students develop plans for increasing their competence,
 To increase the students’ creativity and playfulness,
 To increase the students’ openness to new experience.

The models which belong to this family are:

 Non-Directive Teaching Model,
 Synectics Teaching Model,
 Awareness Training Model,
 Classroom Meeting Model.
 Conceptual System Model
 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE PERSONAL SOURCE MODELS

TEACHING AIMS AND

SOURCE INNOVATORS
MODEL APPLICATION

To develop self
Non-Directive learning by auto
Teaching Carl Rogers instructions, self
Model, research and self
understanding

To develop
Synectics
creative
Teaching William Gordon
competencies for
Model,
problem solving.

To develop
Awareness
The Personal individual
Training W.S. Fietz
Source competencies and
Model,
mutual relations.

To develop skills
Classroom of self –
Meeting William Glasser understanding and
Model. capacities of
dutifulness.

To adjust with the

Conceptual environment with
David. F. Hunt
System Model flexibility in the
personality.
Ill. SOCIAL INTERACTION MODELS
The models in this family emphasise the relationships of the individual to the society
or other persons. The core objective is to help students learn to work together. to identify and
solve problems, either academic or social in nature.

The primary goals are :

To help students work together to identify and solve problems
 To develop skills to human relations, and
 To become aware of personal and social values.

The models which belong to this family are :

 Group Investigation Model
 Role Playing Model
 Jurisprudential Inquiry Model
 Laboratory Training Model
 Social Simulation Model
 Social Inquiry Model
 BRIEF REVIEW OF THE SOCIAL INTERACTION SOURCE MODELS
AIMS AND
SOURCE TEACHING MODEL INNOVATOR
APPLICATION

To develop democratic
abilities, use of
Group Investigation
John Dewey, Herbert knowledge and skills in
Model
life of individual and
society.

To solve
problems on the
Jurisprudential Donald Oliver,
basis of
Model James P. Shaver
information and
reasoning power.

Social Inquiry
The Social Interaction
Model
Source
Social To develop
Simulation Benjamin Cox, competencies of
Model, Byron problem solving
Role Playing and adjustment
Model.

To develop
group skills
Laboratory
Bethal, Maine individual
Method Model
capacities and
adjustment.
IV. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION MODEL
All the models in this family share a common theoretical base, a body of
knowledge which referred to as behaviour theory. The common thrust of these models
is the emphasis on changing the visible behaviour of the learner.

The models which belong to this family is Operant Conditioning Model

BRIEF REVIEW OF THE BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION SOURCE MODEL

TEACHING AIMS AND
SOURCE INNOVATORS
MODEL APPLICATION

To achieve the
objectives of lower
Behaviour Operant Conditioning level of cognitive
B.F.Skinner
Modification Source Model domain on the basis
of individual
differences

A number of instructional strategies to realise different instructional goals have been

developed recently by different researchers They have transformed existing knowledge in the
learning and teaching processes into ‘Models of Teaching’ which can be used by teachers in
the teaching, learning process for realizing different instructional objectives. There is a need
to incorporate a few ‘Models of Teaching’ in the curriculum of teacher education programme
at the secondary as well as elementary level so that prospective teachers attain a higher
degree of ‘ability to teach’.
 6.2
5E INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL
 6.2

5E INSTRUCTIONAL MODEL

The 5E Model developed in 1987 by the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study.

BSCS is a nonprofit educational organization that works to improve science education based
on research about what teaching methods are effective. It promotes collaborative, active
learning in which students work together to solve problems and investigate new concepts by
asking questions, observing, analyzing, and drawing conclusions. The 5E Instructional Model
encourages students to use inquiry and critical thinking and to explore the process of science.

The 5E Instructional Model is based on these premises:

 Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works.
These preconceptions shape how they assimilate new learning.
 To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must have a deep foundation of
knowledge. They must understand how this knowledge relates to a conceptual
framework. And they must be able to organize that knowledge so that it can be
retrieved and applied.
 Students must be taught explicitly to take control of their own learning by defining
goals and monitoring their progress toward meeting them.
 Each phase of the 5E’s has a specific function and contributes to the teacher’s
coherent instruction and to the learners’ formulation of a better understanding of
scientific concepts.
 Students’ construction of knowledge can be assisted if teachers use sequences of
lessons designed to challenge students’ current conceptions and to provide them time
and opportunities to reconstruct their knowledge.

What the BSCS 5E Instructional Model is/does?

The five phases of the BSCS 5E Instructional Model are designed to facilitate the
process of conceptual change.
 The use of this model brings coherence to different teaching strategies, provides
connections among educational activities, and helps science teachers make decisions about
interactions with students.
Each phase of the model and a short phrase to indicate its purpose from a student
perspective are:
1. Engagement - students' prior knowledge accessed and interest engaged in the
phenomenon
2. Exploration - students participate in an activity that facilitates conceptual change
3. Explanation - students generate an explanation of the phenomenon
4. Elaboration - students' understanding of the phenomenon challenged and deepened
through new experiences
5. Evaluation - students assess their understanding of the phenomenon

The 5E's are:

 Engagement: Activities that capture the students' attention, stimulate their thinking,
and help them access prior knowledge.
 Exploration: Provides students time to think, plan, investigate, and organize
collected information.
 Explanation: Involves students in an analysis of their exploration. As a result, their
understanding is clarified and modified.
 Elaborate: Gives students the opportunity to expand and solidify their understanding
of the concept and/or apply it to a real world situation.
 Evaluation: Occurs throughout the lesson. Consistent use of scoring tools improves
learning.

1. Engage
To engage means to excite and to draw your child or student's curiosity. It means to
wow them in a way that catches their attention. It is not forcing children to learn but inviting
them to do so. This is how lessons are introduced. It does not have to be difficult or overly
detailed just interesting enough to open students’ minds for the learning process to begin.
Using technology to engage student learning makes planning very easy for teachers in today's
classrooms.
 Using Smart board technology, videos, illustrations, asking questions, KWL charts,
reading a great book, acting out a character or even introducing a game are ways to engage
students at the beginning of a lesson.

2. Explore
Once students are fully in grossed in the lesson, intrigued by a video or maybe a book,
now it is time to allow them to explore the concept.

Lets say, Teacher do a lesson on 3D shapes, first she would engage them with an
informative video, explaining 3D shapes with animation.

Now in the explore phase, they will play lets say a game where they will go outside
and break up into teams. Each team will be given a minute to find as many various 3d shapes
all around. The idea with exploring is to give the learner the opportunity to practice or work
with their new knowledge in some way. The most effective explorations allow for mistakes
or trial and error. It is looking at a concept before discussing all the details, with hopes that
students will discover answers to possible questions through exploration.

3. Explain
Students now have an opportunity to hear from their educator. The teacher's role so
far has been to mainly facilitate learning, now teacher can use their expertise to answer
questions students may have about what they are learning.

Teacher also may pose questions to the student to see what they are able to explain
about what they have learned. Checking for misunderstandings helps the teacher to observe
what objectives need to be clarified or taught.

So for example, with the 3D shapes, once the students have picked as many 3D
shapes objects as possible, they should count each color that they picked. What 3D shapes
objects did they pick up the most, which 3D shapes objects did they pick the least amount of?

Have them make a chart, so they can look at their findings and compare as a group.
This explaining is done without the teacher having to do much lecturing. The lesson is
reinforced by what the students have seen from their exploring.

4. Elaborate
Here the students can participate in an extension or a different activity that either re-
teaches an objective or teaches more details about the concept being taught. Here
differentiation can be used. A student above level will need an elaboration that extends or
enriches the lesson. A student below level will need perhaps a repeat of the same explore
activity with more teacher input to guide students through again to correct
misunderstandings.

Again with the topic, elaboration may be discussing about everything around us has
mostly 3d like door, book, human, animals which might be missed by students? Or the
teacher might say let's look at our charts again from the results of our game. Doing so will
allow him or her to re-teach or elaborate on what was misunderstood.

5. Evaluate
Finally, after the objectives are taught, it is time to assess. What have students
effectively learned? What do they not understand? What should be done to help them?
Assessments do not have to be the traditional quiz or essay. It can be a reflection, a project,
book report, or a model.

Like with the lesson, the evaluation could be an assignment where students come up
with 5 different facts/ properties/ attributes about 3D shapes and illustrate each in their own
unique way. They might make a 3d model; paint a 3d planar image and facts to illustrate what
they learned. Using a rubric the teacher or parent can now easily grade or make note of what
is learned and of what needs to be retaught.

What is a 5E Lesson Plan?

 The 5 E lesson supports inquiry-based instruction.
 It allows children to make discoveries and to process new skills in an engaging way.
 Teachers can also adequately plan power objectives more effectively by using the 5E
process.
 Children are not just learning with this method, they are more knowledgeable about
their own meta-cognition because they are coached along and not dictated by teachers
merely lecturing.
 The role of the teacher is to facilitate and support students as they use prior
knowledge to build new knowledge.

Advantages

1. Enhancing mastery of subject matter

2. Developing scientific reasoning
3. Understanding the complexity and ambiguity of empirical work
4. Developing practical skills
5. Understanding the nature of science
6. Cultivating interest in science and interest in learning science
7. Developing teamwork abilities
 6.3
BRUNER’S
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL
 6.3

BRUNER’S CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL

Concept Attainment Model is given by Jerome Bruner. This model requires a

student to figure out the attributes of a category that is already formed in another person’s
mind by comparing and contrasting example (called exemplars) that contain the
characteristics (called attributes) of the concepts with examples that do not contain those
attributes.

Examplers:
Essentially the examplers are a subset of a collection of data or a data sets. The category is
the subset or collection of examples that share one or more characteristics that are missing in
the others. It is by comparing the positive examplers and contrasting them with the negative
ones that the concept or category is learned.

In the present study CAM is used as a tool to help the students to attain the concepts of
English Grammar.

COMPONENTS OF CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL

(a) Syntax
In Concept Attainment Model phase one involves presenting data to the learner. Each
unit of data is a separate example or non-example of the concept. The units are presented in
pairs. The data may be events, people, objects, stories, pictures or any other discriminable
units.

In phase two, the students test their attainment of the concept, first by correctly
identifying additional unlabeled examples of the concept and then by generating their own
examples.

In phase three, students begin to analyze the strategies by which they attain concepts.
 PHASES OF CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL
Phase Outline Activity
1. Teacher present labeled examples.
2. Students compare attributes in
Presentation of Data positive and negative example.
Phase
and Identification of 3. Students generate and test
One
Concept hypotheses.
4. Students state a definition according
to the essential attributes.
1. Students identify additional
unlabeled examples as yes or no.
Testing Attainment of 2. Teacher confirms hypotheses, names
Phase
the Concept concepts and re-states definitions according
Two
to essential attributes.
3. Students generate examples.
1. Students describe thoughts.
2. Students discuss role of hypotheses
Phase Analysis of Thinking
and attributes.
Three Strategies
3. Students discuss type and number of
hypotheses.

(b) Social System

Prior to teaching with the Concept Attainment Model, the teacher chooses the
concept, selects and organizes the material into positive and negative examples and
sequences the example. The three major functions of the teacher during concept attainment
activity are to record, prompt (cue) and present additional data.

(c) Principle of Reaction

During the flow of the lesson, the teacher needs to be supportive of the students’
hypotheses. In the later phase of the model, the teacher turn the students’ attention towards
analysis of their concepts and their thinking strategies, again being very supportive.
(d) Support System
Concept Attainment lessons require that positive and negative examplars be presented
to the students. The data sources are known beforehand and the attributes visible. When
students are presented with an example, they describe its characteristics (attributes), which
can then be recorded.

(e) Instructional and Nurturant Effects

Concept Attainment Model is designed for instruction on specific concepts and on the
nature of concepts. With abstract concepts, the strategies nurture an awareness of alternative
perspectives, a sensitivity to logical reasoning in communication and a tolerance of
ambiguity. The instructional and nurturant effects of Concept Attainment Model are depicted
in the following figure.
 6.4
SUCHMAN’S
INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL
 6.4

SUCHMAN’S INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL

Inquiry training model is used for giving training of inquiry to the student. By using
this model in the classroom, inquiry skill can be developed. Development of inquiry skills
needs individuals attention. This model was developed by J.R. Suchman. The inquiry may be
carried out at the individual level or at a group of the level.

This type of training gives the learners practice of thinking and speaking,

Assumptions:-
All knowledge is tentative. A scientist puts a theory or principle and after some time,
it may be pushed aside by a new one. We are always curious and eager to learn new things. In
this model, there is more emphasis on self-learning. The student learns better when they
participate in any inquiry. New strategies can be taught directly and added to pupils existing
once. There is no one answer. We can always be more sophisticated in our explanations and
most problems hence several possible explanations.

Basic elements:-
1. Focus
The inquiry training model has following goals.
 To enhance the thinking ability of the student.
 To enable them to form conclusions based on facts.
 To enable them to have fluency in their thinking and speaking.
 More specialty to impart training of inquiry skills.

2. Syntax
Syntax means the description of the model in action. The inquiry training model has
five phases.
 Phase I:- Encounter with the problem
In this phase, the teacher presents a puzzling situation before the students and
explains the inquiry procedures. Its aim is to create new knowledge. The initial
inquiry is based on simple ideas.

Phase II:- Data collection and verification

The students here try to collect detailed information about the problem. They
try to seek clarifications about the doubts concerning the problem. Teacher virtually
prepares the ground for the success of the model. The teacher should have an
encouraging attitude. During verification, they can ask a question regarding the
object, even property etc.

Phase III:- Data gathering for experimentation

This is a stage when the student actually starts putting questions and the
teacher is reacting to their questions by saying yes or no as the case may be. This
questioning by the student is continued till they are able to reach the stage where
mystery could be solved.

Phase IV:- Formulating an explanation

In this the phase, the teacher will invite the pupils to explain things.
Through explanation, rules may be formulated. The deviation is also checked so that
efforts are applied in the right direction and no energy goes waste.

Phase V:- analysis of the inquiry process

In this phase, the students analyze and reflect on the methods they adopted for
inquiry. This helps in finding out a suitable solution to the various issues involved i.e
the main problem, the right strategy for it etc.

3. Social system
The social system is an important element of this model. Here both teacher and
students play a significant role in teaching learning process. The success of this model
depends on mutual cooperation between teacher and the student
4. Principle of reaction
Ensuring that question are framed so that they can be answered by “yes” or “no”. Following
points should be kept in mind:-
 Asking students to refresh the question.
 Encouraging the students to give a clear statement.
 Neither approving nor rejecting students theories.
 Encouraging interaction among students.
 Using the language of the inquiry process.

5. Support system
While working with Inquiry Training Model, a teacher requires additional support in the form
of
 a set of confronting the material
 technical understanding of the intellectual process and strategies of inquiry.
 Teacher may require resource material related to the problem.

6. Application
This model is generally used in teaching for scientific subjects. The student learns to
analyze the various type of collected information. Any topic from a curriculum area which
can be converted into problem situation or puzzle can be selected for inquiry training.

ADVANTAGES OF INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL

• It develops the scientific process skills;

• It develops among students the strategies for creative inquiry;
• It develops among students independence or autonomy in learning;
• It develops among students the ability to tolerate ambiguity;
• It make students understand the tentative nature of knowledge; and
• It develops the spirit of creativity among students.
LIMITATIONS OF INQUIRY TRAINING MODEL
• This model does not help in teaching primary content or subject matter, for example,
concepts and formula;
• If the information about the puzzle is not presented in the form of a problem requiring
explanation, the student cannot effectively arrive at generalisation through inquiry. In
such cases simulation may be more useful;
• It cannot be applied to puzzles which do not have a cause-effect relationship.
 6.5
INDIVIDUALIZED
INSTRUCTION
 6.5

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION STRATEGY?

 Individualized instruction is also known as differentiated instruction.
 Individualized instruction strategy refers to those classroom practices of teaching
which recognize the uniqueness of each student learner and thus provide for adequate tutorial
guidance, and other support services suited to bring about a wholesome development in the
person (mind, body, and spirit).
 Individualized instruction is about using teaching strategies that connect with
individual student’s learning strategies. The ultimate goal is to provide a learning
environment that will maximize the potential for student success.
 Differentiated instruction is an instructional theory that allows teachers to face this
challenge by taking diverse student factors into account when planning and delivering
instruction. Based on this theory, teachers can structure learning environments that address
the variety of learning styles, interests, and abilities found within a classroom.
 In this strategy the teacher shouldn’t always stick to the same pattern of teaching
rather they should adapt new ways such as teaching through audio, video, field trip, etc. so
that students have multiple options for taking in information and making sense of ideas.
 To differentiate or to individualize instruction is to recognize students varying
background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests, and to react
responsively. The intent of individualizing instruction is to maximize each student’s growth
and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is, and assisting in the
learning process. It provides the opportunity for students to learn at their own pace, in their
own way, and be successful.

PURPOSES OF INDIVIDUALIZED STRATEGY

• To enhance and develop listening habit
Since most of the teaching is done through lecturing, the role of students are to listen and if
felt necessary take note of them. The learning of the learners greatly dependent on their
listening habit and sense of hearing, thus helping them in enhancing their listening habit.
 Enables the teachers to explain a lesson or demonstrate a technique to small
groups of students at a time.
Here the smaller the numbers of students are the greater is the advantage of the teachers in
teaching or explaining a lesson or to demonstrate a technique to their students. In short
smaller the number of students, more efficient the teaching or demonstration will be.

• Individualizing instruction allows each student to progress through the

curriculum at his or her own pace.
It aims at how much the learner learns and pace at which they learn. Less important is given
to covering the topics in the curriculum. Vital importance is given to the progress the learner
are making in the field of learner at his or her own pace (the rate and speed at which they
learn).

• Long term retention as they note down what they usually understand.
While the teacher is teaching in the class, students are actively engage in taking note of what
they really understand instead of what the teacher explain. They usually note down what they
understand and are usually listed in their own words. So, this helps them to retain the
information for a longer period of time.

• Importance is given to a child as an individual not as group, class and so on.

The strategy is more concern about how much a single child is able to learn, retain and his oa
her progress not as a group, class and team. As the current phase of children education says
‘no child is left behind’. so, the focus is on a child as an individual.

PRINCIPLES OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

1. Make the students clear about the key points and generalization to make sure that all
learners gain a powerful and strong understanding so that they can have a good foundation
for their future learning. Teachers are encouraged to identify essential concepts and
instructional focuses to ensure all learners understand.

2. Use assessment as a teaching tool to extend versus merely measure instruction.

Assessment should occur before, during, and following the instructional episode. The
assessment carried out before and during can be incorporated into classroom practice; it
provides information needed to adjust teaching and learning while they are happening. E.g.
Observation, questioning strategies, self and peer assessment, student’s record keeping. The
assessment carried out before and during instructional episode is called formative assessment.
And the assessment evaluated after instruction is called summative assessment. It is carried
out every few weeks, months, or chapter tests. E.g. End of unit or chapter tests, end of term or
semester exams.

3. Emphasize and stress more on critical and creative thinking while designing a lesson.
Whatever task and activities that we provide to the students should be up to the student’s
level and understanding, so that they can understand easily and will apply meaning.
Instruction may require supports, additional motivation, varied tasks, materials, or equipment
for different students in the classroom.

4. Engaging all learners is essential. We should engage and make the students participate
in class activities. For that teachers should develop their lesson to engage and motivate the
students.

5. Provide a balance between teacher-assigned and student-selected tasks. If there is a

balance between the task and activities that are assigned by the teachers and the tasks selected
by the students, the learning will be most favorable and desirable.

REQUIREMENTS OF INDIVIDUALIZE INSTRUCTIONS.

1. Each student learn differently
Some students are kinesthetic learners, requiring a hands-on approach to learning.
Some students learn visually, excelling when they can read or see photographs of the
material. Finally, some students learn best through listening, learning best when they can hear
and talk through a problem.
2. All students are talented in different ways.
While one student may be creative, another student may be analytical. While one
student may be mechanical, another student may excel at writing. Teaching requires
differentiated and individualized instruction in order to reach all students.
3. Educating children with special needs.
 Special Education is a specialized area of education which uses unique
instructional methods, materials, learning aids, and equipment to meet the educational
needs of children with learning disabilities.
 Remedial instruction aims to improve a skill or ability in each student. Using
various techniques, such a more practice or explanation, repeating the information and
devoting more time to working on the skills, the teacher’s guide each student through
the educational process. A student that might, for example, have a low reading level
might be given remediation.

4. It is to meet the unique educational needs of the child.

The IEP is intended to help children reach educational goals more easily than
they otherwise would and must especially help teachers and related service providers
understand the student's disability and how the disability affects the learning process.

5. Teaching requires differentiated and individualized instruction in order to reach

all students.
Differentiating does not mean providing separate, unrelated activities for each
student but does mean providing interrelated activities that are based on student needs
for the purpose of ensuring that all students come to a similar grasp of a skill or idea.

6. Careful and continuous assessment of individual progress can be carried out.

WAYS OF INDIVIDUALIZING/ DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION.

Several key elements guide individualized instruction. Tomlinson (2001) identifies
three elements of the curriculum that can be individualized or differentiated: Content,
Process, and Products.

CONTENT
Content can be described as the knowledge, skills and attitudes we want children to
learn. Individualizing content requires that students are pre-tested so the teacher can identify
the students who do not require direct instruction. Students demonstrating understanding of
the concept can skip the instruction step and proceed to apply the concepts to the task of
solving a problem. This strategy is often referred to as compacting the curriculum. Another
way to individualize of differentiate content is simply to permit the apt student to accelerate
their rate of progress. They can work ahead independently on some projects, i.e. they cover
the content faster than their peers.

 Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content.

These include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and
skills. The variation seen in an individualized classroom is most frequently the
manner in which students gain access to important learning. Access to the content is
seen as key.

 Align tasks and objectives to learning goals.

Designers of individualized instruction determine as essential the alignment of
tasks with instructional goals and objectives. An objectives-driven menu makes it
easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.

 Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven

The instructional concepts should be broad based and not focused on minute
details or unlimited facts. Teachers must focus on the concepts, principles and skills
that students should learn. The content of instruction should address the same
concepts with all students but be adjusted by degree of complexity for the diversity of
learners in the classroom.

PROCESS
Individualizing or differentiating the processes means varying learning activities or
strategies to provide appropriate methods for students to explore the concepts. It is important
to give students alternative paths to manipulate the ideas embedded within the concept. For
example students may use graphic organizers, maps, diagrams or charts to display their
comprehension of concepts covered. Varying the complexity of the graphic organizer can
very effectively facilitate differing levels of cognitive processing for students of differing
ability.
 Flexible grouping is consistently used.
Strategies for flexible grouping are essential. Learners are expected to interact
and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. Teachers may conduct
whole-class introductory discussions of content big ideas followed by small group or
pair work. Student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete
assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. Based on the content, project, and
on-going evaluations, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process as one of
the foundations of individualized instruction.

 Classroom management benefits students and teachers.

Teachers must consider organization and instructional delivery strategies to
effectively operate a classroom using individualized instruction.

PRODUCTS
Individualizing or differentiating the product means varying the complexity of the
product that students create to demonstrate mastery of the concepts. Students working below
grade level may have reduced performance expectations, while students above grade level
may be asked to produce work that requires more complex or more advanced thinking. There
are many sources of alternative product ideas available to teachers. However sometimes it is
motivating for students to be offered choice of product.

 Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential.
Meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful
differentiation or individualization. Assessments may be formal or informal, including
interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation
procedures. Incorporating pre and on-going assessment informs teachers to better
provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests
and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students.
 Students are active and responsible explorers.
Teacher’s respect that each task put before the learner will be interesting,
engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. Each child should feel
challenged most of the time.

 Vary expectations and requirements for student responses.

Items to which students respond may be differentiated or individualized for
students to demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding. A well-
designed student product allows varied means of expression, alternative procedures,
and provides varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.

ADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION.

1. Student- Centric
Differentiated instruction focuses on the academic needs and learning abilities
of every individual student. By changing the methods of teaching to suit students,
teachers are able to adjust the content of the syllabus. This encourages critical
thinking in students, and gives them a chance to come forward and demonstrate what
they have learned. It also creates a sense of equality among students, including the
ones with a learning disability. Differentiated learning provides ample opportunity for
students to aim and attain academic success with aplomb.

2. Raises The Bar

Advocates of this teaching approach believe differentiated learning raises the
standards of learning in a big way. The true essence of this practice lies in the
realization that learners and their abilities, readiness and interests vary. Educators
have the liberty to set up classrooms and devise methods that would aid all students in
thinking, analyzing and comprehending the teaching contents easily. Differentiation
does not have hard and fast rules; it is all about options.

3. Close learning gaps

In any classroom, there often are significant learning gaps between individuals. The
challenge is to assist struggling students while simultaneously engaging gifted
 learners, but that is exactly what individualized instruction aims to do: delivering
material at an optimal pace that caters to each student’s interests and abilities.
Persistence in difficult topic areas while moving at a ‘just right’ pace through areas in
which the student excels is the way to close learning gaps, and bring everyone to their
highest personal level of achievement.

4. Build confidence in students

One of the main reasons that struggling students continue struggle is that they
lose confidence in themselves and their intellectual capabilities. Individualized
instruction can help students gain self-confidence as learners, because lessons are
tailored to their specific abilities. As students gradually build comprehension and
mastery of more complicated material, they gain the self-assurance that they have the
skills they need to be successful. This, in turn, helps them progress more quickly.

5. Greater engagement for teachers and students

Implementation of an individualized learning approach to education has been shown
to be a more engaging experience for both teachers and students. Instead of standing
in the front of the classroom and explaining new concepts, stopping to pause as
students (hopefully) calmly and patiently raise their hands, teachers have more
opportunities to interact with students one-on-one when using individualized
instruction in their classrooms. Self-directed, more independent learning frees up
opportunities for teachers to talk with students, assess where they are academically,
and how their individual learning plan can be tweaked to achieve maximum results.

6. Students Work at their Own Pace

One of the greatest strengths of individualized instruction is that it gives students the
opportunity to work at different paces and on different areas without affecting the
learning of their peers. Gifted students may work ahead while students who are
struggling in a particular area can take the time they need to review and master a
concept they may have previously not fully understood. Best of all? This can all
happen in the same classroom.
7. Meeting the needs and interests of diverse learners.
8. Provides the opportunity for students to learn at their own pace, in their own way, and
be successful.
9. Recognizes students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language,
preferences in learning, interests, and to react responsively.
10. Maximizes each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student
where he or she is, and assisting in the learning process.
11. Helps in providing for the uniqueness of each child in terms of his/her particular
learning style, talents and potential, handicaps and deficiencies, etc.

DISADVANTAGES OF INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION.

1. Time constraints and chopped-up schedules are an obstacle.
Teachers could work better if they had longer blocks of time with students. At the
elementary level, kids have to go somewhere or someone comes in to do something
every 15–30 minutes; at the secondary level, kids rotate in and out every 37 or 42
minutes. It makes teachers crazy.

2. Class size and teaching load are two of the biggest constraints.
A teacher who works with150 kids a day gets glassy-eyed when told he needs to get
to know those kids better. It's doable, but we would be far more efficient by arranging
schedules so teachers had fewer students to get to know or kept them over longer
periods of time.

3. Teacher Preparedness.
Sometimes, the teacher’s lack of adequate knowledge on individualizing instruction
could also serve as a serious obstacle in individualizing instruction in the classroom.
The teacher’s lack of knowledge and ignorance could be further aggravated when the
school does not have the essential resources to support individualized or differentiated
instruction.

4. Extra preparation
Individualized instruction often requires a great deal of preparation up front. If the
 school isn’t using an intelligent adaptive learning system that collects student data to
achieve personalized learning outcomes, teachers will need to thoroughly research the
academic history of each student and the ways he or she learns best. In addition, time
and resources may have to be put into staff training and development as educators
change their approach to teaching.

5. Teachers need to adjust to a new paradigm

With the many changes associated with the transitions to individualized instruction,
personalized and blended learning, many teachers are questioning where they fit in the
modern classroom. Are they being replaced by machines? Will they still get to do
what they really love: teach? This is an understandable fear as technology has entirely
displaced many other professions (remember the typing pool?). However, with class
sizes growing past 30 in many districts, teachers are finding that the amount of time
they have to spend with each student is being dramatically reduced. Rather than being
replaced by personalized learning programs, many educators are finding that they are
excellent teaching partners. The use of technology is designed to free the teacher to
spend more time with individuals or small groups while the remainder of the class is
enabled to work at their own pace with the program. And by leveraging the detailed
student information many of these programs provide, the interactions between the
teacher and the students can become even more productive. However, additional
professional development will likely be required to fully realize these and other
benefits of a move to a blended or individualized learning program.

6. Restructuring the Classroom

Implementation of this new approach to education may require a great deal of
classroom restructuring. For many school districts, hiring extra teachers to make
individualized instruction possible is not an option. Instead, they are turning to
intelligent adaptive learning programs and one or several blended learning models. This
may require a significant investment in technology up front, but will help many districts
save money in the long run. Classroom structures may need to be adjusted to
accommodate individualized learning – in other words, instead of the traditional rows
of desks facing the blackboard, classroom seating arrangements may need to be more
flexible, so that the teacher can work with individuals or small groups while the
majority of students work independently with a personalized learning software
program.
 6.6
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
 6.6

PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Introduction
 One day B.F. Skinner attended the opening day of his daughter’s school, he found that
most of the instructions given by the teachers were ineffective. So he decided to solve such
problem in the field of education.
 B.F. Skinner published a paper entitled Science of Learning and art of Teaching. This
paper leads the way for the programmed instruction. He claimed that desirable behaviour can
be brought out by continuous feedback.
 Thereafter, Sidney L. Pressey designed a teaching machine for teaching purpose
 Programmed Instruction or Programmed Learning is one of the important innovations
in the teaching-learning process.
 The term ‘Programmed Learning’ has been coined from principles of operant
learning, developed in psychological laboratories on the basis of experimental studies
conducted on animals by B.F Skinner of Harvard University (1943).

DEFINITION OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

 Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned into a
series of sequential steps that is from known to unknown. ------ Smith and Moore

 According to J E Espich and Bill Williams, “programmed instruction is a planned

sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency, in terms of stimulus- response
relationship that have proven to be effective. ”

 According to Susan Markle, 1969, “programmed instruction is a method of designing

reproducible sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable consistent
effect on a behaviour of each and every acceptable student. ”

 Programmed learning refers to the arrangement of instructional material in

progressive sequences. ---------- Harold W.Bernard
 Programmed learning is a systematic, step by step, self-instructional programme
aimed to ensure the learning of stated behavior -Edger Dale.

 Programmed learning is the first application of laboratory technique utilized in the

study of the learning process to the practical problems of education -Skinner.

MEANING OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Programmed learning (or programmed instruction) is a research-based system
which helps learners work successfully. The method is guided by research done by a variety
of applied psychologists and educators. The learning material is in a kind of textbook or
teaching machine or computer.

Programmed instruction is a method of presenting new subject matters to students

in a graded sequence of controlled steps. Students work through the programmed material by
themselves at their own speed and after each step test their comprehension by answering an
examination question or filling in a diagram. They are then immediately shown the correct
answer or given additional information. Computers and other types of teaching machines are
often used to present the material, although books may also be used.

The instructions provided by teaching machine or programmed text book are referred
to as programmed instruction.

Although Skinners initial programmed instruction format has undergone many

transformations, most adaptations retain three essential features:
(1) An ordered sequence of items, either questions or statements to which the student is
asked to respond;
(2) The student’s response, which may be in the form of filling in a blank, recalling the
answer to a question, selecting from among a series of answers, or solving a problem; and
(3) Provision for immediate response confirmation, sometimes within the program frame
itself but usually in a different location, as on the next page in a programmed textbook or in a
separate window in the teaching machine. (Joyce, Weil & Calhoun, 2000:332)
 Programmed learning is the most appropriate example of the latest concept of
instructional technology. It is educational innovation and auto-instructional device. It is not
only a technique for effective learning but also a successful mechanism of feedback device
for the modification of teacher-behaviour.

Programmed learning has arrived on the educational scene mainly due to the
laboratory experiments of Prof B.F Skinner. Prior to Skinner the concept of “Conditioning”
as presented by Pavlov and Watson and the ‘Law of effect’ as formulated by Thorndike are
the main historical links in the developing chain of important events.

The term Programmed learning has been coined from principles of operant learning or
conditioning developed at the psychological laboratories on the basis of experimental studies
conducted on animals by B.F. Skinner of Harvard University. This concept was used to
development of self-learning material or programmed learning and teaching machines. B.F.
Skinner and his companions had first started programmed learning in 1943

OBJECTIVES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

 To help the students for learning by doing
 To provide the situation to learn at his/her own speed
 To help the student to learn without the presence of teacher
 To present the mater in a logical manor
 To study himself
 To evaluate himself
 To compare his/her answer with the key

PRINCIPLES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

The principles of programming imply the rules and systems by which a programme is
constructed.
Researchers of programmed learning formulated five principles. According to
behaviourist psychology, a learning effect is considered to be measured by the number of
responses a learner makes under arranged conditions. Feedback should be given to correct
responses in order to “reinforce” such response, and it was thought that such a process would
require individual learning. The last principle; “Learner verification” is the most valuable
contribution that behaviourist psychology has made to the pedagogy in terms of valuing an
empirical approach. Such a standpoint is inherited in “Formative Evaluation” or “Feedback
and Improvement” in an ID process.

Researchers of programmed learning formulated five principles.. According to

behaviourist psychology, a learning effect is considered to be measured by the number of
responses a learner makes under arranged conditions. Feedback should be given to correct
responses in order to “reinforce” such response, and it was thought that such a process would
require individual learning.
7. Principle of Small Steps
8. Principle of Active Response / activity responding
9. Principle of Immediate Confirmation / reinforcement
10. Principle of Self-Pacing
11. Principle of Self-Evaluation / student-evaluation or student testing:

Principle of Small Steps:

Set small steps in order to prevent a learner from stumbling as much as possible. When
he/she makes a mistake, there is the risk of being labelled a failure. It is shown by
experiments that even the dullest students can learn as effectively as the brightest students if
the subject matter is presented to them in suitable small steps. When we divide the task to be
learnt into very small steps, and ask the students to learn only one step at a time, then
probably all the students will be able to learn one small step at a time and sequentially learn
all the steps.

Principle of Activity Responding:

The second psychological principle is that the students learn better and faster when they are
actively participating in the teaching-learning process. To what extent a learner can
understand is judged by making him/her answer questions. The extent of a learner’s
understanding is ascertained from what is demonstrated in the responses. In our classroom
teaching the teachers do ask a few questions and the students respond. But it is not possible
for the teachers to ask all the students to respond at each small step. A teaching machine text
or a programmed text contains a large number of questions-one question at each small step
and the students respond actively. The principle of active responding is used for the
programmed.

Principle of Reinforcement:
Every response even approximately correct must be reinforced immediately. Delayed
reinforcement fails to work. This is possible only when a teacher has to teach only one
student at a time. The most situation is when the teacher can cater to the needs of his students
individually. But in classroom teaching this is hardly possible. No teacher, however efficient
and sincere he may be, can reinforce each correct response of each of his students as soon as
it is made in a classroom situation where he has to teach 40/50 students.

Principle of Self-Pacing:
The programmed instruction is based on the basis assumption that learning take place
effectively if the learner is allowed to learn at his own pace. Therefore, a good programme of
the material always take care of the principles of self-pacing. A learner moves from one
frame to another according to his own speed of learning.

Principle of Student-Evaluation or Student Testing:

Continuous evaluation of the student and the learning process leads to better teaching-
learning. In the programmed instruction, the learner has to leave the record of his responses
because he is required to write a response for each frame on response sheet. This detailed
record helps in revising the programmed.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Positive Characteristics
 Individualized Instruction
 Logical Sequence of material (Small Steps)
 Interaction between the learner and the programme
 Immediate Knowledge of results
 Organized nature of Knowledge
 Learners Own Speed (Self-Pacing)
 Constant Evaluation

Negative Characteristics
 Not a Test
 Not an Audio Visual Aid
 No Chances for Real Objects
 There is no equality (gifted will learn soon when compare to slow learners)
 There is no Love and concern
 There are less auditory communication in PLM
 Personal values of the students can not be evaluated

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION;

 An interaction is emphasised between the learner and the programme in programmed
learning.
 Each student progresses at his own pace without any threat of being exposed to any
humiliation in a heterogeneous class
 Frequent response is required of the student.
 In a programmed material continuous evaluation is possible by the record of student’s
response.
 The assumption about the learner is clearly stated in the programmed learning
materials.
 The content and sequence of the frames are subjected to actual try out with students
and are revised on the basis of data gathered by the programmer i. e “diagnostic
feature”
 The objectives underlying programming are defined explicitly and in operational
terms so that the terminal behaviour is made observable and measurable
 The strategy provides sufficient situation for teaching the student to make
discriminations among range of possibilities and to reduce generalizations.
 The subject matter is broken down in to small steps called frames and arranged
sequentially
 There is immediate confirmation of right answer or correction of wrong answers
given by the learner’s i. e. “self-correcting feature.”
 The content is broken into small step and each step is presented in several sentences,
each step is called a
 The frames are arranged sequentially.
 Most of the frames require that the learner makes some kind of responses-an answer
to a question, an activity to demonstrate the understanding of the material.
 The student is provided with immediate confirmation of the right answers (i.e.) the
learner is provided immediate reinforcement.
 In case he is correct, his response is reinforced and if he is wrong, he may correct
himself by receiving the correct answer.
 It is the interaction between the learner and learning material which is emphasized in
programmed learning. Here, the learner is active and is motivated to learn and
respond.

STEPS IN PROGRAMMING
1. Topic Selection:
The programmes should select the most familiar topic; otherwise he has to
take the help of a subject expert.

2. Content Outline:
After topic selection, its outline may be prepared which cover all the materials,
one plans, to teach. For this programme one has to refer to examine relevant books
and materials.

3. Instructional Objectives:
Instructional Objectives must be formulated which involve both task
description and task analysis. The former is the description of terminal behaviours
which the learner is expected to achieve and the latter is the series of component
behaviours that he is required to acquire in the process of achieving terminal
behaviour.
4. Entry Skill:
The learner should have some pre-reqisite ability and skill to understand
properly the new programme. This background experience is called the entry skill and
a suitable programme cannot ne prepared without proper assessment of the entry skill.

5. Presentation of the Material:

Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the
educational point of view. Then the programmed material should be presented in a
sequence of frames arranged as steps towards terminal behaviour.

6. Student Participation:
On analysis of the terminal behaviour one will find the critical responses of
the students.

7. Terminal Behaviour Test:

The effect of programme can be ascertained by administering the terminal
behaviour test. It is also known as performance assessment. This provides feedback to
the programme and shows the effectiveness of the instructional materials.

8. Revision:
Lastly the programme may be revised on the basis of feedback. The
instructional materials may be edited and modified according to the needs and
requirements of the target audience.

Programmed Learning is a self-instructional device. A rapid learner can cover the

material quickly and slow learner may proceed on his own pace. It helps the learner to
teach himself at any place and pace according to his convenience. The analytical
thinking and self-direction of learners are also promoted through the use of
programmed learning materials.
ADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION.
 Immediate confirmation of the results provides reinforcement to the learners and
encourages the learners to proceed further. Feedback is provided to wrong answers,
so that learner is able to develop mastery over the content.
 It may be less complicated to keep materials in current Programmed Instruction unit
than it is to update in a textbook.
 Learning by doing maxim of teaching is followed to involve learners in the learning
process.
 Material can be exchanged from country to country and from state to state, giving
flexibility and variety to extension offering.
 Programmed Materials can be prepared for and adapted to fit almost any local
situation related to nationality, economic or cultural variations in a community.
 Students are exposed only to correct responses, therefore, possibility to commit errors
in reduced.
 The main emphasis is on individual differences and students’ involvement. Learners
will work individually.
 There is not fixed time interval for learning. Students may learn at their own pace.
Students can proceed at their own pace and at time convenient to them. A slow
learner is not embarrassed.
 Those who setup programmed instruction units may be motivated to plan their efforts
more deliberately and more thoroughly than with traditional teaching.

DISADVANTAGES OF PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Programmed Instruction has disadvantage too, among them are-
 In absence of the teacher, students may spoil the disciplinary tone of the class, or they
will be helpless when any problem arises.
 Motivation is necessary for students, whether they’re staff members or layman, to
complete units of programmed instruction. It may be that job promotion in their own
organization would be sufficient enticement. Possibly an item in the individual
personnel record would motivate him to complete a unit.
 Only cognitive objectives can be achieved. There is no chance for students’ creativity,
their responses are highly structured.
 Programmed Instruction done on an individual basis at student’s home or offices
would likely have to be limited to the linear type. While this could be effective, it
may not have the potential that more sophisticated computers would have.
 The extension teacher must keep in touch with their students working on units and let
them know he’s interested in progress and keeping in touch. This may be difficult to
do in some cases, like in case of high rate of competition.
 The preparation of Programmed Instruction material is time demanding, many hours
are usually required to produce a unit. Due to tight schedule of time table, students
cannot be left to learn at their own pace. It would be very difficult to learn the content
the subject matter in a limited period of time.
 The problem of teacher motivation, one of the human factors in programmed
learning, must be given attention if this method is to succeed.
 The technique may be new to the particular students and they may not complete units
satisfactorily because they don’t adequately understand Programmed Instruction.
 6.7
TYPES
OF
PROGRAMMED LEARNING
 6.7

TYPES OF PROGRAMMED – LEARNING:

1. LINEAR PROGRAMMING
Linear programme is one in which every learner follows the identical sequence, that
is, the frames or didules are encountered in a single, pre-arranged order. The proponent of
this type of programme style is B.E Skinner (1958). This was developed by B.F.Skinner and
his associates.
 In this method the subject method will be divided into very small steps each of which
is called as frame.
 In each frame, the student to do something. After giving the answer for the question
immediately he can check whether his answer in correct or wrong

The credit of linear programming style goes to B. F. Skinner. Linear programming

style is related to “operant conditioning”. Operant conditioning states that human behavior is
shaped through suitable reinforcement to the responses. It tells that “A Certain direction can
be given to human behavior”, for this purpose activities is needed to divide in small parts and
make their analysis. It is a gradual process and the responses are conditioned in a step by step
manner. In a linear programme, learner’s responses are controlled externally by the
programmer sitting at a distant place. A linear programme is called a straight line programme
as the learner starts from his initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following a straight
line. The student proceeds from one frame to the next until he completes the programme.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LINEAR PROGRAMME
• Linear are exposed to small amount of information and proceed from one frame to
one item of information, to the next in an orderly fashion.
• Linear responds overtly that their correct responses can be rewarded and heir incorrect
responses can be corrected.
• Linear are informed immediately about whether or not their response is correct
(feedback).
• Linear proceed at their own pace (self-pacing).

Other Characteristics of Linear programme

 Linear means proceeding in a straight line. In linear programme generally,
information is broken into small steps of 40-50 words in length which is called a
frame. The learner must respond to each frame in succession by filling in word or
phrase in a blank.
 Linear Arrangement: In such type of programme, the learner advances in a single
series of shorts steps which are designed to ensure high rate of correct responding to
the questions (frames). Same path is followed by each learner. The learner starts from
initial behaviour to the terminal behaviour following straight-line sequence. All
learners pass through the same path.
 Responses are controlled. In a linear programme, responses are controlled by the
programmer. The responses and their order are fixed. The learner has no choice to
respond in his own way.
 Response is emphasized. In linear programme, the emphasis is laid on response. The
learner must respond to each and every in order the learning to occur.
 Feedback is quick. As soon as the learner responds to the frame, he can immediately
compare his response with the response of the programme. Learners are informed
immediately about whether their response is correct or not.
 Provision of prompting. In the beginning, prompt or clue can be supplied to facilitate
learning too occur.
 Cheating is discouraged by not revealing the answer to the learner.
 Learners proceed at their own pace. Learner can skip certain frames.
 Responses are self-constructed. Learners respond overtly so that their correct
responses can be rewarded and their incorrect responses can be corrected

Fundamental Principles of Linear Programming

Linear programming is based on five fundamental principles-
1. Principles of small step.
2. Principle of Active responding.
3. Principle of immediate confirmation.
4. Principle of self-pacing.
5. Principle of student testing.
In this type of sequencing all students read and respond to the same frames. The
sequence is linear in that there is a single line or path for all students to follow.

While programming in linear way the information is broken down in pieces of related
information and then they are sequenced into meaningful steps. The information which is to
written in the steps is planned out. The information should be so written that it should be
linked to the information in the next step. The learner has to respond to each step actively and
the reinforcement is given immediately. The reinforcement depends on the correctness of the
responses given by the learner. If the response is correct a positive reinforcement is given,
motivating the learner to attempt more responses which will be positively reinforced

A pictorial representation an example of linear programming –

Each square represents a frame. The student proceeds from one frame to the next until
he completes the program. Most linear sequences use the constructed (or fill-in) response.
Many new programs, however, use both constructed and multiple-choice responses. Although
most linear sequences use shorter frames than those used by the branching sequences we
describe below, the single-sentence or short frame is not an essential characteristic of linear
sequences. Markle (1964) developed a linear sequence on programming which contained
frames which were paragraphs or longer in length. Even the major characteristic of linear
sequences—the use of the single path—is no longer rigidly prescribed.
 Lysaught and Williams (1963) show many ways in which a linear sequence can be
modified into a multi path program. An interesting variation is the linear sequence with
criterion frames. These frames test entering behavior at various points in the program to
determine whether the students should go through the sequence of frames which follows. If
this is not necessary, the student is directed to a sub sequence, which will move him quickly
to an advanced point in the program.

ADVANTAGE OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING

 The assumption behind the linear programming is students learns better if content is
presented in small units, students response if immediately confirmed, results in better
learning, Student’s error create hindrance in learning, Student learns better in Laissez
fairy environment.
 Frame size in small steps; include only one element of topic at a time. Each step is
complete in itself. It can be taught independently and can be measured independently.
Frame structure is based on stimulus-Response-reinforcement. There are four types of
frames. Introductory frames, Teaching frame, practice frames and testing frames.
 Responses in linear programming are structured responses and these are controlled by
programmer and not by learners. Immediate confirmation of correct responses provide
reinforcement, wrong responses are ignored.
 It is used for secondary level students, used for achieving lower objectives of learning
especially for recall and recognition, useful for student of average and below average
intelligence can be used in Distance education program.

LIMITATIONS OF LINEAR PROGRAMMING-

 Lack of motivation: It is alleged that learning becomes dull and learner experiences
monotony and boredom. It takes too much time to teach a few points.
 Freedom of choice is curtailed: The learner has no choice of his own to respond,
thus it s alleged that creative imagination of learner is inhibited.
 Costly: It has been found that preparation of programmed material requires too much
paper and time.
 Blanks and key terms are guessed: Roth Kopf is of the opinion that in many
programmes, the learners find out the cues as to what is to be filled in blanks and key
terms are guessed
 It can be used in limited areas: Where the behaviour is measurable and observable
such as Maths and science.
 Searching of material is not permitted: as in a textbook. Judgmental learning is not
practiced.
 Does not permit differentiation among responses: No freedom for student to
response.
 Students follow a rigid line prescribed by the programmers: Every learner has to
follow the same path; therefore, student may cheat from one another.
 It is very difficult to find out exactly the background of each learner :
Programmes are generally designed with a view that learner has no previous
background of the subject matter..
 In book form presentation: learners are expected to be honest but from all learners
we cannot expect honesty. They can see the correct response without reading the
frames.
 Based on learning theories which were formulated by experience conducted on
animals. A human being is more intelligent, than animals, he has got an intelligent
brain.
 Wrong responses are avoided in the program: No remedy is provided for them.
2. BRANCHING PROGRAMMING

Branching programme is one where the particular response emitted on a frame or

module determines the alternative frame/ frames, the learner proceeds to next. The proponent
of this programme type is Norman Crowder (1960)

Branching Programming
 This was developed by Norman, A.Crowder (1960) and it was called
as intrinsic programme In this method the subject should select the
answer for the question (Objective Type).
 If subjects answer is correct he will lead to the next frame. If subjects
answer is wrong he will lead to the remedial frame After the remedial
frame he will directed to the main frame
 The founder of Branching programming is Norman A Crowder, hence
it is also known as Crowderian Model. It is based on configuration
theory of learning. ‘
 It is a problem solving approach. It is stimulus centered approach of
learning. As the word “branching” means the subdivision the stem or
trunk. The same concept is applied in the branched programming
instruction style.
 The main concept (the trunk of the tree) is sub divided into smaller
concepts (the stems of the tree) and further again to other minute
details of the topic. Norman A Crowder has given its definition as ―It
is a programme which adapts to the needs of the students without the
medium of extrinsic device as a computer.
 It is called intrinsic because the learner within himself makes the
decision, to adapt the Learning to his/her needs. The rationale of
intrinsic programming postulates that the basic learning takes place
during the student‘s exposure to the new material on each page.
 In branching programme, the learning material is divided into “units‘
of material called “frames‘. Much information, one or two paragraphs
or even a page, is provided in a frame. Thus each frame is quite larger
 than that employed in linear programme. The learner goes through the
frame. After that he is required to respond to multiple choice questions
associate with the learning material of the frame.

 The learner moves forward if he answers correctly but is diverted

(branched) to one or more remedial frames if he does not. These
frames explain the matter afresh, ask him questions to elicit the right
answer and reveal his previous mistakes, and then return him to
original frame. This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the
whole instructional material at his own pace.
 Branching programme was developed by Norman. A Crowder, hence it is also known
as Crowderian Programme (1954).
 In comparison to linear programming the frame size and amount of information given
is more and is followed by multiple choice type of question.
 Out of the choices, only one answer is correct.
 If the learner chooses the correct answer he is informed of the correctness of the
answer and is motivated to proceed to the next frame along the main path of learning
of the programming.
 If the answer is wrong the learner is told why he/she is wrong and he/she either
returns to the main line or he/she is routed back to the original frame to reread along a
remedial frame till he chooses the right answer.
 In a branching programme all the learners do not follow frame route. Rather the route
depends on the response made but the learner. Thus learners branch acc. to their
responses.

PRINCIPLES OF BRANCHING PROGRAMME

The branching programme is based on the three fundamental principles:
1. Principles of Exposition
 The learner should perceive whole phenomena which should be so exposed to
him.
 It means a student learns better if the whole concept is presented to him.
 The complete information is provided on Home Page/or paragraph or a page.
2. Principle of Diagnosis
 This principle refers to identify the weakness of learner.
 After exposition it is assessed whether he could learn the concept or not, if he
could not learn what the causes are for it.
 A multiple choice format is used to diagnosis the weakness of the learners.
3. Principles of Remediation
 The diagnosis provides the basis for remediation.
 The remedial instructions are provided on wrong page.
 If a learner chooses wrong alternative, he has to move to a wrong page.
 Where remedial instruction is provided to him a direction to return to home
page. He is asked to choose the right response. It is known as principle of
remediation.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMING

 The instructional material is divided into frames in each frame, information running into
one/two paragraphs or even a page is provided.
 After going through the frame, the learner has to respond to a multiple choice question.
He has to discriminate among the choices provided and choose a correct response.
 The learner moves forward if he answers correctively but is diverted (branched) to
remedial frames if he chooses the wrong answer.
 This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the entire material at his own pace.
 Branching programme can be produced in a teaching machine or in a book form. The
book will be in the form of a scrambled text as the matter does not follow a normal
sequence.
TYPES OF BRANCHING PROGRAMME
1. Backward Branching

 As shown in the diagram the learners of frame No.1 of the stream goes to frame
No.2 of the main stream only if he makes a correct choice.
 But if he makes a wrong choice, he is led to a remedial frame wherein he is given
some more help in understanding the concept and in solving the solution by a
better logic.
 He will be then directed to the original frame No.1. So that he can read it again
and answer it correctly in the light of the remedial materials he has received.
 So the learner who has committed error goes through the same frame twice. (Once
before the remedial material and once the after the remedial material).
2. Forward Branching

 In this type of programming, the learner is always going forward to a new page
irrespective of his choosing the right or wrong answer.
 When he makes a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his
mistake is explained.
 At times the learner is asked another parallel question and then after he gives the
correct answer the learner proceeds to a new page.

Each Content frame includes the following:

(a) Repeating student response
(b) Positive confirmation
(c) New information
(d) Question
(e) Alternatives followed by page numbers, where the student should go next.

Each Remedial frame includes the following:

(a) Repeating student response
(b) Negative confirmation
(c) Reasons why he is wrong
(d) Further explanation in simple language
(e) Directions as to where the student should go next.
ADVANTAGES OF BRANCHED PROGRAMMING INSTRUCTIONS
Assumption behind this programming is that a student learns better if he is exposed to
whole situation or content. Student errors help in diagnosis. Student learns better if
remediation is provided side by side. A Student learns better in democratic environment.
 In this format the student proceeds to the next frame until he makes an error. The
errors branch him to supplementary material designed to give him remedial
instruction
 The center of the teaching – learning process is the learner and not the facilitator or
the instructor.
 The learner learns with his or her own speed and pace.
 Much of the learning takes place when freedom is given to the learners. In branched
programming style freedom is given to the learners so that they can learn at their own
pace.
 Learning is done when the new concepts are revised. The learner gets an opportunity
to travel to and fro in the newly learnt content. If the responses given by the learner
are not up to the mark, the learner can start learning the content from which he or she
has not understood. The correct responses are appreciated there by internally
motivating the learner to grasp the content till the end.

LIMITATIONS OF BRANCHING PROGRAMMING

 The learner may guess the correct response without understanding the subject matter
of the frame.
 Infinite branching cannot be provided. It cannot cater to the needs of the individuals.
It is very difficult to find out the total number of branches for each individual.
 Cost of preparation is high, audio-visual equipment is costly.
 The programme needs revision after every two years which is a very costly affair.
 Programmes are the product of programmer‘s imagination and it is he who decides
diagnostic questions and level of content.
 Branching model can be used after sixth grade the grade because small children do
not follow its mechanism.
 It is very difficult to ask questions on the whole matter of the frames because the
frames are too large and sometimes important subject matter is left
 It does not consider learning process whether learning is taking place or not. Main
emphasis is on diagnosing the weakness of learners and providing remedy to them.
 There is no sequencing of pages. Student finds it difficult to follow the steps. He does
not find it exciting or motivating, therefore he does not want to go through these
pages.
 More emphasis on remediation rather than teaching. Hence, it is only a tutorial
approach.
3. MATHETICS

Mathetics is one in which there is the systematic application of reinforcement theory

to the analysis and construction of complex repertoires. This also represents mastery of
subject matter. In it, the behaviour is generally classified as in involving discrimination,
generalisation, and chaining. This style is considered to be an extension of the linear model of
programming. The exponent of this style is Thomas E Gilbert (1962).

Computer-assisted Instruction is one where use of the Computer as a highly adaptive

teaching machine weakens the distinction between software and hardware. This type of
instructional module was developed by Stolurow and Davis (1965).

Mathetics is the science of learning. The term was coined by John Amos Comenius in
his work Spicilegium didacticum, published in 1680. He understood Mathetics as the
opposite of Didactics, the science of teaching. Mathetics considers and uses findings of
current interest from pedagogical psychology, neurophysiology and information technology.

Thomas F. Gilbert (1962) is the originator of the concept of Mathetics programmed

instruction. It is defined as a systematic application of reinforcement theory to the analysis
and construction of complex inventories which represent the mastery in subject matter. It is
based on connectivist theory of learning. It is a reverse chaining approach. It is based on
Principle of chaining, Discrimination and Generalization. The word "Mathetics" is derived
from the Greek word "Mathein" which means learn.

Mathetics programming is based on following assumptions.

1. Chaining of responses helps in learning to reach up to mastery level.
2. Reverse chaining of stimuli helps in learning, i.e. from whole to part, from Complex
to simple.
3. Completion of task provides motivation to students.
4. Frames size is organized in small step but in a reverse chain i.e. from complex content
to its small, simple units to attain mastery level; Frame structure is based on Demonstration-
prompts-release.
The main features and underlying process of this programming are summarized as under.
i. A mathetics programme begins, as any other well thought out instructional plan, with
detailed analysis of what it is to be taught.
ii. In this style, an exercise is the technical unit of learning, instead of frame as in linear
or branching programming. No restriction is put on the size or extent of an exercise.
Its size is determined not by “breaking the material into small part” but by
determining how big a step a learner can reasonably take at the moment.
iii. In this programming each exercise assumes the reinforcement value of
accomplishment. Thus in this style, a different strategy of reinforcement
(accomplishment of the task) is employed than the knowledge of result as in the case
of linear or branching styles.
iv. This programming makes use of the technique of retrogressive or backward chaining.
A chain is that in which there is a fixed sequence of responses to be emitted e.g. steps
in division, opening or closing a bottle or typing or untying a shoe lace. Usually in
chain learning, the mastery step is the final step whereas in backward chaining it
becomes the first step.
v. Backward or retrogressive chaining consists of three basic steps Demonstration,
Prompts and Release.
There are two types of frames-
1. Demonstration frames
2. Prescription frames.

Fig-1: Basic steps of Mathetics Fig-2: Mathetics for serial task

 Responses are structured responses and responses determined by the programmer.
Completion of task provides reinforcement. Wrong responses are ignored. Error helps in
discrimination but not in learning. Its main purpose is to develop mastery of the content.
Main focus is on Mathematics and grammar. It used for higher classes useful for complex and
difficult task. It is useful for developing concepts of mathematics and grammar. It can be
used in Distance Education.

ADVANTAGES OF MATHETICS PROGRAMMING

It is a task oriented programme.
Results can be linked to concrete goals which we intend to achieve through a mathetics
programme.
Its stress on learner success at 90/90 criterion level of mastery motivates the learner.
It utilizes the principal of backward chaining.
It is relevant, significant, meaningful and valid in the eyes of the learner and programmer.

DISADVANTAGES OF MATHETICS PROGRAMMING:

1. Main emphasis is on mastery of the content rather than changes in behavior of the
learner.
2. Retrogressive chaining of stimuli if not effective for terminal behavior.
3. It is very difficult to develop retrogressive learning package.
4. It is very technical in nature and such as demands a lot of skill, training and labor on
the part of the programmer.
5. It is not suitable for learning the material of all subjects.
6. Mathetics cannot be used for factual content.
7. Mathetics is not based on any sound learning theory.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LINEAR AND BRANCHING PROGRAMME

Aspect Linear Programme Branching Programme

1.Propenet B.F Skinner(1954) Norman A. Crowder (1954)
2.Learning theory Operant conditioning based Configuration theories based on
on response centered learning i.e. Stimulus centered
approach approach
3.Principles Five fundamental principles: Three fundamental principles:
Small steps, Active Exposition, Diagnosis, Remediation.
responding, Immediate
confirmation, Self-pacing &
Student testing.
4.Application Modification of behavior Remedial to the difficulties of the
learner.
5.Frame size Small steps-1 or 2 sentences Large step-one or two paragraphs
/one page.
6.Number of steps Large Small
7.Response Constructed response- Multiple choice-choosing controlled
controlled by programmer (fill by learner.
up the blanks type)
8.Purpose of response Fixing of learning Measurement/ Diagnosis of learning.
9.Reinforcement Confirmation of correctness Correct response is confirmed and
of response- wrong response approved and wrong response is
is ignored. remedied.
10. Utility and i) Lower classes. i) Higher classes.
appropriateness ii) Knowledge & ii) Higher order teaching objectives
understanding objectives. i.e. analysis, problem solving etc.
iii) Normal & less intelligent iii) Talented & creative pupils.
students.
 EXTRA NOTES

BASIC CONCEPTS OF PROGRAMMED -LEARNING:

Programmed learning is based on certain basic concepts which have been derived from
experimental work of Operant Conditioning.

1. Stimuli & Responses:

Stimulus is that aspect of an environment which guides or controls the behaviour of an
individual. It is any condition, event, or change in environment of an individual which
produces a changing behaviour. For example, a question is asked by a teacher, is a very
familiar stimulus in the class-room teaching.

2. A response is a part of, or a change in a part of behaviour. The example of a response is

the’ answer’ given by students when faced with a question.

3. The Transfer of Stimulus Control:

When the learner’s responses from the stimuli of initial behaviour, get transferred to the
appropriate stimuli, this is called transfer of stimulus control.

4. Prompting:
A prompt is a supplementary stimulus added to the another stimulus for facilitating an
errorless response.

5. Gradual Progression:
It means step presentation of material in a logical sequence.

6. Reinforcement:
Generalisation means responding to similar elements in different leaning situations.
Discrimination is differentiating between two or more stimuli and making an
appropriate response.
8. Extinction:
Extinction means weakening of a response. When a response occurs and remains
unreinforced, the response does not become firmly connected to the stimuli present

9. Concept Formation:
It is a process of generalization within certain specific limits and discrimination of one
stimulus from another within that limit

10. Successive Approximation:

It means approaching the terminal behaviour in a step by step sequence by a cumulative
effort on the part of the learner.

11. A frame or a Didule:

It is a unit of subject matter which the learner handles at one time. It has three parts:
stimulus (stimule), response (respule) and feed-back (corrule).

12. Operant Span:

It is the number of responses that a student can handle in one frame or didule.

13. Terminal behaviour:

The behaviour that the student is expected to have acquired at the end of a programme
sequence is called terminal behaviour.