BLOOD

By :
Jessy Julio Tuhuleruw PO714203232018
Selvi Novita PO714203232042
Wa Ode Nevi Ferdani PO714203232046

Dosen Pengampu :
Prof. Dr. Drs. Abdullah, M.Hum

KEMENTERIAN KESEHATAN REPUBLIK INDONESIA

POLITEKNIK KESEHATAN MAKASSAR
JURUSAN TEKNOLOGI LABORATORIUM MEDIS
PROGRAM STUDI SARJANA TERAPAN
2024
A. Defenition of Blood
Blood is a combination of plasma and cells that circulate throughout the
body. This fluid supplies important substances, such as sugar, oxygen, and
hormones, to cells and organs throughout the body. Another function of
blood is to transport waste and metabolic chemicals from body cells. It
doesn't stop there, blood also plays a role as the body's defense against viruses
or bacteria which can cause various serious health problems.
Blood consists of two parts, namely liquid and solid. The liquid half of
blood is called plasma which is made from a mixture of water, protein, and
salt. While the solid part is made of white blood cells, red blood cells, and
platelets. All of these cells are produced by the bone marrow continuously to
replace old cells that die. Red blood cells can survive for 120 days, white
blood cells only live for one day, while platelets last up to six days.
B. Blood Components
All components in the blood have their respective duties and functions
that support the work of blood in the body. Blood has many important roles,
such as supplying oxygen and nutrients to cells and tissues, helping to get rid
of waste or metabolic waste substances to protecting the body from infections
and foreign substances that can harm health. Generally, blood is grouped into
4 parts, which are :
1. Erythrocytes/ Red Blood Cells (RBC)

Erythrocytes, red blood cells (RBC), are the functional components

of blood responsible for the transportation of gases and nutrients
throughout the human body. Their unique shape and composition allow
for these specialized cells to carry out their essential functions. The role

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 of the erythrocyte is critical in investigating many disease processes in a
variety of body systems.
Each red blood cell only lives for about 120 days. In that short
time, it must deliver oxygen from the lungs to the peripheral tissues to
assist in metabolic processes such as ATP synthesis, and it must collect
the generated carbon dioxide from the periphery and return it to the lungs
for elimination from the body. The deoxygenated blood that arrives at the
lungs contains hemoglobin with ferrous heme (Fe) with an affinity for
oxygen. Upon arrival to the deoxygenated tissues, the decreased partial
pressure of oxygen and low pH cause the heme to lose its affinity for the
oxygen, delivering it to the tissue. Carbon dioxide is then taken into the
cell and combined with water to form bicarbonate and hydrogen via
carbonic anhydrase. Most of the carbon dioxide will travel back to the
lungs in the form of bicarbonate and be exhaled. When there is a shortage
of red blood cells in the human body, humans will experience anemia.
2. Leukocytes/ White Blood Cells (WBC)

White blood cells, or leukocytes (Greek; leucko=white and cyte =

cell), are part of the immune system, participating in both the innate and
humoral immune responses. They circulate in the blood and mount
inflammatory and cellular responses to injury or pathogens.
Leukocytes can be classified as granulocytes and agranulocytes
based on the presence and absence of microscopic granules in their
cytoplasm when stained with Giemsa or Leishman stains.
All white blood cells or leukocytes are involved in immune system
function; however, the specific roles and functions vary for each blood
cell type.

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3. Platelets

Platelets are small blood cells with several physiological purposes;

the best studied is thrombosis activation. Through their clotting activity
and activation of the coagulation cascade, they are crucial to maintaining
adequate blood volume in those with vascular injury. The initiation of
this activity begins with tissue injury and results in the release and
binding of several glycoproteins, growth factors, and clotting factors. The
complexity of these processes allows for many pharmacologic targets,
which provides several options when it comes to antithrombotic therapy.
Mature megakaryocytes form platelets. Megakaryocytes are large
blood cells whose principal function is the production of platelets. When
a megakaryocyte becomes mature, pseudomembrane blebs are extended
and eventually break off of the membrane, forming platelets. Platelets,
once formed, have an average lifespan of 7 to 10 days, at which point
they are removed from the bloodstream.
Platelets maintain hemostasis by adhering to the vascular
endothelium, aggregating with other platelets, and initiating the
coagulation cascade, leading to the production of a fibrin mesh, which
effectively prevents significant blood loss. Platelets are also crucial in
inflammation, tissue growth, and immune response. These processes are
under the mediation of the release of compounds from the alpha and
dense granules, which include numerous growth factors as well as IgG
and components of the complement system.

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4. Plasma

Plasma, also known as blood plasma, appears light-yellowish or

straw-colored. It serves as the liquid base for whole blood. Whole blood
minus erythrocytes (RBCs), leukocytes (WBCs), and thrombocytes
(platelets) make up the plasma. Serum, sometimes mistakenly considered
synonymous with plasma, consists of plasma without fibrinogen. Plasma
contains 91% to 92% of water and 8% to 9% of solids. It mainly
comprises of : 1). Coagulants, mainly fibrinogen, aid in blood clotting,
2). Plasma proteins, such as albumin and globulin, that help maintain the
colloidal osmotic pressure at about 25 mmHg, 3). Electrolytes like
sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, chloride, and calcium help maintain
blood pH, 4). Immunoglobulins help fight infection and various other
small amounts of enzymes, hormones, and vitamins
As plasma forms the liquid base of blood, the functions carried out
by plasma and blood overlap. The multitude of functions include:
a. Coagulation: fibrinogen plays a major role in blood clotting along
with other procoagulants like thrombin and factor X.
b. Defense: immunoglobulins and antibodies in plasma play an
important role in the body’s defense against bacteria, viruses, fungi,
and parasites.
c. Maintenance of Osmotic Pressure: the colloidal osmotic pressure is
maintained at around 25 mmHg by the plasma proteins like albumin
synthesized by the liver.

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 d. Nutrition: transportation of nutrients like glucose, amino acids,
lipids, and vitamins absorbed from the digestive tract to different
parts of the body act as a source of fuel for growth and development.
e. Respiration: transportation of respiratory gases, i.e., carrying oxygen
to the various organs and carrying carbon dioxide back to the lungs
for excretion.
f. Excretion: the blood removes nitrogenous waste products produced
after cellular metabolism and transports them to the kidney, lungs,
and skin for excretion.
g. Hormones: hormones are released into the blood and transported to
their target organs.
h. Regulation of Acid-Base Balance: plasma proteins contribute to acid-
base balance through their buffering action.
i. Regulation of Body Temperature: this is maintained by balancing
heat loss and heat gain in the body.
j. Role in Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR): fibrinogen, an acute
phase reactant, increases during acute inflammatory conditions and
contributes to the increase in ESR, which is used as a diagnostic and
prognostic tool.
C. Blood Function
Blood has various functions that are important for survival. The
following important functions are carried out by blood :
1. Supplies oxygen to cells and tissues.
2. Provide important nutrients for cells, such as amino acids, fatty acids,
and glucose.
3. Remove waste, such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid.
4. Protects the body from disease, infection and foreign objects.
5. Regulates body temperature.
6. Stops bleeding and forms a scab to protect the wound from infection.

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D. Blood Grouping
The International Society of Blood Transfusion has recently recognized
33 blood group systems. Apart from ABO and Rhesus system, many other
types of antigens have been noticed on the red cell membranes. Blood
grouping and cross-matching is one of the few important tests that the
anaesthesiologist orders during perioperative period. Hence, a proper
understanding of the blood group system, their clinical significance, typing
and cross-matching tests, and current perspective are of paramount
importance to prevent transfusion-related complications. Nonetheless, the
knowledge of blood group system is necessary to approach blood group-
linked diseases which are still at the stage of research.
The discovery of the ABO blood group, over 100 years ago, caused
great excitement. Until then, all blood had been assumed to be the same, and
the often tragic consequences of blood transfusions were not understood. As
our understanding of the ABO group grew, not only did the world of blood
transfusion become a great deal safer, but scientists could now study one of
the first human characteristics proven to be inherited. A person's ABO blood
type was used by lawyers in paternity suits, by police in forensic science, and
by anthropologists in the study of different populations.
The ABO blood group antigens remain of prime importance in
transfusion medicine—they are the most immunogenic of all the blood group
antigens. The most common cause of death from a blood transfusion is a
clerical error in which an incompatible type of ABO blood is transfused. The
ABO blood group antigens also appear to have been important throughout our
evolution because the frequencies of different ABO blood types vary among
different populations, suggesting that a particular blood type conferred a
selection advantage (e.g., resistance against an infectious disease.)
The four basic ABO phenotypes are O, A, B, and AB. After it was
found that blood group A RBCs reacted differently to a particular antibody
(later called anti-A1), the blood group was divided into two phenotypes,
A1 and A2. RBCs with the A1 phenotype react with anti-A1 and make up

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 about 80% of blood type A. RBCs with the A2 phenotype do not react with
anti-A1 and they make up about 20% of blood type A. A1 red cells express
about 5 times more A antigen than A2 red cells, but both types of red cell
react with anti-A, and as far as transfusion purposes are concerned, the A1 and
A2 blood groups are interchangeable.
The immune system forms antibodies against whichever ABO blood
group antigens are not found on the individual's RBCs. Thus, a group A
individual will have anti-B antibodies and a group B individual will have
anti-A antibodies. Blood group O is common, and individuals with this blood
type will have both anti-A and anti-B in their serum. Blood group AB is the
least common, and these individuals will have neither anti-A nor anti-B in
their serum.

E. Various Blood Diseases

1. Anemia
Anaemia is broadly defined, as when erythrocytes are no longer
able to supply oxygen to body tissues, an individual becomes anaemic.
Anaemia can be classified based on its physiology or morphology.
Morphological classification of anemia is based on the erythrocyte
index, while physiological classification is determined based on
symptoms and bone marrow response.

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 2. Blood cancer
Blood cancer is a disease caused by blood and can be said to be
almost the same as leukemia. This blood cancer starts from blood cells
whose division is not optimal.
3. Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a blood disease that can occur if a person already
has a fairly high level of blood clotting. Therefore, hemophilia sufferers
bleed easily and often experience bruising.
F. Conclusion
It can be concluded that blood is an essential substance in the human
body that plays a major role in maintaining health and survival. Its main
functions involve the transportation of oxygen, nutrients, and metabolic waste
products throughout the body, as well as involvement in temperature
regulation, blood clotting, and the immune system. The main components of
blood, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, work together
in the circulatory system to support physiological processes that are crucial
for optimal body function. Overall, an understanding of blood is an important
foundation for understanding the health and function of the human body as a
whole.
G. Reference
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Dean L. Blood Groups and Red Cell Antigens [Internet]. Bethesda (MD):
National Center for Biotechnology Information (US); 2005. Chapter 5,
The ABO blood group.

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