X R

PHYSICS
G PRACTICAL
FILE
Ac voltage
A 6 volt

Sonometer
i e
r
Q r/ R

P S

B C

NAME .................................................
CLASS.................................................
ROLL NO: ..........................................
YEAR: .................................................
Lab mannual class 12 Page number 1
 B EXPERIMENT NO: 1
AIM: To find the resistance of a given wire using a meter bridge
APPARATUS: Meter bridge, resistance wire of unknown resistance,
A G C resistance box, galvanometer, dry cell, one-way key, jockey,
connecting wires , sand paper, meter scale, wire cutter.
THEORY: Meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.As
D shown in figure 1 , it consist of four resistors P,Q,R & S connected in
the form of a network ABCD. Terminals A & C are connected to the
terminals of cell through a key. Terminals B & D are connected to a
Figure 1: Wheatstone bridge sensitive galvanometer G. If there is no current through galvanometer
then

X R P

R
Q S
FORMULA USED:
G
l
Resistance of given wire is , X  R
100  l
where R is the resistance of resistance box
RESULT:
1: Unknown resistance of the given wire is .................
Circuit diagram of meter bridge PRECAUTIONS:
Observation table for unknown resistance 1: All the connections & plugs should be tight.
Balancing Resistance
Resistance 2: Jockey should be moved gently over the meter bridge wire.
S.No: length l l
R{in  X  R 3: Null point should be in the middle of the wire.
100  l
{in cm} SOURCES OF ERROR:
{in  1: Meter bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
1. 2: Length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals of
2. meter bridge.
3. 3: Effect of end resistance may effect the measurement.
4.
5.

Mean resistance , X = ..................

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 2
 EXPERIMENT NO: 2
AIM: To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances
Circuit B
diagram using a meter bridge.
APPARATUS: A meter bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, Two different
A G C resistances, a resistance box, a jockey, a one-way key, a cell, connect
ing wires, sand paper.
THEORY: Meter bridge works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.As
D shown in figure 1 , it consist of four resistors P,Q,R & S connected in
the form of a network ABCD. Terminals A & C are connected to the
terminals of cell through a key. Terminals B & D are connected to a
Figure 1: Wheatstone bridge
sensitive galvanometer G. If there is no current through galvanometer
then
P R

R1 R2 Q S
R FORMULA USED: When two resistances R1 & R2 are connected in series,
the resistance of the combination is given by
G Rs  R1  R 2

RESULT:
Theoretical expected Experimentally obtained
resistance {in  resistance { in 

Series combination

Circuit diagram for series combination

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 3

 Observation table for unknown resistance R1 PRECAUTIONS:
Balancing Resistance 1. All the connections & plugs should be tight.
S.No: Resistance
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the meter bridge wire.
R{in  length l l
R1  R 3. Plug keys of the resistance box should be made tight by rotating it in
{in cm} 100 l clockwise direction.
{in  4. Null points should be in the central region of the meter bridge wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the meter bridge wire.
2. The length measurement may have error if the meter bridge wire is not taut
& along the scale.
3. The error in the resistance box resistance may cause error.
Observation table for unknown resistance R2
4. If large current is passed for sufficiently long time, the meter bridge wire
Balancing Resistance may get heated & its resistance may change considerably during the time
S.No: Resistance
length l l of experiment.
R{in  R2  R
100  l
{in cm}
{in 

Observation table

Resistance
Balancing
S.No: Resistance length l l
R {in  X  R
{in cm} 100  l
{in 

Series
combination

Mean value of series resistance = .............

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 4

 EXPERIMENT NO: 3
High resistance AIM: To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method
box R and to find its figure of merit.
K1
E APPARATUS: A galvanometer, A battery eliminator, One resistance box of
range 0-10K, One resistance box of range 0-200, one-way key,
connecting wires, sand paper.
THEORY: Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low
current. It works on the principle that a coil placed in a uniform
magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric current is passed
G
in it. When a coil carrying current I is placed in a radial magnetic field,
then coil experiences a deflection which is related to I as,
I = k
where k is known as figure of merit.
Low resistance FORMULA USED:
box S Galvanometer resistance is,
K2 RS
G
R S
Circuit diagram Figure of merit is,
1 E 
k  
θ R  G
RESULT:
1. Resistance of galvanometer is G = ......................
2. Figure of merit of galvanometer is k = ...................A/ division
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Key K1 should be inserted only after high resistance R has been taken out
from high resistance box.
2. Adjust R such that deflection in the galvanometer is of even division so that
is more conveniently obtained.
3. Emf of battery should be constant.
4. All the connections & plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
5. Use as high value of R as possible practically.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 5

 Observation table

Emf of High Deflection in Shunt Half deflection in

S.No: battery E
resistance galvanometer resistor S the galvanometer
{ in V } R { in   {in division} { in   {in division}
{ in  {in A/division}

Lab mannual class 12

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean value of resistance of galvanometer = ...........

Mean value of figure of merit = .............A/division
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1.The emf of battery may not be constant.
2. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be loose.
3. The error in the resistance box resistance may cause error.

Page number 6
 EXPERIMENT NO: 4
AIM: To find the frequency of AC mains with a sonometer.
APPARATUS: A sonometer with a wire stretched over it, horse shoe
Ac voltage magnet, step down transfer, slotted weights 1/2 Kg , slotted weight
6 volt
hanger, two sharp edge wedges.
THEORY: The frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of a
stretched string , fixed at two ends is given by

 T
Sonometer  
l m
Where l is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension in the
wire & m is its mass per unit length.
If ac current is passed in the sonometer wire & a horse shoe magnet
is kept in the middle of sonometer wire as shown in the circuit diagram,
then the sonometer wire will vibrate. At resonance the frequency of ac
mains is equal to the frequency of vibration of the sonometer wire.

Observation table 1 T
Frequency of ac mains, f 
2l m
S.No: Load (M) Tension Resonant length
1 T OBSERVATIONS:
including mass of T ( in N ) l ( in m ) f
2l m 1. Mass per unit length of sonometer wire, m = ...............Kg/m
hanger (in Kg )
RESULT:
Frequency of ac mains is ............Hz
1. 0.5 4.9 PRECAUTIONS:
1. Pulley should be frictionless.
2. 1 9.8 2. Edges of the wedge should be sharp.
3. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched off for few
3. 1.5 14.7 minutes.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
4. 2 19.6 1. Ac frequency may not be stable.
2. Friction of pulley is the main source of error.
Mean frequency = ........Hz 3. Circuit may get heated.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 7

 EXPERIMENT NO: 5
AIM: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u
Ray diagram and v or between 1/u and 1/v
APPARATUS: An optical bench, two sharp edged needle, convex lens,
B M
three uprights { with clamps }, Index needle , meter scale.
A' THEORY: If an object is kept at a distance u from a the optical centre of a
A F C F thin convex lens of focal length f, then a real inverted image is formed on
the other side of the lens at a distance v from the optical centre. The
relation between these distances is ,
Fig. B'
1 1 1
 
Observation table f v u
OBSERVATIONS:
Observed u Corrected u Observed v Corrected v 1 1 1 1. Rough focal; length of the convex lens is =..........cm
S.No: (in cm) (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)  
f v u 2. Index correction for object distance, eo =...........cm
3. Index correction for image distance, ei =...........cm
1. CALCULATION:
Distance OA ( =2f )on y-axis = ..........cm
2. Distance OB ( =2f )on x-axis = ..........cm
OA OB
3. Mean focal length of the convex lens, f   .............cm
4
RESULT:
4.
The focal length of convex lens from u-v graph = ...........cm
PRECAUTIONS:
5.
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid & mounted
vertically.
2. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image
needle.
3. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the tip of the
image needle & must not overlap.This should be ensured while removing
parallax.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 8

 SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Optical bench may not be horizontal.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 9

 EXPERIMENT NO: 6
A AIM: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by
plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation.
APPARATUS: Drawing board, triangular glass prism, meter scale, allpins,
graph paper, protector, white sheets .
THEORY: A ray of light PQ incident on the first face AB at angle i is
i e
r
r R refracted at an angle r along QR & finally, emerges along RS . The
Q /

dotted lines in the figure represent the normal to the surfaces. The angle
P S of incidence at the second face AC is r / & the angle of refraction ( or
emergence) is e. The angle between PQ ( produced forward ) & the
C direction of emergent ray RS ( produced backward ) is the angle of
B
deviation 
Ray diagram δA ie
At the position of the prism for minimum deviation the light ray passes
through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so that when
Observation table δ  δ m , i  e which implies r  r /
Angle of incidence Angle of deviation The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is
S.No: that the image is brightest in this position.
i ( degree)  ( degree )
OBSERVATIONS:
1. 1. Least count of protector = .........(degree )
2. Angle of prism , A = ............( degree )
2. RESULT:
Angle of minimum deviation, δ m  .......... ...degree
3. PRECAUTIONS:
1. Allpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
4. 2. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations.
3. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
5. SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.
6. 2. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not
equal, then δ  A  i  e
3. Allpins may be very close to each other.
Lab mannual class 12 Page number 10
 Scale:
1box along x axis =.............
1box along y axis=.............
Angle of deviation (

Angle of incidence (i )

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 11

 Ray diagram EXPERIMENT NO: 7
AIM: To find the focal length of a concave lens, using a convex lens.
APPARATUS: An optical bench with four uprights ( two fixed in middle, two
outer uprights with lateral movement ), convex lens (less focal length),
concave lens ( more focal length ), two lens holders, two optical needles
( one thin & one thick ) , half meter scale.
THEORY: As a concave lens always forms a virtual image, its focal length
can not be found directly as for convex lens. For this purpose, indirect
method is used, as described.
An object needle O is placed on one side of a convex lens L1 & its
real inverted image I is formed on the other side .
The concave lens L2 is placed between convex lens & image needle I.
The concave lens diverge the rays & the image is now formed at I/. For
concave lens I is the virtual object & I/ is the real image.
FORMULA USED :

u  O2I & v  O 2 I / f  focal length of concave lens

1 1 1
 
f v u
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Rough focal length of convex lens =...........
2. Index correction for u as well as v = ..........
RESULT: The focal length of concave lens is ...........
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Focal length of convex lens should be less than the focal length of concave lens.
2. The lens must be clean.
3. Tips of the object & image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of
the lens.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
V
1. The uprights may not be vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Optical bench may not be horizontal.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 12

 Observation table

Observed Corrected uv
f 
S.No: u  IO 2 v u -v
v  I/O2 u
( cm ) ( cm ) ( cm ) ( cm )
( cm )

Mean focal length f = .........cm

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 13

 EXPERIMENT NO: 8
AIM: To draw the I-V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR FORWARD BIASING bias & reverse bias.
APPARATUS: A p-n junction diode, a resistor ,variable voltage source,
voltmeter,milliammeter, key, connecting wires.
THEORY: A p-n junction diode provides low resistance in forward bias &
high resistance in reverse bias.Its symbol is

OBSERVATIONS:
FOR FORWARD BIASING
(i) Range of voltmeter = ...................
(ii) Range of milliammeter = ..................
(iii) Least count of voltmeter =....................
(iv) Least count of milliammeter = .......................
(v) Zero error of voltmeter =..................
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR REVERSE BIASING (vi) Zero error of milliammeter = .............
FOR REVERSE BIASING
(i) Range of voltmeter = .........................
(ii) Range of milliammeter = .......................
(iii) Least count of voltmeter =.........................
(iv) Least count of milliammeter = ..........................
(v) Zero error of voltmeter =..................
(vi) Zero error of milliammeter = .............
RESULT : The I-V characteristic curves of a p-n junction in forward bias &
reverse bias is obtained.
PRECAUTIONS:
1: Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum permissible current
through the given diode in forward bias.
2: Find out manufacturer’s specification for maximum permissible reverse
voltage to be applied to the diode.
3: Take care that the potential difference across the diode is increased gradu
ally, in small steps.
Lab mannual class 12 Page number 14
 Observation table of forward biasing of p-n junction diode SOURCES OF ERROR:
1: The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
S.No: Reading of voltmeter Reading of milliammeter 2. All connections may not be neat & clean.
{in Volt } {in mA } 3. Voltmeter or ammeter may be faulty.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Observation table of reverse biasing of p-n junction diode

S.No: Reading of voltmeter Reading ofVmilliammeter
{in Volt } {in mA }
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Characteristic curve of forward biasing of pn junction diode
Scale:
I 1box along x axis =.............
1box along y axis=.............

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 15

 Characteristic curve of reverse biasing of pn junction diode
V
Scale:
1box along x axis =.............
1box along y axis=.............

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 16

 ACTIVITY NO : 1
AIM : To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.( Ohm’s
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
law circuit).
APPARATUS : A voltmeter, an ammeter, A battery, A rheostat, one-way
A key, resistance wire, connecting wires, sand paper.
+ - THEORY: Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends,
V - provided the physical state of conductor remains unchanged.
+ If ‘I’ be the current flowing through the conductor & ‘V’ the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm’s law
VI
& hence V  IR
where ‘R’ is the constant of proportionality & is known as the resistance
of the conductor. Its SI unit is ohm (  ).
L
R 
A
where ‘L’ is the length of the conductor, ‘A’ is the area of cross-section
of the conductor & is the specific resistance of the material of the wire.
UTILITY : It is used for measuring an unknown resistance.
PRECAUTIONS:
1: Voltmeter must be connected in parallel & ammeter in series.
2: Voltmeter & ammeter must be connected in correct polarity.
3: All connections must be tight.
4: Key must be inserted while taking observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1: Wire used may not be uniform.
2: Length of resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of
voltmeter & the other terminal of voltmeter.
3: Physical state of wire should not change.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 17

 ACTIVITY NO : 2
AIM : To study the variation in potential drop with length of a wire for a
steady current.
APPARATUS : Potentiometer, battery eliminator of constant voltage, volt-
A meter, ammeter, plug key, jockey, rheostat, connenting wires, sand paper.
THEORY: According to the principle of potentiometer,when constant
current is passed through a wire of uniform area of cross-section then
the potential across any section of that wire is directly proportional to
the length of that section of the wire.
V  l
V  kl
V where k is potential gradient.
RESULT : The ratio of potential gradient is constant.
PRECAUTIONS:
Circuit diagram 1. Keys plugged into the resistance box must ensure good electrical contact.
2. Jockey should be pressed gently on the potentiometer wire.
Observation table
3. Position of rheostat contact should not be disturbed before finishing the
task of finding the balancing length with both the cells.
Length of
S.No: Voltmeter V SOURCES OF ERROR:
potentiometer
reading k
l 1. The area of cross-section of the potentiometer wire may not be uniform
wire , l V ( in volt )
( in V cm-1 )
throughout its length.
( in cm ) 2. Avoid continuous discharge of the two cells whose emf are to be compared
by keeping the keys open when cells are not in use.
3. The length measurement may have error if the potentiometer wire is not taut
& along the scale.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 18

 ACTIVITY NO : 3
AIM : To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a
battery,resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and voltmeter. Mark the
components that are not connected in proper order and correct the
circuit and also the circuit diagram.
-V + A APPARATUS : A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery,
+ - plug key, resistor, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and
sand paper.
THEORY: An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the
circuit are connected in proper order, assuming that all circuit components/
devices are in working condition and key is closed. An open circuit means a
break in some part of a circuit which could be deliberate such as a key in
open position or a fault such as broken wire or burnt out component(s) or
loose connection.
RESULT : The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit
diagram is functional.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before
making connections.
A 2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive
+ - terminal of the voltmeter and positive terminal of the ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the
V - voltmeter should be connected in parallel with it.
+

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 19

 ACTIVITY NO : 4
Ray diagram AIM : To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light
incident obliquely on a glass slab.
APPARATUS : A glass slab, drawing board, white sheets, drawing pins,
alpins, protractor, pencil & eraser.
THEORY : When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it is
refracted through it. It emerges out of the slab parallel to the direction of
the incident ray. The emergent ray suffers only a lateral displacement.
RESULT :
The ray of light emerging from a glass slab is parallel to the incident ray, but
laterally deviated.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Allpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper.
2. Same side of slab should be used for all observations.
3. Position of the slab should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
SOURCES OF ERROR:
1. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.
2. Allpins may be very close to each other.

Observation table

Angle of Angle of
S.No: Lateral deviation
incidence emergence
d ( in mm )
i e

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 20

 ACTIVITY NO : 5
AIM : To identify a diode, an LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a
capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
APPARATUS : A collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor & capacitor.
THEORY : A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased &
does not conduct when reverse biased. It does not emit light while
conducting.
A LED is also a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased &
does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting.
A transistor is a three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E) ,
base (B) & collector (C).
An IC is a multi-terminal device in the form of a chip. But some have only
MA three terminals.
A resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both directions.
A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does not conduct but stores some
charge when dc voltage is applied.
RESULT :
A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a capacitor & a resistor are identified
respectively from a mixed collection.
PRECAUTIONS :
1.While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its leads properly.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. When the metal ends of a multimeter leads are touched, the multimeter should
Observation table
show zero resistance. If it does not show it, bring the pointer to zero using Zero
No. of Name of Adj knob on the multimeter. If it is not done, the resistance measurements are
S.No:
terminals the device not reliable.
1. Two Diode, LED,Capacitor, 2. While checking resistance of a component, avoid touching either of the metal
Resistor ends of the multimeter leads.
2. Three Transistor

3. More than IC
three

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 21

 S.No: State of conduction Name of device

1. Conducts in one direction Diode

only without any emission
of light

2. Conducts in one direction LED

only with emission of light

3. Three terminal device, conducts Transistor

in one direction only between
central terminal & either of the
remaining two terminals

4. Conducts in both directions Resistor

5. Does not conduct, gives an Capacitor

initial deflection which decays to
zero

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 22

 ACTIVITY NO : 6
AIM : To obtain a lens combination with the specified focal length by
using two lenses from the given set of lenses.
APPARATUS : A set of convex lenses of known powers , optical bench with
uprights & screen , a source of light providing a parallel beam of light.
THEORY : The ability of a lens to converge or diverge the rays passing through it
is called the power of the lens. Its S.I unit is Dioptre.
Two or more lenses , placed in contact together to have a common principal axis,
form a lens combination. If f1 ,f2 , ......fn be the focal length of individual lens & f be
the focal length of the combination , then
1 1 1 1
   ......... 
f f1 f2 fn
OBSERVATIONS :
1. Focal length of lens L1, f1 = ......

Ray diagram
2. Focal length of lens L2, f2 = ......
3. Calculated focal length of the lens combination is f = ........
4. Measured focal length of the combination is f = .......
RESULT : Lens combination of specified focal length is obtained.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid & mounted
vertically.
2. The image formed on the screen must be sharp.
SOURCES OF ERROR :
1. Thickness of the lenses may cause error.
2. The peripheral region of the lenses are not in contact.
3. Spherical aberration of the lenses may cause an error in locating the position of
the sharp image.

Lab mannual class 12 Page number 23